THE

ART OF DISTILLING
REVISED & UPDATED

AN ENTHUSIAST’S GUIDE TO THE ARTISAN

DISTILLING OF WHISKEY, VODKA, GIN, AND
OTHER POTENT POTABLES

Edited by Bill Owens, Alan Dikty, and Andrew Faulkner of the

CONTENTS
FOREWORD
by Fritz Maytag

INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND EDITION

by Bill Owens

Chapter 1
A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISTILLING

Chapter 2
THE DISTILLING PROCESS

Chapter 3
WHISKEY

Chapter 4
VODKA

Chapter 5
GIN

Chapter 6
BRANDY AND EAU DE VIE

Chapter 7
RUM

Chapter 8
TEQUILA AND AGAVE SPIRITS

Chapter 9
INFUSED SPIRITS: Liqueurs, Schnapps, Anise, and Bitters

Chapter 10
DISTILLING RESOURCES

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

INDEX
FOREWORD
by Fritz Maytag

THE SECOND Whiskey Rebellion is happening in the United States, and it is

already spreading around the world. In this marvelous book, Bill Owens, Alan
Dikty, Andrew Faulkner and their contributors—like intrepid war
correspondents—take you to the front lines. You will find here an up-to-the-
minute report on the excitement, creativity, and brash enthusiasm of the United
States’ craft distillers.

Fritz Maytag (right) talking with Bill Owens, in 2009.

I have known Bill Owens since his early involvement in the U.S.’s
microbrewing renaissance: He was one of the movement’s most fervent
innovators. His own achievements are many, and his enthusiasm for the whole
wild explosion of brewing creativity is evidenced in his obvious enjoyment of
the successes of his brewing colleagues.
The craft-brewing renaissance, of course, began in the 1960s. By the early ’90s,
it was inevitable that it would evolve into a craft-distilling renaissance. And so,
Bill and his cohorts are at it again, now celebrating a small-distillery revolution
and the variety and creativity that is springing up everywhere. Yes, we now have
“craft” whiskey distillers, experimenting with all facets of grain distilling. And,
as with the brewing revolution, the consumer reaps the rewards. We are entering
a golden age for the spirits lover, and The Art of Distilling Whiskey and Other
Spirits: An Enthusiast’s Guide to the Artisan Distilling of Potent Potables is an
indispensable guidebook to its beginnings.

Detail of the fermenting process of making bourbon, Woodford Reserve Distillery.

 Charring oak barrels at Bluegrass Cooperage.

Where did the craft-distilling phenomenon originate? You could say that it came
down from the mountains, where pot-distilled whiskeys made by hand—in
secret folds—have never entirely disappeared. Or you could say that it came up
from the vineyards and orchards, where for many years there has been a tiny
craft-distilling segment of superb, hand-crafted fruit brandies and eaux-de-vie.
Just know that a second Whiskey Rebellion is upon us and that it is happening
right now in a little building near you. And if you have picked up this book
already knowing about the great food awakening and hoping for a guide to
distilling, you have found it!

What particularly fascinates me about the distillation of alcohol is the enduring

mystery surrounding its origins. Distillation itself is a physical art with a long—
and colorful—history. And the distilling of all sorts of materials for myriad
purposes is an ancient process. But when did the production of distilled spirits as
a beverage begin? You are welcome to your opinion, and good luck finding
anyone to agree with you! No matter what you think, I encourage you to savor
the eternal enigma that is embodied in a distilled spirit. It is a form of magic to
take fruit or grain, ferment it, put it in a pot, heat it and make it disappear
entirely, and then watch it reappear, drop by drop, as a clear, volatile, almost
ethereal liquid. And it is a dangerous liquid—do not kid yourself. It can catch
fire, it can explode, and abusing it can ruin lives. It is powerful, mysterious stuff,
surely one reason that it captures the imagination of the producers and
consumers swirling and swilling around the current awakening.

So drink deep of Bill, Alan, and Andrew’s guide, get on the road with them, go
exploring and learning, and enjoy being an early participant in the movement.
And take my word for it, as a distiller of whiskey since the second Whiskey
Rebellion’s first shot: “Heads we win, tails we win!”

Fritz Maytag, Anchor Distilling, San Francisco, April 2009

INTRODUCTION
TO THE SECOND EDITION
by Bill Owens

AS A YOUNG MAN in the 1970s, I had long hair, a Volkswagen Beetle, a hip
wife, and a career as a newspaper photographer. I also published four
photography monographs, including the classic Suburbia (still in print), and I
received a Guggenheim Fellowship in photography and three National
Endowment for the Arts grants. My dream was to work for Life magazine or
National Geographic, and I ended up stringing for the Associated Press and
covered the Hell’s Angels beating people with pool cues at Altamont. While all
this was happening, I was homebrewing in the garage.

By the 1980s, when I reached middle age, I had a flattop, sold the VW and
cameras, and lost a wonderful wife. In 1982, I opened the first brewpub in the
United States: Buffalo Bill’s Brewery in Hayward, California. The beer was
good. My pumpkin ale is still being brewed by many breweries. My public
image was “colorful,” and the news media loved me. I started believing my own
press clips. I opened two more brewpubs and launched a public stock offering to
fund the building of a large-scale production brewery. It all seemed like a good
idea at the time. It was, after all, “Morning in America,” Reagan was in the
White House, and the operative phrase for the times was “Greed is good.”

I wanted success, money. I had three brewpubs. I grossed a million dollars that
year, but I had to pay sixty employees and ended up with no profit. Things don’t
always work out as you dream. The stock offering never got off the ground, and
one by one, the brewpubs were sold off, with Buffalo Bill’s being the last to go.
But I’ll always have Alimony Ale (“The bitterest beer in America!”).

By the 1990s, I had gray hair and a new wife, and I was publishing two
magazines: American Brewer and Beer: The Magazine. Once again, my timing
was good and American Brewer rode the first great wave of craft brewing.
Things were looking great, but financially, the two magazines turned out to be
not such a great idea. I soon stopped publishing Beer and sold American Brewer.

Soon after, the AARP mailings started showing up, and I opened an antique
store. That venture lasted 6 months. Then my literary agent sold some Suburbia
photographs to Elton John, giving me enough money for a (used) Lexus and the
cash for a 3-month trip across America, so I ran away from home. On this trip, I
decided to visit some craft distilleries. I was intrigued, and the creative juices
started to flow again. When I returned to California, I founded the American
Distilling Institute (ADI). In 2003, I held the first ADI distilling conference at St.
George/Hangar 1 Distillery, and eighty people showed up.

Research on The Art of Distilling Whiskey and Other Spirits started in 2006.

In 2007, I decided to make another trip across America. Again, the trip was
funded by selling photographs to museums, an assortment of art galleries and
funded by selling photographs to museums, an assortment of art galleries and
friends in the United States and in Europe. This second trip (21,000 miles) took
4 months, and from fifty-three DVDs of images, we selected 100 or so for the
first edition of this book. Does anybody remember DVDs?

Ten years ago, the original edition of The Art of Distilling Whiskey and Other
Spirits was published, and 500 people attended the American Distilling Institute
(ADI) conference at St. George distillery in Alameda, CA. The 2018 conference
had 2,000 attendees from seven different countries.

That’s just the beginning of the changes that have occurred in the last 10 years.
As the growth of craft distilling has been around 30% a year, craft distilling is
not about to slow down or peak anytime soon. The U.S. government’s Alcohol
and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau licenses approximately two new distilled
spirits plants for each working day. Craft distilleries are popping up in the UK,
Europe, Australia, South Africa, and many other countries. There is even a craft
distillery on St. Helena in the South Atlantic, one of the most remote islands in
the world.
Vodka is no longer the darling of craft distilling. Now, it is whiskey and gin. As
of early 2018, there are over 1,500 licensed craft distilleries in the USA, and at
least 700 ferment, distill and bottle their own spirits. A significant number of
them grow their own corn, rye, and barley. Whiskey is the flavor of the week,
month, and year for now and for the foreseeable future. The latest generation of
craft distillers is using a beer-style wash to produce whiskey. I can assure you
the marriage of brewery-distillery is going to happen.

Next to whiskey, gin has seen tremendous growth. You can say it has caught on
in a big way. There are now dozens of distillers barrel-aging gin, a process that
sets you apart from standard gins and gives you flavor and romance. The new
generation of gins is wonderful, and there are more than 500 gin producers.

Spirits pundits predict brandy will come back. The problem with brandy is that
only a few states have wineries able to produce grapes suitable for brandy.
However, apple brandy, brought to you by Johnny Appleseed, is following on
However, apple brandy, brought to you by Johnny Appleseed, is following on
the tails of apple cider as the next resurging category. With Washington, New
York, Michigan, and Pennsylvania leading the charge, American applejack has a
patriotic ring to it that few distillers can resist.

With 400 craft distillers making rum, it is not far behind gin and whiskey. Many
distillers are using sugarcane juice and molasses produced by American
sugarcane farmers. The resulting spirits are wonderful. I still have a foot in both
camps, photography and distillation. But if I had to choose, it’d be distilling,
because it’s a way of life, and the craft-distilling industry is really about
lifestyle. People take great pride in producing spirits. This book is a look at craft
distillers and the rest of the whiskey, rum, vodka and gin industry.

Special thanks to Alan Dikty, the coauthor and editor of this book, and a
personal friend. Alan has been with me as a friend and writer for some 40 years.
Alan knows spirits.

And finally, a big thank-you to Andrew Faulkner. He also started with me

through photography and, after a decade and a half with ADI, is now editor and
publisher of Distiller magazine.

Bill Owens, Hayward, California, March 2009

AUTHOR’S NOTE ON SPELLING

For reasons that have yet to be adequately explained, American and Irish distillers spell the word
whiskey with an e, while their Scotch, Canadian, Japanese, and New Zealand peers spell whisky
without it.
Chapter 1
A BRIEF HISTORY OF
DISTILLING
SINCE the earliest known use of distillation about 5,000 years ago, practice of
the art has grown and spread around the world in several waves, the speed and
extent of each being dictated by geography, trade routes and cultural and
religious influences. Each successive wave gave rise to significant technical
advances in distillation, making it less expensive, more efficient, and more
controllable.

Possibly the earliest written record of distillation is in the Epic of Gilgamesh,

which describes a form of essential oil distillation practiced in Babylon as far
back as 3000 BC. Herbs were placed in a large heated cauldron of boiling water,
and the cauldron’s opening was covered with a sheepskin, fleece side down.
Periodically the sheepskin was changed, and the condensate soaking the fleece
was wrung out into a small jar. Essential oils floated to the surface of the water
collected in the jar and were skimmed off. Medieval texts and woodcuts show
the same principle being used to concentrate alcoholic vapors from boiling wine.
(Incidentally, this is similar in principle to a method that the Phoenicians used
for consuming cannabis.)
Very Fine Whiskey bottle, circa the 1920s: This vintage bottle was acquired empty at a flea
market.
DISTILLING MIGRATES EAST AND WEST
By 500 BC, alcohol distillation was an established industry in the ancient Indian
area known as Taxila (in modern northwest Pakistan), where archaeologists
discovered a perfectly preserved terra-cotta distillation system. In this process,
steam rising from a pot of boiling water passed through a bed of fermented
grains, picking up alcohol and flavors from the grains. The vapors then struck
the bottom of a second pot filled with cold water, where they condensed and
dripped into a collection tube.

From Taxila, knowledge spread to the East and the West, and by 350 BC,
knowledge of the distilling process appeared in the writing of Aristotle in Greece
and Sinedrius in Libya. The first arrival of distillation technology in China is
misty, but by AD 25, bronze stills of similar design were being produced and
used there.

By the end of the first millennium AD, the practice of distillation had spread
throughout northern Africa and the Middle East. The process had advanced
significantly over this 1000-year period, and the material being distilled was now
boiled directly in a large sealed pot, which had a long tube leading from its apex
to a small collection jar. When the Moors invaded Spain, they brought this
technology with them, and soon the genie (or spirit) was out of the bottle. The
technology spread from Spain to Italy in AD 1100, and was recorded in Ireland
by 1200, Germany by 1250, and France by 1300. England, Scotland, Poland,
Russia, and Sweden joined the club by 1400.
 These woodcuts from The Art of Distillation by Jonathan French (1651) show a small part of the
wide variety of forms distilling equipment had taken by the seventeenth century. Two key
improvements are shown: multiple distillations in one setup (one still feeding into the next), below,
and an improved vapor condenser (a coil of tubing known as a “worm” in a barrel of cold water),
left.
DISTILLING TECHNOLOGY EVOLVES
European exploration and conquest spread rapidly around the world, carrying the
technology of distillation with it. The first stills in the Americas appeared not
long after the conquistadores, and the Portuguese brought the technology to
Japan by 1500.

This technology was largely controlled by monasteries and alchemists, who

continuously experimented and improved on the equipment. By the mid-1600s,
several texts had been published on the subject of distillation, a sample of which
included the woodcuts on this spread, from The Art of Distillation by Jonathan
French (1651). As this information spread beyond clerical and scientific circles,
wealthy individuals began to establish stillhouses on their estates.
As knowledge blossomed throughout the Renaissance, distillation continued to
develop rapidly. Distillation was removed from the exclusive province of
scientists, monks, and professionals and became a common household art.
Recipe books abounded.

By the 1700s, the complexity and sophistication of commercial-scale distilling

equipment had advanced rapidly. Advances in the understanding of how
distillation actually worked led to new still designs that could make better
quality spirits more easily and faster than in the past. Distilling became more
accessible to the masses, and the monopoly held by the church and the elite
classes was threatened. These centers of power soon enacted restrictions, at first
to protect that monopoly, and later purely for revenue.
REGULATION AND REBELLION
Since 1700, the regulation and control of distillation has been mostly a story of
lost freedoms and rights. A few rays of sunshine have since poked through the
clouds. The elite and governments of Europe tried repeatedly to exploit and
control distillation. In England, for example, the first taxation of commercial
distillation appeared in 1690 to pay for a war with France. Private distillation
was exempted from this tax, and it remained free from interference as taxes and
regulations were raised, lowered, abolished, and resurrected over the next
century. Private distillation in England flourished and grew significantly during
this time (and perhaps not a little of this product found its way into commercial
channels via the back door), until it was outlawed in 1781 to enhance the
collection of revenue. The massive Gin Craze of early eighteenth-century Great
Britain had its roots, in part, in this unfettered spread of distillation.

The United States government’s first attempt to tax distillation resulted in the
Whiskey Rebellion of 1791, which was put down by federal troops led by
George Washington (who was serving as president at the time).

The Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania.

Federal excise taxes were abolished after the end of the War of 1812, only to be
imposed during the Civil War in the 1860s (and continue to this day).

Napoleon introduced regulation in France. The laws varied widely over the next
century, but stabilized in 1914, when the right was granted to anyone with a
vineyard or orchard to distill up to 20 liters of spirits from their fruit if they
agreed to pay a tax. This right was originally inheritable, but that was revoked in
the 1950s. This system led to the development of traveling stills, known as
bouilleurs de cru, which were once very common sights in the French
countryside. Because the number of permitted individuals has shrunk with every
passing year, very few of these mobile distilleries remain.

Australians lost their right to home-distill their own beverages in the aftermath
of World War I, again as a revenue measure.

“THERE IS MORE REFRESHMENT AND STIMULATION IN A NAP, EVEN OF THE

BRIEFEST, THAN IN ALL THE ALCOHOL EVER DISTILLED.”
Ovid (ancient Roman classical poet and notorious wet blanket at bacchanals, 43–17 BCE)

Many African, Latin American, and southern European nations have continued
to allow private distillation under a wide variety of rules, ranging from none,
through inspection of stills, to onerous regulations and high taxation. In general,
traditional alcoholic beverages are made in most farmhouses using traditional
equipment (mostly pot stills of various forms), without any adverse effects on
society.

One countertrend to this march of increased government regulation was the

legalization of private, noncommercial distilling by New Zealand in 1996. The
New Zealand government found that the expense of enforcing the ban on private
distillation far outweighed the revenue coming from fines, so the law was
abolished. This change led to widespread adoption of small-scale distilling as a
hobby, and, as hobbyists always will, they experimented with equipment and
techniques continuously. This boom in home distilling in New Zealand did not
go unnoticed, and starting around the turn of the 21st century, a new generation
of licensed commercial craft distilleries started to open in North America, the
United Kingdom, and parts of Europe.
FUTURE TRENDS
Just as the appearance of microbreweries followed the renaissance of
homebrewing, increasing the choices and level of quality for all beer drinkers,
craft distilleries are starting to thrive around the world, using new equipment and
methods. Many of these modern small distilleries are experimenting with new
types and categories of spirits, creating novel and sometimes uniquely local
spirits.

The first modern craft distilleries, such as St. George Spirits, Germain-Robin,
Jepson Vineyards, and Clear Creek Distillery were established in the 1980s,
closely following the growth curves of family wineries after Prohibition and the
growth of craft breweries following Fritz Maytag’s purchase of Anchor
Brewing. Since around 2000, exponential growth has followed the pattern of a
classic industry resurgence and is expected to continue for years to come.

The U.S. movement has garnered so much excitement that it has inspired similar
proliferation of distilleries and brands in Canada, Ireland, Scotland, England,
France, Australia, India, South Africa, and many other countries around the
globe.

GEORGE WASHINGTON AND GERRYMANDERING

It is well known that George Washington was a distiller. What is less well known is that the laws he
crafted set the distinction between the heavily taxed small distillers and the lightly taxed large distillers,
the line being drawn just below the size of his distillery. Politics worked in much the same way then as
it does today.
MOONSHINE
The cultural stereotype of “corn likker” moonshine being made by hillbillies
deep in the woods in Southern states was never quite the final word on
moonshine production in the United States. Anywhere fruit or grain is grown,
illicit spirits were distilled for home use and informal commercial sale. The
heyday of large-scale moonshine production was during U.S. Prohibition of the
1920s and 1930s, when all of the United States and parts of Canada were
officially dry. But illegal moonshine production still continues on a reduced
scale to this day. Some of it is produced by increasingly sophisticated home
distillers, and yes, there are still backwoods moonshiners, even if some of those
seem to exist primarily to appear on cable network television shows.

Alas, times (and moonshine) are not what they used to be. Modern moonshiners
tend to skip the grain mashing and go directly to fermentation by dissolving
regular sugar in warm water, fermenting the sugar water with baker’s yeast and
then distilling off the resulting alcohol. The results are spirits much inferior to a
distilled grain spirit, and ultimately an arrested moonshiner. The Alcohol and
Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB, also known as “the Feds”) keeps track of
the sale of large quantities of bulk sugar, particularly in rural areas with a past
history of moonshining, although a surprising amount of this “sugarshine” is
made, or at least produced for sale in what are sometimes delicately referred to
as urban ethnic markets, particularly in the mid-Atlantic states.

You have been warned.

A tombstone that was used during Prohibition for stashing moonshine near Morgantown, West
Virginia
DIRT TRACK DISTILLING
Students of American popular culture know that moonshine whiskey and
NASCAR go together like actor Burt Reynolds and muscle cars. Starting in 1973
with the movie White Lightning, Reynolds made a career of portraying Southern
good ol’ boys delivering moonshine in fast cars, while outrunning the local
sheriff.

The real-life inspiration for such cinema characters was Robert Glen Johnson Jr.
(born in 1931 in Wilkes County, North Carolina), better known as Junior
Johnson. Johnson was a moonshiner in the rural South who became one of the
early superstars of NASCAR in the 1950s and ’60s.

Johnson grew up on a farm and developed his driving skills running moonshine
as a young man. He consistently outran and outwitted local police and federal
agents in auto chases, and he was never caught while delivering moonshine to
customers.
 A POS card advertising Junior Johnson’s Midnight Moon by Piedmont Distillers

Johnson became something of a legend in the rural South, where his driving
expertise and “outlaw” image were much admired. Johnson is credited with
inventing the “bootleg turn,” in which a driver escapes a pursuer by sharply
putting his speeding car into a 180-degree turn on the highway, then speeding off
in the opposite direction before his pursuer can turn around. Johnson was also
known to use police lights and sirens to fool police roadblocks into thinking that
he was a fellow policeman; upon hearing his approach, the police would quickly
remove the roadblocks, allowing Johnson to escape with his moonshine.
remove the roadblocks, allowing Johnson to escape with his moonshine.

In 1955, Johnson decided to give up delivering moonshine for the more lucrative
(and legal) career of being a NASCAR driver. Unfortunately, the “Revenuers”
had not forgotten Junior. In 1956, federal agents found Johnson working at his
father’s moonshine still and arrested him. Johnson was convicted of
moonshining and was sent to federal prison, where he served 11 months of a 2-
year sentence. He returned to the NASCAR scene in 1958 and picked up where
he left off. He went on to win fifty NASCAR races in his career before retiring
in 1966.
 Specially Crafted Catdaddy Carolina Moonshine by Piedmont Distillers, Madison, NC.

In 1965, writer Tom Wolfe wrote an article about Johnson in Esquire magazine.
The article, originally titled “Great Balls of Fire,” turned Johnson into a national
celebrity and led to fame beyond his circle of NASCAR fans. In turn, the article
was made into a 1973 movie based on Johnson’s career as a driver and
moonshiner titled The Last American Hero. Jeff Bridges starred as the somewhat
fictionalized version of Johnson, and Johnson himself served as technical
advisor for the film.

More recently, Johnson’s family has licensed the Junior Johnson name for use in
promoting a legal distilled product: Junior Johnson’s Midnight Moon from
Piedmont Distillers in Madison, North Carolina.
DON’T TRY THIS AT HOME
(NUDGE, NUDGE, WINK, WINK, SAY NO MORE)
Soon after national Prohibition began in the 1920s, a person could walk into virtually any grocery store
in the United States and find for sale brick-size blocks of compressed raisins bound together with
condensed grape juice. Attached to the block was a small container of dried yeast. The wrapping
contained the following text:

“WARNING: Do not dissolve this fruit brick in warm water and then add the contents of the yeast
packet, as this will result in fermentation and the creation of alcohol, the production of which is illegal.”

Needless to say, the local A&P sold a lot of fruit bricks while Prohibition was in force.

Traditional moonshine starts out with the production and fermentation of what is basically a simple
beer. Traditionalists would create a mash of ground corn, hot water, and enough malted barley to
provide sufficient enzymes to convert the starch in the grains into simple sugars. Once the starch
conversion was complete, yeast was added to the mash, with the resulting fermentation turning the
sugars into alcohol. The fermented mash would then be boiled in the pot still to distill off the alcohol.
MODERN “MOONSHINERS”
The current interest among hobbyist distillers in creating first-rate liquors, and
the general wholesome quality of their products, tracks primarily to several
convergent trends:

Virginia Lightning Corn Whiskey by Belmont Farm.

“WHISKEY IS WHAT BEER WANTS TO BE WHEN IT GROWS UP.”

 Virginia Lightning Moonshine by Belmont Farm, Culpeper, VA.

CRAFT BREWERS
Craft brewers are not simply the first ones to study how to make outstanding
small-batch spirits; they are also going to shape the face of micro-and personal
distilling. Brewers have already mastered three key skills: how to collaborate,
how to organize, and how to drive legislation.
The current interest in distilling among brewers is so widespread that it is
virtually impossible to talk to craft brewers who aren’t already distilling on the
sly, working on permits, or know someone who is. One erstwhile brewer framed
his transition from beer to liquor with this aphorism: Whiskey is what beer wants
to be when it grows up.

Making beer at home has been legal on a federal level since 1978. For a decade
or so after it was permitted, homebrewers (in the United States) explored all
kinds of beer and ale styles they could not purchase through their local stores.
They perfected their techniques, competed against each other in regional and
national contests, published their personal recipes, gave out awards to their
peers, and later put that knowledge to use by opening brewpubs and craft
breweries.

Homebrew supply shops everywhere were selling hops, malts, specialty grains,
carboys, esoteric scientific equipment, and lab-cultured yeasts to tens of
thousands of homebrewers trying, good naturedly, to best each other in rounds of
My Beer Is Better Than Yours.

By the 1990s, some brewers were pushing the limits of their equipment and
ingredients, becoming essentially novice distillers. Their homemade rigs looked
pretty much the same as brewing equipment. The ingredients were the same.
They were learning on pot stills because, for hundreds of years, variations on
that model had been the choice of folk distilling. Most of what a casual
researcher found in popular culture references were the big, copper, pumpkin-
shaped boilers of a style that would have been familiar to eighteenth-century
farmers.

As brewers, they already knew about grains, malt, yeast, enzymes, ideal
fermentation temperatures, filtration systems, and the water profiles that lead to
great-tasting beverages. Some had come to believe that the only thing stopping
them from having whiskey was too much water. Because they had developed
widespread networks for sharing information already—books, magazines,
contests, clubs, festivals, newsletters, and rudimentary online newsgroups—
questions began to circulate about how best to remove that excess water.
Sharing, critiquing, and judging were an entrenched part of the culture that was
starting to take up what had long been a secret practice. Anonymous online
forums were ideal tools for vetting home-distilling questions. Unlike the old
Appalachian moonshiners, modern hobby distillers with homebrewing
backgrounds were already used to talking to each other online and in person.
backgrounds were already used to talking to each other online and in person.

Chuck Miller stands in front of his pot still at Belmont Farm Distillery (see here), one of a dozen
distilleries in the United Stated producing a legal moonshine product.
 Two generations of Beams at the Limestone Branch Distillery, Lebanon, KY. Right to left, Steve
Beam, his father, Jimmy, and his brother, Paul.

NEW ZEALAND
Because few of the twentieth-century books on moonshining held much practical
information on techniques for building and operating stills, amateur distillers
without a family history in such matters learned by trial and error. Then, in 1996,
New Zealand lawmakers scrapped legislation forbidding home distillation,
resulting in an explosion of interest and innovation, specifically around the
design of home-size stills.
These innovative Kiwi home distillers went online and, because their hobby was
legal, started talking to each other openly. Brewers who were getting into
distilling, with their already established networks and culture of openness,
noticed. They seized on a wealth of new verifiable information coming out of the
Southern Hemisphere and added their own experiences, especially in online
forums.

Since then, as reliable information has been vetted online about how best to
build and operate small-scale stills, home column or reflux, stills have evolved,
becoming more compact and efficient, and able to put out as close to pure
alcohol as is possible outside a laboratory (in short, very clean stuff). Most
recently, a specific style of distilling has evolved that’s all about purity,
efficiency, and making lots of neutral spirits in very compact column stills.
Apple Pie Moonshine by Baldwin Distilling Co., Mitchell ACT 2911, Australia.
MOONSHINE DEFINED
The original definition of moonshine is any liquor made from unregistered stills
by unlicensed distillers. This definition covers a Kentucky farmer making the
liquor his father did, a New York imbiber wresting 10 ounces (296 ml) of gin
from a case of Budweiser, as well as a San Francisco chef tweaking her
grandmother’s kümmel to carry on the tradition.

More recently, the growth of the licensed craft-distilling industry has resulted in
the anomaly of legal, branded moonshine, labeled as such, or as “white whiskey”
or “white dog.” Such unaged white spirits can be packaged and sold quickly,
which helps the cash flow of new start-up distilleries.

Home distilling does continue, however, and now falls into three loose
categories—economic, technical, and artisanal producers.
Virginia Sweetwater Moonshine by Virginia Sweetwater Distillery, Marion, VA.
Milk Can Moonshine by Backwards Distilling Co., Mills, WY.
Mayday Moonshine by Durango Craft Spirits, Durango, CO.
 A variety of products by MB Roland Distillery, Pembroke, KY.

ECONOMIC DISTILLERS
Economic distillers make liquor because homemade is cheaper than store
bought. Any type of still might be used, from an inherited copper pot still, to
modern reflux models or even an aquarium heater in a plastic bucket. They are
apt to distill sugar spirits, but also grains and fruits when they may be had
inexpensively. Although their products are prone to be of questionable quality,
they are not necessarily bad liquor—think of marc and grappa made from
pomace that might otherwise be thrown away.

TECHNICAL DISTILLERS
Technical distillers are armchair (or even professional) engineers and chemists,
gearheads who strive to make the most efficient distillery setup they can, forever
tweaking and adjusting their rigs, creating technological wonders. They run and
rerun a batch of spirits to create the purest spirit they can, taking meticulous
rerun a batch of spirits to create the purest spirit they can, taking meticulous
notes of every temperature fluctuation, proof variation, and yield. Technical
distillers tend to have an inordinate amount of vodka on hand because the end
result of their frequent experiments is often a high-proof, nearly pure spirit they
can supplement with extracts and essences for the exact flavor they want.

ASPIRING AND ACCOMPLISHED ARTISANS

Aspiring and accomplished artisans comprise the third group, whose goal is to
make authentic and great-tasting spirits. While technical distillers consider
unwanted chemical compounds obstacles to pure liquor, artisans rightfully
regard taste and aroma as the backbone that defines their own personal style of
distilling. They tend to use less-efficient, old-school pot stills—they might
immediately recognize the kind that a farmer used in 1740. Some use column
stills, but without the columns at maximum efficiency, thus preserving taste and
aroma by not distilling to the highest proof possible.
DIAGRAM OF A COLUMN DISTILLER

This flowchart illustrates how the wash is transformed into spirits. The bottom of the still strips out
the water, while the rectifying section (top of the still) distills the liquor to increase its alcohol
percentage.
DIMENSIONS OF A TYPICAL SPIRITS STILL

A pot is wider than tall, allowing vapors to escape from the wash. A tall swan neck allows for
separation of the components of the mixture. The shape of the still affects the flavor components
of the spirits. Every pot still is unique, as distillers want distinctive flavor profiles in their finished
spirits.
ANATOMY OF A POT STILL

As illustrated here, a whiskey still has four parts: pot, swan neck, lyne arm and condenser. The
shape of each affects rectification and the flavor of the spirit.

POT: The pot can by any shape: round, onion or conical. The shape of the pot affects how the wash is
heated (always to 172°F [78°C]). It can be heated by direct fire, steam, gas, or wood. Most pots have a sight
glass so the distiller can check for foaming during the distillation process.

SWAN NECK: The swan neck sits on top of the pot. It can be tall, short, straight, or tapered. Often, the
swan neck is connected to the pot via an ogee, a bubble-shaped chamber. The ogee allows the distillate to
expand, condense and fall back into the pot during distillation. Most pot stills have a tapered swan neck,
expand, condense and fall back into the pot during distillation. Most pot stills have a tapered swan neck,
allowing for better separation and better enriching of the spirits during distilling.

LYNE ARM: The lyne arm sits on top of the swan neck. It can be tilted up or down, and it can be tapered or
straight. Often pot stills are fitted with a dephlegmator or purifier. Its main purpose is the enrichment of
spirits before they’re sent on to the condenser.

INTERNAL STEAM COIL: The internal steam coil heats the wash to 173°F (78°C), where the alcohol
separates from the wash.

CONDENSER: The condenser, or worm, is used for cooling the spirits and providing a small stream to a
collection tank or pail.
ECONOMICAL INGREDIENTS FOR DISTILLING
Consider a glut of plums for backyard slivovitz or a skid of dried fruit at bargain pricing that can be
turned into Arabian siddiqui. However, ersatz whiskeys made from breakfast cereals are not unheard of,
so caveat emptor is the rule.

A fruit eau de vie fermentation at Stringer’s Orchard Wild Plum Winery & Distillery
Chapter 2
THE DISTILLING PROCESS
IN THE MOST literal sense of the word, distillation means the concentration of
the essence of a substance by separating it from any other substances that it is
mixed with. In the case of distilling alcohol, this means boiling a fermented
liquid in a still and condensing the vapor back into a liquid to separate the
ethanol from the solids, water, and other chemical compounds in the fermented
solution. But just as the devil is in the details, the art of distilling is in how the
distiller achieves that separation and how precise that separation is.

The wide range of stills described in this chapter each originally evolved to meet
the requirements of producing a particular type of spirit. Depending on the type
of spirit being made, precision is not necessarily the goal of the distiller.
Thousands of chemical compounds are created by fermentation and distillation,
all of which can have, for better or worse, an effect on the ultimate taste or
character of a distilled spirit. The distiller’s primary job is to retain the desired
flavor elements, while discarding those that are not. This is not as simple as it
sounds. And despite all of the high-tech controls in a modern distillery, the still
master nevertheless has the final call.
“GLASS OF BRANDY AND WATER! THAT IS THE CURRENT BUT NOT THE
APPROPRIATE NAME: ASK FOR A GLASS OF LIQUID FIRE AND DISTILLED
DAMNATION.”
Robert Hall, nineteenth-century temperance crusader who was never the life of the party.
HOW DISTILLATION WORKS
Distillation is a physical process in which compounds are separated by virtue of
their different boiling points. Two compounds with the same boiling point
occurring together would not be separable by distillation. Fortunately, such
occurrences with the ingredients in liquor and spirits are rare.

The separation in distillation occurs when a mixture of compounds in the still is

brought to a boil. Compounds with lower boiling points vaporize at lower
temperatures than compounds with higher boiling points. This means that the
vapor, or steam, rising off the boiling mixture is richer in the lower-boiling-point
compounds than in the higher-boiling-point ones. Next, this vapor is collected
and cooled to condense it back into a liquid. The resulting liquid, called the
distillate, contains a considerably higher concentration of the lower-boiling-point
compounds than of the higher-boiling- point ones.

In a simplified example, let’s consider a mixture of 90 percent water and 10

percent ethanol. Water has a boiling point of 212°F (100°C), and ethanol has a
boiling point of 173.1°F (78.4°C). The ethanol will boil and vaporize well before
the water, so when the vapors are collected and condensed, the resulting
distillate will have a high concentration of ethanol and comparatively little
water. The distillate will not be pure ethanol because some water will vaporize at
the boiling point of ethanol, even if the water itself is not at its boiling point.
Tails start at 203°F (95°C) and contain a high percentage of fusel alcohols,
known to distillers as wet dog bouquet. A little bit is actually needed in some
types of whiskey, but only a little bit. Think Islay Scotch Whisky.

Because all the compounds in a still will vaporize to a greater or lesser extent
during boiling, the separation of the compounds will not be perfect, so more
elaborate stills have been developed to intensify the separation of the vapors
once they have left the kettle. In modern high-separation stills, this is done by
employing a reflux column to manage the vapors after they leave the kettle and
before they are condensed and drawn from the still.
 Spirits dancing on one of the plates of a rectification column.

WHAT A DIFFERENCE A DEGREE MAKES

Between 174°F (78.8°C) and 175°F (79.4°C) a veritable witch’s brew of nasty chemical compounds
(known collectively as heads) are cut and removed by proper distilling. These include acetone,
aldehydes, and methanol. Lazy moonshiners tend to leave them in, resulting in rotgut and a serious
head-banging headache the next morning as you lie in bed and pray for the Angel of Death to come and
finish the job.
A STILL’S BLUEPRINT
The whiskey still has four parts: pot, swan neck, lyne arm and condenser. The
shape of each section affects rectification (redistillation) and the taste of the
spirits. There is no perfect design; each manufacturer says its pot still makes the
best-tasting whiskey.

At this point, distilling is an “art.” To make good whiskey, you need to have
good ingredients (clean wash) and a good palate (nose and tongue), and you
need to know when to start and stop (making heads and tails cuts). When it
comes to whiskey distilling, the process is controlled by a distiller not a
computer or a manual. The pot can be any shape: round, onion, or conical. The
shape of the pot affects how the wash is heated (to 172°F [77.8°C]). It can be
heated by direct fire, steam, gas, or wood. All systems have advantages and
disadvantages. There is no right way to heat wash. Most manufacturers,
however, prefer a double-jacketed steam-water system that provides a gentle
heat to the wash. Mainly, you don’t want to burn the wash. Most pots have a
sight glass so the distiller can check for foaming during the distillation process.

The swan neck sits on top of the pot. It can be tall, short, straight or tapered.
Often the swan neck is connected to the pot via an ogee, sometimes called a
“lampglass,” which is a bubble-shaped chamber. The ogee allows the distillate to
expand, condense, and fall back into the pot during distillation. Most pot stills
have a tapered swan neck, allowing for better separation and better enriching of
the spirits during distilling.

The lyne arm sits on top of the swan neck. It can be tilted up or down, and it
can be tapered or straight. Most arms are tapered down. Often pot stills are fitted
with a dephlegmator or what Scottish distillers call a purifier. The dephlegmator
is fitted with baffles that use water plates or tubes to cool the distillate, sending
most of it back into the pot. Its main purpose is the enrichment of the spirits
before they’re sent on to the condenser.

The condenser, or worm, is used for condensing the vapor back to a liquid and
entraining a small stream to a collection receiver.
THE SPIRITS
Even a modern high-separation still cannot produce pure ethanol. This is because water forms an
azeotrope with ethanol. An azeotrope is a mixture of two liquid compounds whose molecules become
loosely bonded such that they have a common boiling point that is different from either constituent’s. In
the case of ethanol and water, the azeotrope occurs at a mixture of 96.5 percent ethanol and 3.5 percent
water, and it has a boiling point of 172.67°F (78.15°C). This is 0.45°F (0.17°C) lower than the 173.12°F
(78.4°C) boiling point of pure ethanol. In distillation, this azeotrope is a single compound with a boiling
point of 172.67°F (78.15°C), and the still proceeds to separate it on that basis. The ethanol that is
purified by a fractionating column is not, therefore, pure 100 percent ethanol but pure 96.5 percent
ethanol, with the “impurity” being pure water. No amount of redistillation under the conditions
discussed here will influence this percentage; 96.5 percent alcohol by volume (ABV) is the theoretical
maximum purity that can be derived by this process.

The temperatures stated above are at standard atmospheric pressure. In a column still, due to increased
pressure at the bottom resulting from the pressure drop over the plates, the temperatures would be quite
a bit higher than stated. For example, the spent wash, which would have a boiling point of about 212°F
(100°C) at standard pressure, would have a boiling point of about 220°F (104.4°C) due to the increased
pressure.

A small pot still, similar to many moonshine stills, is in operation for tourists to see at the
Glenmorangie Distillery, Scotland.
WHISKEY STILLS IN DETAIL
There are several different designs of stills used for making whiskey. These
include the moonshine still, gooseneck still, continuous-run column still, French
Charentais alembic still, and hybrid pot still. (The traditional English spelling of
this French word is alembic.)

In the basic moonshine still, vapors from the heated wash rise into the cap. After hitting the flat
top of the still, vapors exit via the lyne arm into the condenser, where they condense and become
spirits.
MOONSHINE STILL
The most basic and rudimentary design is a crude pot still, or moonshine still,
which is a closed pot, like a pressure cooker, with a pipe leading from the lid
into a condenser coil. The condenser coil can either be long enough to air-cool
the vapors, or it can be shorter and immersed in a water jacket. Such a still
affords minimum separation of the vapors because there is almost no separation
once they leave the kettle. Although this design of still is not suitable for
producing beverage alcohol by modern standards, it will still concentrate an 8 or
10 percent ABV (alcohol by volume) wash to 60 percent in a fairly fast run.

There are many home distillers and illicit commercial moonshiners using this
type of still today. And, because this type of still is typically heated on a stove
top or on a gas burner, it is necessary to remove all suspended solids from the
wash before placing it in the pot. To do otherwise would risk burning solids on
the bottom of the pot.
CROSS-SECTION OF A STILL’S COLUMN SHOWING THE
BUBBLE CAP TRAYS

The bubble caps sit on a tray over vapor tubes in the column. The caps provide contact between
the rising vapors and descending reflux, creating a distilling cycle and enriching the alcohol.
Arrows indicate vapors rising from the wash and hitting the bubble caps. A percentage of pure
vapors continues to rise and the “less pure” fall back into the still for redistillation.
GOOSENECK STILL
The gooseneck pot still is the most common design of still used to produce
Scottish malt whisky. Some Irish whiskeys and a number of American and
Canadian whiskeys are also distilled in this type of still. This style of pot still has
been in use for centuries for commercial whiskey production, and it is even more
popular today in modern whiskey distilleries than ever.

The gooseneck still has a large round kettle and is functionally very similar to
the crude pot still, except it has a long, broad neck rising from the kettle that
allows enough separation to hold back most of the fusel alcohols from the
distillate while retaining the desired flavors in the finished spirit. The neck bends
at the top and connects to a pipe called a lyne arm that leads to a condenser coil
immersed in water. The lyne arm usually angles downward slightly toward the
condenser, but in some distilleries it tilts upward.

The level of separation in a gooseneck pot still is affected by the amount of

condensation that takes place in the neck and lyne arm that falls back into the
kettle. This condensation is called reflux, and the more reflux, the higher the
level of separation. If the lyne arm is angled downward, then any vapor in the
lyne arm that condenses will fall forward toward the condenser and become part
of the distillate passing to the receiver. However, if the lyne arm is angled
upward, condensation falls back to the kettle and will create additional reflux
and, therefore, additional separation.
 A gooseneck still clearly showing the lyne arm at Woodford Reserve Distillery.

BEVERAGES PRODUCED IN GOOSENECK STILLS

Because the long, broad neck provides a large surface area, which results in a
larger proportion of reflux than crude pot stills, gooseneck stills are more
suitable for distilling beverage alcohol. The gooseneck stills are suited to the
production of whiskey, brandy, rum, schnapps, and other non-neutral spirits, for
which they are widely used commercially. However, they are not suitable for the
which they are widely used commercially. However, they are not suitable for the
production of vodka, gin, or other spirits derived from neutral alcohol, which
requires a high-separation still capable of producing pure azeotrope ethanol.

The wash distilled in gooseneck stills is typically separated from the suspended
solids, much like the malt washes used for making Scottish malt whisky. Some
gooseneck stills are heated by an open fire under the kettle, which would result
in the burning of suspended solids if they were in the wash. However, most
contemporary stills are heated with steam jackets. This, combined with a
rummager, can enable these stills to boil full mashes with all the grain in the
kettle without burning the solids on the bottom of the pot.

A rummager is an agitating device that slowly turns around inside the still pot,
dragging a net of copper chains along the bottom of the kettle to prevent solids
from caking up and burning during distilling.
ANATOMY OF A CRAFT WHISKEY STILL

Not all craft whiskey stills are alike, but most share the same basic construction.
Model of a gooseneck Forsyths whisky still.
CONTINUOUS-RUN COLUMN STILL
This type of still is used for producing enormous volumes of spirit in a
continuous operation that runs constantly for up to eleven months straight before
it is shut down for cleaning and overhauling. They commonly have a
fractionating column that stands about 100 feet (30.5 m) high (similar to that of
an oil refinery) and a series of bubble-cap trays spaced every couple of feet (0.8
m) up the column. The trays are farther apart near the bottom and get closer
together toward the top. It has no pot or kettle, per se, and it is heated by blasting
steam upward from the bottom of the column while the wash is continuously fed
into a tray at the middle of the column.

As the wash runs down through the trays of the column, it encounters the hot
steam, which vaporizes the compounds in the wash and carries them up the
column. The lower-boiling compounds continue to rise up the column while the
higher-boiling ones condense and are carried down the column. The column has
an exit valve at every tray where vapor can be drawn off and led to a condenser.
This enables the operators to configure the system so certain trays lead to a
condenser that goes to the heads receiver, another set of trays can be sent to the
hearts receiver, and other trays can be sent to the tails receiver. What flows to
the bottom of the column is residue that is sent to the drain. A possible
configuration for bourbon would have the top two trays configured for heads,
then the next four configured for hearts, the next five for tails, and the rest of the
trays would reflux with no draw off and what reached the bottom would be
discarded as residue.

The draw-off rates would be set up to maintain a hearts fraction with, say, a
constant 65 percent ABV. Bourbon that’s distilled in a continuous-run column
still is usually done in two distillations, both with the hearts drawn off at about
65 percent ABV.

Because a continuous-run still runs for many months at a time, the wash must be
fairly clear with a minimum of solids; otherwise, the buildup of residue in the
system would become untenable and the system would need to be shut down to
be cleaned. So, there is no process with a continuous-run still whereby the entire
mash is distilled. The mash must always be strained or filtered before being
placed in the reservoir supplying the still.

The distillery must have a battery of fermenters that are in constant operation at
each stage of the fermentation process to keep up with the continuous demand
each stage of the fermentation process to keep up with the continuous demand
for wash for the stills.
THE CONTINUOUS-RUN DESIGN FLAW
There is an inherent design flaw in this type of still. Because the continuous-run still has a constant flow
of new wash coming into it at all times, there are always heads and tails present in the column. This is
unlike a batch still, which is any of the noncontinuous stills discussed in this text, where the heads are
drawn off at the beginning of the run and then they are gone. In a continuous-run operation, all fractions
are constantly being introduced to the column by the incoming wash. This poses no problem with the
tails, because at the trays where the hearts are drawn off, the tails are lower in the column and are,
therefore, not present to be drawn off with the hearts. However, heads are still present at these trays, so
no matter how well a continuous-run still is equilibrated there’ll always be a small amount of heads in
the hearts fraction.

Having said this, the continuous-run column is a high-separation still that makes very precise separation
of the compounds in its column. There is always going to be a trace amount of heads in the hearts, and
this amount is still within the allowable limits for potable spirits. In most cases, it is less than the
residual heads found in the hearts from commercial batch stills.
FRENCH CHARENTAIS ALAMBIC STILL
This type of still is used almost exclusively for making brandy, including
Cognac, Armagnac, Calvados, and other famous French brandies. It is designed
especially to leave a lot of the aromatics and flavor in the distillate, and is
therefore one of the lower-separation beverage-alcohol stills. Because of this
quality, spirits are usually distilled twice in a French Charentais alambic still.
Whiskey can also be made in this design of still. It is functionally quite similar to
the gooseneck still, but it creates a lower level of separation, making a richer and
creamier-tasting whiskey, but with a little more fusel alcohol.

The French Charentais alambic still has three major components: the kettle with
helmet, the preheater, and the condenser. The helmet is the chamber just above
the kettle, and it serves as an expansion chamber, which works well to hold back
a lot of the heavier compounds, such as fusel alcohols and furfurols, while
allowing the desirable aromatics and flavors to be carried over into the distillate.

The preheater, as the name implies, preheats the next batch of wine to be
distilled. It is also used as a reservoir to enable a near-continuous distillation
process. Some brandy distillers simply include them as part of the hearts (not the
heads). In this way, continuously feeding wine into the kettle is possible.
Because there is no workable way to drain the pot during operation, the
continuous feeding of wine must stop when the kettle is too full to take any
more.
 This alembic still was custom-built by Dynamic Alembic by reconfiguring a Grundy beer tank.

Prior to a distillation run, the preheater is filled with wine to be heated for the
next distillation. The preheater has the vapor tube from the pot passing through it
on its way to the condenser. This transfers heat from the vapor to the wine before
the vapor enters the condenser. This heats the wine in the preheater to near
boiling during the distillation run and reduces the amount of heat that the
condenser has to dissipate, thereby making efficient use of heat and reducing the
amount of cooling water used.

The preheater has a pipe with a valve leading from it to the kettle. When a
distillation run is finished and the pot has been drained, the operator can open
the valve and fill the kettle with another charge of wine from the preheater that’s
already at near-boiling temperature. This makes efficient use of heat and
significantly reduces the amount of time to bring the next batch of wine to a boil.
The condenser in a French Charentais alambic still, as in most types of stills,
consists of the copper coil immersed in a water jacket with cold water circulating
consists of the copper coil immersed in a water jacket with cold water circulating
around it.

Alembic still installation in France.

BEVERAGES PRODUCED IN ALAMBIC STILLS

These stills are invariably used to distill wine, or in the case of whiskey,
distiller’s beer. They are not generally used to distill full mashes with all the
solids left in. However, design-wise, the Charentais could be used to distill
mashes with solids because its kettle is the same as that of the standard alembic,
which is widely used to make grappa and marc from grape pomace. To do this, a
sieve tray must be inserted into the kettle to serve as a false bottom to hold the
solids above the bottom of the pot and prevent burning.
HYBRID POT STILL
This type of still is the most versatile of all the stills. Each artisan pot still is
nearly made to order, based on a distiller’s needs and preferences. Its
components include a spherical-shaped kettle, a condenser, and a wide variety of
optional components, such as a steam jacket or a direct fire, an agitator, a
helmet, one or two columns of bubble-cap trays, a dephlegmator, and a
catalyzer.

The spherical-shaped kettle evenly heats the substrate, particularly if there is an

agitator. And, a hybrid still that’s steam heated and has an agitator can be used to
distill any wash. Even washes full of fruit pulp or grain mash can be heated in
this configuration of kettle without any risk of burning on the bottom of the pot.
Also, by constantly agitating the wash throughout the distillation run, the
distillery can save about 20 percent on the heat required to perform the
distillation.

The ability to distill the entire wash, including all the solids, purportedly gives a
superior flavor to the spirit produced. Apparently, the fruit mashes for making
schnapps yield a richer, more complex flavor if they can be distilled with all the
fruit pulp in the kettle. Many whiskey distillers contend the same to be true for
distilling grain mashes, and almost all brands of American whiskey are distilled
with the grain solids in the still.
A 2-column, 16-plate hybrid still for vodka production at NOLA Distilling, New Orleans, LA.
 Twin columns of bubble-cap trays.

The helmet component (optional) is technically an expansion chamber, and it is

usually a nearly spherical dome that sits directly on top of the kettle. As vapor
rises from the pot, it passes through a comparatively narrow passageway into the
larger volume of the helmet. This results in a sudden reduction in vapor velocity,
which helps hold back higher-boiling-point compounds while allowing desirable
aromatics and flavors to continue up the column. Some distillers say this helmet
is key to producing a truly excellent spirit.
From the helmet, the vapor rises into the column. In some hybrid-pot still
configurations, the column is mounted directly on top of the helmet. When there
is no helmet, the column is mounted directly on top of the kettle. In other
configurations, such as two columns, the column is positioned beside the pot.
The reason for this is the still would stand too high for most facilities if the
column were stacked on top of the helmet or even on top of the kettle. Within
the column are bubble-cap trays. The vapor rises up the tubes under the bubble
caps and bubbles out from under the cap and through the standing liquid on each
tray. The standing liquid overflows at a certain depth to the next tray below.
Compound separation takes place by the redistillation that occurs when the heat
from the vapor transfers to the standing liquid. This causes higher-boiling-point
compounds in the vapor to condense and lower-boiling-point compounds in the
liquid to evaporate. The overall effect is to drive the lower-boiling-point
compounds up the column in vapor state and the higher-boiling-point
compounds down the column in liquid state.

OPTIONAL STILL COMPONENTS

Modern hybrid stills have an interesting feature that allows the operator to
bypass any of the trays to vary the separation level for the column. There are
levers on the side of the column connected to each tray, and the operator can
position the lever to cause the tray to turn sideways and allow the vapors and
liquid to pass by. Or the operator can position the lever the other way to put the
tray in place so that it is fully engaged in processing reflux.

The dephlegmator resides above the top bubble-cap tray. It is a chamber at the
top of the column with numerous vertical tubes for the vapor to travel through on
its way to the condenser. There is a water jacket around the vertical tubes that
the operator can flood with cooling water to increase the amount of reflux. The
rate of water flow in the dephlegmator can be adjusted to give granular control
over the amount of reflux.
 The Moor’s cap on this alembic still has a distinctive look and gives a unique flavor profile to the
distillates.

Having the capability to dial up or down the reflux creates a great deal of control
over the compound mix in the finished spirit. For example, if a given spirit had
an excellent aroma and flavor profile but a rough finish due to an excess of fusel
alcohol, the reflux could be dialed up slightly to hold back the fusel.

The catalyzer is positioned above the dephlegmator and has an array of

“sacrificial” copper. Copper is an important material in a still because the
“sacrificial” copper. Copper is an important material in a still because the
noxious sulfides in the vapor instantly react out upon contact with copper.
However, as this occurs over time, the copper material of the still becomes
compromised, and expensive still components require replacing. The idea of the
catalyzer is to have a chamber with copper in the vapor path specifically
designed to react out the sulfides from the vapor. Over time, this copper erodes
from the reaction with the sulfides, but it can be cheaply replaced. In effect, the
copper in the catalyzer is being sacrificed to save the copper material of the still.

The catalyzer also reacts out ethyl carbamate (also called “urethane”) which is
carcinogenic. Ethyl carbamate is generally formed as a result of urea in the
fermentation substrate. The amount of natural urea in a fermentation is very low,
but over the years urea has been added as a yeast nutrient to provide nitrogen for
the yeast.

In summary, hybrid stills can be superb stills and are well known for making
quality spirits.

Unfortunately, their throughput is comparatively slow, and distilleries are often

put in the position of having to opt for larger throughput stills, such as the
continuous-run column, to meet the demands of their markets.
 Hybrid still.

COLUMN CONFIGURATION
The number of bubble-cap trays in the column depends on the intended use of the hybrid still, and it is
therefore optional. Some artisan pot stills are used to make vodka and have two tall columns with a total
of twenty bubble-cap trays. An excellent configuration for making whiskey, however, would be a still
with a helmet, a column with four trays, a dephlegmator and a catalyzer.
THE BATCH-STILL PROCESS OF
DISTILLATION
THE DISTILLATION process is operationally the same for all four batch stills
discussed previously: the moonshine still, the gooseneck still, the French
Charentais, and the artisan pot still. The continuois-run column still has a
different regimen, and it is described in the section that follows.

HEADS, HEARTS, AND TAILS

In distilling parlance, the compounds in the wash that are not ethanol or water
are called congeners. Some congeners, such as acetaldehyde, methanol, and
certain esters and aldehydes, have lower boiling points than ethanol; certain
other esters, the higher alcohols (fusel alcohols) and water, have higher boiling
points than ethanol. This means the lower-boiling-point congeners come out in
high concentration at the beginning of a batch distillation run, and the higher-
boiling-point ones come out in high concentration toward the end of the run,
leaving the ethanol and the most desirable compounds as the most abundant
components during the middle of the run. When distillation takes place in a
batch still, the distillate that comes out is divided into three fractions called
heads, hearts, and tails.
THE MAJOR STEPS FROM BARLEY TO BARREL
1. Mash Tun: Used to convert barley grain starches to sugars.
2. Fermentation of the wash.
3. Stripping of the wash to remove water.
4. Collection of “low wine” spirits.
5. Redistilling the low wine to produce final spirits for barreling.
6. Barreling or aging of spirits.
The heads contain the unwanted lower-boiling-point congeners that come out at the beginning of the run.
The tails contain the unwanted higher-boiling-point congeners that come out at the end of the run.
The hearts are the desired spirit in the middle.

Because whiskey is not distilled at a high-separation level, it means that each

fraction bleeds into the adjacent fraction. That is to say, there is a considerable
amount of ethanol in the heads fraction, and there are late-heads congeners at the
beginning of the hearts fraction. Similarly, there is a significant amount of early-
tails congeners at the end of the hearts, and there is a considerable amount of
ethanol in the tails fraction. The whiskey, comprised mostly of ethanol and
water, has a delicate balance of late-heads and early-tails congeners that make up
the flavor profile of the whiskey.
the flavor profile of the whiskey.

There are literally thousands of these congeners, or chemical flavor compounds,

created during the distilling process, all of which have the potential of adding to
or subtracting from the desired final flavor profile of the distilled spirit. Part of
the art (as opposed to the science) of distilling is knowing when these congeners
are coming out of the still, and when to add them to the hearts or add them to the
feints. In flavor-specific spirits, such as brandy and whiskey, it is desirable to
carry over selected congeners into the finished spirit. However, in flavor-neutral
spirits, such as vodka, the goal is to remove as many congeners as possible to
end up with a spirit that has a clean, nonspecific palate.

Because both the heads and the tails contain a lot of ethanol and residual
desirable flavor, they are mixed together and saved for future recovery. The
heads and tails when mixed together are called feints. Feints can be distilled
separately to produce another whiskey run, or they can be mixed in with a future
spirit run, where their ethanol and flavors are recovered as a part of that run.
However, each subsequent distillation produces its own set of heads, hearts, and
tails, and the feints from those runs are also saved for future recovery.
TWO-RUN DISTILLATION
When whiskey is made, it is usually done in two distillation runs: a beer-
stripping run and a spirit run.
The beer-stripping run is generally done in a larger, high-volume pot still called a beer stripper. The beer
stripper is used to distill the fermented wash and concentrate the ethanol and all the impurities into a
distillate of about 25 percent ethanol, called low wine.
The spirit run is done in a smaller whiskey still, such as a gooseneck or a hybrid still, called a spirit still.
The spirit still is used to distill the low wine and refine it into the finished spirit. There are two outputs
retained from the spirit run: the finished spirit and the feints.

For a beer-stripping run, the fermented wash, which is typically about 8 percent
ABV, is loaded into the beer stripper, and the contents are brought to a boil.
Because this run is just a primary distillation, the heads, hearts and tails are not
separated out. The entire output from this run is collected in a single lot, and the
run is continued until the aggregate percent alcohol is down to 25 percent ABV.
This distillate is the low wine, which is the input to the spirit run.

To produce the finished whiskey, the spirit still is filled with the low wine from
the beer-stripping run and often a measure of feints from previous spirit runs.
The spirit still is then brought to a boil.

It is with the spirit run that the distiller adjusts the boil-up rate to achieve a
gentle, slow flow of distillate and carefully separates out the heads, hearts, and
tails.
SINGLE-RUN DISTILLATION
Some whiskey distilleries produce their whiskey in a single distillation. They do
a spirit run directly from the wash. The hybrid stills discussed previously are
well suited to this type of whiskey distillation, but it is labor intensive and the
distiller must pay a lot of attention to numerous smaller runs rather than one
larger run.

Some people find the whiskey from a single-distillation run to be richer and have
a more natural flavor, while others find it to be harsh and unrefined. In the
following text, the more common double-distillation method is used.

MAKING THE CUTS

Probably the most elusive part of the distilling process for making whiskey is
making the cuts from heads to hearts and then to tails. Making a cut from one
fraction to the next is the point where the distiller switches the output so that it is
collected in a different receiver than the previous fraction. At the end of the
spirit run, the heads will be in one container, the hearts in another and the tails in
a third one. The question is: when do you switch from one fraction to the next?
Experienced distillers do this by taste. Even though there are measurable
parameters, such as still-head temperature and percent alcohol of the incoming
spirit that can be used to judge when to make the cuts, taste and smell still
remain the most reliable methods for determining them.

Here are the empirical parameters for judging the cuts:

The percent alcohol of the spirit that is flowing out of the still (the incoming spirit)
The still-head temperature

These vary from one still to the next, and they vary based on the properties of
the low wine (e.g., percent alcohol and quantity). It is possible to develop a
consistent process using the same still and the same quantity and formulation of
low wine, such that the parameters remain the same for each run. For example,
in a spirit run in a hybrid still with low wine that is 25 percent ABV: Begin-cut
(the cut from heads to hearts) is usually done when the evolving distillate is at
about 80 percent and when the still-head temperature is about 180°F (82°C).
End-cut (the cut from hearts to tails) is often done at about 65 percent and when
the still-head temperature is about 201°F (94°C).

However, a spirit distilled from a straight malt wash can often be end-cut as low
as 60 percent ABV. Also, a gooseneck still distilling the very same wash may
begin-cut at 72 percent ABV and end-cut at 59 percent ABV. Therefore, it is
because of these nuances that smell and taste become the only truly reliable
indicators of when to make the cuts.

BEGIN-CUT
When making the begin-cut, the taste characteristics that the distiller is looking
for are as follows. When a spirit run comes to boil and the first distillate starts
flowing from the still, this is the beginning of the heads fraction. The distiller
can collect a small sample of the distillate on a spoon or in a wineglass and smell
it. At this stage, the distillate will have the sickening smell of solvents (such as
nail-polish remover or paint-brush cleaner). However, before long, this solvent
smell diminishes, and even when a sample is tasted, these compounds will be
very faint. As the solvent character disappears completely, the distillate will start
to take on a hint of whiskey. This flavor will increase until it becomes very
pronounced and highly concentrated. It is when this flavor is clearly evident, but
is still increasing in intensity, that the distiller cuts to the hearts fraction.
END-CUT
To make the end-cut, the distiller needs to monitor the flavor for changes in
taste. At the beginning of the hearts fraction, the intensity of the whiskey flavor
will still be increasing, and it will continue to do so until it becomes very strong.
However, as the hearts continue, the intense whiskey flavor will fade into a
smooth, sweet, pleasant flavor that will persist for most of the hearts. The flavor
will change slightly as the hearts progress, but it will remain sweet and pleasant.
Toward the end of the hearts, the flavor will start losing its sweetness, and a
trace of harsh bitterness will begin to appear in the flavor. This harsh, bitter
flavor is the onset of the tails. Although a small amount of this bitterness is
considered to contribute to the “bite” character of the whiskey, the distiller
should cut to the tails receiver before much of it is allowed to enter the hearts.

The tails can be collected until the evolving distillate is down to about 10 percent
and the still-head temperature is about 206°F or 208°F (97°C or 98°C). The
reason for doing this is to render all the residual alcohol that is left in the still at
the end of the hearts fraction. This alcohol can then be recovered in a future
the end of the hearts fraction. This alcohol can then be recovered in a future
spirit run.

The tails fraction starts out bitter and the bitterness becomes more intense as the
tails continue, but as the tails progress, the bitterness subsides and gives way to a
sweet-tasting water. This sweet water is called backins.
THE CONTINUOUS-RUN PROCESS OF
DISTILLATION
In a continuous-run distillation process, wash is constantly entering the column,
so all three fractions (heads, hearts, and tails) are present in the column at all
times. This means there can’t be a discrete cut where the heads are drawn off and
the hearts begin, or that the hearts end and the tails begin. All three fractions
must be drawn off at the same time.

A continuous-run column is a high-separation fractionating still that separates

the compounds very well, so once the still is equilibrated and functioning in its
steady state of operation, the distillers can determine which families of
compounds are at each tray. For example, they might determine that the
compounds coming out of the top two trays are heads compounds and route
those two trays to the heads receiver. Similarly, they might observe that the
compounds coming out of the next four trays down are hearts. Then they might
determine that the five trays below the hearts trays are producing tails and route
them to the tails receiver. Below the tails trays just water would be coming out,
and the valves would be closed, so it would be left to flow to the bottom of the
column and then to a drain.

Because this type of still is not intermittent in its operation, it must be set up to
constantly draw the three fractions of distillate at all times. Although this is
difficult to set up, it can produce very large quantities of spirit twenty-four hours
a day for a long time.
Chapter 3
WHISKEY
THIS chapter introduces the process of distilling a world’s worth of whiskeys,
including North American styles of bourbon, Tennessee, rye, blended American,
corn, and Canadian, and on to Scotch and Irish whiskeys from Europe.

Of all of the basic categories of spirits, whiskey has spread the most across the
world, achieving a geographic and stylistic diversity that is unmatched by any
other type of distilled spirit. From the basic grain-based distilled spirits of ninth-
century Ireland, Scotland and northern Europe have evolved the classic whiskeys
of Scotland and Ireland. These spirits, in turn, served as the models for distillers
in the newly settled North American colonies to produce what came to be the
first modern rye whiskey and then in rapid succession, corn, bourbon, blended
American and Canadian whiskies.

All of these now-classic styles of whiskey have, in recent decades, served as the
stylistic inspiration for myriad new whiskeys throughout the world, from
Germany to Australia and Nepal in between. Some of these new whiskeys are
based on existing styles. Japanese whiskey distillers, for example, have generally
taken their inspiration (and malt, and sometimes even their water) from
Scotland. Others are boldly going forth in new directions, particularly among the
new generation of American craft distillers.
“ALWAYS CARRY A FLAGON OF WHISKEY IN CASE OF SNAKEBITE, AND
FURTHERMORE, ALWAYS CARRY A SMALL SNAKE.”
W.C. Fields, American actor and world-class drinker
Joseph Magnus Cigar Blend Bourbon by Jos. A. Magnus & Co. Distillery, Washington, D.C.
THE HISTORY OF BOURBON WHISKEY
IN the early 1700s, a combination of bad economic times and religious unrest
against the Anglican Church in Great Britain set off a wave of emigration from
Scotland and Ireland. These Scots, Irish, and so-called “Scotch-Irish”
(Protestants from the northern Irish county of Ulster) brought to North America
their religion, their distrust of government control, and their skill at distilling
whiskey.

This rush, augmented by German immigrants of a similar religious and cultural

persuasion, passed through the seaboard colonies and settled initially in
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and western Virginia. Mostly small farmers, they
quickly adapted to growing rye because of its hardiness and, in the western
counties, Native American corn because of its high yields. Grain was awkward
to ship to East Coast markets because of the poor roads, so many farmers turned
to distilling their crops into whiskey. In Pennsylvania, these were primarily rye
whiskeys; farther to the west and south corn whiskeys predominated. By the end
of the American War of Independence in 1783, the first commercial distilleries
had been established in what was then the western Virginia county of Kentucky.
From the start, they produced corn-based whiskeys.

In 1791, the cash-strapped federal government imposed the first federal excise
tax on distillers. The farmer-distillers of western Pennsylvania responded
violently. Federal tax agents were assaulted and killed by angry mobs. Order was
finally restored in 1794 when the federal government sent in an army of 15,000
militiamen, led by George Washington, to put down the revolt. The ringleaders
were convicted and sentenced to be hanged. But cooler heads prevailed, and
after jail time they were pardoned and released. This situation did provoke a new
migration of settlers through the Cumberland Gap and into the then western
frontier lands of Kentucky and Tennessee. In these new states, farmers found
ideal corn-growing country and smooth limestone-filtered water, two of the
basic ingredients of bourbon whiskey.
 Whiskey barrels on the move.

WHISKEY VS WHISKY
Is it whiskey or whisky? Well, that depends on where it is made, more or less. If it is made in Scotland,
England, Wales, Canada, India, Australia or Japan, it is whisky. If it is made in Ireland or the United
States it is whiskey, except if it is Makers Mark Bourbon, in which case it is whisky. Elsewhere in the
world, it can be spelled either way, sometimes in the same country (hello Netherlands). Since this book
is written by and published in the United States, we will use whiskey (and its plural whiskeys) as the
default spelling, except when referring to a brand or type of whiskey that specifically uses the whisky
spelling.

The name bourbon comes from a county in eastern Kentucky, which in turn was
named for the Bourbon kings of France, who had aided the American rebels in
the Revolutionary War in the early nineteenth century. Bourbon County was a
center of whiskey production and transshipping. (Ironically, at the present time,
it is a “dry” county.) The local whiskey, made primarily from corn, soon gained
a reputation for being particularly smooth because the local distillers aged their
products in charred oak casks. The adoption of the “sour mash” grain conversion
technique further distinguished bourbon from other whiskey styles.

By the 1840s, bourbon was recognized and marketed as a distinctive American

style of whiskey, although not as a regionally specific spirit. Bourbon came to be
style of whiskey, although not as a regionally specific spirit. Bourbon came to be
produced in Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Missouri,
Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Georgia, although the only legal requirement
for calling a whiskey “bourbon” is that it be produced in the United States.
Nowadays, bourbon production is slowly expanding to other states as new craft-
whiskey distillers come online. Initially, bourbon was made in pot stills, but as
the century progressed, the new column still technology was increasingly
adopted. The last old-line pot still plant closed in Pennsylvania in 1992, but the
technique was revived in Kentucky in 1995 when the historic Labrot & Graham
Distillery, now known as the Woodford Reserve Distillery, was renovated and
reopened with a set of new, Scottish-built copper pot stills. More recently, most
of the new generation of craft-whiskey distillers use pot stills.

The late nineteenth century saw the rise of the temperance movement, a social
phenomenon driven by a potent combination of religious and women’s groups.
Temperance societies, such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union and
the Anti-Saloon League, operated nationally, but they were particularly active in
the southern states. The notion of temperance soon gave way to a stated desire
for outright prohibition, and throughout the rest of the century an assortment of
states and counties adopted prohibition for varying lengths of time and degrees
of severity. This muddle of legal restrictions played havoc in the bourbon
industry, because it interfered with the production and aging of stocks of
whiskey.
 Label for Pappy Van Winkle’s Family Reserve Kentucky Straight Bourbon Whiskey.

Label for Hudson Baby Bourbon by Tuthilltown Spirits.

Label for Blanton’s Single Barrel Kentucky Straight Bourbon Whiskey by Buffalo Trace Distillery.
WHO’S YOUR WHISKEY DADDY?
The current holy grail of American whiskey brands is the Pappy Van Winkle line of bourbons and rye
whiskeys. Yes, there really is, or was, a Julian “Pappy” Van Winkle Sr. (he passed on to his well-
deserved reward in 1965 at age 89), but there never was an Old Rip Van Winkle Distillery, and the
Stitzel-Weller Distillery in Shively, Kentucky, that Pappy ran closed in 1991. The brand has been
produced since 2002 at the Buffalo Trace Distillery under the supervision of Julian Van Winkle III.
Other “sourced whiskey” brands have even more tenuous connections to their named distillery. Since
the beginning of commercial whiskey production in the British Isles and North America, distilleries
have sold finished bulk spirits to each other to make up for production shortfalls or dispose of surpluses.
This has been a normal, if not publicly discussed, practice in the distilling industry. A more recent
phenomenon has been the rise of brands with a historical pedegree (Pogue Bros. for example) or
marketing concept (Jefferson’s Presidential Select), but no actual distillery. The largest distillery in the
United States that few whiskey drinkers have ever heard of is a former Seagram’s plant in
Lawrenceburg, IN, now called MGP of Indiana, which has no brands of its own, but produces and
packages over 50 brands of whiskey for other companies, both large (Bulleit Rye and George Dickel
Rye) and small (Templeton Rye and many “craft” spirit brands). Matured spirits from distilleries such
as MGP allow a number of actual craft distilleries to start up and be able to sell aged whiskeys while
they are waiting for their own self-distilled spirits to properly age. Sometimes, the labeling of such
brands is a tad vague about where the product inside the bottle comes from, but the alternative is even
more too-young craft whiskey on the market than there already is.
 The Ohio River, as seen from balcony of the Pogue mansion, gave life to Kentucky bourbon by
providing a shipping route out to the Mississippi River and down to New Orleans, where it could be
shipped internationally. The family house sits above the site of the historical Pogue Distillery and
next to the current Old Pogue Distillery.
 Amid the barrels of bourbon, John Pogue reaches for something on the shelves at the Old Pogue
Distillery in Maysville, KY.

National Prohibition in 1919 had effects on the bourbon industry beyond

shutting down most of the distilleries. Drinking did not stop, of course, and the
United States was soon awash in illegal alcohol, much of it of dubious quality.
What did change was the American taste in whiskey. Illicit moonshine and
imported Canadian whiskies were lighter in taste and body than bourbon and
rye. The corresponding increase in popularity of white spirits such as gin and
vodka further altered the marketplace. When repeal came in 1933, a number of
the old distilleries didn’t reopen, and the industry began a slow consolidation
that lasted into the early 1990s, at which time there were only ten distilleries in
Kentucky and two in Tennessee.

In the last half of the 20th century, almost all bourbon was made in the states of
Kentucky, Virginia, and Indiana. But with the resurgence of craft distilleries,
bourbon is now being made in most states. Craft producers are increasingly
looking toward heirloom strains of corn in their mash bills to create unique
flavor profiles, marketing distinctions, and introduce a sense of terroir. Bloody
Butcher red corn, Hopi blue corn, and Olathe corn are a few examples. Many
distilleries are working with state universities and seed banks to revive
distilleries are working with state universities and seed banks to revive
cultivation of strains that had fallen out of fashion.

Labrot & Graham Distillery, now known as the Woodford Reserve Distillery, Versailles, KY.
Cask Strength Bloody Red Corn Bourbon by Wood Hat Spirits, New Florence, MO, earned Best of
Class Whiskey in the American Distilling Institute’s 2018 International Judging of Craft Spirits.
Legendary Master Distiller Jimmy Russel, of Wild Turkey, shares a belly laugh with Chris Morris,
Master Distiller at Woodford Reserve, during a bourbon tasting in the Brown Hotel, Louisville, KY,
at the American Distilling Institute’s Annual Conference.
Straight Bourbon Whiskey by Woodinville Whiskey Co., Woodinville, WA.
OYO Sherry-Finished Bourbon Whiskey by Middle West Spirits, Columbus, OH.
Elk Rider Bourbon Whiskey by Heritage Distilling Co., Gig Harbor, WA.
Bourbon Rubenesque by Wood Hat Spirits, New Florence, MO.
Diablo’s Shadow Limited Edition California Straight Bourbon Whiskey by Sutherland Distilling Co.,
Livermore, CA.
Bourbon Whiskey by Sugar House Distillery, Salt Lake City, UT.
TENNESSEE WHISKEY
TENNESSEE whiskey is a first cousin of bourbon, with a virtually identical
history. The same sort of people used the same sort of grains and the same sort
of production techniques to produce a style of whiskey that, remarkably, is
noticeably different. The early whiskey distillers in Tennessee, for reasons that
are lost to history, added a final step to their production process when they began
filtering their whiskey through thick beds of sugar-maple charcoal. This
filtration removes some of the congeners (flavor elements) in the spirit and
creates a smooth, mellow palate. The two remaining old-line whiskey distillers
in the state continue this tradition, which a distiller at the Jack Daniel’s Distillery
once described as being “same church, different pew.” The newer generation of
Tennessee craft-whiskey distilleries are less wedded to tradition and produce a
variety of whiskeys, including bourbon and single malt.
Barrels at the Corsair Distillery, Nashville, TN.
Nelson's Green Brier Tennessee White Whiskey by Nelson's Green Brier Distillery, Nashville, TN.
RYE WHISKEY

THE Scotch-Irish immigrant distillers had some exposure to using rye in

whiskey production, but for their German immigrant neighbors, rye had been the
primary grain used in the production of schnapps and vodka back in northern
Europe. They continued this distilling practice, particularly in Pennsylvania and
Maryland, where rye whiskey, with its distinctive hard-edged, grainy palate,
remained the dominant whiskey type well into the twentieth century.

Rye whiskey was more adversely affected by Prohibition than bourbon was. A
generation of consumers weaned on light-bodied and relatively delicate white
spirits turned away from pungent, full-bodied straight rye whiskeys. Production
of rye whiskey had vanished altogether from the mid-Atlantic states by the
1980s. A handful of modern rye whiskies whiskeys survived by being made by
bourbon distilleries in Kentucky and Indiana, where their primary use was for
blending to give other whiskeys more character and backbone. Through these
dark years, a small but vocal group of rye whiskey enthusiasts continued to
champion it, and today both the national distilleries and a number of new craft
distillers are again producing their interpretations of this classic American
whiskey style.
Dark Northern Reserve Straight Rye Whiskey by Fremont Mishcief Distillery, Seattle, WA
Tom's Foolery Rye Whiskey, Chagrin Falls, OH.
Nelson's Green Brier Tennessee White Whiskey by Nelson's Green Brier Distillery, Nashville, TN.
Washington Rye by Central Standard Craft Distillery, Milwaukee, WI.
BLENDED AMERICAN WHISKEY
BLENDED whiskeys date from the early nineteenth century when the invention
of the column still made possible the production of neutral spirits. Distillers
blended one or more straight whiskeys (bourbon and rye) with these neutral
spirits in varying proportions to create their own branded blend. The taste and
quality of these whiskeys, then as now, varies according to the ratio of straight
whiskey to neutral grain spirit. Early blends were frequently flavored with
everything from sherry to plug tobacco. Compared to straight whiskeys, they
were inexpensive and bland. Modern blends utilize dozens of different straight
whiskeys to ensure a consistent flavor profile. Blended American whiskeys had a
great sales boost during and just after World War II, when distillers promoted
them as a way of stretching their limited supply of straight whiskey. Blended
whiskeys were considered to be too bland by bourbon and rye drinkers, and
consumers with a taste for lighter spirits soon migrated over to vodka and gin.
Blending whiskeys is an art form unto itself, where whiskeys from a variety of sources are blended
together in sub blends that are themselves blended into a master blend. Dozens, and even
hundreds, of whiskeys may be used to make one blend.
Murray Hill Club Special Release Blended Bourbon by Jos. A. Magnus & Co. Distillery, Washington,
D.C.
CORN WHISKEY
CORN whiskey, an unaged, clear spirit, was the first truly American whiskey,
and the precursor to bourbon. Scotch-Irish farmers produced it in their stills for
family consumption or to trade for store goods. When state and federal excise
taxes were permanently introduced during the Civil War, most of the production
of corn whiskey went underground to become moonshine, where it has remained
ever since. A modest amount of commercial corn whiskey is still produced and
consumed in the South, while an increasing number of craft-whiskey distilleries
are now experimenting with this more interesting alternative to vodka.
True Blue Corn Whiskey, made from Hopi blue corn by Balcones Distilling, Waco, TX.
The Notch Nantucket Island Single Malt Whiskey by Triple Eight Distillery, Nantucket, MA.
Sherry Wood American Single Malt Whiskey by Westland Distillery, Seattle, WA.
American Cask Strength Single-Malt Whiskey by Moylan’s Brewing Co., Novato, CA.
Colkegan Single Malt Whiskey by Santa Fe Spirits, Santa Fe, NM.
CANADIAN WHISKEY
CANADIAN whiskies, as with their American cousins, originated on the farm.
These early whiskeys were made primarily from rye, though over time Canadian
distillers turned to corn, wheat, and other grains. Canadians continue to refer to
their whiskey as rye, even though the mash bill is now predominantly a mix of
corn, wheat, and barley. Several of the new generation of Canadian craft
distillers and, more recently, national distillers in Ontario and Alberta are,
however, now marketing both all-malt and “true” rye whiskeys.

NOT-SO-TRIVIAL PURSUIT
The first waves of British settlers in North America were a thirsty lot. It is recorded that the Pilgrims
The first waves of British settlers in North America were a thirsty lot. It is recorded that the Pilgrims
chose to make final landfall in Massachusetts, even though their original destination was Virginia,
primarily because they were almost out of beer.

The first locally made alcoholic beverage was beer, although the limited supply of barley malt was
frequently supplemented by everything from spruce tips to pumpkin. Distilled spirits soon followed,
with rum made from imported Caribbean molasses dominating in the northern colonies and an
assortment of fruit brandies in the South.
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICAN
WHISKEY

Flames shoot out of a barrel as it is charred at Canton Cooperage, Lebanon, KY.

 The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) stipulates that most types of North American whiskeys be
aged in new, charred oak barrels.

NORTH American whiskeys are all-grain spirits that have been produced from a
mash bill that usually mixes together corn, rye, wheat, barley, and other grains in
different proportions, and then is aged for an extended period of time in wooden
barrels. These barrels may be new or used, and charred or uncharred on the
inside, depending on the type of whiskey being made.

Most noncraft North American whiskeys are made in column stills. The United
States government requires that all whiskeys: Be made from a grain mash.
Be distilled at 90 percent ABV or less.
Be reduced to no more than 62.5 percent ABV (125° proof) before being aged in oak barrels (except for
corn whiskey, which does not have to be aged in wood).
Have the aroma, taste, and characteristics that are generally attributed to whiskey.
Be bottled at no less that 40 percent ABV (80° proof).
Whiskey barrels on display in an old truck outside the Jeptha Creed Distillery, Shelbyville, KY.
Farm distillers are proud of the quality of grain they grow for their whiskeys.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF NORTH AMERICAN
WHISKEYS
NORTH AMERICAN whiskeys are essentially classified by the type or variety
of grains in the mash bill, the percentage or proof of alcohol at which they are
distilled, and the duration and manner of their aging.

STYLE DEFINITION HOWEVER…

Bourbon Whiskey Must contain a minimum of 51 In practice, virtually all straight

percent corn, be produced in whiskeys are aged for at least
the United States, be distilled four years. Any bourbon—or any
at less than 80 percent ABV other domestic or imported
(160° proof) and, be aged in whiskey—that is aged less than
new charred barrels. To be four years must contain an age
straight bourbon whiskey, it statement on the label.
must be aged for a minimum
of two years.

Small Batch Bourbon Bourbons that are bottled from The choice of barrels is purely
a small group of specially subjective on the part of the
selected barrels that are master blender.
blended together.

Single Barrel Bourbon Bourbon from one specific The choice of the barrel is
cask. purely subjective on the part of
the master blender.

Tennessee Whiskey Must be distilled and aged in In recent years, as the sales
Tennessee, contain a minimum volume of Tennessee whiskeys
of 51 percent corn, be distilled has increased, the aging on
at less than 80 percent ABV many of the major brands
(160° proof), be filtered beyond the required minimum
through a bed of sugar-maple of two years has decreased. You
charcoal, and be aged for a have been warned.
minimum of two years in new
charred barrels.

Rye Whiskey Must contain a minimum of 51 Rye whiskey’s dry, peppery,

percent rye grain, be distilled astringent character requires at
at less than 80 percent ABV least four years of aging to
(160° proof), and be aged for a soften its otherwise hard edge.
minimum of two years in new
charred barrels.

Blended American Must contain at least 20 It has a general whiskey flavor

Blended American Must contain at least 20 It has a general whiskey flavor
Whiskey percent straight whiskey, with profile (most closely resembling
the balance being unaged bourbon), but lacks any
neutral spirit or, in a few defining taste characteristic.
cases, high-proof light whiskey.

Corn Whiskey This commercial product must Corn whiskey is the exception
contain at least 80 percent to the rule that requires
corn, be distilled at less than whiskey to be aged to reach its
80 percent ABV (160° proof) full flavor potential. Well-made
and be aged for a minimum of corn whiskey has a bright,
two years in new or used fruity, almost sweet palate that
uncharred barrels. fades with time.

Moonshine Whiskey (aka Distilled from a mix of corn It is aged for the length of time
white lightning, corn and sugar and aged in Mason that it takes the customers to
likker, white dog) jars and jugs. get home or the Dukes of
Hazzard to make a delivery in
the General Lee.

Canadian Whisky Made primarily from corn or Virtually all Canadian whiskies
wheat, with a supplement of (except the pot-distilled malt
rye, barley, or barley malt. whiskies of Glenora in Nova
There are no Canadian Scotia) are blended from
government requirements for different grain whiskeys of
the percentages of grains used different ages.
in the mash bill. They are
aged, primarily in used oak
barrels, for a minimum of three
years, with most brands being
aged for four to six years.

Bulk Canadian Whiskies Usually shipped in barrels to Additional aging statements on

their destination country, the labels of some of these
where they are bottled. These whiskeys should be treated with
bulk whiskeys are usually deep skepticism.
bottled at 40 percent ABV (80°
proof) and are usually no more
than four years old.

Bottled in Canada Generally have older whiskeys Age, in this context, is still a
Whiskeys in their blends and are bottled relative thing. Ten-year-old
at 43.4 percent ABV (86.8° Canadian whisky is considered
proof). a really, really old whiskey.
A stirring paddle sits over a moonshine wash.
Barley growing in a field in Washington State.
NORTH AMERICAN WHISKEY REGIONS
North America’s variations of whiskey are as nuanced and distinct as the
continent’s regions. Most are aged in new wood barrels, but beyond that there
has been much experimenting in recent years.

The Willett Distillery, Bardstown, KY.

 Stryker Smoked Single Malt Whiskey by Andalusia Whiskey Co., Blanco, TX.

UNITED STATES
UNITED STATES
Kentucky produces all types of North American whiskeys, except for Tennessee
and Canadian. It currently has the largest concentration of whiskey distilleries on
the continent, with new facilities, both national and craft, opening every year
over the past decade. But it may soon cede that claim to Michigan, Colorado, or
one of the Pacific Northwest states as new craft distilleries continue to open.

Tennessee started out as bourbon country, and while its two major national
whiskey distilleries specialize in the distinctive Tennessee style of whiskey, a
new generation of bourbon craft distilleries have sprung up in the second decade
of the 21st century.

Other states such as Indiana and Virginia still have large distilleries that produce
straight whiskeys. In recent years, new craft-whiskey distilleries have opened
throughout the United States, with noteworthy concentrations in New York,
Colorado, California, and the Pacific Northwest.

CANADA
Ontario has the largest concentration of national whiskey distilleries in Canada,
with three. Alberta has two, and Manitoba, Quebec and Nova Scotia each have
one, producing mostly blended whiskey. Glenora in Nova Scotia and Kittling
Ridge in Ontario have lead the new generation of Canadian craft distillers in
producing a variety of straight rye and malt whiskeys.
 Barrels of bourbon aging at the Woodford Reserve Distillery.

REGIONAL FLAVORS
There are now more than 1,200 craft distilleries in most (if not all) 50 states that
are producing such standard whiskey styles as bourbon, corn, and rye, as well as
many experimental variations. One example is Wasmund’s Single Malt Whisky
from the Copper Fox Distillery, Virginia. Both its Sperryville and Williamsburg
distilleries floor malt their own barley, smoking the grain in various fruit woods
for added flavor and complexity. This sort of production twist, which has its
roots in craft brewing, is increasingly becoming a distinctive feature of
roots in craft brewing, is increasingly becoming a distinctive feature of
American craft distilling.
 Rick Wasmund malts barley by hand at the Copper Fox Distillery, Sperryville, VA.

Additionally, there are a number of distilling plants, both long established and
craft operations, that rectify (redistill), process, and bottle spirits that were
originally distilled elsewhere. These distilleries, in addition to sometimes
bottling bourbon and rye that has been shipped to them in bulk, may also create
their own blended whiskeys. Some of these whiskeys can be relatively
inexpensive “well” brands that are sold mainly to taverns and bars for making
mixed drinks. But others, particularly from craft distillers and craft spirit
marketers, are marketed as high-end, high-priced products. This selling of bulk
spirits (both aged and unaged) between distillers is a practice that dates back to
the beginning of commercial distilling, and while not much talked about in
public, is both legal and an accepted way of doing business in the distillery
industry. For example, the largest whiskey distiller in Indiana sells virtually all
of its bourbon and rye whiskey production to other whiskey distilleries and
marketers.
A variety of products from Copper Fox Distillery, Sperryville, VA.
Wash being made in the mash tun.
 Wash being made in the mash tun.

Bubbles rise during grain fermentation.

A WHISKEY LEXICON
BONDED WHISKEY is bourbon from a single distillery that was produced in a single “season” and
then aged for at least four years in a government-supervised “bonded” warehouse, and bottled at that
same facility at 100 proof (50 percent ABV). Distillers originally pushed for this law, passed in 1897, to
avoid having to pay the excise tax until the whiskey was aged and ready for market. In a day when
rectifiers, in order to make clear spirits taste like whiskey, were liable to adulterate them with any
number of illicit and sometimes poisonous flavoring agents, “Bottle in Bond” offered the protection for
the consumers and whiskey brands alike. Bonded whiskeys drifted into obscurity for a while, but are
returning to popularity as a new generation of craft distillers tries to distinguish their spirits from the
products of blending houses.

THE MASH is the mix of crushed grain (including some malt that contains enzymes to break down
grain starches into sugars) and hot water from which the distiller draws a liquid extract called wort. The
wort is fermented into a simple beer called the wash, which is then distilled.

SOUR MASH is the fermentation process by which a percentage of a previous fermentation is added to
a new batch as a “starter” to get the fermentation going and maintain a level of consistency from batch
to batch. A sweet mash means that only fresh yeast is added to a new batch to start fermentation.

STRAIGHT WHISKEY is unblended whiskey that has been aged for at least two years and contains
no neutral spirit or flavorings. Bourbon, Tennessee, rye, and corn whiskeys can all be straight whiskeys.
There is also a spirit, simply called “straight whiskey,” that is made from a mixture of grains, none of
which accounts for 51 percent of the mash bill.
SCOTCH WHISKY, IRISH WHISKEY, AND
OTHER WHISKEYS OF THE WORLD
Whiskey is defined, in its most basic sense, as a spirit that is distilled from grain.
Sometimes, the grain has been malted, sometimes not. What distinguishes
whiskey from vodka, gin, aquavit, and other grain-based spirits is that it is aged,
often for long periods of time, in wooden barrels (usually oak). This barrel aging
softens the rough palate of the raw spirit, adding aromatic and flavoring nuances
along with the base amber hue that sets whiskeys apart from white grain spirits.
THE HISTORY OF SCOTCH WHISKY
The basis of Scotch whisky is the heather-flavored ales made from barley malt
that the Picts and their prehistoric ancestors brewed. Archeologists have found
evidence of such brewing dating back to at least 2000 BCE. This ale, still
produced today by at least one Scottish microbrewer, was low in alcohol and not
very stable.

Starting in the ninth century, Irish monks arrived in Scotland to Christianize

their Celtic brethren. They brought along the first primitive stills, which they had
picked up during their proselytizing visits to mainland Europe during the Dark
Ages. The local Picts soon found that they could create a stable alcoholic
beverage by distilling heather ale. Simple stills came to be found in most rural
homesteads, and homemade whisky became an integral part of Gaelic culture.
 Barrels aging and Forsyth stills at the Penderyn Whisky Distillery in Wales.

As long as Scottish kings ruled the country from Edinburgh, the status quo of
whisky as just another farm product was more or less maintained. But the Act of
Union in 1707 that combined England, Wales, and Scotland into the United
Kingdom altered the Scotch whisky scene forever. The London government
soon levied excise taxes on Scottish-made whisky (while at the same time
cutting the taxes on English gin). The result was a predictable boom in illicit
distilling. In 1790s Edinburgh, it was estimated that more than 400 illegal stills
competed with just eight licensed distilleries. A number of present-day Scottish
distilleries, particularly in the Highlands, have their origins in such illicit
operations.

The $187-million new Macallan Distillery in Speyside.

The Excise Act of 1823 reduced taxes on Scotch whisky tolerably. This act
coincided with the dawn of the industrial revolution, and entrepreneurs were
soon building new, state-of-the-art distilleries. The local moonshiners (called
smugglers) did not go quietly. Some of the first licensed distillers in rural
locations were threatened by their illicit peers. But in the end, production
locations were threatened by their illicit peers. But in the end, production
efficiencies and the rule of law won out. The whisky that came from these
distilleries was made exclusively from malted barley that had been kiln dried
over peat fires. The smoke from these peat fires gave the malt a distinctive tang
that made the Scottish product instantly identifiable by whiskey drinkers all over
the world.

Chivas Brothers Ltd. Tormore Distillery.

The nineteenth century brought a rush of changes to the Scotch whisky industry.
The introduction of column stills early in the 1830s led to the creation of grain
whisky, which in turn led to blended Scotch whisky in the late 1860s. The
smooth blandness of the grain whisky toned down the assertive smoky character
of the malt whiskeys. The resulting blended whisky was milder and more
acceptable to foreign consumers, particularly the English, who turned to Scotch
whisky in the 1870s when a phylloxera infestation (an insect pest that destroys
grape vines) in the vineyards of Europe disrupted supplies of cognac and port,
two of the mainstays of civilized living. Malt whisky distilleries were bought up
by blending companies, and their output was blended with grain whiskeys to
create the great blended brands that have come to dominate the market. The malt
whisky distilleries took a backseat to these brands and sold most or, in some
cases, all of their production to the blenders. The recent popular revival of malt
whiskeys has led most of the distilleries to come out with bottlings of their own
products.
 Talisker 18-year-old Single Malt Scotch Whisky.

By the 1990s, international liquor companies owned most of the old-line malt
whisky distilleries, a situation that continues to this day. More recently, a new
generation of craft-whiskey distilleries have begun production in Great Britain,
not only in Scotland, but also in England.
 Laphroaig 10-year-old Single Malt Scotch Whisky from the Island of Islay.

WHY BLENDED SCOTCH WHISKY IS A GOOD THING, EVEN

IF YOU PREFER SINGLE MALTS
It is a truism of religion that converts frequently become the most zealous of believers. Among freshly
minted modern-day enthusiasts of Scotch malt whiskeys, it is a frequently heard refrain that malt
whiskeys are superior to the blended article, and that the latter are just not worth bothering with.
Personal taste is ultimately subjective, of course. But single-malt drinkers should raise their hats in
salute whenever a Dewar’s or Johnnie Walker delivery truck drives by, because without these blended
brands most of the remaining malt distilleries would not exist. Blended Scotch whiskies require a blend
brands most of the remaining malt distilleries would not exist. Blended Scotch whiskies require a blend
of dozens of different malt whiskeys to be combined with the grain whisky to create the desired blend.
The individual percentages of each malt whisky may be small, but each contributes its unique character
to the blend. A blender will thus need to buy or produce a large amount of different malt whiskeys to
maintain the consistency of the blend. Thus, for a malt whisky distillery, the single malt may get all of
the glory, but the blends ultimately pay the bills.
THE HISTORY OF IRISH WHISKEY
The Scots most likely learned about distilling from the Irish (though they are
loath to admit it). The Irish in turn learned about it, according to the Irish at
least, from missionary monks who arrived in Ireland in the seventh century. The
actual details are a bit sketchy for the next 700 years or so, but it does seem that
monks in various monasteries were distilling aqua vitae (“water of life”),
primarily for making medicinal compounds. These first distillates were probably
grape or fruit brandy rather than grain spirit. Barley-based whiskey (the word
derives from uisce beatha, the Gaelic interpretation of aqua vitae) first appears
in the historical record in the mid-1500s, when the Tudor kings began to
consolidate English control in Ireland. Queen Elizabeth I was said to be fond of
it and had casks shipped to London regularly.

The imposition of an excise tax in 1661 had the same effect as it did in Scotland,
with the immediate commencement of the production of poteen (the Irish
version of moonshine). This did not, however, slow the growth of the distilling
industry, and by the end of the eighteenth century there were more than 2,000
stills in operation.

Under British rule, Ireland was export-oriented, and Irish distillers produced
large quantities of pot-distilled whiskey for export into the expanding British
Empire (along with grains and assorted foodstuffs). In the late nineteenth
century, more than 400 brands of Irish whiskey were being exported and sold in
the United States.

This happy state of affairs lasted into the early twentieth century, when the
market began to change. The Irish pot still users were slow to respond to the rise
of blended Scotch whisky with its column-distilled, smooth-grain-whisky
component. When national Prohibition in the United States closed off their
largest export market, many of the smaller distilleries closed. The remaining
distilleries then failed to anticipate the coming of repeal (unlike the Scotch
distillers) and were caught short when it came. The Great Depression, trade
embargoes between the newly independent Irish Republic and the United
Kingdom, and World War II caused further havoc among the distillers.

In 1966, the three remaining distilling companies in the Republic of Ireland—

Powers, Jameson, and Cork Distilleries—merged into a single company, Irish
Distillers Company (IDC). In 1972, Bushmills, the last distillery in Northern
Ireland, joined IDC. In 1975, IDC opened a new mammoth distillery at Midleton
Ireland, joined IDC. In 1975, IDC opened a new mammoth distillery at Midleton
near Cork, and all of the other distilleries in the republic were closed down with
the production of their brands being transferred to Midleton. For a 14-year
period, the Midleton plant and Bushmills in Northern Ireland were the only
distilleries in Ireland.

This sad state of affairs ended in 1989, when a potato-peel ethanol plant in
Dundalk was converted into a whiskey distillery. The new Cooley Distillery
began to produce malt and grain whiskeys, with the first three-year-old bottlings
released in 1992. Since then a variety of new national and craft distilleries have
opened, or in the case of Tullamore Dew, reopened, in Ireland, with many more
being planned.

Keith Tench, visitor centre manager, poses with distiller Gillian Howell at the Penderyn Whisky
Distillery in Wales.
Distiller Lance Winters leads a group of other distillers on a tour of St. George Spirits/Hangar 1
Vodka. Here, they are marveling at the gleaming column stills.
DISTILLING TIMELINE
Spirit Type Fermentation Min. aging Max. aging

BRANDIES

Brandy VS 3 weeks 2 years 5 years

Brandy VSOP 3 weeks 4 years 15 years

Brandy XO 3 weeks 6 years 20–30 years

Grappa 1 week 1 month 3 years

Apple Brandy 3 weeks 2 years 20 years

Fruit Brandy 3 weeks 4–6 months 4 years

WHISKEYS

Scotch 1 week 3 years 30 years

Irish 1 week 3 years 10 years

Bourbon 1 week 2 years 20 years

Tennessee 1 week 2 years 6 years

Rye 1 week 2 years 25 years

Corn 4 days 2 years 2 years

Canadian 1 week 3 years 10 years

Moonshine 4 days 1 week 1 week

RUMS

White 3 days 2 months 2 years

Golden 3 days 1 year 3 years

Dark 1 week 1 year 4 years

Añejo/Aged 1 week 5 years 30 years

TEQUILAS

Blanco 1 week None 2 months

Reposado 1 week 3 months 9 months

Reposado 1 week 3 months 9 months

Añejo/Aged 1 week 1 year 4 years

VODKAS

All 3 days None 3 months

GINS

Dry 3 days None None

Genever 1 week 1 year 3 years

THE HISTORY OF JAPANESE WHISKEY
The modern Japanese whiskey industry can trace its beginnings back to one
man, Masataka Taketsura. The son of a sake brewer, Taketsura went to Scotland
in 1918 and spent two years studying chemistry at Glasgow University and
working at a Scotch whisky distillery in Rothes in the Highlands. He returned to
Japan in 1920 with a Scottish bride and a determination to change the Japanese
distilling industry.

The Japanese were then; as they are now, major consumers of Scotch whisky.
Locally produced spirits, however, were limited to the fiery sorghum-or sweet-
potato-based shochu, and a handful of dubious “whiskeys” that were little more
than neutral spirits colored with caramel. Taketsura convinced the owners of
what became the Suntory Company to begin production of barley malt and grain
whiskeys based on the Scottish model. These whiskeys, some of which are made
from imported peat-smoked Scottish malt, became very successful in the
Japanese market. Other distilleries followed Suntory’s lead, and these whiskeys,
based on Scotch whisky models (and later bourbon whiskey), soon dominated
the market. Modern Japanese distillers (including the Nikka Whisky Distillery,
which was founded by Taketsura in 1934) have followed this trend and
nowadays produce and market a full range of malt and blended whiskeys. Since
around 2005, the first of a new generation of craft distilleries have entered the
market, producing mostly malt whiskeys.
Karuizawa Number One Single Cask Whisky (Japan). The distillery is located in the foothills of
Mount Asama, an active volcano.
Yamazaki Distillery Shimamoto, Osaka, Japan 12-year-old Single Malt Whisky (Japan)
STYLE DEFINITION HOWEVER …

Single Malt Scotch Whisky Malt whisky that has been If it contains a mix of whiskies
produced at one distillery. It from different years, the age
may be a mix of malt whiskies statement on the bottle label
from different years. The barley gives the age of the youngest
malt for Scotch whisky is first spirit in the mix.
dried over fires that have been
stoked with dried peat. The
peat smoke adds a distinctive
smoky tang.

Vatted Malt Scotch Whisky Blend of malt whiskies from A higly underrated style, for no
different Scottish distilleries. good reason. The term blended
malt whisky means the same
thing.

Scotch Grain Whisky Made from wheat or corn with Rarely bottled, but well-aged
a small percentage of barley examples can be delicate
and barley malt. drams.

Blended Scotch Whisky Blend of grain whisky and malt The ratio of malt whisky to
whisky. grain whisky in the blend can
vary considerably among
brands. The number of malt
whiskeys in the malt whisky
component can range from a
handful to dozens

Irish Pot Still Whiskey Unless labeled as such, Irish Once upon a time, all Irish
whiskeys are a mix of pot-and whiskeys were pot-distilled.
column-distilled whiskeys. Column stills were for Scots.

Irish Malt Whiskey Can be pot-distilled, column- Irish malts have made a
distilled or a mixture of both. welcome comeback in recent
years.

Irish Whiskey A blend of malt and grain The ratio of malt to grain
whiskeys. whiskey can vary widely, which
is not necessarily reflected in
the price.

Japanese Malt Whisky Produced in pot stills from Broadly modeled on Scottish
lightly peated barley malt. Highland Malt Whiskies and, in
some cases, done very well
indeed.

Japanese Whisky A blend of malt whisky Not to be confused with

(Japanese or Scotch) and shochu, native Japanese
domestically produced grain
 domestically produced grain whisky, which is made from
whisky. rice, sorghum, or barley and is
a very different earthy sort of
spirit.

New Zealand Single Malt Pot-distilled malt whisky. New Zealand whisky distilleries
Whisky open and close with the
frequency of rugby sports bars,
so good luck finding any.

New Zealand Blended A mix of domestic malt and Occasionally, it may even have
Whisky grain whiskeys. some domestically made
whiskey in it.

Australian Whisky All currently produced Tasmania is the center of the

Australian whiskeys are pot- new generation of Australian
distilled malt whiskeys. whisky distilling.
THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIAN
WHISKIES
Scottish emigrants brought their whiskey-making skills to New Zealand in the
1840s. A thriving whiskey industry soon developed and operated until 1875,
when new, excessively high excise taxes and heavy competition from imported
British whiskeys forced the local commercial distilleries to shut down. A new,
almost commercial-sized moonshine trade quickly replaced them, a situation that
continues to this day.

In 1968 a new national whiskey distillery opened in Dunedin, which lasted until
1997. It produced a range of malt and grain whiskeys, broadly in the Scottish
style, from locally grown grain. Even the barley malt is kilned and smoked using
local peat. Since the beginning of the 21st century, a modest number of new craft
whiskey distilleries have begun production.

Australian whiskey production has experienced a similar varied history, with

assorted 19th-century producers popping up in the various states, only to be
driven out of business by British imports. Early attempts in the 1990s to revive
whiskey production have been followed more recently by a new generation of
more successful craft-whiskey distillers, particularly on the island of Tasmania.
Limeburners Single Malt Whisky, Cask Strength, Sherry Cask from the Great Southern Distilling
Company Albay Australia.
Thousands of barrels stacked outside a cooperage.
THE BASIS OF SCOTCH WHISKY, IRISH WHISKEY,
JAPANESE WHISKY, TAIWAN WHISKY, INDIAN AND
PAKISTANI WHISKY, NEW ZEALAND AND
AUSTRALIAN WHISKIES
All of these whiskey styles, while very different in taste and style, are based on
malted barley as the dominant source of flavor and character.

SCOTLAND
There are two basic categories of Scotch whisky: malt whisky, which is made
exclusively from malted barley that has been dried over smoking peat fires, and
grain whisky, which is made from unmalted wheat or corn. These whiskeys are
aged in used wooden bourbon or sherry barrels for a minimum of three years,
although five to ten years is the general practice.

IRELAND
There are two basic categories of Irish whiskey: malt whiskey, which is made
exclusively from malted barley that has been kiln-dried, but not over peat fires,
and grain whiskey, which is made from unmalted wheat or corn. These whiskeys
are aged in used wooden bourbon or sherry barrels for a minimum of three years,
although five to eight years is the norm.

JAPAN
Japanese whiskeys, both malt and blended, are broadly based on Scotch
whiskeys, with some top brands even being made with imported Scottish water
and peat-smoked barley malt. The peat-smoke character of Japanese whiskeys is
generally more subtle and delicate than their Scottish counterparts. Japanese
whiskeys may be aged in both new and used (usually bourbon) wooden barrels,
which may be either charred or uncharred.

TAIWAN
Taiwan whiskeys have followed the Japanese model, and are mostly Scottish-
style malt whiskeys.

INDIA AND PAKISTAN

Whiskey in India has a long, if rather mixed history, with the popularity of
whiskey dating back to the British Raj. However, most of what is sold as
whiskey in India (Bagpiper is a major brand), is actually made from sugarcane—
whiskey in India (Bagpiper is a major brand), is actually made from sugarcane—
so it is technically rum. As a result, it cannot be exported to the European Union,
the United States and other countries that have laws and regulations that
specifically define whiskey as a grain-based spirit. In the past few years, a small
amount of true malt whiskey, broadly in the Scottish style, is being produced,
primarily for the export trade. Pakistan, officially a “dry” Muslim country, has
one large brewery that also produces malt whiskey—officially only for sale only
to non-Muslims.

NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA

New Zealand and Australian whiskeys both draw on Scottish, Irish, and
American traditions in a cheerfully mixed manner, using both peated and
unpeated locally-grown barley malt to produce mostly pot-distilled malt
whiskeys that are aged in used bourbon and wine barrels for a theoretical, if not
always absolute, minimum of six years for malt whiskey.
THE DISTILLATION OF SCOTCH WHISKY, IRISH
WHISKEY, JAPANESE WHISKY, NEW ZEALAND
WHISKY, AUSTRALIAN WHISKEY, TAIWAN WHISKY,
AND EUROPEAN UNION WHISKEYS
Double-and even triple-distillation is the norm for this family of barley malt–
based whiskeys.

SCOTLAND
All Scotch malt whiskeys are double-distilled in pot stills, whereas Scotch grain
whiskeys are made in column stills.

IRELAND
Irish whiskeys, both blended and malt, are usually triple distilled through both
column and pot stills, although there are a few exclusively pot-distilled brands.

JAPAN, TAIWAN, INDIA, AND PAKISTAN

Japanese whiskeys follow the Scottish tradition, with malt whiskeys being
double-distilled in pot stills and grain whiskeys in column stills.

NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA

Both New Zealand and Australian malt and grain whiskeys are double distilled
in pot stills, with some Tasmanian distilleries reportedly experimenting with
triple distillation.
The Spirit of Hven Distillery in Sweden experiments with the effects of differents styles of music on
the aging process by pumping sound into the barrels where spirits are resting.
Detail of fermenting barley wash for making whiskey.
SCOTCH WHISKY, IRISH WHISKEY, JAPANESE
WHISKY, NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIAN WHISKY
REGIONS
SCOTLAND
The Highlands consist of the portion of Scotland north of a line from Dundee on
the North Sea coast in the east to Greenock on the Irish Sea in the west,
including all of the islands off the mainland except for Islay. Highland malt
whiskeys cover a broad spectrum of styles. They are generally considered
aromatic, smooth, and medium bodied, with palates that range from lush
complexity to floral delicacy. The subregions of the Highlands include Speyside;
the North, East, and West Highlands; the Orkney Isles; and the Western Islands
(Jura, Mull, and Skye).

The Lowlands encompass the entire Scottish mainland south of the Highlands
except the Kintyre Peninsula where Campbeltown is located. Lowland malt
whiskeys are light bodied, relatively sweet, and delicate.

Islay is an island off the west coast. Traditional Islay malt whiskeys are intensely
smoky and pungent in character with a distinctive iodine or medicinal tang that
is said to come from sea salt permeating the local peat that is used to dry the
barley malt. Campbeltown is a port located on the tip of the Kintyre Peninsula
on the southwest coast that has its own distinctive spicy and salt-tinged malt
whiskeys.

IRELAND
A series of corporate consolidations and resulting plant closures left the island
with only three distilleries, one in County Antrim at the northern tip of Ulster,
and two in the Republic of Ireland to the south. Several new and revived
distilleries have recently opened in Dublin and elsewhere, and will begin
releasing their own self-produced whiskeys in the mid-2020s.

JAPAN
The whiskey distilleries of Japan are scattered throughout Honshu and
Hokkaido, the two main northern islands of Japan, with the malt whiskey
distilleries located for the most part in mountainous regions where there are good
water supplies.
 Tasmanian sculptor/farmer/distiller Peter Bignell chars used wine barrels for reuse as whiskey
casks at Bellgrove Distillery.

NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA

New Zealand’s last national whiskey distillery closed in 1997, although its
maturing whiskeys continue to be released in the market. Since the turn of the
21st century, a dozen or so new-generation craft distilleries have opened and, in
some cases, have already closed. Australia has over 100 distilleries in operation,
with at least half of them producing whiskey. The greatest concentration of craft
whiskey distilleries is in the island state of Tasmania.

EUROPEAN UNION
France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and most of the
Scandinavian countries have a sprinkling of whiskey distilleries, most of them
craft distilleries producing malt whiskey and the occasional straight rye. The one
noteworthy noncraft whiskey, or at least whiskey-like spirit, in this region is
noteworthy noncraft whiskey, or at least whiskey-like spirit, in this region is
Korn, also known as Kornbran (meaning “grain brandy”), a cereal grain spirit
made from rye, wheat, barley, or oats in Northern Germany, some of which is
aged for a modest period of time in used oak barrels. It is similar to American
corn whiskey, and is reputed to be popular with North Sea fishermen as a
phlegm cutter. Historical fun fact: Otto Von Bismarck’s father owned a Korn
distillery.

The Etter Distillerie in Zug in Switzerland.

Oswald 'Ossi' Weidenauer from the Destillerie Weidenauer in Austria.
WHISKEY COCKTAILS
SAZERAC
In a short glass combine
2 ounces (60 ml) rye whiskey
1 teaspoon (5 g) sugar

Stir to blend, then add

Dash Peychaud’s bitters
Dash Angostura bitters
1/2 ounce (15 ml) Pernod

2 ice cubes
Stir to blend. Garnish with lemon twist.

DEPTH CHARGE
Fill a tall glass three-quarters full of beer. Pour 1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) Canadian whisky into a shot glass.
Drop the shot glass into the glass of beer and drink them together.

WHISKEY SOUR
Fill a short glass with ice. In a shaker, combine
1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) blended whiskey 1 ounce (30 ml) lemon juice

1 tablespoon (15 g) sugar

Crushed ice (half-full)

Shake and strain into the glass.

MANHATTAN
In a shaker, combine

1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) bourbon 3/4 ounce (23 ml) sweet vermouth Ice

Stir and strain into a martini (cocktail) glass or a short glass. Garnish with a maraschino cherry.

RUSTY NAIL
Fill a short glass with ice cubes. Add
1 ounce (30 ml) Scotch whisky
1/2 ounce (15 ml) Drambuie liqueur Stir and serve.
Sazerac Rye Whiskey.
Chapter 4
VODKA
AS the story goes, in 988, the Grand Prince of Kiev (Ukraine) decided it was
time for his people to be converted from their pagan ways to one of the
monotheistic religions that held sway to the south. First came the Jewish rabbis.

He listened to their arguments, was impressed, but ultimately sent them away
after noting that the followers of Judaism did not control any land. Next came
the Muslim mullahs. Again, he was impressed, both with their intellectual
arguments and the success of Islam as a political and military force. But when he
was told that Islam prohibited alcohol, he was dismayed and sent them away.
Finally, came the Christian priests, who informed him that not only could good
Christians drink alcohol, but also that wine was required for church rituals such
as communion. That was good enough for the Grand Prince, and on his
command his subjects converted en masse to Christianity.
 Pipes and rectification columns at Sutherland Distilling Company, Livermore, CA.

“THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A RUSSIAN AND A BOTTLE OF VODKA IS ALMOST

MYSTICAL.”
Richard Owen, British scientist and drinking buddy of Charles Darwin
THE HISTORY OF VODKA
Historically, the Slavic peoples of the north and their Scandinavian neighbors
took alcoholic drinks very seriously. The extreme cold temperatures of winter
inhibited the shipment of wines and beers because these low-proof beverages
could freeze during transit. Until the introduction of distilling into Eastern
Europe in the 1400s, strong drink was made by fermenting wines, meads and
beers, freezing them and then drawing off the alcoholic slush from the frozen
water.

The earliest distilled spirit in Eastern Europe was made from mead (honey wine)
or beer and was called perevara. The word vodka (from the Russian word voda,
meaning “water”) was originally used to describe grain distillates that were used
for medicinal purposes. As distilling techniques improved, vodka (wodka in
Polish) gradually came to be the accepted term for beverage spirit, regardless of
its origin.

THE BASIS OF VODKA

Vodka is made by fermenting and then distilling the simple sugars from a mash
of pale grain or vegetal matter, which can be potatoes, molasses, beets or a
variety, of other plants. Rye is the classic grain for vodka, and most of the best
Russian and Polish brands are made exclusively from a rye mash. Swedish and
Baltic distillers are partial to wheat mashes, although wheat is also used farther
east. Potatoes are looked down on by Russian distillers, but they are held in high
esteem by some of their Polish counterparts. Molasses is widely used for
inexpensive, mass-produced brands of vodka. American distillers use the full
range of base ingredients.

VODKA IN RUSSIA
Russians firmly believe that vodka was created in their land. Commercial
production was established by the fourteenth century. In 1540, Czar Ivan the
Terrible established the first government vodka monopoly. Distilling licenses
were handed out to the boyars (the nobility), all other distilleries were banned,
and moonshining became endemic.

Vodka production became an integral part of Russian society. Landowners

operated stills on their estates and produced high-quality vodkas that were
flavored with everything from acorns to horseradish to mint. The czars
flavored with everything from acorns to horseradish to mint. The czars
maintained test distilleries at their country palaces. In 1780, a scientist at one
such distillery invented charcoal filtration to purify vodka.

By the eighteenth and into the nineteenth century, the Russian vodka industry
was considered technologically advanced. New stills and production techniques
from Western Europe were eagerly imported and utilized. State funding and
control of vodka research continued. Under a 1902 law, “Moscow vodka,” a
clear 40 percent ABV rye vodka without added flavorings and soft “living”
(undistilled) water, was established as the benchmark for Russian vodka.

Fremont Mischief Distillery.

“A VODKA MARTINI, PLEASE. POLISH, NOT RUSSIAN. SHAKEN, NOT STIRRED.”

James Bond, Agent 007, plunging a stake into the heart of gin sales

The Soviet Union continued government control of vodka production. All

distilleries became government owned, and while the Communist Party
apparatchiks continued to enjoy high-quality rye vodka, the proletariat masses
had to make do with cheap spirits.

Vodka production in the current Russian Federation has returned to the pre-
revolutionary pattern. High-quality brands are again being produced for the new
social elite and for export, while the popularly priced brands are still being
consumed, well, like voda.

VODKA AND THE CLASS SYSTEM

The societal attitude toward cheap spirits meant for the proletariat could be summed up by the curious
fact that mass-produced vodka was sold in liter bottles with a nonscrew cap. Once you opened the
bottle, it couldn’t be resealed. You had to drink it all in one session.

VODKA IN POLAND
The earliest written records of vodka production in Poland date from the 1400s,
though some Polish historians claim that it was being produced around the
southern city of Krakow at least a century earlier. Originally known as okowita
(from the Latin aqua vita, “water of life”), it was used for a variety of purposes
in addition to beverages. A 1534 medical text defined an aftershave lotion as
“vodka for washing the chin after shaving.” Herbal-infused vodkas were
particularly popular as liniments for the aches and pains of life.

In 1546, King Jan Olbracht granted the right to distill and sell spirits to every
adult citizen. The Polish aristocracy, taking a cue from their Russian peers, soon
lobbied to have this privilege revoked and replaced by a royal decree that
reserved to them the right to make vodka.

Commercial vodka distilleries were well established by the eighteenth century.

By the mid-nineteenth century, a thriving export trade had developed, with
Polish vodkas, particularly those infused with small quantities of fruit spirit,
being shipped throughout northern Europe and even into Russia.

With the fall of Communism in the late 1980s, the vodka distilleries soon
returned to private ownership. Nowadays, high-quality Polish vodkas are
exported throughout the world.

VODKA IN SWEDEN
Vodka production in Sweden, which dates from the fifteenth century, has its
origins in the local gunpowder industry, where high-proof spirit (originally
called brännvin) was used as a component of black powder for muskets. When
distilleries were licensed to produce beverage alcohol (primarily spice-flavored
aquavit, but also vodka), it was with the understanding that gunpowder makers
had first priority over beverage consumers.

Home distilling was long a part of Swedish society. In 1830, there were more
than 175,000 registered stills in a country of fewer than three million people.
This tradition, in a much diminished and illegal form, still continues to this day.
Modern Swedish vodka is produced by the Vin & Sprit state monopoly.

Putting labels over the caps of freshly filled bottles of Prezydent Vodka at Polmos Łódz in Łódz,
Poland.

VODKA IN THE UNITED STATES

Vodka was first imported into the United States in significant quantities around
the turn of the twentieth century. Its market was immigrants from Eastern
Europe. After the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, the Heublein Company bought
the rights to the Smirnoff brand of vodka from its White Russian émigré owners
and relaunched vodka into the U.S. market. Sales languished until an
enterprising liquor salesman in South Carolina started promoting it as “Smirnoff
White Whisky—No taste. No smell.” Sales boomed and American vodka, after
marking time during World War II, was on its way to marketing success. The
first popular vodka-based cocktail was a combination of vodka and ginger ale
first popular vodka-based cocktail was a combination of vodka and ginger ale
called the Moscow Mule. It was marketed with its own special copper mug,
examples of which can still be found on the back shelves of liquor cabinets
throughout the United States.

Today, vodka is the dominant white spirit in the United States, helped along by
its versatility as a mixer and some very clever advertising campaigns. The most
famous of these was the classic double-entendre tagline: “Smirnoff—It leaves
you breathless.”

The majority of American craft distillers are vodka producers. They are divided
between those who purchase neutral grain spirit (NGS) from a third-party
supplier and then rectify it in their own facility, and a relative handful of
operations that produce and distill their own wash to make vodka. This is
actually a serious challenge for craft distillers with pot stills, because it is
difficult to produce a high-proof neutral grain spirit without using a column still.
 Ready-to-drink (RTD) cocktails are becoming more popular at craft distilleries. Vodka Mule by
Cutwater Spirits, San Diego, CA.

The best-known, and best-selling, vodka is Tito’s Handmade Vodka from the
distillery of the same name in Austin, Texas. Despite its carefully cultivated
market image as a “handmade” craft product, the base spirit is NGS (neutral
grain spirit) produced, at various times, at ethanol plants and national distilleries
in the Midwest. For the record, every other major domestic brand of vodka, and
many of the craft brands, too, are made the same way.

Charcoal filtration used in making vodka at Colorado Pure Distilling.

DISTILLATION OF VODKA
Vodka is distilled in the manner described in the introductory chapter of this
book (see here). The choice of pot or column stills does, however, have a
fundamental effect on the final character of the vodka. All vodka comes out of
the still as a clear, colorless spirit. But vodka from a pot still (the sort used for
cognac and Scotch whisky) will contain some of the delicate aromatics,
congeners, and flavor elements of the crop from which it was produced. Pot stills
are relatively inefficient, and the resulting spirit from the first distillation is
usually redistilled (rectified) to increase the proof of the spirit. Vodka from a
more efficient column still is usually a neutral, characterless spirit.

Except for a few minor exceptions, vodka is not put into wooden casks or aged
for any extensive period of time. It can, however, be flavored or colored with a
wide variety of fruits, herbs, and spices.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF VODKA
There are no uniform classifications of vodka. In Poland, vodkas are graded
according to their degree of purity: standard (zwykly), premium (wyborowy) and
deluxe (luksusowy). In Russia, vodka that is labeled osobaya (special) is usually
a superior-quality product that can be exported, while krepkaya (strong) denotes
an overproof vodka of at least 56 percent ABV.

In the United States, domestic vodkas are defined by U.S. government regulation
as “neutral spirits, so distilled, or so treated after distillation with charcoal or
other materials, as to be without distinctive character, aroma, taste, or color.”
Because American vodka is, by law, neutral in taste, there are only very subtle
distinctions between brands. Many drinkers feel that the only real way of
differentiating between them is by alcohol content and price.
Maine Distilleries uses locally sourced potatoes to make its Cold River Vodka.
The hybrid pot still at Heritage Company in Gig Harbor, WA, with a thumper and two columns can
make vodka in one pass.
 Prentis Orr, left, and Barry Young, founders of Pennsylvania Pure Distillery, stand in front of a
chalkboard diagram that outlines how they make their Boyd & Blair Potato Vodka from scratch in
Glenshaw, PA.
VODKA REGIONS
EASTERN EUROPE
This is the homeland of vodka production. Every country produces vodka, and
most also have local, flavored specialties. Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus produce
the full range of vodka types, and they are generally acknowledged to be the
leaders in vodka production. Only the better brands, all of which are distilled
from rye and wheat, are exported to the West.

Poland produces and exports both grain-and potato-based vodkas. Most of the
high-quality brands are produced in pot stills.

The Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, along with Finland, produce
primarily grain-based vodkas, mostly from wheat.

Tim Smith of Ogden’s Own Distillery hikes into Ogden Canyon to collect spring water from its
source and uses it to reduce Five Wives Vodka to proof.

WESTERN EUROPE
This region has local brands of vodka wherever there are distilleries. The base
for these vodkas can vary from grains in northern countries, such as the United
Kingdom, Holland, and Germany, to grapes and other fruits in the winemaking
regions of France and Italy. Sweden has, in recent decades, developed a
substantial export market for its straight and flavored wheat-based vodkas.

Zubrówka vodka by Polmos Bialystocka is flavored with buffalo grass from the Bialowieza forest in
Poland. The vodka has a yellow-green tinge (not shown) from the grass infusion.
 Label for Koenig’s Famous Idaho Potato Vodka, by the Koenig Distillery and Winery.

NORTH AMERICA
The United States and Canada produce vodkas from almost every substrate that
can be distilled including, but not limited to, grains, grapes, apples, potatoes,
molasses, sweet potatoes, maple syrup, milk, and honey. Stills that have
rectification columns large enough to produce vodka are more expensive and
refining a spirit to neutral consumes more energy than other spirits, so making
vodka from scratch is costly. Many brands are produced by purchasing neutral
vodka from scratch is costly. Many brands are produced by purchasing neutral
spirits in bulk, watering to proof and bottling the distillate. A good way to tell if
a vodka is made from scratch is to read the origin statement, usually found on
the back of the bottle. If the label says “distilled and bottled by…,” then legally
the Distilled Spirits Plant (DSP) has to have distilled it. If the origin statement
says “Produced by…” or “Bottled by…,” then it is reasonable to assume that the
vodka was made from neutral spirit purchased in bulk from a large factory
distillery.

American vodkas are, by law, neutral spirits, so the distinction between

nonflavored brands has traditionally been more a matter of price and perception
than taste. In order to distinguish their spirits in the market, a number of craft
distillers are now making vodkas that show a little more of the residual aromas
and flavors of the base material. Some good examples of this are Jackson Hole
Still Works Highwater Vodka (corn and oats), Caledonia Spirits Barr Hill Vodka
(Honey), Harvest Spirits Core Vodka (apple), and Central Standard Spirits
Wisconsin Rye Vodka.

A number of flavored vodkas are also produced both by the major distillers and
by an assortment of craft distillers.

VODKA IN UNEXPECTED PLACES

The Caribbean produces a surprising amount of vodka, all of it from molasses.
Most of it is exported for blending and bottling in other countries.

Australia produces (and consumes) vast quantities of molasses-based vodka, but

few are exported.

Asia has a smattering of local vodkas, with the best coming from Japan.
Core Vodka by Harvest Spirits is distilled from apples.
Elk Rider Wheat Vodka by Heritage Distilling Company earned a Gold Medal, Best of Category, Best
of Class, in the American Distilling Institute’s 10th Annual Judging of Craft Spirits, 2016.
Sagaponacka Wheat Vodka by Sagaponack Farm earned a Double Gold Medal in the American
Distilling Institute’s 2018 International Judging of Craft Spirits.
VODKA COCKTAILS
SCREWDRIVER
Fill a tall glass with ice. Add
1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) vodka

Orange juice to fill

Stir and serve.

BLOODY MARY
Fill a short glass with ice. Add
1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) vodka

Dash Worcestershire sauce

Dash Tabasco sauce

Dash lemon or lime
Tomato juice to fill
Stir and garnish with celery salt on top.

SEX ON THE BEACH

Fill a tall glass with ice. Add
1 ounce (30 ml) vodka

1 ounce (30 ml) peach liqueur

1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) orange juice

1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) cranberry juice

Stir and serve.
VODKA FLAVORS
As a neutral spirit, vodka lends itself to blending with flavors and fortifying other beverages. In the
nineteenth century, high-proof “Russian spirit” was held in high esteem by sherry producers in Spain,
who imported it to fortify their wines. Neutral spirits are still used to fortify port, sherry, and other types
of fortified wines, although the source of alcohol for such purposes these days tends to be the vast
“wine lake” that has been created by European Union agricultural practices.

Flavored vodkas were originally used to mask the flavor of the first primitive vodkas, but they were
later considered a mark of the distiller’s skill. The Russians and Poles, in particular, still market dozens
of flavors. Some of the better-known types are

KUBANSKAYA
Vodka flavored with an infusion of dried lemon and orange peels.

LIMONNAYA
Lemon-flavored vodka, usually with a touch of sugar added.

OKHOTNICHYA
“Hunter’s” vodka is flavored with a mix of ginger, cloves, lemon peel, coffee, anise, and other herbs
and spices. It is then blended with sugar and a touch of a wine similar to white port. It is a most unusual
vodka.

PERTSOVKA
Pepper-flavored vodka, made with both black peppercorns and red chili peppers Starka: “Old” vodka, a
holdover from the early centuries of vodka production, which can be infused with everything from fruit
tree leaves to brandy, port, Malaga wine, and dried fruit. Some brands are aged in oak casks.

ZUBRÓWKA
A Polish vodka flavored with buffalo (or more properly “bison”) grass, an aromatic grass favored by
herds of the rare European bison.

In recent years, numerous flavored vodkas have been launched on the world market. The most
successful of these have been fruit flavors, such as currant and orange.
Off the Hoof Scrapple Flavored Vodka by Painted Stave Distilling, Smyrna, DE.
THE BIGGEST-SELLING SPIRIT IN THE
WORLD THAT YOU HAVE NEVER HEARD OF
In early 1935, during the Chinese Civil War between the Communist Red Army
and Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT), retreating Red Army units on what became
known as the Long March, paused in the city of Maotai in the south-central
province of Guizhou. The KMT Air Force had been bombing and strafing the
Red Army without pause for weeks, but it suddenly stopped this assault when
the troops entered the town, and did not renew the attack until the Red Army had
left Maotai and moved on. In turn, the Communist forces left the town
untouched. The reason for this unofficial truce was that the town of Maotai was
the home the distilleries making mao tai, a type of spirit called baijiu that was
held in high regard by both sides in the civil war. Politics is one thing, but the
possible loss, to both Communists and Nationalists, of what most people in
China agreed was the country’s finest spirit, was inconceivable and
unacceptable.
 Kweichow Moutai, is a variety of baiju from China.

Mao tai is probably the best known (or more probably the only known) Chinese
spirit outside of China. But it is by no means the only variety of baijiu, which is
made pretty much everywhere in China where grain is grown. In simple terms,
mao tai is to baijiu in China what Cognac is to brandy in France: the most
famous type of a wide range of spirits. Baijiu, which literally means “white
alcohol” or liquor, is a distilled spirit made primarily from sorghum or wheat
mash, although virtually every other sort of cultivated grain including millet,
barley, corn, and even rice can also be utilized.

Alcohol production in what is now China dates back far into Neolithic times (at
least 7000 BC), with a variety of simple beers and fruit wines being produced.
But unlike the ancient Middle East and Europe, where low-alcohol fermented
grain beverages and wines were often a substitute for polluted water, the Chinese
also had tea, made using boiled water that was safe to drink. This alternative
source of a safe, daily beverage allowed the governments of the early kingdoms,
and later the national dynasties, to control and tax alcohol products. Alcoholic
beverages, if not quite a luxury, were at least not a necessity for healthy living.
VINN Baiju is made from a qu fermentation in Wilsonville, OR, by an ethnic Chinese family, whose
patriarch fled Vietnam with the “boat people” following the fall of South Vietnam in the late
1970s. The VINN Distillery also makes vodka and rice whiskey.

Fermenting grain beverages usually first requires a process called mashing, by

which the starch molecules in crushed grain are converted using enzymes into
simple sugars that yeast can feed on to create alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the
Middle East and Europe, a process called malting, in which grain (usually
barley) was moistened, allowed to partially sprout, which activated natural
enzymes in the kernel and then dried to stop the growth of the seed, was used to
mash raw grain prior to fermentation.

In China, starting around AD 200, Chinese winemakers (both fermented grain

and fruit beverages were collectively known as “wine”) created their own
distinctive combination mashing and fermentation process using an invention
called qu (pronounced like chew). Qu is basically a clump of mashed grains that
is stored in a warm, moist, controlled environment for a period of time, which
encourages the growth of yeasts and various types of bacteria. The finished qu is
then pressed into a brick-shaped mass, and stored until use. Crumbled qu is then
added to a grain mash to convert the starches into sugars and also ferment the
mash to create alcohol. Qu from each producer is unique, drawing on the local
microflora and fauna from the local terroir to create a more sophisticated and
complex fermented drink known in the heart of China as huangjiu. In its various
versions, huangjiu, which has a look and taste broadly similar to dry sherry, was
the drink of choice for the ruling class for the next thousand years, and is still
produced to this day. What is frequently translated as “rice wine” on menus in
China is usually a type of huangjiu.

The art of distilling was introduced to China from the Islamic world during the
Mongolian Yuan Dynasty in the 13th century. The first distilled spirits were
probably fruit brandies. But distilling fermenting grain mashes soon followed,
and baijiu was born. It was less expensive to make and had a higher alcohol
content than the aristocratic huangjiu, and thus quickly became popular
throughout the empire. Virtually every town and city had its own baijiu
distilleries, most of them small and catering to the local market in a manner
similar to medieval alehouses in Europe.

Modern baijiu production dates from the turn of the 20th century. As the creaky
Qing Dynasty staggered toward its final collapse in 1912, some of the larger
baijiu distillers began looking at distilling techniques abroad. But the political
turmoil and foreign invasions during the first half of the century limited the
technical advancement, if not necessarily the growth of the baijiu distilling
industry. The establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, and its
fetish-like obsession with industrial modernization, did slowly reach into the
baijiu distilling industry. Modern distilleries were built, particularly in the post-
Mao era, as private enterprises were encouraged by the new market-oriented
regime. By the turn of the 21st century, it has been estimated that there were
regime. By the turn of the 21st century, it has been estimated that there were
over 25,000 baijiu distilleries in operation. That number has diminished
somewhat in recent years. But there are still a lot of baijiu distilleries in China.

SO, HOW DOES IT TASTE?

Well, to non-Chinese palates, baijiu tends to be an acquired taste. Many
inexpensive and even some pricier brands of baijiu can be raw, minimally aged
spirits, with a palate similar to high-proof white rum or grappa. Many baijiu
stills are very simple alembic-style pot stills that carry over congener-heavy
heads, hearts, and tails of the spirit with minimal refinement. There are higher-
grade versions that are aged for up to 10 years or more and priced like top-shelf
Scotch whiskeys.

But baijiu is not categorized by age, but rather aroma. The four primary
categories are strong aroma, sauce aroma, light arom, and rice aroma. Under
these general headings there are many, many subcategories, including, phoenix
aroma, sesame aroma, medicine aroma, and chi aroma (named after a type of
bean curd sauce), to name but a few.

ELSEWHERE IN ASIA
Baijiu is by no means the only spirit endemic to Eastern Aria. Japan has shochu,
which is made from buckwheat, rice, or barley; while Korea has a similar spirit
called soju. Rice spirits include ruqu de in Vietnam and lao khao in Thailand,
while arrack from Indonesia and the Indian subcontinent, made from the sap of
unopened coconut flowers, made its way to 18th-century England and Holland
as the traditional base for alcoholic punch.
A series of tubs contain qu fermentations used in the making of baiju at the VINN Distillery, in
Wilsonville, OR.
Chapter 5
GIN
GIN is a juniper berry–flavored grain spirit. The word is an English shortening
of Genever, the Dutch word for juniper. The origins of gin are a bit murky. In
the late 1580s, a juniper-flavored spirit of some sort was found in Holland by
British troops who were fighting against the Spanish in the Dutch War of
Independence. They gratefully drank it to give them what they soon came to call
“Dutch courage” in battle. The Dutch themselves were encouraged by their
government to favor such grain spirits over imported wine and brandy by a lack
of excise taxes on local drinks.
“THE PROPER UNION OF GIN AND VERMOUTH IS A GREAT AND SUDDEN GLORY;
IT IS ONE OF THE HAPPIEST MARRIAGES ON EARTH, AND ONE OF THE
SHORTEST LIVED.”
Bernard DeVoto, American essayist and drinks philosopher
Farallon Gin Works Gin Farallon earned a gold medal in the American Distilling Institute’s 2017
Judging of Craft Spirits.
THE HISTORY OF GIN
In the 1600s, a Dr. Franciscus de la Boë in the university town of Leiden created
a juniper-and spice-flavored medicinal spirit that he promoted as a diuretic. This
tonic, called Genever, soon found favor across the English Channel, first as a
medicine (Samuel Pepys wrote in 1660 of curing a case of “colic” with a dose of
“strong water made with juniper”) and then as a beverage.

When the Dutch Protestant William of Orange became king of England in 1689,
he moved to discourage the importation of brandy from the Catholic
winemaking countries by setting high tariffs. As a replacement, he promoted the
production of grain spirits (“corn brandy,” as it was known at the time) by
abolishing taxes and licensing fees for the manufacture of such local products as
gin. History has shown that prohibition never works, but unfettered production
of alcohol has its problems, too. By the 1720s, it was estimated that a quarter of
the houses in London were used for the production or sale of gin. Mass
drunkenness became a serious problem. The cartoonist William Hogarth’s
famous depiction of such behavior in Gin Lane shows a sign above a gin shop
that states, “Drunk for a penny/Dead drunk for two pence/Clean straw for
Nothing.” Panicky attempts by the government to prohibit gin production, such
as the Gin Act of 1736, resulted in massive illicit distilling and the cynical
marketing of “medicinal” spirits with such fanciful names as Cuckold’s Comfort
and My Lady’s Eye Water.

A combination of reimposed government controls, the growth of high-quality

commercial gin distillers, the increasing popularity of imported rum and a
general feeling of public exhaustion gradually brought this mass hysteria under
control, although the problems caused by the combination of cheap gin and
extreme poverty extended well into the nineteenth century. Fagin’s irritable
comment to a child in the film Oliver—“Shut up and drink your gin!”—had a
basis in historical fact.
Michael Lowe founded New Columbia Distillers, the oldest distillery in Washington, DC, and
makers Green Hat Gin.
 Gin Lane by William Hogarth

Wherever the British Empire went, English-style gins followed. In British

colonies in North America, such celebrated Americans as Paul Revere and
George Washington were notably fond of gin, and the Quakers were well known
for their habit of drinking gin toddies after funerals.

The mid-nineteenth century ushered in a low-key rehabilitation of gin’s

reputation in England. The harsh, sweetened “Old Tom” style of gin of the early
1700s slowly gave way to a new, cleaner style called dry gin. This style of gin
became identified with the city of London to the extent that “London dry”
became a generic term for the style, regardless of where it was actually
became a generic term for the style, regardless of where it was actually
produced.

Genteel middle-class ladies sipped their sloe gin (gin flavored with sloe berries)
while consulting Mrs. Beeton’s Book of Household Management (a wildly
popular Victorian cross between the Joy of Cooking and Martha Stewart lifestyle
books) for gin-based mixed drink recipes. The British military, particularly the
officer corps, became a hotbed of gin consumption. Hundreds of gin-based
mixed drinks were invented and the mastery of their making was considered a
part of a young officer’s training. The best known of these cocktails, the gin and
tonic, was created as a way for Englishmen in tropical colonies to take their
daily dose of quinine, a very bitter medicine, to ward off malaria. (Modern tonic
water still contains quinine, though as a flavoring rather than a medicine.)
Battle Standard Gin by KO Distilling, Manassas, VA.
 Bols Barrel Aged Genver by Lucas Bols, Amsterdam, Holland.

THE BASIS OF GIN

In Holland, the production of Genever was quickly integrated into the vast Dutch
trading system. Rotterdam became the center of Genever distilling as distilleries
opened there to take advantage of the abundance of spices that were arriving
from the Dutch colonies in the East Indies (present-day Indonesia). Many of
today’s leading Dutch Genever distillers can trace their origins back to the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Examples include such firms as Bols
(founded 1575) and de Kuyper (1695).
Belgium developed its own juniper-flavored spirit, called jenever (with a j), in a
manner similar to that in Holland (which controlled Belgium for a time in the
early nineteenth century). The two German invasions of Belgium in World Wars
I and II had a particularly hard effect on jenever producers, as the occupying
Germans stripped the distilleries of their copper stills and piping to use in the
production of shell casings. The present-day remaining handful of Belgian
jenever distillers produce primarily for the local domestic market.

BATHTUB GIN
Gin production in the United States dates back to Colonial times, when the Dutch population in New
York (originally New Amsterdam) operated gin distilleries as early as the mid-17th century. But the
great boost to American gin production was the advent of national Prohibition in 1920. Moonshining
quickly moved in to fill the gap left by the shutdown of commercial distilleries. But the furtive nature of
illicit distilling worked against the production of the then dominant whiskeys, all of which required
some aging in oak casks. Bootleggers were not in a position to store and age illegal whiskey, and the
caramel-colored, prune juice–dosed grain alcohol substitutes were generally considered to be vile.

Gin, on the other hand, required no aging, and it was relatively easy to make by mixing raw alcohol
with juniper berry extract and other flavorings and spices in a large container such as a bathtub (thus the
origin of the term bathtub gin). These gins were generally of poor quality and taste, a fact that gave rise
to the popularity of cocktails, in which the mixers served to disguise the taste of the base gin. The
repeal of Prohibition at the end of 1933 ended the production of bootleg gin, but gin remains a part of
the American beverage scene. It was the dominant white spirit in the United States until the rise of
vodka in the 1960s. It remains popular, helped along recently by the revived popularity of the martini
and the rise of craft distilleries, where the need for products that can be produced for immediate sale has
given rise to many experimental botanical blends to flavor craft gins.
 Cheeky packaging for Ableforth’s Bathtub Gin pokes fun at gin’s sketchy past while producing an
award-winning Sloe Gin, formerly a genteel ladies’ drink.

Gin may have originated in Holland and developed into its most popular style in
England, but its most enthusiastic modern-day consumers are to be found in
Spain, which has the highest per capita consumption in the world. Production of
London dry–style gin began in the 1930s, but serious consumption did not begin
until the mix of gin and cola became inexplicably popular in the 1960s.

Gin and its Dutch cousin genever (jenever in Belgium) are white spirits that are
flavored with juniper berries and so-called botanicals (a varied assortment of
herbs and spices). The spirit base of gin is primarily grain (usually wheat or rye),
which results in a light-bodied spirit. Genever is made primarily from “malt
wine” (a mixture of malted barley, wheat, corn, and rye), which produces a
fuller-bodied spirit similar to malt whiskey. A small number of Genevers in
Holland and Belgium are distilled directly from fermented juniper berries, which
produces an intensely flavored spirit.

The chief flavoring agent in both gin and genever is the highly aromatic blue-
green berry of the juniper, a low-slung evergreen bush (genus Juniperus) that is
commercially grown in northern Italy, Croatia, the United States, and Canada.
Additional botanicals can include anise, angelica root, cinnamon, orange peel,
coriander, and cassia bark. All gin and genever makers have their own secret
combination of botanicals, the number of which can range from as few as four to
as many as fifteen.
Gin by Corsair Artisan earned a Best of Category Gold medal at the American Distilling Institute’s
9th Annual Judging of Craft American Spirits.
 Caledonia Spirits Barr Hill Gin earned a gold medal, best of category and best of class in the
American Distilling Institute’s 2017 Judging of Craft Spirits.

THE DISTILLATION OF GIN

The base spirit for most non-genever style gin is initially distilled in efficient
column stills. The resulting spirit is high proof, light-bodied, and clean, with a
minimal amount of congeners (flavor compounds) and flavoring agents. Genever
is distilled in less-efficient pot stills, which results in a lower-proof, more
flavorful spirit.

Low-quality “compound” gins are made by simply mixing the base spirit with
juniper and botanical extracts. Mass-market gins are produced by soaking
juniper and botanical extracts. Mass-market gins are produced by soaking
juniper berries and botanicals in the base spirit and then redistilling the mixture.

Top-quality gin and genever are flavored in a unique manner. After one or more
distillations, the base spirit is redistilled one last time. During this final
distillation, the alcohol vapor wafts through a chamber in which the dried juniper
berries and botanicals are suspended. The vapor gently extracts aromatic and
flavoring oils and compounds from the berries and spices as it travels through
the chamber on its way to the condenser. The resulting flavored spirit has a
noticeable degree of complexity.
Martin Ryan Distilling Co., Portland, OR, keeps samples of every batch of Aria Gin the distillery has
released. They refer back to these bottles when making a new batch.
Wild-foraged botanicals from the California coastal mountains are dried in preparation for making
gin at Ventura Spirits.
No. 209 Chardonnay Barrel Reserve Gin.
Two James Distillery Barrel Reserve Old Cockney Gin.
STYLE DEFINITION HOWEVER…

London Dry Gin The dominant English style of gin in It need not be truly “dry” and it
the United Kingdom, former British lends itself well to mixing.
colonies, the United States and
Spain.

Plymouth Gin Relatively full-bodied (compared to Originally the local gin style of
London dry gin). It is clear, slightly Plymouth, England, modern
fruity, and very aromatic. Plymouth gin is made only by one
distillery in Plymouth, Coates & Co.,
which also controls the rights to the
name Plymouth Gin.

Old Tom Gin The last remaining example of the Limited quantities of Old Tom–style
original, lightly sweetened gins that gin are still made by a few British
were popular in eighteenth-century distillers and several American craft
England. distillers, but it is, at best, a
curiosity item.

Genever or The Dutch style of gin, distilled The classic accompaniment to a

Hollands from a malted grain mash similar to shot of genever is a dried green
that used for whiskey. Oude (old) herring. Genever is traditionally sold
Genever is the original style. It is in a cylindrical stoneware crock.
straw-hued, relatively sweet, and Genever-style gins are produced in
aromatic. Jonge (young) Genever Holland, Belgium, Germany, and the
has a drier palate and lighter body. United States.
Some Genever is aged for one to
three years in oak casks. Genever
tends to be lower proof than English
gin (72 to 80 proof is typical). They
are usually served straight up and
chilled.

DON’T CALL IT BARREL AGED!

With the 2008 release of Citadelle Reserve Gin from France, and Ransom Old
Tom Gin from Oregon, the gin flavor spectrum swung in a new direction—
barrel-aged gins. After reading historical accounts of shipping gin in past
centuries using wooden casks, these producers began to experiment with the
effects that exposure to wood would have on gin. The cocktail culture swallowed
these spirits up with glee, and soon the rush was on. Craft distilleries—many of
whom were making gin to have cash flow while waiting for whiskey to age—
saw a line extension in these lightly aged spirits. The flavors range anywhere
from a classic gin to a juniper-flavored whiskey, depending on what kind of cask
was used and how long the spirit rested in it.
was used and how long the spirit rested in it.

There was only one small problem: There are regulations prohibiting putting the
words “barrel aged” on beverage alcohol labels. After approving a few barrel-
aged gins, the U.S. government revoked some of these labels and declined
further applications. This did not stop the products from coming, distillers just
had to think of another term. There is an abundance of very interesting gins that
are now termed; oak-finished, oak-rested, barrel-rested, reserve, cask-finished,
antique,… etc. All of these terms mean one thing: that the gin was barrel aged.

Hernö Old Tom Gin earned a gold medal and best of category in the American Distilling Institute’s
2017 Judging of Craft Spirits.
 2017 Judging of Craft Spirits.

Tad Seestedt of Ransom Spirits released Ransom Old Tom Gin, which was the first of the US-made
barrel-aged gins, setting of trend that has reverberated through the distilled spirits community.

THE COLORFUL ORIGINS OF OLD TOM GIN

The name of Old Tom Gin comes from what may be the first example of a beverage vending machine.
In the 1700s, some pubs in England had a wooden plaque shaped like a black cat (an “Old Tom”)
mounted on the outside wall. Thirsty passersby would deposit a penny in the cat’s mouth and place their
lips around a small tube between the cat’s paws. The bartender inside would then pour a shot of gin
through the tube and into the customer’s waiting mouth.
through the tube and into the customer’s waiting mouth.
GIN REGIONS
EUROPE
The United Kingdom produces mostly dry gin, primarily from column stills.
British gins tend to be high proof (90° proof or 45 percent ABV) and citrus-
accented from the use of dried lemon and Seville orange peels in the mix of
botanicals. British gins are usually combined into mixed drinks.

Holland and Belgium produce genever, mostly from pot stills. Genevers are
distilled at lower proof levels than English gins and are generally fuller in body.
Many of these gins are aged for one to three years in oak casks. Some genever
producers now market fruit-flavored genever, the best known being black
currant. Dutch and Belgian genever are usually chilled and served neat.

Germany produces a genever-style gin called Dornkaat in the North Sea coast
region of Frisia. This spirit is lighter in body and more delicate in flavor than
both Dutch genever and English dry gin. German gin is usually served straight
up and cold.

Spain produces a substantial amount of gin, all of it in the London dry style from
column stills. Most of it is sold for mixing with cola.
Boomsma Oude Fine Old Genever, Leeuwarden, Holland.
Elk Rider Crisp Gin by Heritage Distilling Company earned a Gold Medal, Best of Category, Best of
Class, in the American Distilling Institute’s 10th Annual Judging of Craft Spirits, 2016.

NORTH AMERICA
The United States is the world’s largest gin market. London dry gin accounts for
the bulk of domestic gin production, with most of it produced in column stills,
although craft-distillery gin is usually made using hybrid pot stills with columns.
American dry gins from the national distillers tend to be lower proof (80° proof
or 40 percent ABV) and less flavorful than their English counterparts. This rule
applies even to brands such as Gordon’s and Gilbey’s, which originated in
England. The best-selling gin in the United States, Seagram’s Extra Dry, was
England. The best-selling gin in the United States, Seagram’s Extra Dry, was
originally a dry gin that was aged for three months in used whiskey barrels to
give it a pale straw hue, and a distinctive smooth palate that had a hardcore fan
base. The color remains, but in recent years the three month aging has been
quietly discontinued.

American craft distillers, in an approach analogous to their craft-brewery

counterparts with India Pale Ale, are increasingly experimenting with more
exotic and assertive botanicals as their flavoring agents.

American craft distilleries have taken to gin in a major way, with such
noteworthy examples as Distiller’s Gin #6 from North Shore Distillery in Lake
Bluff, Illinois, and Rehorst Premium Milwaukee Gin from the Great Lakes
Distillery in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Backbar at Jersey Spirits Distillery, Fairfield, NJ.

GIN COCKTAILS
CLASSIC MARTINI
In a shaker, combine
2 ounces (60 ml) gin
Dash white vermouth

Ice to fill
Shake and strain and into a martini glass or a short glass. Garnish with an olive.

TOM COLLINS
In a tall glass, combine
2 ounces (60 ml) gin
1 ounce (30 ml) lemon juice
1 tablespoon (15 g) sugar
Stir, and then fill the glass with ice. Fill with club soda.

GIN AND TONIC

Fill a tall glass with ice. Add

1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) gin

Tonic water to fill
Garnish with a lime slice.
THE MARTINI AND THE MEANING OF LIFE
The best known of hundreds of gin-based mixed drinks is the gin and white vermouth combination
called the martini. As is usually the case with most popular mixed drinks, the origins of the martini are
disputed. One school of thought holds that it evolved from the late-nineteenth-century martinez
cocktail, a rather cloying mixture of Old Tom–style gin and sweet vermouth. A dissenting sect holds
that it was created in the bar of the Knickerbocker Hotel in New York City in the early twentieth
century. The ratio of gin to vermouth started out at about two to one, and it has been getting drier ever
since. The famed British statesman Winston Churchill, who devoted a great deal of thought and time to
drinking, was of the opinion that passing the cork from the vermouth bottle over the glass of gin was
sufficient.
Chapter 6
BRANDY AND EAU DE VIE
THE word brandy comes from the Dutch word brandewijn (burnt wine), which
is how the straightforward Dutch traders who introduced it to northern Europe in
the sixteenth century described wine that had been “burnt” or boiled to distill it.

The origins of brandy can be traced back to the growing Muslim Mediterranean
states in the seventh and eighth centuries. Alchemists in the region experimented
with distilling grapes and other fruits to make medicinal spirits. Their knowledge
and techniques soon spread beyond the borders of the territory, with grape
brandy production appearing in Spain and probably Ireland (via missionary
monks) by the end of the eighth century.
The French-style Charentais still at McMenamins Cornelius Pass Roadhouse (CPR) Distillery.
Pear-in-bottle brandy.
TYPES OF BRANDY
Brandy, in its broadest definition, is a spirit made from fruit juice or fruit pulp
and skin. More specifically, it is broken down into three basic groupings.

GRAPE BRANDY is brandy distilled from fermented grape juice or crushed,

but not pressed, grape pulp and skin. This spirit is aged in wooden casks (usually
oak), which colors it, mellows out the palate, and adds aromas and flavors.
 A bottle of brandy distilled from 100 percent Viognier wine by Germain-Robin.

POMACE BRANDY (Italian grappa and French marc are the best known
examples) is made from the pressed grape pulp, skins and stems that remain after
the grapes are crushed and pressed to extract most of the juice for wine. Pomace
brandies, which are usually minimally aged and seldom see wood, are an
acquired taste. They tend to be rather raw, although they can offer a fresh, fruity
aroma of the type of grape used, a characteristic that is lost in regular oak-aged
brandy.
brandy.

FRUIT BRANDY is the default term for all brandies that are made from
fermenting fruit other than grapes. (It should not be confused with fruit-flavored
brandy, which is grape brandy that has been flavored with the extract of another
fruit.)

Island Orchard Eau de Vie Apple Brandy by Orcas Island Distillery earned a Gold Medal, Best of
Category, in the American Distilling Institute’s 10th Annual Judging of Craft Spirits, 2016.
Fruit brandies, except those made from berries, are generally distilled from fruit
wines. Berries tend to lack enough sugar to make a wine with sufficient alcohol
for proper distillation, and thus are soaked (macerated) in a high-proof spirit to
extract their flavor and aroma. The extract is then distilled once at a low proof.
Calvados, the apple brandy from the Normandy region of northwestern France,
is probably the best known type of fruit brandy. Eau de vie (“water of life”) is a
colorless fruit brandy, particularly from the Alsace region of France and from
California.
 Pear Brandy by New Deal Distillery earned a Gold Medal in the American Distilling Institute’s
2018 International Judging of Craft Spirits.

“NO SIR, CLARET IS THE LIQUOR FOR BOYS; PORT FOR MEN; BUT HE WHO
ASPIRES TO BE A HERO MUST DRINK BRANDY.”
Samuel Johnson, eighteenth-century British writer who loved brandy and hated whiskey
BRANDIES BY REGION
FRANCE
French brandy is the catchall designation for brandy produced from grapes
grown in other regions. These brandies are usually distilled in column stills and
aged in oak casks for varying periods of time. They are frequently blended with
wine, grape juice, oak flavorings, and other brandies, including cognac, to
smooth out the rough edges. Cognac-like quality designations such as VSOP and
Napoleon are often used (see here), but they have no legal standing.

COGNAC
Cognac is the best-known type of brandy in the world, a benchmark by which
most other brandies are judged. The Cognac region is located on the south-
central coast of France, just north of Bordeaux, in the departments of Charente
and Charente-Maritime. The region is further subdivided into six growing zones:
Grande Champagne, Petite Champagne, Bois Ordinaries, Borderies, Fins Bois,
and Bons Bois. The first two of these regions produce the best Cognac and will
frequently be so designated on bottle labels. The primary grapes used in making
Cognac are the Ugni Blanc, Folle Blanche, and Colombard. The wines made
from these grapes are thin, tart and low in alcohol, which are poor characteristics
for table wines but perfect for making brandy.

Cognac is double-distilled in specially designed pot stills and then aged in casks
made from Limousin or Troncais oak. All Cognacs start out in new oak to
mellow the fiery spirit and give them color. Batches chosen for long-term aging
are, after a few years, transferred to used, or seasoned, casks that impart less of
the oak flavor notes while the brandy matures.

Nearly all Cognacs are a blend of brandies from different vintages and
frequently different growing zones. Even those from single vineyards or
distilleries have a mix of brandies from different casks. As with champagne, the
products of local vineyards are sold to Cognac houses, each of which stores and
ages Cognacs from different suppliers. The suppliers then employ master
blenders to create and maintain continuity in the house blends drawn from
disparate sources.
The alambic charentais is the most popular style of still for producing Cognac.
INDUSTRY STANDARDS FOR COGNAC
Because there are no age or vintage statements on most Cognacs, the industry has adopted some
generally accepted terms to differentiate Cognacs. It is important to note that these terms have no legal
status, and each Cognac shipper uses them according to his or her own criteria.

VS/VSP/Three Star: (VS: very superior; VSP: very superior pale) A minimum of two years aging in a
cask, although the industry average is four to five years

VSOP: (very superior old pale) A minimum of four years’ cask aging for the youngest Cognac in the
blend, with the industry average between ten and fifteen years

XO/Napoleon: (XO: extra old) A minimum of six years’ aging for the youngest Cognac in the blend,
with the average age running twenty years or older. All Cognac houses maintain inventories of old
vintage Cognacs to use in blending these top-of-the-line brands. The oldest Cognacs are removed from
their casks in time and stored in glass demijohns (large jugs) to prevent further loss from evaporation
and to limit excessively woody flavor notes.
Park Cognac Single Vineyard Borderies earned a Gold Medal at the American Distilling Institute’s
10th Annual Judging of Craft Spirits.
Chateau de Triac Single Vineyard Fins Bois, Cognac.
Alexandre Gabriel, president and owner of Maison Ferrand, evaluates a flight of spirits at the
American Distilling Institute’s International Judging of Craft Spirits.
Tiffon Cognac XO by Cognac Tiffon earned a Gold Medal in the American Distilling Intitute’s 2018
Judging of Craft Spirits.

HAVE STILL, WILL TRAVEL

Until the 1970s, portable alambic Armagnacais mounted on two-wheel carts were hauled among small
vineyards in Armagnac by itinerant distillers called bouilleurs de cru. These traveling stills, alas, have
mostly given way to larger, fixed in-place setups operated by farmer cooperatives and individual
operators.
A distiller stokes a wood fire under the column of an alambic Armagnacais at the Chateau du
Tariquet.
Armagnac Castarede Reserve de la Famille, earned a Double Gold Medal in the American Distilling
Intitute’s 2018 International Judging of Craft Spirits.
Chateau de Maniban V.S.O.P. Bas Armagnac.
Christian Drouin, who produces some of the finest Calvados, stands beside a portable still built in
1946 that is now permanently stationed in front of the press room at Domaine Coeur de Lion. It is
normally used from February to June. A second still now operates inside the press room.

ARMAGNAC
Armagnac is the oldest type of brandy in France, with documented references to
distillation dating back to the early fifteenth century. The Armagnac region is
located in the heart of the ancient province of Gascony in the southwest corner
of France. As with Cognac, there are regional growing zones: Bas-Armagnac,
Haut Armagnac, and Tenareze. The primary grapes used in making Armagnac
are also the Ugni Blanc, Folle Blanche, and Colombard. But distillation takes
place in the unique alambic Armagnacais, a type of column still that is even less
efficient than a typical Cognac pot still. The resulting brandy has a rustic,
assertive character and aroma that requires additional cask aging to mellow out
and distinguish it from Cognac. The best Armagnac is aged in casks made from
the local Monlezun oak. In recent years, Limousin and Troncais oak casks have
been added to the mix of casks as suitable Monlezun oak becomes harder to find.
Most Armagnacs are blends, but unlike Cognac, single vintages and single-
vineyard bottlings can be found. The categories of Armagnac are generally the
same as those of cognac (VS, VSOP, XO, and so on; see sidebar shown here).
Blended Armagnacs frequently have a greater percentage of older vintages in
their mix than comparable Cognacs, making them a better value for the
discerning buyer.

A variety of Armagnac bottles.

 Chateau de Laubade Extra Single Estate Bas Armagnac, 750 ml, earned a Double Gold Medal,
Best of Category, Best of Class, in the American Distilling Institute’s 10th Annual Judging of Craft
Spirits, 2016.

BRANDY’S SEASONAL NATURE

Brandy, like rum and tequila, is an agricultural spirit. Unlike grain spirits such as whiskey, vodka, and
gin, which are made throughout the year from grain that can be harvested and stored, brandy is
dependent on the seasons, the ripening of the base fruit and the production of the wine from which it is
made. Types of brandies, originally at least, tended to be location specific. (Cognac, for example, is a
town and region in France that gave its name to the local brandy.) Important brandy-making regions,
particularly in Europe, further differentiate their local spirits by specifying the types of grapes that can
be used and the specific areas (appellation) in which the grapes used for making the base wine can be
grown.
Barreled Grape Immature Brandy by the Dampfwerk Distillery Co. earned a Gold Medal in the
American Distilling Intitute’s 2018 International Judging of Craft Spirits.
SPAIN
BRANDY DE JEREZ
Brandy de Jerez is made by the sherry houses centered around the city of Jerez
de la Frontera in the southwest corner of Spain.

But virtually all Brandy de Jerez is made from wines produced elsewhere in
Spain, primarily from the Airen grape in La Mancha and Extremadura, because
the local sherry grapes are too valuable to divert into brandy production.
Nowadays, most of the distilling is likewise done elsewhere in Spain in column
stills. It is then shipped to Jerez for aging in used sherry casks in a solera system
similar to that used for sherry wine. A solera is a series of large casks (called
butts), each holding a slightly older spirit than the previous one beside it. When
brandy is drawn off (racked) from the last butt (no more than a third of the
volume is removed), it is replenished with brandy drawn from the next butt all
the way down the solera line to the first butt, where newly distilled brandy is
added. This system of racking the brandy through a series of casks blends
together a variety of vintages (some soleras have more than thirty stages) and
results in a speeding up of the maturation process.
Barrels of brandy stored for aging.
The sample bottles display the effects of different types of barrels and aging processes at Alambic,
Inc.

PENEDÈS BRANDY
Penedès Brandy is from the Penedès region of Catalonia in the northeast corner
of Spain near Barcelona. Modeled after the Cognacs of France and made from a
mix of local grapes and the Ugni Blanc of Cognac, it is distilled in pot stills. One
of the two local producers (Torres) ages in soleras consisting of butts made from
French Limousin oak, whereas the other (Mascaro) ages in the standard non-
solera manner, but also in Limousin oak. The resulting brandy is heartier than
Cognac, but leaner and drier than Brandy de Jerez.
ITALY
Italy has a long history of brandy production dating back to at least the sixteenth
century, but unlike Spain or France, there are no specific brandy-producing
regions. Italian brandies are made from regional wine grapes and most are
produced in column stills, although there are now a number of small artisanal
producers using pot stills. They are aged in oak for a minimum of one to two
years, with six to eight years being the industry average. Italian brandies tend to
be on the light and delicate side, with a touch of residual sweetness.

AGING TIMELINE
Basic Brandy de Jerez Solera must age for a minimum of six months, Reserva for one year, and Gran
Reserva for a minimum of three years.

In practice, the best Reservas and Gran Reservas are frequently aged for twelve to fifteen years. The
lush, slightly sweet and fruity notes to be found in Brandy de Jerez come not only from aging in sherry
casks but also from the judicious use of fruit-based flavor concentrates and oak essence (boise).
GERMANY
German monks were distilling brandy by the fourteenth century, and German
distillers had organized their own guild as early as 1588. Yet almost from the
start, German brandy (called Weinbrand) has been made from imported wine
rather than the more valuable local varieties. Most German brandies are
produced in pot stills and must be aged for a minimum of six months in oak.
Brandies that have been aged in oak for at least one year are called uralt or alter
(meaning “older”). The best German brandies are smooth, somewhat lighter than
Cognac, and finish with a touch of sweetness.

SLYRS distillery, Germany.

Siegfried Herzog Destillate specializes in fruit spirits and brandies (below).
UNITED STATES
Grape brandy production in the United States, which until the advent of modern
craft distilleries was mostly confined to California, dates back to the Spanish
missions in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. A substantial
amount of peach brandy was made by whiskey distillers in southern states prior
to Prohibition, however, and apple brandy distilling continued into modern times
on a modest scale in New Jersey and Virginia. In the years following the Civil
War, brandy became a major industry, with a substantial export trade to Europe
by the end of the nineteenth century. For a time, Leland Stanford, founder of
Stanford University, was the world’s largest brandy producer. Phylloxera and
national Prohibition almost shut down the industry in the 1920s.

Repeal started things up again, but as with the bourbon industry, the advent of
World War II resulted in brandy producers finding themselves further marking
time. Soon after the end of the war, the industry commissioned the University of
California at Davis Department of Viticulture and Oenology to develop a
prototype “California-style” brandy. It had a clean palate, was lighter in style
than most European brandies, and had a flavor profile that made it a good mixer.
Starting in the late 1940s, California brandy producers began to change over to
this new style.
The tasting room at a distillery is a popular stop on the tour. Rick Moersch at the Round Barn
Distillery pours some apricot brandy at the tasting room in his winery/brewery/distillery.
High Council Brandy is produced on Cognac-style stills at McMenamins CPR Distillery, in Hilsboro,
OR.
 Apple pulp from the grinder is fed into an accordion-style filter where the juice will be squeezed
out to make apple brandy (see here) at Laird & Co., North Garden, VA.

CONTEMPORARY BRANDIES
Contemporary commercial California grape brandies are made primarily in
column stills from table grape varieties such as the Thompson Seedless and
Flame Tokay. California brandies are aged for two to twelve years in used
American oak (both brandy and bourbon casks) to limit woodiness in the palate,
although pot distillers also use French oak. Several California distillers, most
notably Korbel, have utilized the Spanish solera method for maturing their
brandy. California brandies do not use quality designations such as VSOP or
brandy. California brandies do not use quality designations such as VSOP or
stars. The more expensive brands will usually contain a percentage of older
vintages and pot-distilled brandies in the blend.

Craft-distilled brandies, including grape, pomace, and fruit, were the first of the
modern generation of craft spirits to enter the U.S. market, starting in California
in the late 1980s with producers such as RMS (a venture of Cognac producer
Remy Martin), Jepson Vineyards, and the idiosyncratic Santa Cruz winemaker
Randall Graham at Bonny Doon Vineyards. From the start, these grape brandy
producers generally followed a French-themed muse, with producers such as
Germaine-Robin in Mendocino County and Osocalis in the Santa Cruz
Mountains going so far as to use the classic Ugni Blanc, Colombard, and Folle
Blanche grapes to make their base wine. They installed special Cognac-style pot
stills to distill it and then aged their brandies in casks made from imported
Limousin or Troncais oak. The resulting brandies, particularly as longer-aged
examples come on to the market, have, in some cases, shown levels of
complexity and flavor intensity that put them on par with their European
counterparts.

Joe and Lesley Heron, founders of Copper & Kings Distillery, produce contemporary brandies in
Louisville, KY.
Jepson Old Stock Brandy by Jaxon Keys Winery and Distillery earned a Double Gold Medal, Best of
Category, Best of Class, in the American Distilling Institute's 10th Annual Judging of Craft Spirits,
2016.
 Daniel Farber stands next to a new alambic Armagnacais under installation at Osocalis Distillery,
Soquel, CA. After distilling for decades on alambic Charentais, Farber is broadening the style of his
brandies.
LATIN AMERICAN
MEXICO
In Mexico a surprising amount of wine is made, but it is little known outside of
the country because most of it is used for brandy production. Mexican brandies
are made from a mix of grapes, including the Thompson Seedless, Palomino,
and Ugni Blanc. Both column and pot stills are used in production, whereas the
solera system is generally used for aging. Brandy now outsells tequila and rum
in Mexico.

SOUTH AMERICA
South American brandies are generally confined to their domestic markets. The
best-known type is pisco, a clear, raw brandy from Peru and Chile that is made
from Muscat grapes and double-distilled in pot stills. The resulting brandy has a
perfumed fragrance and serves as the base for a variety of mixed drinks,
including the famous Pisco Punch.

Master distiller and blender Hubert Germain-Robin, left, discusses the qualities of the distillate
coming off the still at McMenamins CPR Distillery with Distillery Manager Clark McCool.
Pisco Style Brandy by Leopold Bros.
OTHER REGIONS
Greece produces pot-distilled brandies, many of which, such as the well-known
Metaxa, are flavored with Muscat wine, anise, or other spices.

Winemaking in Israel is a well-established tradition dating back thousands of

years. But brandy production dates back only to the 1880s, when the French
Jewish philanthropist Baron Edmond de Rothschild established what has become
the modern Israeli wine industry. Israeli brandy is made in the manner of Cognac
from Colombard grapes with distillation in both pot and column stills and
maturation in French Limousin oak casks.

In the Caucasus region, along the eastern shore of the Black Sea, the ancient
nations of Georgia and Armenia draw on monastic traditions to produce rich,
intensely flavored pot-still brandies both from local grapes and from such
imported varieties as the Muscadine (from France) and the Sercial and Verdelho
(most famously from Madeira).

South Africa has produced brandies since the arrival of the first Dutch settlers in
the seventeenth century, but these early spirits from the Cape Colony earned a
reputation for being harsh firewater (witblits—white lightning—was a typical
nickname). The introduction of modern production techniques and government
regulations in the early twentieth century gradually led to an improvement in the
quality of local brandies. Modern South African brandies are made from Ugni
Blanc, Colombard, Chenin Blanc, and Palomino grapes; produced in both pot
and column stills, and aged for a minimum of three years in oak.
POMACE BRANDIES
Italy produces a substantial amount of grappa, both the raw, firewater variety
and the more elegant, artisanal efforts that are made from one designated grape
type and packaged in hand-blown bottles. Both types of grappa can be unaged or
aged for a few years in old casks that will tame the hard edge of the spirit
without imparting much flavor or color. Marc from France is produced in all of
the nation’s wine-producing regions, but it is mostly consumed locally. Marc de
Gewürztraminer from Alsace is noteworthy because it retains some of the
distinctive perfume nose and spicy character of the grape.

Craft pomace brandies from the United States, from producers such as Domaine
Charbay in Napa County and Mosby Vineyards in Sonoma, are in the Italian
style, and they are usually called grappas, even when they are made from non-
Italian grape varieties. This is also true of the pomace brandies from Canada.
Poli Bassano del Grappa, Italy.
Grappa di Moscato by Bethel Rd. Distillery, Templeton, CA.
 Grapes enter the still for the making of grappa.

GRAPPA: NOT YOUR GRANDPA’S PHLEGM CUTTER

The U.S. government calls it pomace brandy, but ever since immigrants from winemaking countries
began arriving in the United States and started to make wine, they were soon refermenting the pressed
grape skins from their winemaking and distilling it to make a quick and simple type of brandy. The
French call it marc, but it is the Italian term grappa that has caught on with distillers of every ethnic
background.

Craft distillers in the United States have taken to the distilling of grappa from the very start of the
industry. Pioneer brandy distillers such as Clear Creek and St. George Spirits have developed specific
varietal grappas that are carefully distilled to capture the subtle aromatic notes of the base fruit. These
are spirits to delight the nose as much as the taste buds.
APPLE AND OTHER FRUIT BRANDIES
Normandy is one of the few regions in France that does not have a substantial
grape wine industry. Instead, it is apple country, with a substantial tradition of
hard and sweet ciders that in turn can be distilled into an apple brandy known as
Calvados. The local cider apples, which tend to be small and tart, are closer in
type to crab apples than to modern table apples. This spirit has its own
appellations, with the best brands coming from Appellation Controlee Pays
d’Auge near the seaport of Deauville, and the rest in ten adjacent regions that are
designated Appellation Reglementee. Most Pays d’Auge and some of the better
Appellation Reglementee are produced in pot stills. All varieties of Calvados are
aged in oak casks for a minimum of two years. Cognac-style quality and age
terms such as VSOP and Hors d’Age are frequently used on labels but have no
legal meaning.

The fruit-growing regions of the upper Rhine River are the prime eau de vie
production areas of Europe. The Black Forest region of Bavaria in Germany and
Alsace in France are known for their cherry brandies (kir in France,
Kirschwasser in Germany), raspberry brandies (framboise and Himbeergeist)
and pear brandies (poire). Similar eaux de vie are now being produced in the
United States in California and Oregon. Some plum brandy is also made in these
regions (mirabelle from France is an example), but the best known type of plum
brandy is slivovitz, which is made from the small blue sljiva plum throughout
Eastern Europe and the Balkans.
Sidetrack Distillery Rasberry Brandy, Kent, WA.
Sebastian Degens of Stone Barn Brandyworks, Portland, OR.
Pot stills at Kymar Farm Winery and Distillery, Charlotteville, NY, where they make an exceptional
apple brandy.
Andrew Richards, right, and his father-in-law Rich Kneiper of Shady Knoll Orchards and Distilling,
Millbrook, NY, grind apples to make apple brandy.
Slivovitz Plum Brandy by Beaver Pond Distillery, Petersham, MA.
Sunshine Orange Brandy by Stark Spirits, Pasadena, CA.
 Island Orchard Eau de Vie Apple Brandy by Orcas Island Distillery.

In the United States, applejack, as apple brandy is called locally, is thought by

many to be the first spirit produced in the British colonies. This colonial tradition
has continued with Laird’s Distillery, established in 1780 in New Jersey as the
oldest continuously operating distilling company in the United States with
distilleries in New Jersey and Virginia.

Artisan fruit brandy distilling started in California, but in recent years it has
Artisan fruit brandy distilling started in California, but in recent years it has
spread across the United States, with Calvados-style apple brandies from Clear
Creek Distillery in Portland, Oregon, leading the way, while Black Star Farms in
Suttons Bay, St. Julian in Paw Paw, and a bevy of other artisan distillers in
Michigan and elsewhere have released a wide range of delicate, highly aromatic
cherry, raspberry, plum, and other fruit brandies that draw an obvious inspiration
from the kirsch and plum brandies of the Black Forest region of southern
Germany.

In pre-Prohibition bourbon whiskey distilleries in the South, whiskey distillation

was seasonal, and was done after the grain harvest. To fill in the downtime
during the summer, many of them also distilled fruit brandies, particularly peach
brandy. Today, modern distilling, both national and craft, is an all-year process.
But many craft distilleries are now producing both grain spirits and fruit
brandies, so, in a sense, this tradition lives on.
Malvados Apple Brandy by Mad River Distillers in Vermont.
 Clear Creek Distillery Apple Brandy Aged 8 Years in French Oak, 750 ml, earned a Gold Medal,
Best of Category, in the American Distilling Institute’s 10th Annual Judging of Craft Spirits, 2016.
BRANDY COCKTAILS
SIDECAR
Fill a short glass with ice.
In a shaker, combine
1 ounce (30 ml) brandy
1 ounce (30 ml) Triple Sec
1 ounce (30 ml) lemon juice
Ice to fill
Shake and strain into the glass.

STINGER
Fill a short glass with ice. Add
1 ounce (30 ml) brandy

1 ounce (30 ml) white crème de menthe

Stir and serve.

BRANDY ALEXANDER
In a shaker, combine
1 ounce (30 ml) brandy
1 ounce (30 ml) dark crème de cacao
1 ounce (30 ml) cream
Ice to fill
Shake and strain into a large brandy snifter. Dust with nutmeg.
Chapter 7
RUM
GRAPES and grain may be the two major raw materials for distillation, but they
are by no means the only ones. Sugarcane provides two different fermentables:
sugarcane juice and molasses, which is a by-product of sugar refining. Both are
used as the basis of rum production, which, as a spirit, ranges across the color
and taste spectrum from the almost vodka-like blancos of Puerto Rico to the
hearty, deep-hued demeraras of Guyana, with some very distinctive variations in
between.

Bottles of rum of different ages (youngest to oldest, left to right) at Celebration Distillation in New
Orleans.
THE HISTORY OF RUM
The history of rum is the history of sugar. Sugar is a sweet crystalline
carbohydrate that occurs naturally in a variety of plants. One of those is the
sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), a tall, thick grass that has its origins in the
islands of present-day Indonesia in the East Indies. Chinese traders spread its
cultivation to Asia and on to India. Arabs in turn brought it to the Middle East
and North Africa, where it came to the attention of Europeans during the
Crusades in the eleventh century.

As the Spanish and Portuguese began to venture out into the Atlantic Ocean,
they planted sugarcane in the Canary and Azores Islands. In 1493, Christopher
Columbus picked up cane cuttings from the Canaries while on his second voyage
to the Americas and transplanted them to Hispaniola, the Caribbean island now
shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Portuguese explorers soon did
likewise in Brazil.

The Caribbean basin proved to have an ideal climate for growing sugarcane, and
sugar production quickly spread around the islands. The insatiable demand in
Europe for sugar soon led to the establishment of hundreds of sugarcane
plantations and mills in the various English, Spanish, French, Portuguese, and
Dutch colonies. These mills crushed the harvested cane and extracted the juice.
Boiling this juice caused chunks of crystallized sugar to form. The remaining
unsolidified juice was called melazas (from the Spanish word for honey, miel);
in English this became the word molasses.

Molasses is a sticky syrup that still contains a significant amount of sugar. Sugar
mill operators soon noticed that when it was mixed with water and left out in the
sun, it fermented. By the 1650s, this former waste product was being distilled
into a spirit. In the English colonies, it was called Kill Devil (from its tendency
to cause a nasty hangover or its perceived medicinal power, take your choice) or
rumbullion (origin uncertain), which was shortened over the years to our modern
word rum. The French render this word as rhum, while the Spanish call it ron.

Rum was used as a cure-all for many of the aches and pains that afflicted those
living in the tropics. Sugar plantation owners sold it, at discounted prices, to
naval ships that were on station in the Caribbean in order to encourage their
presence in local waters and thus discourage marauding pirates.
 Sugarcane field, Louisiana.

GROG
The British navy adopted a daily ration of a half pint of 160° proof rum by the 1730s. This ration was
subsequently modified by mixing it with an equal amount of water to produce a drink called grog. The
grog ration remained a staple of British naval life until 1969.

This naval-rum connection introduced rum to the outside world, and by the late
seventeenth century a thriving export trade developed. The British islands
shipped rum to Great Britain (where it was mixed into rum punches and replaced
gin as the dominant spirit in the eighteenth century) and to the British colonies in
North America, where it became very popular. This export of rum to North
America, in exchange for New England lumber and dried cod (still a culinary
staple in the Caribbean), soon changed over to the export of molasses to
distilleries in New England. This was done to avoid laws from the British
Parliament, which protected British distillers by forbidding the trade in spirits
directly between colonies. This law was, at best, honored in the breach, and
smuggling soon became rampant.

The shipping of molasses to make rum in New England distilleries became part
of the infamous “slavery triangle.” The first leg was the shipment of molasses to
of the infamous “slavery triangle.” The first leg was the shipment of molasses to
New England to make rum. The second leg was the shipment of rum to the ports
of West Africa to trade for slaves. The final leg was the passage of slave ships to
the sugar plantations of the Caribbean and South America, where many of the
slaves were put to work in the sugarcane fields.

The disruption of trade caused by the American Revolution and the rise of
whiskey production in North America resulted in the gradual decline of rum’s
dominance as the American national tipple. Rum production in the United States
slowly declined through the nineteenth century, with the last New England rum
distilleries closing at the advent of Prohibition in 1920. The famed rumrunners
of the Prohibition era were smuggling primarily whiskey into the United States.

In Europe, the invention of sugar extraction from the sugar beet lessened the
demand for Caribbean sugar, reducing the amount of molasses being produced
and the resulting amount of rum being distilled. Many small plantations and their
stills were closed. Rum production receded, for the most part, to countries where
sugarcane was grown. The modern history of rum owes a lot to the spread of air-
conditioning and the growth of tourism. In the second half of the twentieth
century, modern air-conditioning made it possible for large numbers of people to
migrate to warm-weather regions where rum remained the dominant spirit.
Additionally, the explosive increase in the number of North American and
European tourists into rum-drinking regions led to a steady increase in the
popularity of rum-based mixed drinks. Nowadays, white rum gives vodka
serious competition as the mixer of choice in a number of distinctively
nontropical markets.
Manulele Distillers KoHana Koho Hawaiian Agricole Rum.
Cane Land Distilling Co. Rhum Agricole LA Rum.
 Malahat Spirits Cabernet Barrel Rum earned a Gold Medal, Best of Category and Best of Class in
the American Distilling Institute’s 10th Annual Judging of Craft Spirits, 2016.

Aged rum is gaining new standing among consumers of single-malt Scotch,

Cognac, and small-batch bourbon, who are learning to appreciate the subtle
complexities of this rum. The pot-still rums of Guyana and Jamaica have a
particular appeal for Scotch drinkers. (It is no accident that the Scottish whisky
merchant and bottler Cadenhead also ages and bottles demerara rum.) The subtle
and complex rhums of Martinique and Guadeloupe mirror the flavor profiles of
the top French brandies in Cognac and Armagnac.
Stark Spirits California Gold Rum.
Bob Ryan and partner Dave Wood at Ryan & Wood Distilleries in Gloucester, Massachusetts.
Diablo’s Shadow Navy Strength Rum by Sutherland Distilling Co.
Coaster for Ragged Mountain Rum by Berkshire Mountain Distillers: “Think Globally, Drink
Locally”
STYLE DEFINITION

White Rums Generally light bodied (although there are a few heavy-bodied
white rums in the French islands). They are usually clear and have
a very subtle flavor profile. If they are aged in oak casks to create
a smooth palate, they are then usually filtered to remove any color.
White rums are primarily used as mixers and blend particularly
well with fruit flavors.

Golden Rums Also known as amber rums, these are generally medium bodied.
Most have spent several years aging in oak casks, which give them
smooth, mellow palates.

Dark Rums Traditionally, full-bodied, rich caramel-dominated rums, the best

are produced mostly from pot stills and frequently aged in oak
casks for extended periods. The richest of these rums are
consumed straight up.

Spiced Rums White, golden, or dark rums, they are infused with spices or fruit
flavors. Rum punches (such as Planter’s Punch) are blends of rum
and fruit juices that are very popular in the Caribbean.

AgeDated Blended Rums These are aged rums from different vintages or batches that are
mixed together to ensure a continuity of flavor in brands of rum
from year to year. Some aged rums will give age statements stating
the youngest rum in the blend (e.g., a 10-year-old rum contains a
blend of rums that are at least 10 years old). A small number of
French island rums are vintage dated.
Twenty Boat Amber Rum by South Hollow Spirits, 750 ml, earned a Gold Medal in the American
Distilling Institute’s 10th Annual Judging of Craft Spirits, 2016.
RUM COCKTAILS
RUM AND COKE (CUBA LIBRE)
Fill a short glass with ice. In a shaker, combine
1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) dark rum
Juice of half a lime

Cola to fill
Stir and garnish with a lime wedge.

DAIQUIRI
Fill a short glass with ice. In a shaker, combine
1/2 ounce (45 ml) white rum

1 ounce (30 ml) lime juice

1 tablespoon (15 g) sugar

Ice to fill
Shake and strain into the glass.

PLANTER’S PUNCH
Fill a tall glass with ice. In a shaker, combine
1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) dark rum
1/2 ounce (15 ml) lime juice

1/2 ounce (15 ml) lemon juice

3 ounces (90 ml) orange juice

1 teaspoon (5 g) sugar
Dash grenadine syrup
Ice to fill
Shake and strain into the glass.
Erik and Karin Vonk are turning peanut fields into sugarcane and making rum from it at Richland
Distilling Co., Richland, GA.
THE BASIS OF RUM
Rum, and its fraternal twin, cane spirit, are made by distilling fermented sugar
and water. This sugar comes from the sugarcane and is fermented from cane
juice, concentrated cane juice, or molasses. Molasses is the sweet, sticky residue
that remains after sugarcane juice is boiled and the crystallized sugar is
extracted.

Most rum is made from molasses. Molasses is more than 50 percent sugar, but it
also contains significant amounts of minerals and other trace elements, which
can contribute to the final flavor. Rums made from cane juice, primarily on Haiti
and Martinique, have a naturally smooth palate.

Depending on the recipe, the “wash” (the cane juice or molasses and water) is
fermented, using either cultured yeast or airborne wild yeasts, for a period
ranging from 24 hours for light rums up to several weeks for heavy, full
varieties.
 Cane juice ferments at Ryan and Wood Distillery, Gloucester, MA.

DISTILLATION OF RUM
Rum can be distilled in either pot or column stills. The choice of stills has a
profound effect on the final character of the rum.

All rums come out of the still as clear, colorless spirits. Barrel aging and the use
of added caramel determine the final color. Because caramel is burnt sugar, it is
true that only natural coloring agents are used.

Lighter rums are highly rectified (purified) and are produced in column or
continuous stills, then usually charcoal filtered and sometimes aged in old oak
casks for a few months to add smoothness. Most light rums have minimal flavors
and aromas and are very similar to vodka. Heavier rums are usually distilled in
pot stills, similar to those used to produce Cognacs and Scotch whiskeys. Pot
stills are less efficient than column stills and some congeners (fusel oils and
other flavor elements) are carried over with the alcohol. These heavier rums are
used for making golden and dark rums.
Some brands of rum are made by blending pot-and column-distilled rums in a
manner similar to that of Armagnac production.

Rusticator Rum by Spirits of Maine Distillery earned a Gold Medal in the American Distilling
Institute's 10th Annual Judging of Craft Spirits, 2016.
Maggie’s Farm Queen’s Share Double Barrel Rum by Allegheny Distilling.
RUM REGIONS
THE CARIBBEAN
The Caribbean is the epicenter of world rum production. Virtually every major
island group produces its own distinct rum style.

BARBADOS produces light, sweetish rums from both pot and column stills.
Rum distillation began here, and the Mount Gay Distillery, dating from 1663, is
probably the oldest operating rum producer in the world.

CUBA produces light-bodied, crisp, clean rums from column stills. It is

currently illegal to ship Cuban rums into the United States.

THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC is notable for its full-bodied, aged rums from
column stills.

GUYANA is justly famous for its rich, heavy demerara rums, named for a local
river, which are produced from both pot and column stills. Demerara rums can
be aged for extended periods (25-year-old varieties are on the market) and are
frequently used for blending with lighter rums from other regions. Neighboring
Surinam and French Guyana produce similar full-bodied rums.

HAITI follows the French tradition of heavier rums that are double-distilled in
pot stills and aged in oak casks for three or more years to produce full-flavored,
exceptionally smooth-tasting rums. Haiti also still has an extensive underground
moonshine industry that supplies the voodoo religious ritual trade.

JAMAICA is well known for its rich, aromatic rums, most of which are
produced in pot stills. Jamaica has official classifications of rum, ranging from
light to very full-flavored. Jamaican rums are used extensively for blending.

MARTINIQUE is a French island with the largest number of distilleries in the

Eastern Caribbean. Both pot and column stills are used. As on other French
islands such as Guadeloupe, both rhum agricole (made from sugarcane juice)
and rhum industriel (made from molasses) are produced. These rums are
frequently aged in used French brandy casks for a minimum of three years.
Rhum vieux (aged rum) is frequently compared to high-quality French brandies.

PUERTO RICO is known primarily for light, very dry rums from column stills.
PUERTO RICO is known primarily for light, very dry rums from column stills.
All Puerto Rican rums must, by law, be aged for a minimum of one year.

TRINIDAD produces mainly light rums from column stills and has an extensive
export trade.

THE VIRGIN ISLANDS

The Virgin Islands, which are divided between the United States Virgin Islands
and the British Virgin Islands, both produce light, mixing rums from column
stills. These rums, and those of nearby Grenada, also serve as the base for bay
rum, a classic aftershave lotion.

CENTRAL AMERICA
Central America has a variety of primarily medium-bodied rums from column
stills that lend themselves well to aging. They have recently begun to gain
international recognition.

SOUTH AMERICA
South America produces vast quantities of mostly light rums from column stills,
with unaged cane spirit from Brazil, called cachaça, being the best-known
example. Venezuela bucks this general trend with a number of well-respected
barrel-aged golden and dark rums.

NORTH AMERICA
North America has a handful of traditional rum distilleries in the southern United
States, producing a range of light-and medium-bodied rums that are generally
marketed with Caribbean-themed names. Modern craft distilleries producing
rum have skyrocketed from a handful a decade ago to more than 300. Craft
producers are generally making a style to rum that is dryer than their Caribbean
counterparts and they have sprung up in many locations not usually associated
with rum.
Dry Spiced Rum by Cotton & Reed, a distillery bar in Washington, DC, started by two former NASA
engineers.

Particularly noteworthy producers including Prichard’s Distillery in Kelso,

Tennessee; Montanya Distillers in Crested Butte, Colorado; Louisiana Spirits in
Lacassine, Louisiana; Malahat Spirits in San Diego, California; Maggie’s Farm
Rum Distillery in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Privateer Rum Distillery in Ipswich,
Massachusetts, and Wicked Dolphin in Cape Coral, Florida.

CANADA
CANADA
In Canada, the 300-year-old tradition of trading rum for dried codfish continues
in the Atlantic maritime provinces of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, where
golden rums from Antigua, Barbados, and Jamaica are imported and aged for
five years. The resulting hearty rum is known locally as screech.

EUROPE
Europe is primarily a blender of imported rums. Both the United Kingdom and
France import rums from their former colonies in the Caribbean for aging and
bottling. Heavy, dark Jamaican rums are imported into Germany and mixed with
neutral spirit at a 1 : 19 ratio to produce rum verschnitt. A similar product in
Austria is called inlander rum.

The tasting room at Malahat Spirits, San Diego, CA, is packed on a busy afternoon.

AUSTRALIA AND OCEANA

Australia produces substantial amounts of white and golden rums in a double-
distillation method utilizing both column and pot stills. Rum is the second most
popular alcoholic beverage in the country after beer. Light rums are also
produced on some of the islands in the South Pacific such as Tahiti and Fiji, and
produced on some of the islands in the South Pacific such as Tahiti and Fiji, and
Indian Ocean islands such as Mauritius and Madagascar.

ASIA
In Asia, rums tend to follow regional sugarcane production, with white and
golden rums from column stills being produced primarily in the Philippines and
Thailand.

The tasting room at Cane Land Distilling Co., Baton Rouge, LA.
Doug Charboneau, left, and his son Jean Luc at the Charboneau Distillery, Natchez, MS.
Ed Haik at Cajun Spirits Distillery, New Orleans, LA.
Sagatiba Pura Cachaça (Brazil).
WHEN IS RUM NOT RUM? WHEN IT IS CACHAÇA, OF
COURSE
Brazil is one of the major sugarcane-growing regions in the world, but there is no local rum, as such, to
be found in bars and stores. Instead there is cachaça, which Brazilians patriotically insist is a unique
local spirit. Less starry-eyed foreign drinkers would classify it as a sugarcane juice spirit similar to
rhum agricole from French island rum regions. The quality of cachaça can vary widely, ranging from
inexpensive brands (where the sugarcane spirit is mixed with industrial ethanol in a manner similar to
mixto tequila or American blended whiskey) to well-aged artisan cachaças produced in pot stills and
matured in oak barrels.
Chapter 8
TEQUILA AND AGAVE SPIRITS
“ALL TEQUILA IS MEZCAL, BUT NOT ALL MEZCAL IS TEQUILLA.”
Tequila marketing mantra

The agave plant, a native of Central America, provides the fermentable basis for a variety of
distilled spirits, of which tequila is the best known, but by no means the only example.
THE EVOLUTION OF TEQUILA
In 1656, the village of Tequila (named for the local Ticuilas Indians) was
granted a charter by the governor of New Galicia. Tax records of the time show
that mezcal was already being produced in the area. This mezcal, made from the
local blue agave, established a reputation for having a superior taste, and barrels
of the “mezcal wine from Tequila” were soon being shipped to nearby
Guadalajara and more distant cities such as the silver-mining boomtowns of San
Luis Potosí and Aguascalientes.

The oldest of the still-existing distilleries in Tequila dates back to 1795, when
the Spanish crown granted a distiller’s license to Jose Cuervo. In 1805, a
distillery was established that would ultimately come under the control of the
Sauza family. By the mid-1800s, there were dozens of distilleries and millions of
agave plants under cultivation around Tequila in what had become the state of
Jalisco. Gradually, the locally produced mezcal came to be known as tequila
(just as the grape brandy from the Cognac region in France came to be known
simply as Cognac).

Mexico achieved independence from Spain in 1821. Until the 1870s, it was a
politically unstable country that experienced frequent changes in government,
revolutions, and a disastrous war with the United States. Marauding bands of
soldiers and guerillas extracted “revolutionary taxes” and “voluntary”
contributions in kind from the taverns and distilleries. In 1876, a general named
Porfirio Díaz, who was from the mezcal-producing state of Oaxaca (oah-HA-
kuh), came to power and ushered in a 35-year period of relative peace and
stability known as the Porfiriato.
 A jimador harvests blue agave for making tequila in Jalisco, Mexico.

It was during this period that the tequila industry became firmly established.
Modest exports of tequila began to the United States and Europe, with Jose
Cuervo shipping the first three barrels to El Paso, Texas, in 1873. By 1910, the
number of agave distilleries in the state of Jalisco had grown to almost a
hundred.

The collapse of the Díaz regime in 1910 led to a decade-long period of

revolution that inhibited the tequila industry. The return of peace in the 1920s
led to the expansion of tequila production in Jalisco beyond the area around the
town of Tequila, with growth being particularly noteworthy in the highlands
town of Tequila, with growth being particularly noteworthy in the highlands
around the village of Arandas. This period also saw the adoption of modern
production techniques from the wine industry, such as cultivated yeast and
microbiological sanitary practices.

In the 1930s, the practice of adding non-agave sugars to the aguamiel, or “honey
water,” was introduced and quickly adopted by many tequila producers. These
mixto (mixed) tequilas had a less intense taste than 100 percent blue agave
tequilas. But this relative blandness also made them more appealing to nonnative
consumers, particularly those in the United States.

Blue agave for making tequila, Jalisco, Mexico.

THE BASIS OF TEQUILA AND MEZCAL

Tequila and mezcal are made by distilling the fermented juice of agave plants in
Mexico. The agave is a spiky-leafed member of the lily family (it is not a cactus)
and is related to the century plant. By Mexican law, the agave spirit called
tequila can be made only from one particular type of agave, the blue agave
(Agave tequilana Weber), and it can be produced only in specifically designated
geographic areas, primarily the state of Jalisco in west-central Mexico. Mezcal is
made from the fermented juice of other species of agave. It is produced
throughout most of Mexico. Racilla is a mezcal made from non-blue agave in
Jalisco.

Both tequila and mezcal are prepared for distillation in similar ways. The agave,
also know as maguey (pronounced muh-GAY), is cultivated on plantations for
eight to ten years, depending on the type of agave. When the plant reaches
sexual maturity, it starts to grow a flower stalk. The agave farmer, or campesino,
cuts off the stalk just as it is starting to grow. This redirects the plant growth into
the central stalk, swelling it into a large, bulbous shape that contains a sweet
juicy pulp. When the swelling is completed, the campesino cuts the plant from
its roots and removes the long sword-shaped leaves, using a razor-sharp, pike-
like tool called a coa. The remaining piña (“pineapple”—so-called because the
cross-thatched, denuded bulb resembles a giant green-and-white pineapple)
weighs anywhere from 25 to 100 pounds.

At the distillery, the piñas are cut into quarters. For tequila, they are then slowly
baked in steam ovens or autoclaves until all of the starch has been converted to
sugars. For mezcal, they are baked in underground ovens heated with wood
charcoal (which gives mezcal its distinctive smoky taste). They are then crushed
(traditionally with a stone wheel drawn around a circular trough by a mule) and
shredded to extract the sweet juice, called aguamiel (honey water).

WHAT BING CROSBY AND JIMMY BUFFETT HAVE IN COMMON

Modest amounts of tequila had been exported into U.S. border towns since the late nineteenth century.
The first major boost to tequila sales in the United States came in the late 1940s when the Margarita
cocktail, a blend of tequila, lime juice, orange liqueur, and ice, was invented. Its origins are uncertain,
but Hollywood actors and cocktail parties in California and Mexican resorts seem to be involved in
most of the genesis stories. It is known that crooner and actor Bing Crosby was so taken with one
particular brand of tequila, Herradura, that he teamed up with fellow actor Phil Harris to import the
brand into the United States. The margarita, along with the Tequila Sunrise and the Tequila Sour, have
become highly popular in the United States; in fact, it is claimed by many in the liquor industry that the
Margarita is the single most popular cocktail in the nation. In the 1970s, when balladeer Jimmy Buffett
sang of “wasting away again in Margaritaville,” the success of the song enticed millions more
Americans to sip from the salt-rimmed Margarita glass.
FERMENTATION: AGAVE OR MIXTO
The fermentation stage determines whether the final product will be 100 percent
agave or mixto. The highest-quality tequila is made from fermenting and then
distilling only agave juice mixed with some water. Mixto is made by fermenting
and then distilling a mix of agave juice and other sugars, usually cane sugar with
water. Mixtos made and bottled in Mexico can contain up to 40 percent alcohol
made from other sugars. Mixtos that have been shipped in bulk to other countries
(primarily the United States) for bottling may have the agave content further
reduced to 51 percent by the foreign bottler. By Mexican law, all 100 percent
agave or aged tequilas must be bottled in Mexico. If a tequila is 100 percent
agave, it will always say so on the bottle label. If it doesn’t say 100 percent, it is
a mixto, although that term is seldom used on bottle labels.

DISTILLATION AND AGING OF TEQUILA AND MEZCAL

Traditionally, tequila and mezcal have been distilled in pot stills at 110° proof
(55 percent ABV). The resulting spirit is clear but contains a significant amount
of congeners and other flavor elements. Some light-colored tequilas are now
being rectified (redistilled) in column stills to produce a cleaner, blander spirit.

Color in tequila and mezcal comes mostly from the addition of caramel,
although barrel aging is a factor in some high-quality brands. Additionally, some
distillers add small amounts of natural flavorings such as sherry, prune
concentrate, and coconut to manipulate the product’s flavor profile. These added
flavors do not stand out, by themselves, but instead serve to smooth out the often
hard-edged palate of agave spirit.
 A bottle of Agua Azul, a blue agave eau de vie.

MEZCAL AND THE WORM

The rules and regulations that govern the production and packaging of tequila do
not apply to agave spirits produced outside of the designated areas in Mexico.
Some mezcal distilleries are very primitive and very small. The best known
mezcals come from the southern state of Oaxaca, although they are produced in
a number of other states. Eight varieties of agave are approved for mezcal
production, but the chief variety used is the espadin agave (Agave angustifolia
Haw).

The famous worm found in some bottles of mezcal (“con gusano”) is the larva of
one of two moths that live on the agave plant. The reason for adding the worm to
the bottle of mezcal is obscure. But one story, which at least has the appeal of
logic to back it up, is that the worm serves as proof of high proof: The worm
remains intact in the bottle if the percentage of alcohol in the spirit is high
enough to preserve the pickled worm. Consuming the worm, which can be done
without harm, has served as a rite of passage for generations of fraternity boys.
Top-quality mezcals do not include a worm in the bottle.
 Barrels set for aging tequila in a warehouse/tasting room.

THE BLUE AGAVE STRIKES BACK

From the 1930s through the 1980s, the bulk of the tequila being produced was of the blended mixto
variety. The original 100 percent agave tequilas were reduced to a minor specialty product in the
market. In the late 1980s, the rising success of single-malt Scotch and expensive Cognacs in the
international marketplace did not go unnoticed among tequila producers. New brands of 100 percent
blue agave tequilas were introduced, and sales began a steady growth curve that continues to this day.
Cinco de Noviembre Mezcal by Kimo Sabe Mezcal.
 Brendan Moylan holds up a couple of bottles of JB Wagoner’s 100 percent Blue Agave Spirits in
front of his well-stocked bar.

THE SPIRIT OF MEXICO IS MORE THAN JUST AGAVE

In the northern Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahulia, and Durango, a local
evergreen shrub called the dasylirion is used to produce sotol, a crisp spirit with
dry metallic notes. Aguardiente (roughly translated as “firewater”) is an unaged,
frequently raw spirit that is distilled from pretty much whatever fermentable
organic base product is available. Drink at your own risk.

NON-MEXICAN AGAVE SPIRITS

Federal excise tax records indicate that tequila-like agave spirits were produced
Federal excise tax records indicate that tequila-like agave spirits were produced
in the 1930s in the southwestern United States. Recently, more than a dozen
modern craft distillers have begun to experiment with their own agave spirits,
such as El Ladron Agave Spirit by Venus Spirits in Santa Cruz, California; Agua
Azul by St. George Spirits in Alameda, California; and El Keyote by Cannon
Beach Distillery in Cannon Beach, Oregon; The Wise King Anejo Agave Spirit
by State 38 Distilling, Golden Colorado, and Frontera Norte Agave by Flying
Dutchman Spirits in Eden Prarie, Minnesota.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF TEQUILA
Beyond the two basic designations of tequila—agave and mixto—there are four
categories:

STYLE DEFINITION HOWEVER…

Silver or Blanco Clear, with little (no more than 60 Once you have confirmed that it
days in stainless steel tanks) or no is 100 percent blue agave, a
aging. They can be either 100 fancy bottle and a higher price
percent agave or mixto. Silver do not necessarily mean that it
tequilas are used primarily for is a better spirit.
mixing and blend particularly well
into fruit-based drinks.

Gold Unaged silver tequila that has been A product category produced
colored and flavored with caramel. primarily for silly gringos.
It is usually a mixto. Serious tequila drinkers go for
reposados.

Reposado/Rested “Rested” tequila is aged in wooden Reposado tequilas are the best-
tanks or casks for a legal minimum selling tequilas in Mexico.
period of at least two months, with
the better-quality brands spending
three to nine months in wood. It can
be either 100 percent agave or
mixto.

Añejo/Aged “Old” tequila is aged in wooden Aging tequila for more than four
barrels (usually old bourbon barrels) years is a matter of controversy.
for a minimum of 12 months. The Most tequila producers oppose
best-quality anejos are aged for 18 doing so because they feel that
months to three years for mixtos, “excessive” oak aging will
and up to four years for 100 percent overwhelm the distinctive
agaves. earthy and vegetal agave flavor
notes.
El Ladron Agave Spirit by Venus Spirits, Santa Cruz, CA.
El Keyote Agave Spirit from Cannon Beach Distilley, Cannon Beach, OR.
The Wise King Anejo Agave Spirit by State 38 Distilling, Golden Colorado.
AS THE WORM TURNS
The upgrading and upscaling of tequila has, in turn, inspired mezcal producers to undertake similar
measures. In the past few years, an increasing number of high-end mezcals, including some intriguing
“single village” bottlings, have been introduced to the market. Mezcal now seems to be coming into its
own as a distinctive, noteworthy spirit.

TEQUILA COCKTAILS
CLASSIC MARGARITA
Take a short glass. Wet the rim with lime juice. Put the glass upside down in coarse salt, so that the salt
clings to the rim. In a cocktail shaker, combine:
1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) silver tequila
3/4 ounce (23 ml) triple sec

3/4 ounce (23 ml) lime juice

Ice to fill
Shake and strain into the salt-rimmed glass and garnish with a lime slice.

FROZEN FRUIT MARGARITA

Take a short glass. Wet the rim with lime juice and put the glass upside down in coarse salt, so salt
clings to the rim (this step is optional). Combine the ingredients for the Classic Margarita in a blender
with very ripe fruit (6 to 7 ounces [170 to 200 g] fresh or 4 ounces [115 g] frozen). Add 3/4 cup ice.
Blend until smooth and pour into the glass.

TEQUILA SUNRISE
Fill a tall glass with ice. Add:
1 1/2 ounces (45 ml) silver tequila

Orange juice almost to full

Slowly pour 1/2 ounce (15 ml) grenadine syrup over the top. (As it trickles down, it creates the
“sunrise” effect.)
Chapter 9
INFUSED SPIRITS: LIQUEURS,
SCHNAPPS, ANISE, AND BITTERS
LIQUORS can refer generically to distilled spirits, but they can also be
specifically flavored spirits. Add a sweetener and they become liqueurs. Add
certain herbs and you now have bitters. At the end of the day, if something can
be fermented and then distilled, people will drink it.

Liqueurs, schnapps, anise, amari, and bitters are terms that cover a wide variety
of types of spirits. What they all share in common is that they are infused, or
flavored, spirits.
New Columbia Distillers Summer Cup is a gin-based cordial based on the popular English cocktail
the Summer Fruit Cup.
LIQUEURS
Also known as cordials, liqueurs are sweet, flavor-infused spirits that are
categorized according to the flavoring agent (fruits, nuts, herbal and spice
blends, creams, and such). The word liqueur comes from the Latin liquifacere
(“to dissolve”) and refers to the dissolving of flavorings in the spirits. Artificial
flavorings are strictly regulated in most countries and where allowed they must
be prominently labeled as such.

Top-quality liqueurs are produced by distillation of either the fermented flavor

materials or the spirit in which they have been infused. Many liqueurs use
finished spirits such as Cognac, rum, or whiskey as their base. Others macerate
fruit or other flavorings in a neutral spirit. Crèmes (crème de menthe, crème de
cacao, etc.) are liqueurs with a primary flavor, while cream liqueurs combine
dairy cream and alcohol in a homogenized, shelf-stable blend.

Liqueurs are not usually aged for any great length of time, but they may undergo
resting stages during their production to allow the various flavors to “marry” into
a harmonious blend. Some Italian amari are rested in barrels for several years as
the complex botanical mixtures combine into deep flavors.
Townshend’s Distillery in Portland, OR, produces a line of spirits, including herbal liqueurs, from
excess alcohol extracted from their Brew Dr. Kombucha.
Freshly filled bottles of Raspberry Liqueur await boxing and shipping at the Sidetrack Distillery in
Kent, WA.
Unripened black walnuts are infused in high-proof alcohol in the process of making Nocino, an
Italian-style bitter liqueur at Sidetrack Distillery in Kent, WA.

BLENDED FAMILIES
All liqueurs are blends, even those with a primary flavor. A touch of vanilla is added to crème de cacao
to emphasize the chocolate. Citrus flavor notes sharpen the presentation of anise. Herbal liqueurs may
contain dozens of different flavor elements that a master blender manipulates to achieve the desired
flavor profile.
Maple Liqueur by Salish Sea Organic Liqueurs earned a Gold Medal in the American Distilling
Intitute’s 2018 International Judging of Craft Spirits.
Raspberry Liqueur by Skip Rock Distillers earned a Gold Medal in the American Distilling
Institute’s 2018 International Judging of Craft Spirits.
Helgolander German style Herbal Liqueur by the Dampfwerk Distillery Co. earned a Gold Medal in
the American Distilling Institute’s 2018 International Judging of Craft Spirits.
Black Walnut Liqueur by Wood Hat Spirits earned a Gold Medal in the American Distilling
Intitute’s 2018 International Judging of Craft Spirits.
A. van Wees De Ooievaar fruit liqueur from the Netherlands.
 Rosolis Ziolowy Gorzki is a rose-flavored stomach bitters from the Lancut Distillery in Poland.

Liqueurs can be hard to classify, but regardless of flavor they can be broadly
divided into two categories. Generics are liqueurs of a particular type (crème de
cacao or curaçao, for example) that can be made by any producer. Proprietaries
are liqueurs with trademarked names that are made according to a specific
formula. Examples of such liqueurs include Kahlúa, Grand Marnier, and
Southern Comfort.
SCHNAPPS
Schnapps is a general term used for an assortment of white and flavored spirits
that have originated in northern countries or regions, such as Germany or
Scandinavia. Schnapps can be made from grain, potatoes, or molasses and can
be flavored with virtually anything (watermelon and root beer schnapps from the
United States being proof of that). The dividing line between schnapps and
flavored vodka is vague and is more cultural than stylistic.

Label for Johnny Ziegler Black Forest Style Apple Aux Pommel Schnapps Eau de Vie by Wine-
garden Estate in New Brunswick, Canada.
Label for Blackberry Liqueur by Clear Creek Distillery.
ANISE-FLAVORED SPIRITS
These spirits can vary widely in style, depending on the country of origin. They
can be dry or very sweet, low or high proof, distilled from fermented aniseed or
macerated in neutral spirit.

In France, anis (as produced by Pernod) is produced by distilling anise and a

variety of other botanicals together. Pastis is macerated, rather than distilled, and
contains fewer botanicals than anis. In Italy, sambuca is distilled from anise and
botanicals, but it is then heavily sweetened to make it a liqueur. Oil of fennel
(also known as green anise) is frequently added to boost the aroma of the spirit.
Greece has a drier, grappa-like liqueur called ouzo, which is stylistically close to
pastis.
Absent Minded is an organic absinthe by Wigle Whiskey, in Pittsburgh, PA.
Wildcard Absinthe by Oregon Spirit Distillers, earned a Double-Gold Medal, Best of Category and
Best of Class at the American Distilling Institute’s 9th Annual Judging of Craft American Spirits.
Black Note Amaro by Turin Vermouth, Italy.
Absinthe Verte by St. George Spirits.
Absinthe Verte by Leopold Bros.
ABSINTHE MAKES THE HEART GROW FONDER
Modern pastis is the genteel descendent of its much more raffish nineteenth-century ancestor absinthe, a
high- (sometimes very high) proof anise liquor (technically not a liqueur because no sugar is added) that
included extract of wormwood in its list of botanicals. Wormwood contains the chemical compound
thujone, whose alleged psychedelic effects made absinthe very popular among the bohemian
counterculture artists and intellectuals of France and Europe (Vincent van Gogh and Oscar Wilde were
devotees of what was termed the Green Fairy). Conversely, social conservatives and prohibitionists
campaigned against it as the crack cocaine of its day and eventually got it outlawed in most European
countries and the United States. Modern scientific analysis has found thujone’s psychedelic potency to
be, at best, greatly exaggerated and many distillers claim most of the thujone in absinthe comes from
anise and not wormwood.

Forbidden fruit is always appealing, and starting in the 1990s, absinthe, which continued to be
commercially produced in Eastern Europe, slowly started to return to the general marketplace, initially
in “thujone-free” versions from France and Switzerland. When absinthe was again legalized in the U.S,
St. George Spirits in Alameda, California, jumped in to be the first brand approved and many others
have followed suit. One thing that has not changed about absinthe is its high alcohol content.
Kevin Herson makes three different styles of absinthe at Doc Herson’s Natural Spirits, Brooklyn,
NY.
BITTERS AND AMARI
The modern-day descendants of medieval medical potions, bitters are marketed
as having at least some vaguely therapeutic value (stomach settlers, hangover
cures, and so on). They tend to be flavored with herbs, roots, and botanicals and
contain lower quantities of fruit and sugar than liqueurs.

The Farmaceutica di Santa Maria Novella, in Florence, Italy, founded in 1612,

produces amari (plural of amaro: Italian bitter liqueurs) from recipes that date
back to the 17th century. Some European aperitifs and digestifs have been lifted
from obscurity in recent years from active marketing campaigns. Fernet Branca,
another Italian amaro from Milan has gained popularity with American
bartenders for an end-of-the-night shot. Jägermeister was a German old man’s
drink, most often served at room temperature in small quantities to warm a body
on cold, damp winter days, until a clever marketing campaign made it popular as
a shooter served colder than an ice cube to American college students.

These digestifs—ranging from the dry Unicum from Hungary to the sweet
Becherovka from the Czech Republic—are produced in almost every country in
Europe, while new American producers are getting into the game.

Italian immigrant Francesco Amodeo founded Don Ciccio & Figli with recipes
his family produced and sold on the Amalfi Coast from 1883 until an earthquake
destroyed the production facility in 1980. His plant in Washington, DC,
produces limoncello and a variety of amari. Another DC-based amaro producer,
Founding Spirits, makes amaro at a nanodistillery inside the Founding Farmers
restaurant. Fernet Michaud, by Liquid Riot in Portland, Maine, is another fine
example of a modern craft distillery producing their own version of a European
classic. Underground Herbal Spirit, produced by Ogden’s Own in Utah, is also a
noteworthy example of the style.

As bartenders scoured through 19th-century recipes looking for classic cocktails

to revive, spirits producers have scrambled to resurrect long-lost spirits, often
found in 19th-century pharmacy notebooks. St. Germain elderflower liqueur
rocketed to popularity when it caught the fancy of bartenders. The Woodinville,
Washington, distillery broVo Spirits created a line of more than a dozen amari
by working with individual bartenders to create their dream amaro.

Although there are specialty liqueur producers, most brands are produced by
general distillers as part of an extended product line. Among the new generation
general distillers as part of an extended product line. Among the new generation
of craft distillers, some of the standout liqueur producers include Leopold
Brothers Distillery of Denver, Colorado, with their distinctive whiskey-based
fruit liqueurs (the Rocky Mountain Blackberry is particularly noteworthy); Flag
Hill Winery and Distillery in Lee, New Hampshire, with their delicately tinged
Sugar Maple Liqueur; and Sidetrack Distillery, in Kent, Washington, who
produce a variety of eaux de vie and liqueurs using produce from the farm
adjacent to the distillery.

Some of the amari recipes available for purchase from the Farmaceutica di Santa Maria Novella,
Florence, Italy, date back more than 400 years.
Rocky Mountain Peach Flavored Whiskey by Leopold Bros.
 Todd Leopold is highly regarded among his fellow distillers for holding high standards and
renovating old techniques, including floor malting and recreating a 19th-century style of
chambered still. Leopold Bros. fruit-flavored whiskeys are among his highly acclaimed spirits.
Francesco Amodeo, left, and Jonathan Fasano at Don Ciccio & Figli, a rectifier making amari and
other Italian liqueurs from old family recipes, in Washington, DC.
Chapter 10
DISTILLING RESOURCES
BEFORE you are going to walk the walk, you first need to learn the talk.

The Distiller’s Library is a bibliography of English-language books on distilling

and the various types of spirits. If you haven’t already found what you want in
this book, well, here are a whole lot of alternative sources.

The Distiller’s Glossary will help you sort out the industry jargon that is
sprinkled throughout the text of this book. Learning the meaning of the term
slobber box, alone, is worth the price of admission.

And finally, the International Directory of Distilleries is a link to the most

comprehensive worldwide listing of operating whiskey and craft distilleries as
maintained by the American Distilling Institute. So many tots of whiskey to
sample, so little time.
THE DISTILLER’S LIBRARY
WHEN it comes to learning about what they make, craft brewers have it
relatively easy. Since Michael Jackson’s first book on beer came out in the early
1980s, there has been a steady flood of consumer and professional books on beer
and brewing arriving on the market. Not so for spirits until fairly recently. The
selection is better than it used to be. Here is a bibliographic summary of what is
available.

NOTE: Not all of these books are currently in print, but as of this book’s
publication, they were all available through Amazon.com or Alibrus.com. The
review comments are solely the opinions of the editor, Alan Dikty.

A bartender eyes her pour carefully while serving three Blood on Sand cocktails.
DISTILLED SPIRITS, GENERAL
Blue, Anthony Dias.
THE COMPLETE BOOK OF SPIRITS.
New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2004.
Wide-ranging review of all major categories of spirits by a well-known beverage and lifestyle writer, with
tasting notes and cocktail recipes. Its usefulness is marred by truly awful copyediting.

Dikty, Alan S.
BUYING GUIDE TO SPIRITS.
New York: Sterling Publishing, 1999.
Concise but detailed chapters on all spirits categories, with thousands of tasting notes. Used as a training
manual for the sales force of the largest liquor wholesaler in the United States. Written, with a certain dry
wit, by the editor of this book.

Henriques, E. Frank.
THE SIGNET ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WHISKEY, BRANDY & ALL OTHER SPIRITS.
New York: Signet, New American Library, 1979.
CliffsNotes for bar management: quick but informative reference descriptions and explanations for
thousands of spirit types, brands and cocktails. Out of print, but worth searching out.

Lembeck, Harriet.
GROSSMAN’S GUIDE TO WINES, BEERS, AND SPIRITS.
New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1983.
The grand old reference guide to alcoholic beverages: the spirits section is still a good introduction to all the
major and many, many of the minor categories and brands.

Owens, Bill, ed.

WORLD GUIDE TO WHISKEY DISTILLERIES.
White Mule Press, 2009. www.distilling.com
A complete listing of whiskey distilleries.

Price, Pamela Vandyke.

A DIRECTORY OF WINES AND SPIRITS.
London: Peerage Books, 1986.
More wine than spirits oriented, but any reference book that tells the truth about Southern Comfort (it
contains no bourbon) is worthwhile.
Hydrometers for measuring alcohol content of distillates.
DISTILLED SPIRITS, HISTORY
Barr, Andrew.
DRINK: A SOCIAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1999. Breezy but well-researched history of drinking in the United
States, combined with droll put-downs of prohibitionists past and especially present.

Fleming, Alice.
ALCOHOL: THE DELIGHTFUL POISON.
New York: Laurel-Leaf Library, Dell Publishing, 1975.
Short history of world and American spirits, followed by an extended essay on the physical effects (positive
and negative) of alcohol.

Forbes, R. J.
SHORT HISTORY OF THE ART OF DISTILLATION.
Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1948.
White Mule Press reprinting of a Dutch history of distillation from Ptolemaic Egypt to the advent of column
distillation in the mid-19th century. Many, many illustrations.

Gately, Ian.
DRINK: A CULTURAL HISTORY OF ALCOHOL.
New York: Gotham Books, 2009.
Excellent world history of the development of the drinking of alcohol and how its production, including
distilling, has influenced various cultures.

Ganong, Niki.
THE FIELD GUIDE TO DRINKING IN AMERICA: A TRAVELER’S HANDBOOK TO STATE
LIQUOR LAWS.
Portland, OR: Overcup Press, 2015.
Planning on selling your craft spirits across state lines? This breezy, graphic-heavy consumer guide contains
a surprising amount of useful information on the local quirks of selling alcohol in all 50 states.

Heron, Craig.
BOOZE: A DISTILLED HISTORY.
Toronto: Between the Lines, 2003.
A history of liquor in Canada, written from a feminist, politically correct (!) point of view. Lots of
informative history, eh?

Lender, Mark Edward, and James Kirby Martin.

DRINKING IN AMERICA: A HISTORY.
New York: The Free Press, 1982.
Conventional but well-written survey of liquor drinking in the United States, from Colonial times to the
present. Heavily illustrated.

Logsdon, Gene.
GOOD SPIRITS.
White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 1999.
A social history of distillation in the United States, and a call for home distillation. The author is a bit of a
crank, but writes well.

Moss, Robert F.
SOUTHERN SPIRITS: FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF DRINKING IN THE AMERICAN SOUTH,
WITH RECIPES.
Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2016.
A social history of drinking spirits in the American South from Colonial times through to the present
bourbon whiskey boom, with many cocktail recipes.

Rorabaugh, W. J.
THE ALCOHOL REPUBLIC: AN AMERICAN TRADITION.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.
In the United States, 1790 to 1830 was the high tide of spirits consumption. Everyone drank, there were no
excise taxes, all distilleries were small and local and best of all, there was no organized temperance
movement. Ah, the good old days!

Spivak, Mark.
ICONIC SPIRITS: AN INTOXICATED HISTORY.
Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2012.
A breezy history of how twelve spirits, from moonshine to tequila, influenced world history, written by an
NPR presenter for the NPR crowd — you know who you are.

Waxman, Max.
CHASING THE WHITE DOG.
Simon & Schuster, 2009.
Tracing the historical roots of moonshine through the backwoods of the United States.

Wilson, Jason.
BOOZEHOUND: ON THE TRAIL OF THE RARE, THE OBSCURE, AND THE OVERRATED IN
SPIRITS.
Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2010.
A veteran newspaper beverage columnist surveys the current spirits market scene, dishes some cocktail
recipes, and pricks more than a few marketing bubbles.
DISTILLED SPIRITS, MEDICINAL EFFECTS
Center for Science in the Public Interest.
CHEMICAL ADDITIVES IN BOOZE.
Washington, DC: CSPI Books, 1982.
The CSPI is a notorious collection of public scolds, and no friend to distilled spirits. But their chemical
analysis of assorted brands of wines, spirits, and beers makes interesting reading. Hint: Stay away from any
liqueur with the word crème in the brand name.

Chafetz, Morris E.
LIQUOR: THE SERVANT OF MAN.
Boston: Little Brown, 1965.
Don’t let drunken fools screw it up for the rest of us, explained in 223 pages.

Ford, Gene.
THE BENEFITS OF MODERATE DRINKING: ALCOHOL, HEALTH, & SOCIETY.
San Francisco: Wine Appreciation Guild, 1988.
Listen to your doctor. Wine (and spirits) in moderation are good for you.
DISTILLED SPIRITS, PHILOSOPHY
Allhoff, Fritz, ed.
WHISKEY AND PHILOSOPHY.
John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
Philosophy of consuming and discussion of whiskey.

Amis, Kingsley.
ON DRINK.
New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972.
One of Britain’s great postwar novelists discusses the purpose of drinking in a series of essays where the
wit is as dry as his recipe for a martini.

DeVoto, Bernard.
THE HOUR.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951.
One of the United States’s great literary critics of the twentieth century explains the importance of good
whiskey in a civil society, along with the importance of a properly made martini in “the violet twilight of
each day—the cocktail hour.”

Edmunds, Lowell.
THE SILVER BULLET.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981.
The martini as a mirror of America’s soul. Seven messages from the cocktail shaker.
Hundreds of bottles of spirits line the walls in the ultimate well-stocked bar.
DISTILLED SPIRITS, PRODUCTION
Barleycorn, Michael.
MOONSHINER’S MANUAL.
Hayward, CA: White Mule Press, 2009. www.distilling.com.
Home distillation for beginners.

Byrn, M. Lafayette.
THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER.
Chagrin Falls, OH: Raudins Publishing, 2002. www.raudins.com
Reprinting of 1875 distillery operations manual that contains a lot of still-useful information for a small-
scale pot distiller.

Hall, Harrison.
THE DISTILLER.
San Francisco: Knowledge Arts Media, 2013.
White Mule Press 2015 reprint of an 1818 professional distiller’s manual. Includes a chapter on “The
Imitation of Foreign Spirits.”

Hoefling, Brian D.
DISTILLED KNOWLEDGE: THE SCIENCE BEHIND DRINKING’S GREATEST MYTHS,
LEGENDS, AND UNANSWERED QUESTIONS.
New York: Abbeville Press, 2016.
What goes into a bottle of alcohol, and what it does to your body and that of the zebra finch.

M’Harry, Samuel.
PRACTICAL DISTILLER.
Chagrin Falls, OH: Raudins Publishing, 2001.
Reprinting of 1809 (!) American distilling manual. Learn about distilling techniques from the era of the
birth of bourbon. Fascinating reading. Order at www.raudins.com.

Goldsmith, David J.
A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON THE DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL FROM FARM
PRODUCTS.
Amsterdam: Fredonia Books, 2001.
Reprint of 1922 distilling manual first published during national Prohibition. Just remember, folks: don’t
drink it, because that would be illegal, wink, wink. Order at www.fredoniabooks.com.

Murtaugh, Dr. John E.

THE ALCOHOL TEXTBOOK.
Nottingham, UK: Nottingham University Press, 2003.
Commercial-scale ethanol and beverage alcohol production techniques and reference charts. Not for light
reading.

Nixon, Mike, and Mike McGaw.

THE COMPLEAT DISTILLER.
Auckland, NZ: Amphora Society, 2001. Advanced home distilling from New Zealand. Lots of practical
information for newbies.

Owens, Bill.
CRAFT WHISKEY DISTILLING.
Hayward, CA: White Mule Press, 2009.
www.distilling.com. Compact summary of the small-scale distilling process. Heavily illustrated.

Rogers, Adam.
PROOF: THE SCIENCE OF BOOZE.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014.
The production processing and effects of beverage alcohol explained. Geeky, but in a good way.

Rowley, Matthew.
MOONSHINE.
Lark Books, 2006.
How to build a still at home.

Russell, Inge, ed.

WHISKEY TECHNOLOGY.
Academic Press, 2003.
Handbook of alcoholic beverages.

Smiley, Ian.
MAKING PURE CORN WHISKEY: A PROFESSIONAL GUIDE FOR AMATEUR AND MICRO
DISTILLERS.
Amphora Society, 2003. www.home-distilling.com.
A crash course in small-scale distilling from New Zealand, the homeland of modern moonshining.

Stone, John.
MAKING GIN & VODKA.
Vancouver, BC: John Stone, 1997. www.gin-vodka.com
Advanced home-distilling techniques for white spirits.
Advanced home-distilling techniques for white spirits.
BRANDY AND EAU DE VIE
Behrendt, Axel, and Bibiana Behrendt.
COGNAC.
New York: Abbeville Press, 1997.
Detailed tasting notes and histories for more than a hundred producers.

Behrendt, Axel, and Bibiana Behrendt.

GRAPPA: A GUIDE TO THE BEST.
New York: Abbeville Press, 2000.
Extensively researched guide to Italian pomace brandy. Detailed tasting notes and producer histories.

Boudin, Ove.
GRAPPA: ITALY BOTTLED.
Partille: PianoForte Publishing, 2007.
Coffee-table picture book crossed with a surprisingly detailed explanation of how grappa is produced in
Italy and who does it.

Brown, Gordon.
HANDBOOK OF FINE BRANDIES.
New York: Macmillan, 1990.
British-oriented guide to the brandies of the world. Odd bar chart product ratings, but still a good general
overview of the subject.

Calabrese, Salvatore.
COGNAC: A LIQUID HISTORY.
London: Cassel, 2001.
Big type, lots of pretty pictures, but still a useful reference work, with intelligent tasting notes.
 A Ping-Pong table at St. George’s Spirits keeps the hardest-working distillers entertained and on
their toes in the distillery.

Germain-Robin, Hubert.
TRADITIONAL DISTILLATION: ART AND PASSION.
Hayward: White Mule Press, 2012.
A pioneer California brandy distiller, with family roots in Cognac, muses on brandy distillation and
production techniques.

Germain-Robin, Hubert.
THE MATURATION OF DISTILLED SPIRITS: VISION AND PATIENCE.
Hayward: White Mule Press, 2016.
A sixth-generation native of Cognac reveals cellar masters’ techniques for nurturing flavor creation in the
barrel.

Hannum, Hurst, and Robert S. Blumberg.

BRANDIES AND LIQUEURS OF THE WORLD.
Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1976.
Well-written and still useful overview of the brandies of the world.

Herbert, Malcolm.
CALIFORNIA BRANDY CUISINE.
San Francisco: Wine Appreciation Guild, 1984.
Primarily a cooking and mixed, drink recipe book, it also contains historical notes on the California brandy
industry prior to the arrival of modern craft distillers.

Mattsson, Henrik.
CALVADOS: THE WORLD’S PREMIER APPLE BRANDY.
Flavourrider AB, 2004.
A Swedish writer’s introduction to the apple brandies of Normandy, France. Both a brandy and travel guide,
and good at both.

Neal, Charles.
ARMAGNAC: THE DEFINITIVE GUIDE TO FRANCE’S PREMIER BRANDY.
San Francisco: Flame Grape Press, 1998.
Exhaustive guide to every commercial distillery in Armagnac, most of which are tiny farm distilleries. The
author loves his topic, hates inferior production techniques, and lets you know exactly what he thinks.

Nicholas, Faith.
COGNAC.
London: Mitchell Beazley, 2005.
Typical flashy-looking Mitchell Beazley beverage book. Quick history, lots of tasting notes on pricey XOs.

Page, C. E.
ARMAGNAC: THE SPIRIT OF GASCONY.
London: Bloomsbury, 1990.
Standard, British-centered guide to Armagnac. Tour and tasting notes.

Ray, Cyril.
COGNAC.
New York: Stein & Day, 1973.
Well-known British wine writer presents a droll history of France’s best known brandy.
GIN
Coates, Geraldine.
DISCOVERING GIN.
London: New Lifestyle Publishing, 1996.
Flashy graphics and history lite text on the social history of gin.

Dillon, Patrick.
GIN: THE MUCH-LAMENTED DEATH OF MADAM GENEVA.
Boston: Justin, Charles, 2003.
The story of the eighteenth-century gin craze in England is even stranger than you can imagine.

Emmons, Bob.
THE BOOK OF GINS & VODKAS.
Chicago: Open Court, 2000.
Quick but comprehensive introduction to the two primary white spirits.

Smith, David T.
FORGOTTEN SPIRITS & LOST LIQUEURS.
Hayward: White Mule Press, 2015.
Non–London Dry Gin varieties and so-old-they’re-new-again types of bitters described and explained, plus
lots of cocktail recipes to show what you can do with them.

Watney, John.
MOTHER’S RUIN: THE STORY OF GIN.
London: Peter Owen, 1976.
The social history of gin in England. Sloe gin explained!
LIQUEUR AND BITTERS
Conrad, Barnaby.
ABSINTHE: HISTORY IN A BOTTLE.
San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1988.
The crack cocaine of its time, but in truth, much maligned. A social history of the “Green Fairy.”

Parsons, Brad Thomas.

BITTERS: A SPIRITED HISTORY OF A CLASSIC CURE-ALL.
Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2011.
A crash course in bitters, what they are, who makes them and how to use them.

Walton, Stuart.
THE NEW GUIDE TO SPIRITS AND LIQUEURS.
London: Lorenz Books, 2000.
Well-organized reference guide to liqueurs and how to mix them.

White, Francesca. Cheers!

A SPIRITED GUIDE TO LIQUORS AND LIQUEURS.
London: Paddington Press, 1977.
Capsule explanations of many liqueurs, well known and obscure.
RUM
Arkell, Julie.
CLASSIC RUM.
London: Prion Books, 1999.
Quick-moving survey of rums of the world, with an emphasis on the Caribbean.

Ayala, Luis.
THE RUM EXPERIENCE.
Round Rock, TX: Rum Runner Press, 2001.
Enthusiastic guide to the rums of the Americas. Highly opinionated.

Barty-King, Hugh, and Anton Massel.

RUM: YESTERDAY AND TODAY.
London: Heinemann, 1983.
Serious history of rum in all of its major markets.

Broom, Dave.
RUM.
London: Mitchell Beazley, 2003.
More specifically, rums of the Caribbean for Brit drinkers. Lots of pretty pictures.

Coulombe, Charles A.
RUM: THE EPIC STORY OF THE DRINK THAT CONQUERED THE WORLD.
New York: Citadel Press, 2004.
The political history of rum from a Catholic perspective. (Really!)

Gelabert, Blanche.
THE SPIRIT OF PUERTO RICAN RUM.
San Juan: Discovery Press, 1992.
Cooking and mixing drinks with Puerto Rican rum.
 A bottle of Northern Comfort Massachusetts Liqueur sits on the counter at Nashoba Distillery.

Hamilton, Edward.
THE COMPLETE GUIDE TO RUM.
Chicago: Triumph Press, 1996.
A yacht-cruising tour of the rums of the Caribbean. A great read.

Hamilton, Edward.
RUMS OF THE EASTERN CARIBBEAN.
Culebra, PR: Tafia Publishing, 1997.
The Minister of Rum recycles The Complete Guide to Rum.

Pack, Capt. James

NELSON’S BLOOD: THE STORY OF NAVAL RUM.
Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1983.
Rum as a tool of social control in the Royal Navy. So, how much is a tot of rum?

Plotkin, Robert.
CARIBE RUM: THE ORIGINAL GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN RUM AND DRINKS.
Tucson: Bar Media, 2001.
Many, many mixed drink recipes, uniformly enthusiastic product reviews, and a very, very annoying page
layout featuring a winged heart (don’t ask).

Smiley, Ian; Watson, Eric and Michael Delevante.

THE DISTILLER’S GUIDE TO RUM.
Hayward: White Mule Press, 2013.
A brief history of rum, followed by a detailed explanation of the ingredients and various production
techniques used in the distillation of rum. A good, detailed introduction to rum production for entry-level
distillers and detail-obsessed rum enthusiasts.
The George Washington Distillery.
TEQUILA
Emmons, Bob.
THE BOOK OF TEQUILA: A COMPLETE GUIDE.
Chicago: Open Court, 1997.
Truth in advertising. Excellent introduction to the history and production of tequila. Brand listings are now
somewhat dated, but still very useful.

Martinez Limon, Enrique.

TEQUILA: THE SPIRIT OF MEXICO.
New York: Abbeville Press, 2000. Extensively illustrated consumer guide to the production and brands of
tequila.

Sanchez, Alberto Ruy, and Margarita de Orellana.

TEQUILA: A TRADITIONAL ART OF MEXICO.
Washington: Smithsonian Books, 2004.
Breezy, lightweight guide to current brands of tequila. Lots of drink recipes.

Valenzuela-Zapata, Ana G., and Gary Paul Nabhan.

TEQUILA! A NATURAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY.
Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2003.
Tequila as seen through the eyes of plant biologists.
VODKA
Begg, Desmond.
THE VODKA COMPANION.
Philadelphia: Running Press, 1998.
Quick history of vodka with extensive tasting notes.

Delos, Gilbert.
VODKAS OF THE WORLD.
Edison, NJ: Wellfleet Press, 1998.
Excellent survey of vodkas and aquavit.

Wisniewski, Ian.
VODKA: DISCOVERING, EXPLORING, ENJOYING.
London: Ryland Peters & Small, 2003.
A stylish magazine article on vodka turned into a very short book.
WHISKEY, GENERAL
Gabanyi, Stefan.
WHISK(E)Y.
New York: Abbeville Press, 1997.
English translation of a German guide to the whiskeys of the world. Thousands of brands and terms listed
and explained. Excellent quick-reference guide.

Jackson, Michael.
WHISKEY.
New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2005.
Heavily detailed and beautifully laid-out guide to the whiskeys of the world, including the new craft
distillers. Required addition to any serious distiller’s library.

Jackson, Michael.
THE WORLD GUIDE TO WHISKY.
Topsfield, MA: Salem House Publishers, 1988. The Bard of Brew’s first take on the whiskeys of Scotland,
Ireland, Canada, the United States, and Japan. A worthy companion to his seminal The World Guide to
Beer.

MacLean, Charles.
WHISKEY (EYEWITNESS COMPANIONS).
London: Dorling Kindersley, 2008.
Lightweight but up-to-date listing of all major and a sprinkling of smaller whiskey distilleries worldwide,
with limited tasting notes. Heavily illustrated in the patent DK publication style.

Murphy, Brian.
THE WORLD BOOK OF WHISKEY.
Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1979.
Interesting view of the whiskeys of the world just before the late twentieth-century rash of mergers,
closures, and brand changes. Après moi, le deluge.
 An old truck outside Stranahan’s Colorado Whiskey.

Murray, Jim.
THE COMPLETE GUIDE TO WHISKEY.
Chicago: Triumph Books, 1997.
More properly a guide to Scotch, Irish, Canadian, and American whiskeys, and the distilleries that make
them. Good capsule histories of the distilleries with minimal tasting notes.

Murray, Jim.
JIM MURRAY’S WHISKEY BIBLE.
London: Carlton Books. 2006 to date—Annual updates.
Close to all-encompassing pocket tasting guide to the world’s whiskeys from Britain’s other leading spirits
writer.
WHISKEY, AMERICAN—GENERAL
Getz, Oscar.
WHISKEY: AN AMERICAN PICTORIAL HISTORY.
New York: David McKay, 1978.
Excellent pictorial history of liquor and distilling in American society.

Waymack, Mark H., and James F. Harris.

THE BOOK OF CLASSIC AMERICAN WHISKEYS.
Chicago: Open Court, 1995.
Concise history of American whiskey and current distilleries with detailed tasting notes.
WHISKEY, AMERICAN—BIOGRAPHY
Green, Ben A.
JACK DANIEL’S LEGACY.
Nashville: Rich Printing, 1967.
Quasi-official biography of the founder of America’s leading whiskey distillery.

Krass, Peter. Blood & Whiskey:

THE LIFE AND TIMES OF JACK DANIEL.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Interesting analysis of the life of Jack Daniel and his business world.

McDougall, John and Gavin D. Smith.

WORT, WORMS & WASH-BACKS: MEMOIRS FROM THE STILLHOUSE.
Glasgow: Angel’s Share, 1999.
A sort of Kitchen Confidential of the Scotch distilling industry, with many droll and score-settling
anecdotes from a veteran distiller and distillery manager.

Pacult, F. Paul.
AMERICAN STILL LIFE: THE JIM BEAM STORY.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
Standard recap of American whiskey distilling history with an emphasis on the growth of the Jim Bean
Distillery and its brands.

Paterson, Richard, and Gavin D. Smith.

GOODNESS NOSE: THE PASSIONATE REVELATIONS OF A SCOTCH WHISKY MASTER
BLENDER.
Glasgow: Angel’s Share, 2010.
The autobiography of a master blender who has worked at a number of Scotch distilleries and has
experienced the boom-and-bust cycles of the industry.

Taylor, Richard.
THE GREAT CROSSING: A HISTORIC JOURNEY TO BUFFALO TRACE DISTILLERY.
Frankfort, KY: Buffalo Trace Distillery, 2002.
Well-written company history with good insights into the development of bourbon distilling in early
Kentucky.

Van Winkle Campbell, Sally.

BUT ALWAYS FINE BOURBON: PAPPY VAN WINKLE AND THE STORY OF OLD
FITZGERALD.
Louisville: Limestone Lane Press, 1999.
Self-satisfied family history with lots of pretty pictures.
WHISKEY, AMERICAN—BOURBON & TENNESSEE
Carson, Gerald.
THE SOCIAL HISTORY OF BOURBON.
Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984.
The evolving role of bourbon in America’s collective lifestyle.

Cecil, Sam K.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE BOURBON WHISKEY INDUSTRY IN KENTUCKY.
Paducah, KY: Turner Publishing, 1999.
County-by-county listings and capsule histories of every distillery to operate in Kentucky. An obvious labor
of love.

Cowdery, Charles K.
BOURBON, STRAIGHT: THE UNCUT AND UNFILTERED STORY OF AMERICAN WHISKEY.
Chicago: Made and Bottled in Kentucky, 2004.
An independent and frequently irreverent view of the American bourbon industry. Required reading for all
serious students of American whiskey distilling.

Cowdery, Charles K.
BOURBON, STRANGE: SURPRISING STORIES OF AMERICAN WHISKEY.
Chicago: Made and Bottled in Kentucky, 2014.
A collection of droll, idiosyncratic, mostly historic essays on bourbon whiskey and the American whiskey
industry.

Crowgey, Henry G.
KENTUCKY BOURBON: THE EARLY YEARS OF WHISKEYMAKING.
Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2008.
More properly a remarkably detailed history of the development of commercial distilling in Colonial
America and the early United States. Substantial original scholarship. Who knew that peach brandy was
once produced by most Southern whiskey distillers?
Barrels roll out at Woodford Reserve Distillery.
 Barrels set for aging tequila in the warehouse/tasting room at the Casa Cofradia Distillery, in
Tequila, Jalisco, Mexico.

Givens, Ron.
BOURBON AT ITS BEST: THE LORE AND ALLURE OF AMERICA’S FINEST SPIRITS.
Cincinnati: Clerisy Press, 2008.
Lavishly illustrated coffee-table book introduction to bourbon.

Minnick, Fred.
BOURBON CURIOUS: A SIMPLE TASTING GUIDE FOR THE SAVVY DRINKER.
Minneapolis: Zenith Press, 2015.
And it is indeed simple.

Mitenbuler, Reid.
BOURBON EMPIRE: THE PAST AND FUTURE OF AMERICA’S WHISKEY.
New York: Penguin Books, 2015.
A business-oriented history of the American whiskey industry. Not quite an exposé, but certainly a peek
behind the curtains in the stillhouses of a number of commercial distilleries.

Murray, Jim.
CLASSIC BOURBON, TENNESSEE AND RYE WHISKEY.
London: Prion Books, 1996.
London: Prion Books, 1996.
An Englishman tastes American whiskeys and likes them. Extensive tasting notes.

Murray, Jim.
JIM MURRAY’S WHISKY BIBLE.
Various: Various, 2004 to date.
An annual tasting and rating guide to the whiskeys of the world. The taste descriptors can sometimes be a
bit exuberant, but this is, far and away, the most extensive and current guide to brands of whiskey in the
marketplace.

Regan, Gary, and Mardee Haidin Regan.

THE BOOK OF BOURBON.
Shelburne, VT: Chapters Publishing, 1995.
Extensive tasting notes, somewhat dated at this point, with recipes.

Regan, Gary, and Mardee Haidin Regan.

THE BOURBON COMPANION.
Philadelphia: Running Press, 1998.
CliffsNotes for virtually all current brands of bourbon.
WHISKY, CANADIAN
Bingham, Madeleine.
KING OF THE CASTLE: THE MAKING OF A DYNASTY: SEAGRAM’S AND THE
BRONFMAN EMPIRE.
New York: Athenaeum, 1979.
The dirt on the now vanished dominant force in Canadian distilling.

Bronfman, Samuel.
FROM LITTLE ACORNS: THE STORY OF DISTILLERS
Corporation-Seagram, Ltd. Montreal: Distillers Corporation-Seagram Limited, 1970.
The Grand Old Man of Canadian distilling tells a cleaned-up version of the history of Seagram’s and
Canadian whiskey. Nary a mention of Joe Kennedy and bootlegging.

Brown, Lorraine.
200 YEARS OF TRADITION: THE STORY OF CANADIAN WHISKY.
Toronto: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1994.
A non-Seagram-centric history of Canadian whisky. A bit on the short side.

Marrus, Michael R.
SAMUEL BRONFMAN: THE LIFE AND TIMES OF SEAGRAM’S MR. SAM.
Boston: University Press of New England, 1991.
Academic analysis of the Canadian distilling industry through an overview of the now dismantled
Seagram’s whiskey empire.

Rannie, William F.
CANADIAN WHISKY: THE PRODUCT AND THE INDUSTRY.
Lincoln, ON: W. F. Rannie Publisher, 1976.
Interesting snapshot of the Canadian distilling industry on the eve of the late-twentieth-century industry
consolidation.
WHISKEY, ASIA
Van Eycken, Stefan.
WHISKY RISING: THE DEFINITIVE GUIDE TO THE FINEST WHISKIES AND DISTILLERS
OF JAPAN.
Kennebunkport, ME: Cider Mill Press, 2017.
The rapid evolution of grain spirits production in Japan from rather raw white spirits such as shochu to very
smooth mature malt whiskeys is detailed in this instant standard reference work.

Sandhaus, Derek.
BAIJIU: THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO CHINESE SPIRITS.
Melbourne: Penguin Viking, 2014.
The world’s best-selling spirit, by volume at least, is an acquired taste for most non-Chinese drinkers. This
enthusiast’s guide to the production, varieties, and major brands of baijiu is brisk and to the point.
WHISKEY, MOONSHINE—HISTORY
Carr, Jess.
THE SECOND OLDEST PROFESSION: AN INFORMAL HISTORY OF MOONSHINING IN
AMERICA.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972.
The history of moonshining, primarily in Southern states.

Dabney, Joseph Earl.

MORE MOUNTAIN SPIRITS.
Asheville, NC: Bright Mountain Books, 1980.
There is more to moonshine than just corn whiskey; peach brandy, for example. Chock-full of recipes and
homemade still designs.

Dabney, Joseph Earl.

MOUNTAIN SPIRITS.
Asheville, NC: Bright Mountain Books, 1974.
A social history of Appalachian moonshine distilling with an attitude. Corn whiskey: good; sugar
distillation: bad.

Keller, Esther.
MOONSHINE: ITS HISTORY AND FOLKLORE.
New York: Weathervane Books, 1971.
Moonshine in Kentucky and southern Indiana. Lightweight, but entertaining.

Mauer, David W.
KENTUCKY MOONSHINE.
Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974.
Moonshining as an industry, from Colonial times to the present.

Owens, Bill.
MODERN MOONSHINE TECHNIQUES.
Hayward: White Mule Press, 2009.
The founder of the American Distilling Institute explains how to build a (very) simple distillery in your
garage and make moonshine.

Spoelman, Colin, and David Haskell.

THE KINGS COUNTY GUIDE TO URBAN MOONSHINING: HOW TO MAKE AND DRINK
WHISKEY.
New York: Abrams Books, 2013.
In this case, in New York City, rather than rural Tennessee. A pioneer craft distiller explains, in great detail,
how a hobby became a lifestyle.

Rowley, Matthew.
LOST RECIPES OF PROHIBITION.
New York: The Countryman Press, 2015.
An actual Prohibition-era moonshiner’s production manual reproduced, with annotations. Bathtub gin
explained!
WHISKEY, IRISH
Magee, Malachy.
IRISH WHISKEY: A 1000 YEAR TRADITION.
Dublin: O’Brien Press, 1998.
Short but detailed history of Irish whiskey distilling, with capsule histories of every commercial distillery in
Ireland.

McGuffin, John.
IN PRAISE OF POTEEN.
Belfast: Applegate Press, 1978.
Moonshine, Irish style. As is usually the case, romantic history is better than the rather squalid current state
of affairs, with kitchen stills in urban housing estates distilling fermented sugar water.

McGuire, E. B.
IRISH WHISKEY.
Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1973.
A last-hurrah view of the Irish distilling industry, just prior to the final industry consolidation.

Murray, Jim.
CLASSIC IRISH WHISKEY.
London: Prion Books, 1998.
More or less complete tasting and buying guide to Irish whiskey, including local brands. Murray does tend
to like everything, though.

Townsend, Brian.
THE LOST DISTILLERIES OF IRELAND.
Glasgow: Neil Wilson, 1999.
Companion book to the author’s Scotch Missed: The Lost Distilleries of Scotland, only sadder. Scotland still
has around a hundred distilleries, while Ireland, until recent industry revival, had been down to only three.
WHISKY, SCOTCH
Barnard, Alfred.
THE WHISKY DISTILLERIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2003.
Reprint of 1887 guide to the distilleries of Scotland, England, and Ireland. Wonderful window into a long-
vanished world of distilling, with many engravings. A must-have for the historically minded distiller.

Brander, Michael.
THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO SCOTCH WHISKY.
Edinburgh: Canongate Publishing, 1990.
Compact report on the state of the Scottish distilling industry, circa 1990.

Cooper, Derek.
A TASTE OF SCOTCH.
London: Andre Deutsch, 1989.
The role of Scotch whisky in various facets of British culture. Lots of great graphics.

Daiches, David.
SCOTCH WHISKY: ITS PAST AND PRESENT.
New York: Macmillan, 1970.
The world of Scotch whisky distilling, just prior to the late-twentieth-century shutdowns.

Graham, Duncan, and Wendy Graham.

VISITING DISTILLERIES, 2ND EDITION.
Glasgow: Angel’s Share, 2003.
Does your favorite Highland distillery have a gift shop? How clean is the loo? All your Whisky Trail
questions are answered here.

Greenwood, Malcolm.
A NIP AROUND THE WORLD: THE DIARY OF A WHISKY SALESMAN.
Argyll: Argyll Publishing, 1995.
Stories from the front of whisky selling in Europe. Interesting but short.

Gunn, Neil M.
WHISKY & SCOTLAND: A PRACTICAL AND SPIRITUAL SURVEY.
Edinburgh: Souvenir Press, 1988.
Scotch Malt Whisky Society reprint of 1935 classic tome on Scotch whisky production and history.
Hume, John R., and Michael S. Moss.
THE MAKING OF SCOTCH WHISKY, REVISED EDITION.
Edinburgh: Canongate, 2000.
A business history of Scottish distilling. Very detailed, yet well written.

Jackson, Michael.
MICHAEL JACKSON’S COMPLETE GUIDE TO SINGLE MALT SCOTCH, 5TH EDITION.
Philadelphia: Running Press, 2004.
The benchmark guide to single malt Scotch whiskies, with more than a thousand tasting notes. A must-have
reference book.

Jackson, Michael.
SCOTLAND AND ITS WHISKIES.
New York: Harcourt, 2001.
A travel guide to the various distilling regions of Scotland. Lovely photographs and lyrical text from
Britain’s leading spirits and beer writer.

Lockhart, Sir Robert Bruce.

SCOTCH: THE WHISKY OF SCOTLAND IN FACT AND STORY.
London: Putnam, 1970.
A standard history of Scotch whisky, much used (quoted and otherwise) by subsequent books on the topic.

MacLean, Charles.
MACLEAN’S MISCELLANY OF WHISKY.
London: Little Books, 2004.
A collection of whiskey-themed essays on a wide variety of topics. Great bedside book.

MacLean, Charles.
THE MITCHELL BEAZLEY POCKET WHISKY BOOK.
London: Mitchell Beazley, 1993.
Pocket guide with ratings on single malt, grain, and blended Scotch whiskies. Now somewhat dated.

McDougall, John, and Gavin D. Smith.

WORT, WORMS & WASH-BACKS: MEMOIRS FROM THE STILLHOUSE.
Glasgow: Angel’s Share, 2000.
Journeyman still master’s tales of life in a variety of Scottish distilleries. Old slights and scores are settled
in a most amusing manner.

McDowall, R. J. S.
THE WHISKIES OF SCOTLAND.
New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1967.
Distilleries, blenders, and their whiskeys of the time are described in extensive detail, while American
mixers are denounced as foul pollutants of pure malt spirits.

Milroy, Wallace.
WALLACE MILROY’S MALT WHISKY ALMANAC.
New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991.
Limited tasting notes on single malt whiskeys from an early British advocate of the style.

Morrice, Philip.
THE SCHWEPPES GUIDE TO SCOTCH.
Sherborne, UK: Alphabooks, 1983.
All-encompassing guide to every Scotch distiller, blender, merchant, bottler, and marketing group.
Somewhat outdated now, but still a useful reference guide.

Reeve-Jones, Alan.
A DRAM LIKE THIS…
London: Elm Tree Books, 1974.
Droll social history of Scotch with extensive mixed-drink and food recipes.

Townsend, Brian.
SCOTCH MISSED: SCOTLAND’S LOST DISTILLERIES, 3RD EDITION.
Glasgow: Angel’s Share, 2004.
The life and death of more than a hundred Scottish distilleries are chronicled with photographs and
directions. Try cross-referencing it with Barnard’s The Whisky Distilleries of the United Kingdom.
THE DISTILLER’S GLOSSARY

Detail of a charred barrel.

AGITATOR: A device such as a stirrer that provides complete mixing and uniform dispersion of all
components in a mixture. Agitators are generally used continuously during the cooking process and
intermittently during fermentation.
ALCOHOL: The family name of a group of organic chemical compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen; includes methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and others.
APPLEJACK: In its original meaning, fermented hard apple cider that is partially frozen to separate the
water from the alcohol. In modern terms, it is the North American version of apple brandy.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: Pressure of the air and atmosphere surrounding us that changes from day
to day. It is equal to 14.7 psi.
AUGER: A rotating, screw-type device that moves material through a cylinder. In alcohol production, it is
used to transfer grains from storage to the grinding site to the cooker.
BAKER’S YEAST: Standard robust yeast used openly by bakers and quietly by many distillers. The
fermentation is quick and violent, and the resulting beer is cloudy. But that really doesn’t matter if you are
going to distill it.
BALLING: On a hydrometer, the measurement of the percent of sugar in a solution, by weight. See Brix.
BARREL: Varies depending on country. In U.S. terms, a unit of liquid measure equal to 42 American
gallons or about 306 pounds; one barrel equals 5.6 cubic feet or 0.159 cubic meters. The standard bourbon
cask usually holds between 53 and 55 gallons of spirit.
BATCH DISTILLATION: A process in which the liquid feed is placed in a single container and the entire
volume is heated, in contrast to continuous distillation, in which the liquid is fed continuously through the
still.
BATCH FERMENTATION: Fermentation conducted from start to finish in a single vessel.
BATCH PROCESS: Unit operation where one cycle of feed stock preparation, cooking, fermentation, and
distillation is completed before the next cycle is started.
BATF: Formerly the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms; under the U.S. Department of Treasury.
Responsible for the issuance of permits, both experimental and commercial, for the production of alcohol.
The guns have been removed, and the agency has been renamed the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade
Bureau (TTB).
BEER: A general term for all fermented malt beverages flavored with hops. A low-level (6 to 12 percent)
alcohol solution derived from the fermentation of mash by microorganisms. For distillers, the initial
fermented grain solution that is distilled. See Wash.
BEER STILL: The stripping section of a distillation column for concentrating ethanol.
BOILER: A unit base to heat water to produce steam for cooking and distillation processes.
BOURBON: Whiskey produced within the United States from a mash containing a minimum of 51 percent
corn and then aged for a minimum of 2 years in a new charred oak barrel. Bourbon can be legally produced
in any state.
BRANDY: Generally speaking, the result of distilling any fermented fruit wine. Specifically, the result of
distilling grape wine. Fruit brandies are made from fruits other than grapes, while fruit-flavored brandies are
usually grape brandy with added fruit flavors. See Eau de vie and Grappa.
BREWING: Generically, the entire beer-making process, but technically only the part of the process
during which the beer wort is cooked in a brew kettle and during which time the hops are added. After
brewing, the beer is fermented. In a grain distillery, the fermented wort or wash is frequently referred to as
beer.
BRIX: A measurement of sweetness in a liquid, usually fruit juice. Specifically the measurement of
dissolved sugar-to-liquid mass ratio of a liquid. As an example, in a 100-gram solution, a 30 Brix
measurement is 30 grams of sugar and 70 grams of liquid.
BUBBLE-CAP TRAYS: Cross-flow trays usually installed in rectifying columns handling liquids free of
suspended solids. The bubble caps consist of circular cups inverted over small vapor pipes. The vapor from
the tray below passes through the vapor pipes into the caps and curves downward to escape below the rim
into the liquid. The rim of each cap is slotted or serrated to break up the escaping vapor into small bubbles,
thereby increasing the surface area of the vapor as it passes through the liquid.
CACHAÇA: Unaged, raw sugarcane spirit from Brazil, usually mixed with neutral grain spirit from other
sources.
CANE SPIRIT: The broad term for spirits distilled from fermented sugarcane juice. See Cachaça and
Rum.
COGNAC: By legal-definition, grape brandy from the Cognac region of France.
COLUMN: A vertical, cylindrical vessel used to increase the degree of separation of liquid mixtures by
distillation or extraction.
COMPOUND: A chemical term denoting a combination of two or more distinct elements.
CONCENTRATION: The ratio of mass or volume of solute present in a solution to the amount of solvent.
The quantity of ethyl alcohol (or sugar) present in a known quantity of water.
CONDENSER: A heat-transfer device that reduces a thermodynamic fluid from its vapor phase to its
liquid phase.
CONTINUOUS FERMENTATION: A steady-state fermentation system that operates without
interruption; each stage of fermentation occurs in a separate section of the fermenter, and flow rates are set
to correspond with required residence times.
COOKER: A tank or vessel designed to cook a liquid or extract or digest solids in suspension; the cooker
usually contains a source of heat and is fitted with an agitator.
COOKING: The process that breaks down the starch granules in the grain, making the starch available for
the liquefaction and saccharification steps of the fermentation process.
COPRODUCTS: The resulting substances and materials that accompany the production of ethanol by
distillation.
CORN WHISKEY (LIKKER): Legally: Minimum 80 percent corn mash whiskey, aged a minimum of 2
years in used wooden barrels. Illegally: the fresh-from-the-still original version of moonshine. See
Moonshine.
CROSS-FLOW TRAYS: Liquid flows across the tray and over a weir to a downcomer that carries it to the
next lower tray. Vapors rise from the bottom of the column to the top, passing through the tray openings
and the pools of cross-flowing liquid.
DENATURE: The process of adding a substance to ethyl alcohol to make it unfit for human consumption;
the denaturing agent may be gasoline or other substances specified by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and
Trade Bureau.
DEWATERING: To remove the free water from a solid substance.
DISTILLATE: That portion of a liquid that is removed as a vapor and condensed during a distillation
process.
 Label for Cherry Liqueur by Clear Creek Distillery.

DISTILLATION: The process of separating the components of a mixture by differences in boiling point;
vapor is formed by heating liquids in a vessel and successively condensing and collecting liquids with
diferent boiling points.
EAU DE VIE: Colorless fruit brandy such as Kirschwasser from the Schwartzwald in Germany.
ETHANOL: The alcohol product of fermentation that is used in alcohol beverages and for industrial
purposes; chemical formula blended with gasoline to make gasohol; also known as ethyl alcohol or grain
alcohol.
ETHYL ALCOHOL: A flammable organic compound formed during sugar fermentation. It is also called
ethanol, grain alcohol, or simply alcohol.
EVAPORATION: The conversion of a liquid to the vapor state by the addition of latent heat or
vaporization.
FERMENTATION: A micro-organically mediated enzymatic transformation of organic substances,
especially carbohydrates, generally accompanied by the evolution of a gas. The process in which yeast turns
the sugars present in malted grains into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
GASOHOL (GASAHOL): Registered trade names for a blend of 90 percent unleaded gasoline with 10
percent fermentation ethanol.
GASOLINE: A volatile, flammable liquid obtained from petroleum that has a boiling range of
approximately 29° to 216°C and is used for fuel for spark-ignition internal combustion engines.
GIN: White spirit flavored with juniper berry and other botanicals.
GRAPPA: A brandy distilled from grape pomace.
HEAD: The end (enclosure) of a cylindrical shell. The most commonly used types of heads are
hemispherical, ellipsoidal, flanged and dished (semispherical), conical and flat.
HEADS: The initial run of distillate at the start of the distillation process. Heads are usually returned to the
still for redistillation.
HEAT EXCHANGER: A unit that transfers heat from one liquid (or vapor) to another without mixing the
fluids. A condenser is one type of heat exchanger.
HOPS: The dried blossom of the female hop plant (Cumulus lupus), which is a climbing herb. Aged hops
are used by some whiskey distillers in the mashing process.
LAUTER TUN: The vessel used in brewing between the mash tun and the brew kettle. It separates the
barley husks from the clear liquid wort. The barley husks themselves help provide a natural filter bed
through which the wort is strained. This filtration is frequently skipped in grain distillation.
LAUTERING: The process of straining wort in a lauter tun before it is cooled in the brew kettle.
MASH: A mixture, consisting of crushed grains and water, that can be fermented to produce ethyl alcohol.
MASHING: The process by which barley malt is mixed with water and cooked to turn soluble starch into
fermentable sugar. Other cereal grains, such as corn and rice, may also be added. After mashing in a mash
tun, the mash is filtered through a lauter tun, whereupon it becomes known as wort.
METHYL ALCOHOL: A poisonous type of alcohol, also known as wood alcohol. Produced as a by-
product of the fermentation of starch or cellulose. Methyl alcohol is not produced by fermenting sugar and
only minimally from fruit wine.
MEZCAL: Distilled spirit from the pulp of the agave plant, produced in Mexico outside of the designated
tequila production area. See Tequila.
MOONSHINE: Originally minimally aged corn whiskey produced illegally in the Appalachian Mountain
region of the southern United States. Modern moonshine is usually made from fermented sugar water. See
Corn whiskey.
POT: A hollow vessel more deep than broad.
PRESSURE VESSEL: A metal container, generally cylindrical or spheroid, capable of withstanding
various loadings.
PROHIBITION: The process by which a government prohibits its citizens from buying or possessing
alcoholic beverages. Specifically, Prohibition refers to the period between the effective date of the 18th
Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (January 16, 1920) and its repeal by the 21st Amendment. Repeal took
effect on December 5, 1933, although it was ratified by Congress in February, and the sale of beer was
permitted after April 7, 1933.
PROOF: Alcohol containing 50 percent alcohol by volume (ABV) is called 100 U.S. proof spirit. U.S.
proof is twice the percentage of spirit by volume.
RECTIFICATION: With regard to distillation, the selective increase of the concentration of the lower
volatile components in a mixture by successive evaporation and condensation.
RECTIFYING COLUMN: The portion of a distillation column above the feed tray in which rising vapor
is enriched by interaction with a countercurrent falling stream of condensed vapor.
RUM: A distilled spirit made from fermented molasses or sugarcane juice.
RYE WHISKEY: Whiskey containing a minimum of 51 percent rye grain, aged for at least 2 years in a
new charred oak barrel. Rye whiskey, which was the original whiskey in Colonial America, has a dry, hard-
edged palate, and is nowadays primarily blended into other types of whiskey to give them more character.
SHELL: Structural element made to enclose some space. Most shells are generated by the revolution of a
plane curve.
SHOWER-TYPE TRAYS: These trays do not have downcomers. The liquid level results from the
pressure drop caused by the counter-flowing streams.

Label for Bardenay Rum

SIEVE TRAYS: Sieve trays are usually cross-flow type perforated with small holes. Sieve trays are
sometimes used for feeds that tend to deposit solids or polymerize in the column.
SIGHT GAUGE: A clear, calibrated cylinder through which liquid level can be observed and measured.
SLOBBER BOX: Pressure relief and particulate matter filter chamber located between the still and
condenser coils on a pot still.
STILL: An apparatus for distilling liquids, particularly alcohols; it consists of a vessel in which the liquid
is vaporized by heat, and a cooling device in which the vapor is condensed.
STRIPPING COLUMN: The section of the distillation column in which the alcohol concentration in the
starting beer solution is decreased. This section is below the beer injection point.
STRIPPING SECTION: The section of a distillation column below the feed in which the condensate is
progressively decreased in the fraction of a more volatile component by stripping.
TAILS: The final discharge of the distillation process, tails contain undesirable flavor elements (congeners)
and fusel oils, and they are usually discarded.
TANK: A vessel of large size to contain liquids.
TEQUILA: Distilled spirit from the fermented pulp of the agave plant, produced by legal definition only in
certain designated areas in and around the Mexican state of Jalisco. See Mezcal.
TUNNEL-CAP TRAYS: Tunnel-cap trays are similar to bubble-cap trays except that they are rectangular.
VALVE TRAYS: Valve trays are cross-flow trays with large perforations that are covered with flat plates.
The cover plates are free to move vertically and thus permit the passage of ascending vapors.
VAPORIZATION: The process of converting a compound from a liquid or solid state to the gaseous state.
Alcohol is vaporized during the distillation.
VESSEL: A container or structural envelope in which material is processed, treated or stored; for example,
pressure vessels, reactor vessels, agitator vessels, and storage vessels (tanks).
VODKA: In U.S. terms, colorless, odorless, tasteless neutral spirit. Foreign vodkas can retain flavor
elements, particularly if pot distilled.
WASH: In distilling, the liquid produced by the fermentation process, which is then distilled to concentrate
the alcohol. See Beer.
WORM: Copper condenser coils suspended in a vessel of continuously flowing cold water, used as part of
a pot still.
WORT: An oatmeal-like substance consisting of water and mash barley in which soluble starch has been
turned into fermentable sugar during the mashing process. The liquid remaining from a brewing mash
preparation following the filtration of fermentable beer. In grain distillation, the wort or mash is frequently
fermented and then distilled without filtration.
YEAST: The enzyme-producing one-celled fungi of the genus Saccharomyces that is added to wort before
the fermenting process for the purpose of turning fermentable sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
INTERNATIONAL DIRECTORY OF DISTILLERIES
Way too many to list in print these days. For a reasonably current update please
go to the American Distilling Institute website: www.distilling.com
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
ALTHOUGH it may seem that Alan Dikty wrote every word in this book and
that Bill Owens took every photograph, that is not the case. The following
collection of the usual suspects had a hand in it all, for which we are very
grateful.

MIKE MCCAW
Mike McCaw is a cofounder and director of the Amphora Society and the
coauthor of The Compleat Distiller, widely recognized as the primary technical
publication concerning all aspects of small-scale distillation. McCaw now
spends most of his time consulting with start-up craft and microdistillers and
designing and building equipment for their operations. His current research is on
further increasing the efficiency and lowering the carbon and water footprints of
distilling processes. A book is in preparation detailing some of these techniques.
He is working to create a series of hands-on workshops for aspiring distillers and
also on stirring up grassroots interest in legalization of private, noncommercial
distillation in the United States.

MATTHEW B. ROWLEY
Matthew Rowley is an advertising executive, former museum curator, and past
board member of the Southern Foodway Alliance. He has traveled extensively in
search of amateur and craft distillers to uncover local liquor and, when possible,
promote those who make it.

He has spoken on distilling and cocktail culture for universities, radio, television,
and the annual Tales of Cocktail in New Orleans. His essays and recipes have
been published by the University of North Carolina Press, the University of
Georgia Press, Simon & Schuster, the Taunton Press, Lark Books, and others.
He has consulted on distilling-related broadcasts for the Fox network and the
National Geographic Channel in the United States and RTE in Ireland.

Rowley lives in San Diego, California, where he maintains a 2000-volume

culinary library open to chefs, bartenders, distillers, historians, journalists, and
students. He is the author of Moonshine! (2007), a small batch distilling
history/practicum for novices and publishes Rowley’s Whiskey Forge
(www.whiskeyforge.com), a blog devoted to the history and practice of
distilling, mixology, and good eats.
IAN SMILEY
Ian Smiley, BSc, is a research distiller and the author of Making Pure Corn
Whiskey, an Amphora Society publication, and the owner of Smiley’s Home
Distilling at www.home-distilling.com, a web store dedicated to home and
laboratory distillers. He has been exploring small-scale beverage-alcohol
distillation all his adult life, and he is a card-carrying member of the American
Distilling Institute (ADI). He’s written articles for their magazine, The American
Distiller, and was a major contributor to the recently published ADI book, Craft
Whiskey Distilling. He is now part owner of a whiskey distillery in China, L.S.
Moonshine, which is currently producing a corn whiskey white dog to satisfy the
Chinese people’s curiosity for traditional American moonshine. L.S. Moonshine
has other spirits planned for the Chinese market. In the future, Smiley plans to
write books on making schnapps, brandy, and rum, and to continue his activities
in commercial artisan distilling. He lives in Nepean, Ontario, Canada.

MAX WAXMAN
Max Waxman is the author of Chasing the White Dog: An Amateur Outlaw’s
Adventures in the Moonshine Trade, which will be published by Simon and
Schuster in early 2010. His book Race Day: A Spot on the Rail with Max
Watman (Ivan R. Dee) was called “a great tribute to American thoroughbred
racing” and was an Editors’ Choice in The New York Times Book Review.

He was the horse racing correspondent for the New York Sun, and wrote
frequently on books, music, food, and drink for their Arts & Letters pages. He
has written for the New York Times, The New York Times Book Review, Forbes
FYI, The Wall Street Journal, Fortune Small Business, Gourmet, and Parnassus.

He was raised in the mountains of Virginia, and has worked as a cook, a farmer,
a silversmith, a tutor, a greenskeeper, and a warehouseman. For a short time, he
taught goat milking. He was educated at many schools and managed to graduate
from Virginia Commonwealth University and Columbia University.

In 2008, Waxman was awarded a National Endowment for the Arts literary
fellowship.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
EARLIER VERSIONS of some of the text in this book previously appeared in
various publications of the Beverage Testing Institute, and it is used here with
the permission of BTI director Jerald O’Kennard and our grateful thanks.

Bill Owens cannot draw worth a damn, so we had Catherine Ryan redo his
primitive sketches in a much more polished manner. They look great.

Amber Hasselbring serves as Bill’s assistant and caregiver. Whatever he is

paying her, it is not enough. The woman is a saint.

Mixing a proper drink is truly an art, and Mark Gruber of Southern Wine &
Spirits, Illinois, confirmed his artistic talent by reviewing and correcting our
mixed drink recipes, as needed. The man even writes tasty.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
ALAN S. DIKTY
Alan is the author of The Buying Guide to Spirits and numerous articles on
distilling and brewing. In his spare time, he manages Allied Beverage Tanks,
Inc., a company that builds craft breweries and distilleries. His current choice for
a desert island dram is either Macallan 18-Year-Old Scotch Whisky or
Rittenhouse 23-Year-Old Rye Whiskey, but he is open to alternatives.

ANDREW FAULKNER
Faulkner grew up in Carmel, California, reading the daybooks of Edward
Weston, keeping journals, visiting Ansel Adams, and studying other black-and-
white master photographers. His photo career diverted into journalism, getting a
BA from California State University, Northridge, in 1993 and working for a
dozen years in newspapers and magazines. Faulkner thought he had come full
circle in 2005 when he started working for Bill Owens, one of the photographers
whose art he followed as a teenager. His responsibilities at the American
Distilling Institute grew as he became the managing editor of Distiller magazine
in 2013 and publisher in 2018. He has come full circle into journalism. When
Faulkner is not concerned with deadlines, punctuation, and correct spelling of
names, he likes to play chess with his son, dance with his daughter, ride bikes
with his wife, and make pretty pictures.

BILL OWENS
When he was not busy being an award-winning photographer or the founder of
the brewpub industry in the United States, he somehow also found the time to be
the author of an assortment of books and pamphlets on brewery and distillery
operations, published by ADI. In his spare time, he tries his best to avoid
personal responsibilities. www.distilling.com
INDEX
Ableforth’s Bathtub Gin, 95
Absent Minded, 144
Absinthe, 144
Absinthe Verte, 144
Acetaldehyde, 42
Act of Union (1707), 68
Agave spirits, 132
Agave tequila, 137
Agedated blended rums, 124
Agitator, 38
Aguardiente, 138
Air-conditioning, rum and, 122
Alambic Armagnacais, 108, 109, 114
Alambic charentais still, 36, 106
Alberta, Canada, 58, 62
Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB), 16
Aldehydes, 42
Alembic stills, 30, 36, 37, 91. See also Alambic charentais still Amari, 146
American Cask Strength Single-Malt Whiskey, 57
American Distilling Institute (ADI) founding of, 10
Judging of Craft Spirits, 52, 87, 92, 96, 99, 101, 105, 107, 109, 114, 119, 122, 123, 125, 142, 143
Amodeo, Francesco, 146, 147
Anchor Brewing, 15
Andalusia Whiskey Co., 62
Añejo/Aged tequila, 71, 138
Anise-flavored spirits, 144
Antigua, 130
Anti-Saloon League, 50
Apple brandy, 71, 105, 113, 117, 118, 119
Applejack, 119
Aristotle, 13

Armaganc Castarede Reserve de la Famille, 108

Armenia, 115
Arrack, 91
The Art of Distillation (French), 13
Asia, 87, 91, 131. See also specific country names Aspiring and accomplished artisans, 23
Atelier Vie, 145
Australia, 14, 15, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 87, 131
Austria, 78, 130
Azeotrope, 29, 33

Babylon, 12
Backins, 46
Baijiu vodka, 89
Balcones Distilling, 57
Balkans, 117
Barbados, 128, 130
Barley-based whiskey, 70, 74
Barrel aged/aging, 67, 99, 127, 136
Barreled Grape Immature Brandy, 110
Batch-still process, 35, 42
Bathtub gin, 95
Bay rum, 129
Beaver Pond Distillery, 118
Becherovka, 146
Beer, 18, 19, 49
Beer stripper, 44
Beer-stripping run, 44
Begin-cut, 46
Belarus, 86
Belgium, 94, 96, 100
Belle Rose Double Barrel Rum, 123
Belmont Farm Distillery, 19, 20
Bignell, Peter, 77
Bitters, 140, 146
Blackberry Liqueur, 143
Black Note Amaro, 144
Black Walnut Liqueur, 143
Blanco tequila, 138
Blanton’s Distilling Company, 50
Blended American whiskey, 56, 60, 65
Blended rums, 124
Blended Scotch whiskey, 68, 70, 73
Blends, liqueurs as, 141
Bloody Butcher red corn, 52
Bloody Mary, 88
Blue agave tequila, 137
Boiling points, 27, 29, 42
Bonded whiskey, 66
Bonny Doon Vineyards, 114
Bottled in Canada whiskies, 61
“Bottle in Bond,” 66
Bouilleurs de cru, 107
Bouilleurs de cru (traveling stills), 14
Bourbon craft distilleries, 52, 62
Bourbon distilleries, 55, 64, 119
Bourbon Rubenesque, 53
Bourbon whiskey, 34, 49, 50, 51, 54, 60, 66, 71
Bourbon wooden barrels, 75, 138
Boyd & Blair Potato Vodka, 85
Brandy, 104
cocktails, 119
contemporary brandies, 114
fruit brandies, 105, 117
grape brandies, 105, 113, 114
groupings of, 105
origins, 104
pomace brandies, 105, 116
regions, 106
types of, 105
Brandy Alexander, 119
Brandy de Jerez, 111
Brandy distillation, 33, 36, 44, 71
Bridges, Jeff, 17
British settlers, 30, 58
BroVo Spirits, 146
Bubble-cap trays, 31, 34, 38, 39, 41
Buffalo Trace Distillery, 50, 51
Bulk Canadian whiskies, 61
Bulleit Rye, 51
Butts, 111

Cajun Spirits Distillery, 131

Caledonia Spirits Barr Hill Vodka, 87, 96
California brandies, 114, 117
Calvados, 117
Campbeltdown, Scotland, 78
Canada, 15, 16, 62, 87, 116, 130. See also North America Canadian whiskey, 58, 61, 71
Cane Land Distilling, 122
Cannon Beach Distillery, 139
Canton Cooperage, 59
Carc de Gewurztraminer, 116
Caribbean molasses, 50, 58
Caribbean, the, 87, 121, 122, 128, 129
Cask Strength Bloody Red Corn Bourbon, 52
Catalyzer, 38, 41
Central America, 129
Central Standard Craft Distillery, 55
Central Standard Spirits Wisconsin Rye Vodka, 87
Charboneau Distillery, 131
Charboneau, Doug, 131
Charboneau, Jean Luc, 130
Chardonnay Barrel Reserve Gin, 98
Chateau de Maniban, 107
Chateau de Triac Single Vineyard Fiins Bois, 107
Chemical flavor compounds. See Congeners
Cherry brandies, 117
China, 13, 89
Chivas Brothers Ltd., 68
Cinco de Noviembre MEzcal, 137
Citadelle Reserve Gin, 99
Civil War, 14
Classic Margarita, 139
Classic Martini, 103
Classifications
North American whiskey, 60
tequila, 138
vodka, 84
Clear Creek Distillery, 15, 116, 119, 143
Cocktails, 79, 88, 94, 103, 119, 125, 139
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 60
Cognac, 36, 106, 107, 109, 111
Colkegan Single Malt Whiskey, 57
Colorado Pure Distilling, 84
Columbus, Christopher, 121
Column stills
bourbon and, 50
brandy produced in, 106, 114, 115
continuous-run column still, 34
gin produced in, 97, 102
Irish whiskey, 76
Japanese whiskey, 76
rum produced in, 128
Scotch whiskey, 68
vodka and, 83, 84
Commercial distillation, 14, 49, 82. See also Craft distilleries Condenser, 14, 25, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37
Condensor coil (moonshine still), 31
Congeners, 42, 44
Contemporary brandies, 114
Continuous-run column still, 24, 34
Continuous-run distillation process, 42, 47
Cooley Distillery, 70
Copper Fox Distillery, 62, 63, 64
Copper, stills made of, 41
Cordials, 141
Core Vodka, 87
“Corn likker” moonshine, 16
Corn whiskey, 49, 56, 57, 61, 71
Corsair Artisan, 96
Corsair Distillery, 54
Cotton & Reed, 129
Craft brewers, 19
Craft distilleries, 15
agave spirits, 138
bourbon, 52, 62
brandy, 114
corn whiskey, 57
gin, 99, 102
grappa, 116
legal moonshine and, 21
in New Zealand and Australia, 74
rum, 129
whiskey, 54, 62, 64, 65, 69
Craft pomace brandies, 116
Crèmes, 141
Croatia, 96
Cuba Libre (Rum and Coke), 125
Cuba, rum production in, 128
Czech Republic, 146

Daiquiri, 125
Dampfwerk Distillery Co., 110, 142
Dark Northern Reserve Straight Whiskey, 55
Dark rums, 124
Dasylirion, 138
Degens, Sebastian, 117
Demerara rums, 128
Dephlegmator, 28, 40
Depth Charge, 79
Destillerie Weidenauer, 78
Diablo’s Shadow Bourbon Whiskey, 53
Diablo’s Shadow Navy Strength Rum, 124
Distillation/distilling
basic steps in process of, 42
batch-still process, 42
chemistry of, 29
continuous-run process of, 47
definition, 26
distilling timeline, 71
earliest written record of, 12
early history of, 12
evolving technology of, 13
of gin, 97
government regulation, 14
as a hobby, 15, 19
process, 27
 of rum, 127
single-run distillation, 45
taxation on, 14
tequila, 136
two-run distillation, 44
of vodka, 84
Distilled Spirits Plant (DSP), 87
Distilleries/distillers. See also Craft distilleries
bourbon, 55, 65, 119
networking among, 20
primary job of, 26
Scottish whiskey, 68
whiskey, 51, 52, 64, 78
Distiller’s Gin #6, 102
Doc Herson’s Natural Spirits, 144
Domaine Charbay, 116
Dominican Republic, 121, 128
Don Ciccio & Figli, 146, 147
Dornkaat, 100
Double Barreled Bourbon, 51
Double Gold Medal, 87
Drouin, Christian, 107
Dry gin, 71, 94, 98, 100, 102
Dry Spiced Rum, 129
Dunedin, New Zealand, 74

Eastern Europe, 81, 83, 86, 117, 145

Eau de vie, 25, 105, 117
Eaux de vie, 117, 146
Economic distillers, 23
El Keynote Agave Spirit, 139
Elk Rider Bourbon Whiskey, 53
Elk Rider Crisp Gin, 101
End-cut, 45, 46
England, 13, 14, 15, 68, 69, 94, 96, 98, 99
Epic of Gilgamesh, 12
Esters, 42
Estonia, 86
Ethanol, 29, 42, 44
Ethyl carbamate (urethane), 41
Etter Distillerie, 78
Europe, 15, 100, 130. See also individual country names European Union, 75, 78
Excise Act of 1823, 68

Farallon Gin Works Gin Farallon, 92

Farber, Daniel, 114
Farmaceutica di Santa Maria Novella, 146
Fasano, Jonathan, 147
Feints, 44
Fermentation, 18, 34, 42, 43, 66, 91, 136
Fernet Branca, 146
Fernet Michaud, 146
Fiji, 131
Finland, 86
Flag Hill Winery and Distillery, 146
Flavors/flavoring
bathtub gin, 95
fruit brandy, 105
gins/genever, 94, 96, 97, 99, 100, 102
liqueurs, 141
tequila, 136
vodkas, 88
Forsyths whiskey still, 33
France, 13, 14, 50, 86, 105, 106, 117, 130, 144
Fremont Mischief Distillery, 55
French Charentais alembic still, 30, 36
French, Jonathan, 13
Frozen Fruit Margarita, 139
Fruit brandies, 105, 117
Fruit bricks, 18
Fruit mashes, 38

Gabriel, Alexendre, 107

Gaelic culture, 67
Generic liqueurs, 143
Genever-styled gins, 71, 94, 96, 97, 98
George Dickel Rye, 51
Georgia (country), 115
Georgia (state), 50
Germain-Robin (craft distillery), 15, 105, 114
Germain-Robin, Hubert, 115
German immigrants, 49, 55
Germany, 13, 78, 86, 100, 112, 117, 119, 143
Gerrymandering, 15
Gin, 92
barrel-aged, 99
basis of, 94, 96
bathtub gin, 95
cocktails, 103
distillation of, 97
distilling timeline, 71
history of, 93
 regions, 100
styles, 98
Gin and Tonic, 103
Gin Craze, 14
Gin Lane (Hogarth), 93
Glenora, Nova Scotia, 62
Golden rums, 124, 130, 131
Gold tequila, 138
Gooseneck still, 32, 46
Grain mashes, 38, 91
Grain whiskey, 69, 73, 75, 76
Grand Marnier, 143
Grape brandy, 104, 105, 113, 114
Grape pomace, 37, 114
Grappa, 37, 71, 116
“Great Balls of Fire” (Wolfe), 17
Great Britain, 14, 122. See also England; Scotland Great Lakes Distillery, 102
Great Southern Distilling Company, 74
Greece, 115, 144
Greece, ancient, 13
Green Brier Tennessee White Whiskey, 54
Green Fairy, 144
Green Hat Gin, 93
Guyana, 123, 128

Haik, Ed, 131

Haiti, 121, 128
Harvest Spirits Core Vodka, 87
Heads, 27, 28, 34, 35, 42, 44, 45, 47
Hearts, 34, 35, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47
Helgolander German style Herbal Liqueur, 142
Helmet, 36, 38, 39
Heritage Distilling Co., 53, 85, 101
Heron, Joe, 114
Heron, Lesley, 117
Herson, Kevin, 145
Heublein Company, 83
High Council Brandy, 113
HIghland malt whiskeys, 78
History of distilling, 12
bourbon whiskey, 49
brandy, 104
craft distilleries, 15
earliest known use of distillation, 12
gin, 93
Irish whiskey, 70
 Japanese whiskey, 72
moonshine, 16
New Zealand and Australian whiskies, 74
North American whiskey, 59
regulation of distilling, 14
rum, 121
Scotch whiskey, 67
spread of knowledge and technology on, 13
vodka, 81, 90, 91
whiskey, 67
Hobbyist distillers, 15, 19. See also Home distilling Hogarth, William, 93
Hokkaido, Japan, 77
Holland, 86, 91, 92, 94, 96, 100
Homebrewers, 19
Home distilling, 14, 16, 20, 21, 23, 31, 82
Honshu, Japan, 77
Hopi blue corn, 52, 57
Howell, Gillian, 70
Hudson Bay Bourbon, 50
Hungary, 146
Hybrid pot still, 30, 38, 45, 85, 102

Immigrants in North America, 49, 55

India, 15, 75, 91
Indiana, 50, 52, 55, 62, 65
India, whiskey in, 75, 76
Indonesia, 91
Infused spirits, 140
Inlander rum, 130
Internal steam coil, 25
International Judging of Craft Spirits, 87
Ireland, 13, 15, 49, 70, 104. See also Irish whiskeys Irish Distillers Company (IDC), 70
Irish immigrants, 49, 55
Irish malt whiskey, 73
Irish pot still whisky, 73
Irish whiskeys, 32, 70, 73, 75, 76, 77
Island Orchard Eau de Vie Apple Brandy, 105, 118
Islay whiskeys, 77
Israel, 115
Italy, 13, 86, 96, 111, 116, 144, 146

Jack Daniel’s Distillery, 54

Jackson Hole Still Works Highwater Vodka, 87
Jägermeister, 146
Jamaica, 128
Japan, 13, 48, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 87, 91
Japanese malt whiskey, 73
Jaxon Keys Winery, 114
Jenever, 94
Jepson Old Stock Brandy, 114
Jepson Vineyards, 15, 114
Johnny Ziegler Black Forest Style Apple Aux Pommel Schnapps Eau de Vie, 143
Johnson, Robert Glen Jr. (Junior Johnson), 17
Jos. A. Magnus & Co. Distillery, 56
Juniper-flavored gin, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97

Kahlúa, 143
Karuizawa Number One Single Cask Whisky, 72
Kentucky, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 62
Kettle, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38
Kill Devil, 121
Kimo Sabe Mezcal, 137
Kittling Ridge, Ontario, 62
Kiwi home distillers, 20
Kneiper, Rich, 118
Korbel, 114
Korea, soju in, 91
Korn, Germany, 78
Kubanskaya, 88
Kweichow Moutai, 89
Kymar Farm Winery and Distillery, 118

Labrot & Graham Distillery, 50

Laird & Co., 113
Laird’s Distillery, 119
Lampglass, 28
Lancut Distillery, 143
Lao khao, 91
Latin America, 15, 115
Latvia, 86
Lawrenceburg, Indiana, 51
Legislation, 20, 93. See also Regulation Leopold Bros., 115, 144, 147
Leopold Brothers Distillery, 146
Leopold, Todd, 147
Libya, ancient, 13
Limeburners Single Malt Whisky, 74
Limonnaya, 88
Liqueurs, 140, 141
Liquid Riot, 146
Lithuania, 86
London Dry Gin, 98, 102
Louisiana Spirits, 130
Lowe, Michael, 93
Lowland malt whiskeys, 77
“Low wine” spirits, 42, 43, 44, 45
Lyne arm, 25, 28, 32

Macallan Distillery, 68
Madagascar, 131
Mad River Distillers, 119
Maggie’s Farm Rum Distillery, 130
Maison Ferrand, 107
Makers Mark Bourbon, 49
Malahat Spirits Cabernet Barrel Rum, 122
Malahat Spirits tasting room, 130
Malted barley, 18, 68, 74, 75
Malting, 91
Malt whiskey, 68, 69, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78
Malvados Apple Brandy, 119
Manhattan, 79
Manitoba, Canada, 62
Manuele Distillers KoHana Koho Hawaiian Agricole Rum, 122
Mao tai vodka, 89
Maple Liqueur, 142
Margarita, 139
Martini, 103
Martinique, 123, 127, 128
Maryland, 49, 55
Mash bills, 52, 58, 59
Mashing, 91
Mash/mashing, 18, 33, 34, 37, 38, 42, 43, 50, 66, 81
Mash tun, 43
Mauritius, 131
Maysville, Kentucky, 51
Maytag, Fritz, 15
McCool, Clark, 115
McMenamins Cornelius Pss Roadhouse (CPR) Distillery, 104
McMenamins CPR Distillery, 113, 115
Melazas, 121
Methanol, 42
Mexico, 115, 133, 134, 136, 138
Mezcals, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139
MGP of Indiana, 51
Middle West Spirits, 53
Miller, Chuck, 20
Missouri, 50
Mixtos, 136, 138
Modern “moonshiners,” Mixtos, 19
Moersch, Rick, 113
Molasses, 50, 58, 81, 121, 122, 127
Montanya Distillers, 130
Moonshine, 16, 61
corn whiskey, 57
defined, 21
distilling timeline, 71
Junior Johnson and, 17
making, 18
modern production of, 16, 19, 23
New Zealand, 74
during Prohibition, 16, 18, 52
still, 31
Moor’s cap, 40
Morris, Chris, 52
Mosby Vineyards, 116
Moscow Mule, 83
Mount Gay Distillery, 128
Moylan, Brendan, 137
Moylan’s Brewing Co., 57
Mrs. Beeton’s Book of Household Management, 94
Murray Hill Club Special Release Blended Bourbon, 56

NASCAR racing, 17
Nelson’s Green Brier Distillery, 54
Neutral grain spirit (NGS), 83, 84
New Columbia Distillers, 93
New Deal Distillery, 105
New Jersey, 113, 119
New Zealand, 15, 20, 75, 76, 78
New Zealand blended whiskey, 73
New Zealand Single malt whiskey, 73
Nikka Whiskey Distillery, 72
North America, 15, 87, 102, 122, 129. See also Canada; United States North American whiskey
blended American whiskey, 56
bourbon, 49
Canadian whiskey, 58, 62
classifications of, 60
corn whiskey, 57
craft distilleries, 65
overview, 48, 59
regions, 62
Rye whiskey, 55
Tennessee whiskey, 54
North Carolina, 17, 50
North Shore Distillery, 102
Notch Nantucket Island Single Malt Whiskey, 57
Nova Scotia, Canada, 62

Oceana rum, 131

Ogden’s Own, 146
Ogee, 28
Ohio, 50
Okhotnichya, 88
Olathe corn, 52
Olbracht, King Jan, 82
Old Gristmill Authentic American Corn Whiskey, 78
Old Pogue Distillery, 51
Old Tom Gin, 98, 99
Old Tom style of gin, 94
Online forums, 20
Ontario, Canada, 58, 62
Orcas Island Distillery, 105, 118
Oregon, 99, 117, 138
Oregon Spirit Distillers, 144
Orr, Prentis, 85
Osocalis Distillery, 114
Ouzo, 144
OYO Sherry-Finished Bourbon Whiskey, 53

Pakistan, 13, 75, 76

Pappy Van Winkle’s bourbon, 50, 51
Park Cognac, 107
Pastis, 144, 145
Pear brandies, 117
Pear Brandy, 105
Peated barley malt, 75
Peat fires, 68
Peat-smoked character, 72, 73, 74, 75
Penderyn Whisky Distillery, 70
Penedès brandy, 111
Pennsylvania, 49, 50, 55
Pennsylvania Pure Distillery, 85
Pernod, 144
Pertsovka, 88
Philippines, the, 131
Phylloxera infestation, 69, 113
Piedmont Distillers, 17
Pilgrims, 50
Pisco Punch, 115
Pisco Style Brandy, 115
Planter’s Punch, 125
Plum brandy, 117
Plymouth Gin, 98
Pogue Distillery, 51
Pogue, John, 51
Poland, 13, 82, 84, 86
Pomace brandies, 105, 116
Poteen, 70
Pot stills, 20
anatomy of, 24
bourbon and, 50
brandy produced in, 114, 115
gin produced in, 102
Irish whiskey, 76
Japanese whiskey, 76
New Zeland and Australia whiskey, 76
rum production in, 128
Scotch whiskey, 76
used by artisans, 23
vodka and, 83, 84
Preheater, 36
Prezydent Vodka, 82
Prichard’s Distillery, 51, 130
Private distillation, 14. See also Home distilling Prohibition, 15
bourbon industry and, 50, 52
fruit bricks and, 18
gin and, 95
grape brandy and, 113
Irish whiskey and, 70
moonshine and, 16
rum and, 122
rye whiskey and, 55
vodka and, 83
Proprietaries (liqueurs), 143
Puerto Rico, 128
Purifier (dephlegmator), 28

Qu, 91
Quakers, 94
Quebec, Canada, 62

Ransom Old Tom Gin, 99

Raspberry brandies, 117
Raspberry Liqueur, 142
Recipes. See Cocktails
Reflux (condensation), 31, 32, 33, 40
Regions
 brandy, 106
gin, 100
rum, 128
vodka, 86
whiskey, 77
Regulation, 14, 59, 99, 141
Rehorst Premium Milwaukee Gin, 102
Reposado/Rested tequila, 138
Revere, Paul, 94
Reynolds, Burt, 17
Rhum Agricole LA Rum, 122
Richards, Andrew, 118
Richland Distilling Co., 126
RMS, 114
Rocky Mountain Peach Flavored Whiskey, 147
Rosolis Ziolowy Gorzki, 143
Rum, 120
basis of, 120, 127
cocktails, 125
distillation of, 33, 127
distilling timeline, 71
history of, 121
regions, 128
styles of, 124
Rum and Coke, 125
Rummanger, 33
Rum verschnitt, 130
Ruqu de, 91
Russel, Jimmy, 52
Russia, 13, 81, 84, 86, 88
Rusty Nail, 79
Ryan, Bob, 124
Ryan & Wood Distillers, 124
Rye whiskey, 48, 49, 55, 60, 71

Sagaponack Farm, 87
Salish Sea Organic Liqueurs, 142
Sante Fe Spirits, 57
Sazerac, 79
Schnapps, 33, 38, 55, 143
Scotch grain whiskey, 73, 76
Scotch malt whiskey, 69, 76
Scotch whiskey, 67, 71
Scotland, 13, 15, 48, 49, 69, 77
Scottish immigrants, 49, 55
Scottish malt whisky, gooseneck still for, 32, 33
Scottish whiskey, 75, 76
Screech, 130
Screwdriver, 88
Seagram’s Extra Dry gin, 102
Seagram’s plant, 51
Sex On The Beach, 88
Shady Knoll Orchards and Distilling, 118
Sidecar, 119
Sidetrack Distillery, 146
Sidetrack Distillery Raspberry Brandy, 117, 141
Siegried Herzog Destillate, 112
Silver tequila, 138
Sinedrius, 13
Single barrel bourbon, 60
Single Barrel Tennessee Single Malt Whiskey, 54
Single Malt Scotch Whisky, 69, 73
Skip Rock Distillers, 123, 142
Slivovitz Plum Brandy, 118
Sloe Gin, 95
SLYRS distillery, 112
Small batch bourbon, 60, 123
Smirnoff brand, 83
Solera system, 111, 114, 115
Sotol, 138
Sour mash, 50, 66
South Africa, 15, 115
South America, 115, 122, 129
Southern Comfort, 143
South Hollow Spirits, 125
Spain, 13, 88, 96, 100, 111
Spent wash, 29
Spiced rums, 124
Spigot, 14
Spirit run, 44, 46
Spirit still, 44
Stark Spirits, 118, 123
State 38 Distilling, 139
Steam jacket, 14, 33, 38
St. George Spirits, 15, 116, 144
Still(s)
anatomy of a craft whiskey, 33
blueprint of, 14, 28
continuous-run column, 34
design of whiskey, 30
dimensions of a typical, 24
French Charentais alambic, 36
 gooseneck, 32
moonshine, 31
parts of a whiskey, 28
for producing Cognac, 106
Stinger, 119
Stone Barn Brandyworks, 117
Straight Bourbon Whiskey, 53
Straight whiskey, 66
Stryker Smoked Single Malt Whiskey, 62
Sugarcane, 75, 120, 121, 122, 127, 131
Sugarcane juice, 127, 128, 131
Sugar House Distillery, 53
Sugar-maple charcoal, 54
Sunshine Orange Brandy, 118
Suntory Company, 72
Sutherland Distilling Co., 53, 124
Swan neck, on pot still, 25, 28
Sweden, 13, 76, 82, 86

Tahiti, 131
Tails, 28, 34, 35, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47
Taiwan whiskeys, 75, 76
Taketsura, Masataka, 72
Talisker whiskey, 69
Taxation, 14, 49, 57, 66, 70, 74
Taxila, 13
Technical distillers, 23
Temperance movement, 50
Temperature, boiling point, 27, 29, 42
Templeton Rye, 51
Tench, Keith, 70
Tennessee, 49, 50, 52, 62
Tennessee whiskey, 53, 54, 60, 71
Tequila, 132
basis of, 134
cocktails, 139
distillation and aging of, 136
distilling timeline, 71
evolution of, 133
fermentation stage, 136
upgrading and upscaling of, 139
Tequila Sunrise, 139
Terra-cotta distillation system, 13
Thailand, 91, 131
Thujone, 145
Tito’s Handmade Vodka, 84
Tom Collins, 103
Tom’s Foolery Rye Whiskey, 55
Tormore Distillery, 68
Townshend’s Distillery, 141
Traveling stills, 14
Trinidad, 128
Triple Eight Distillery, 57
True Blue Corn Whiskey, 57
Tullamore Drew, 70
Turin Vermouth, 144
Tuthilltown Spirits, 50
Twenty Boat Amber Rum, 125
Two James Distillery Barrel Reserve Old Cockney Gin, 98
Two-run distillation, 44

Ukraine, 86
Underground Herbal Spirit, 146
Unicum, 146
United Kingdom, 15, 86, 100, 130. See also England; Great Britain; Ireland; Scotland United States. See
also North America; North American whiskey
apple brandy in, 119
brandy produced in, 113
craft distilleries, 15
gin production in, 95
moonshine production, 16
pomace brandies, 116
rum production in, 122, 129
vodka in, 83, 87
Uralt, 112
Urethane, 41

Van Winkle III, Julian, 51

Vatted Malt Scotch Whiskey, 73
Vietnam, 90, 91
VINN Baiju, 90
VINN Distillery, 90, 91
Virginia, 49, 50, 52, 58, 62, 64, 113, 119
Virginia Lightning Corn Whiskey, 19
Virginia Sweetwater Moonshine, 21
Virgin Islands, 129
Virginia Lightning Moonshine, 19
Virginia Sweetwater Distillery, 21
Vodka, 80
baijiu, 89
basis of, 81
classifications of, 84
 cocktails, 88
distillation of, 84
distilling timeline, 71
flavored, 88
flavors, 88
history, 81
produced in Asia, 89
regions, 86
technical distillers and, 23
Vonk, Erik and Karin, 126
VS (very superior) industry standard, 107
VSOP (very superior old pale) industry standard, 107
VSP (very superior pale) industry standard, 107

War of 1812, 14
Wash, 25, 28, 31, 33, 38, 43, 47
Washington, George, 14, 15, 49, 94
Washington Rye, 55
Wasmund, Rick, 64
Wasmund’s Single Malt Whiskey, 65
Weidenauer, Oswald “Ossie,” 78
Weinbrand, 112
Whiskey, 48. See also Moonshine
Australian, 74
basis of, 75
blended American whiskey, 56, 60
bonded, 66
bourbon, 49, 60
Canadian whiskey, 58, 61
cocktails, 79
corn whiskey, 57, 61
craft distilleries, 54, 62, 64, 65, 69
definition, 67
history of North American, 59
Irish, 32, 70, 73, 75, 76, 77
Japanese, 72, 75
labeling/labels, 50, 51
mash, 66
New Zealand, 74
North American regions, 62
overview, 48
Pappy Van Winkle, 51
regional flavors, 65
regions, 77
rye whiskey, 48, 49, 55, 60, 71
Scotch whisky, 67, 71, 73, 76
 spelling, 49
straight whiskey, 66
Tennessee whiskey, 54
Whiskey distillation
batch-still process, 44
distilleries, 51, 52, 64
by region, 76
Tennessee whiskey, 54
timeline, 71
Whiskey Rebellion of 1791, 14
Whiskey Sour, 79
Whiskey still, 25, 28, 30, 32, 33
“White dog,” 21
White Lightning (film), 17
White rums, 122, 124
“White whiskey,” 21
Wigle Whiskey, 144
Wildcard Absinthe, 144
Willett Distillery, 62
Winegarden Estate, 143
Winters, Lance, 71
Wise King Anejo Agave Spirit, 139
Witblits, 115
Wodo, Dave, 124
Wolfe, Tom, 17
Women’s Christian Temperance Union, 50
Woodford Reserve Distillery, 9, 32, 50, 52, 63
Wood Hat Spirits, 52, 53, 143
Woodinville Whiskey Co., 53
Worm (condenser), 13, 25, 28
Worm (mezcal), 136
Wormwood, 145

XO (extra old) industry standard, 107

Young, Barry, 85

Zubrowka, 88
 DEDICATION
In fond memory of our friend Michael Jackson, who is, we have no doubt, now enjoying his
well-deserved angel’s share of the world’s barrels of maturing whiskey.