Remote Sensing and Its A p p li ca t i o ns

Remote sensing is a revolutionary change in surveying in which objects on

the earth are sensed from remote places like aircrafts or satellites and are
used in map making. It always goes with Geographical Information System
(GIS) which is a software tool used for the analysis of remotely sensed data
with the help of the computers.

In this chapter introduction is given to remote sensing and GIS. Application

of remote sensing is explained.
1 REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing may be defined as art and science of collecting informations
about objects, area or phenomenon without having physical contact with it.
Eye sight and photographs are common examples of remote sensing in which
sunlight or artificial light energy from electricity is made to strike the object.
Light energy consists of electromagnetic waves of all length and intensity.
When electromagnetic wave falls on the object, it is partly

1. Absorbed 2. Scattered

3. Transmitted 4. Reflected.

Different objects have different properties of absorbing, scattering,

transmitting and reflecting the energy. By capturing reflected waves with
sensors, it is possible to identify the objects. However this remote sensing
has its own limitations in terms of distance and coverage of area at a time.
Photographic survey, in which photographs taken from aircrafts are used for
map making, fall under this category of remote sensing. Using electronic
equipments, this basic remote sensing technique is extended to identifying
and quantifying various objects on the earth by observing them from longer
distances from the space. For this purpose, geostationary satellites are
launched in the space, which rotate around the earth at the same speed as
earth. Hence the relative velocity is zero and they appear stationary when
observed from any point on the earth. Depending upon the property of the
object, the electromagnetic waves sent from the satellite reflected energy is
different. The reflected waves in the bandwidth of infrared, thermal infrared
and micro waves are picked up by sensors mounted on satellite.
Since each feature on the earth has different reflection property, it is possible
to identify the features on
the earth with satellite pictures. Data obtained from satellites are transferred
to ground stations through RADARS where user analyses to find out the
type of object and the extent of it. This is called image processing. For
quantifying the objects computers are used. India is having its own remote
sensing satellites like IRS-series, INSAT series and PSLV series.
Various applications of remote sensing may be grouped
into the following:

1. Resource exploration 2. Environmental study

3. Land use 4. Site investigation

5. Archaeological investigation and 6. Natural hazards study.

1. Resource Exploration: Geologists use remote sensing to study the formation

of sedimentary rocks and identify deposits of various minerals, detect oil
fields and identify underground storage of water. Remote sensing is used for
identifying potential fishing zone, coral reef mapping and to find other wealth
from ocean.

2. Environmental Study: Remote sensing is used to study cloud motion and

predict rains. With satellite data it is possible to study water discharge from
various industries to find out dispersion and harmful effects, if any, on living
animals. Oil spillage and oil slicks can be studied using remote sensing.

3. Land Use: By remote sensing, mapping of larger areas is possible in short

time. Forest area, agricultural area, residential and industrial area can be
measured regularly and monitored. It is possible to find out areas of different
crops.

4. Site Investigation: Remote sensing is used extensively in site investigations

for dams, bridges, pipelines. It can be used to locate construction materials
like sand and gravel for the new projects.

5. Archaeological Investigation: Many structures of old era are now buried

under the ground and are not known. But by studying changes in moisture
content and other characteristics of the buried objects and upper new layer,
remote sensors are able to recognize the buried structures of archaeological
importance.

6. Natural Hazard Study: Using remote sensing the following natural hazards
can be predicted to some extent and hazards minimized:

1. Earthquake 2. Volcanoes

3. Landslides 4. Floods and

5. Hurricane and cyclones.

2 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
Maps are used as the languages of simple geography. Importance of map
making is recognized long ago. Surveyors went round the land and prepared
maps. Data required for locating and calculating extent of a place/region is
called spatial data
Physical properties and human activities related to a place/region are stored
in the form of tables, charts and texts. This information is called attribute
data.

Referring to maps/plans and then to attribute data stored in hard copies

like books is time consuming updating and managing the data is difficult.

This problem is overcome by combining spatial data and attribute data of

the location by appropriate data base management in computers. The
location information (spatial data) is digitized from available maps and
stored in computers. For this data structure used is either raster data or
vector data format. In raster data structures pixels are associated with the
spatial information, while in vector data structure coordinates are
associated with each region and sub-regions. Over the spatial data attribute
data is overlaid and stored. Once this geographical information system is
developed, the user can access the attribute data of any place by clicking
over the spatial data of that place. The user can utilize the information for
further analysis, planning or for the management. For example, if land
records of a village are developed as GIS data, the user can click the state
map to pick up the district map and then access taluka map. Then he will
access it to pick up the village map. Then land record of that village can be
obtained and property map of any owner can be checked and printed. All
this can be achieved in a very short time from any convenient place.

Remote sensing and GIS go hand in hand, since lot of data for GIS is from
remote sensing. Remote sensing needs GIS for data analysis. Some of the
areas of GIS application are:

1. drainage systems 2. streams and river basins

management

3. lakes 4. canals

5. roads 6. railways

7. land records 8. layout of residential areas

9. location of market, industrial, cultural and other utilities

10. land use of different crops etc.

The above information helps in planning infrastructural development

activities such as planning roads, rail routes, dams, canals, tunnels, etc. It
helps in taking steps to check hazards of soil erosion and environmental
pollution. Monitoring of crop pattern and condition helps in taking necessary
action to the challenges in future.

QUESTION 1: (10X 2 Marks each)

i) Differentiate raster data types from vector data types with
sketches.
ii) Give a brief example to illustrate the need for GIS in engineering
iii) List three advantages of remote sensing data in engineering.
iv) Briefly describe the process used in remote sensing.
v) What do you understand by the spectral signature curve?
vi) Give and describe at least two types of electromagnetic spectrum.
vii) List down at least four components of GIS
viii) One of GIS operation is data analysis. Briefly discuss about it
ix) What do you understand by attributes in GIS?
x) Differentiate between Data and Information in remote sensing
context.
SECTION B: Answer any two questions from Section B
QUESTION 2:
a) List and describe four characteristics of image data (8 marks )
b) Give and explain methods of image classification and their benefits
(6 Marks)
c) What do you understand by image enhancement?
(6Marks)
QUESTION 3:
a) Define: platform, sensor, target, and satellite. (4 Marks)
b) GIS model & modeling is used to represent some phenomenon to
understand their behavior. Give one clear example to illustrate that
statement. (10 Marks)
c) Explain six tools of Map manipulation in GIS for vector Data types
(6 Marks)
QUESTION 4:
Discuss about any GIS project of your choice and clearly details all items for
its operational procedures.
(20 Marks)
MARKING SCHEME / Remote Sensing and Geographical Information
Systems (MAIN EXAM)
SECTION A: The question in section A is compulsory
QUESTION 1: (10X 2 Marks each)
i) A raster representation makes use of pixels defined by rows and
columns to represent features whereas the vector uses points and
line to represent spatial features and are both data structure in
GIS.
ii) The example will define data types required, their analysis and
the proposed output.
iii) The advantage of remote sensing:
-Gather the spatial data at minimum cost.
-Time of acquisition is low for the project.
-Acquire spatial data bird’s view.
iv) The process used in remote sensing.

(A) Energy Source or Illumination

(B) Radiation and the Atmosphere
(C) relations with the Target
(D) Recording of Energy by the Sensor
(E) Transmission, Reception, and
Processing
(F) Interpretation and Analysis
(G) Application

v) The spectral reflectance curve is a curve that shows the fraction

of the incident radiation that is reflected as a function of wave
length and from it you can get the degree of reflection for each
wavelength on a particular surface object.
vi) The visible wavelengths cover a range from approximately 0.4 to
0.7 µm. The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is
violet.
Infrared Radiation in the reflected IR region is used for remote sensing
purposes in ways very similar to radiation in the visible portion.
 The reflected IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7 µm to 3.0
µm.
vii) The following are four components of GIS:
Computer system
GIS software
Brainwave
Infrastructure
viii) Data analysis is conducted depending on the data types under
the project and we can have for example:
Raster data analysis (local, zonal, global neighborhood), vector data
analysis (buffering, overlay, distance measurement, map manipulation),
terrain mapping and analysis, spatial interpolation.
ix) These are information about spatial features and describe them.
For example for a road ,
Its length, construction materials are classified as attributes.
x) Data we mean representations that can be manipulated using
computer, by Information we mean data that have been
interpreted by human beings.
SECTION B: Answer any two questions from Section B
QUESTION 2:

a) Four characteristics of image data are :

-Spatial characteristics which refers to the area measured
-Spectral characteristics referring to the spectral wavelengths that
the sensor is sensitive to
-Radiometric resolution characteristics referring to the energy levels
that are measured by the sensor
-Temporal resolution characteristics refers to the time of the
acquisition of the image

(4x2 Marks)
b) Supervised classification requires the analyst to select training areas
where he/she knows what is on the ground and then digitize a
polygon within that area.
 The analyst requests the computer to examine the image and extract
a number of spectrally distinct clusters.

(6 Marks)

c) It is a process conducted that an image result is more suitable than

the original image for a specific application Visual interpretation
Problem oriented.
It leads to:
 Brightness control
 Contrast enhancement
 Noise reduction
 Edge enhancement
(6 Marks)
QUESTION 3:

a) Define: platform, sensor, target, satellite.(4 Marks)

A platform is a vehicle on which sensors are mounted.
A sensor is a device that records the electromagnetic energy
reflected from spatial features in remote sensing system.
Target: it is any spatial feature that is under investigation in remote
sensing system, for example the road, forest etc.
Satellite; It is a kind of a platform that is intended to carry some
sensors at higher altitude specifically known as space borne.
b) GIS model & modeling is used to represent some phenomenon to
understand their behavior. Give one clear example to illustrate that
statement. The student may give an example of soil erosion
modeling, flood modeling etc (10 Marks)
c) Explain six tools of Map manipulation in GIS for vector Data
types (6 Marks)
Clipping, dissolving, selecting, eliminating, updating, erasing, and
splitting. With sketches
QUESTION 4:
Discuss about any GIS project of your choice and clearly details all
items for its operational procedures.
(20 Marks)
It will depend on the student choice’s example where he will show
data input, attribute data management, data display, data exploration, data
analysis.
SECTION A: The question in section A is compulsory

QUESTION 1: (10X 2 Marks each)

i) Define briefly what is GIS

ii) Differentiate raster data types from vector data types
iii) List down at least four interpretation elements for visual image
interpretation
iv) Name and list steps involved in Digital image classification
v) What is the principle of image enhancement
vi) Give two examples of image classification algorithm
vii) Explain the principle of push broom sensor
viii) What do you understand by a Layer in GIS?
ix) Define what is an attribute and give two examples
x) Define the word “spatial resolution” in remote sensing.
SECTION B: Answer any two questions from Section B

QUESTION 2:

a) Explain fully the involved steps in image classification (6 Marks)

b) What is the principle of Digital image classification? (7 Marks)
c) Explain the data display in GIS environment (7 Marks)

QUESTION 3:

a) List and describe four characteristics of image data ( 8 Marks) b)

Give and explain at least two common orbit types for remote sensing
missions (6 Marks)
c) What do you understand by image filtering? (6Marks)
QUESTION 4:

a) What is the electromagnetic spectrum? (4 Marks)

b) GIS model & modeling is used to represent some phenomenon to
understand their behavior. Give one clear example to illustrate that
statement. (10 Marks)
c) What do you understand by TIN in GIS, what is its purpose? (6
Marks)
MARKING SCHEME / Remote Sensing and Geographical Information
Systems(SUPPLEMENTARY)
SECTION A: The question in section A is compulsory

QUESTION 1: (10X 2 Marks each)

i) GIS is a computer system that captures, stores, queries, analyzes

and displays geographically referenced data.
ii) Vector data type is a vector data model that represents the spatial
discrete features by x,y points ,line and polygon whereas the
raster data types represents the spatial continuous features by
grid/cell recognized by row and column.
iii) The following are four elements for visual image interpretation:
Tone, Shape, Size, pattern, texture, association, and shadow.
iv) The following are steps in digital image classification: selection
and preparation of image data, definition of the cluster in the
feature space (supervised & Unsupervised Classification),
selection of classification algorithm, running the actual
classification, validation of the result.
v) The basic principle in image enhancement is to modify or change
the appearance of the images for optimum visual interpretation.
 vi) The following are two examples of image classification algorithm
as: Box classifier, Minimum Distance to mean classifier,
Maximum likelihood classifier.
vii) The push broom sensor is based on the use of charge coupled
devices for measuring the electromagnetic energy. The CCD is a
line of photo sensitive, solid state detectors.
viii) A layer in GIS is a spatial collection of spatial features such as
road may make a layer of roads; houses may make a layer of
house hold etc.
ix) An attribute is a characteristic that describes the spatial data.
For example a road may have an attribute of length, width, name
of the road etc.
xi) Spatial resolution refers to the ability to distinguish small object
in an image. the high spatial resolution means that there is a
recognition of small object whereas the low spatial resolution
means that only big objects can be recognized.
SECTION B: Answer any two questions from Section B
QUESTION 2:

a) the involved steps in image classification are :

-Selection and preparation of the image data
-Definition of the clusters in the feature space
-Selection of classification of algorithm
-Running the actual classification
-Validation of the results. (6 Marks)
b) The principle of Digital image classification is that the image is
treated as a two Dimensional array elements in each element the
energy reflected or emitted from the area is stored. so for the specific
part of the feature space corresponds to a specific class, once the
class have been defined in the feature space, each image pixel can be
compared to these classes and assigned to the corresponding class.
(7 Marks)
c) The data display in GIS environment involves the production of maps
that are most effective in communicating spatial information.
Mapmaking is a routine GIS operation for data visualization, query,
analysis and presentation .Data display may also produce charts.
(7 Marks)
QUESTION 3:

a) Four characteristics of image data are :

-Spatial characteristics which refers to the area measured
-Spectral characteristics referring to the spectral wavelengths that
the sensor is sensitive to
-Radiometric resolution characteristics referring to the energy levels
that are measured by the sensor-Temporal resolution characteristics
refers to the time of the acquisition of the image

(8 Marks)
b) Three common orbit types for remote sensing missions are:
Polar orbit: with an inclination angle between 80 and 100 degrees,
the satellite motion is in westward direction. Sun synchronous
orbit: this is near polar orbit chosen in such a way that the satellite
always passes overhead at the same time. The inclination angle is 98
to 99 degrees (SPOT,IRS) Geostational orbit: this is the orbit in which
the satellite is placed above the equator at an altitude of
approximately 36,000 Km two common orbit types for remote
sensing missions
(6 Marks)
C) Image filtering is a technique done /conducted on spatial image to
reduce the noise or to sharpen blurred images. The use of filter leads to the
local image transformation and the new image is calculated and the value
of a single pixel depends on the values of its former neighbors.
(6Marks)
QUESTION 4:

a) The multispectral scanner measures the reflected energy by

scanning the earth’s surface i.e. the measurement is made for
different ranges of EM spectrum.
The multispectral scanners have been used in RS since 1972 and
two types of multispectral scanners as push broom and whiskbroom
scanners are in use. (4 Marks)
b) GIS model & modeling is used to represent some phenomenon to
understand their behavior. Give one clear example to illustrate that
statement. (10 Marks)
TIN It is an array of uniformly spaced elevation data for the purpose of
studying the terrain morphology and its analysis.
(6 Mar