Combined Heat and Power Systems: Reference Manual For

Reference Manual for
Combined Heat and Power Systems
Professional Level Elective Module of Singapore Certified

Energy Manager (SCEM) Programme
Acknowledgements
The reference manual Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems for the Professional Level
elective module of the Singapore Certified Energy Manager Programme was developed for the
National Environment Agency.
The material was prepared by LJ Energy Pte Ltd. We wish to thank the following organisations
for providing various diagrams, photographs and reference data for this manual:
Capstone Microturbine
Energy Market Authority of Singapore
Fuji Oil Singapore
GSK Biologicals Singapore
MSD Singapore
MWM Engines
© Copyright is jointly owned by the National Environment Agency and LJ Energy Pte Ltd. No
part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without
the prior written permission of the copyright owners.
July 2019
For
National Environment Agency

Singapore
By
LJ Energy Pte Ltd
Singapore
SCEM Reference Manual for Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... 2
PREFACE ................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP) SYSTEMS ......... 2
1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Benefits of CHP Systems ................................................................................................. 3
1.3. Main Candidates for CHP................................................................................................ 4
1.4. Available Technologies for CHP ...................................................................................... 4
2.0 FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS .......................................... 12
2.1 Basic Thermodynamics .................................................................................................. 12
2.2 SI Units and Conversions ............................................................................................... 16
2.3 First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics .................................................................. 23
2.4 The First Law Applied to Control Volumes .................................................................... 29
2.6 Entropy .......................................................................................................................... 37
2.7 Illustrative Examples...................................................................................................... 41
3.0 STEAM PROPERTIES ...................................................................................... 47
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 47
3.2 Saturation Temperature ................................................................................................ 48
3.3 Sensible and Latent Heat ............................................................................................... 51
3.4 Dryness Fraction ............................................................................................................ 53
3.5 Superheated Steam ....................................................................................................... 53
3.6 Steam Pressure vs Volume ............................................................................................ 54
3.7 Enthalpy ......................................................................................................................... 56
3.8 Steam Pressure vs Enthalpy of Evaporation .................................................................. 58
3.9 Condensate and Flash Steam ........................................................................................ 59
3.10 Use of Steam Tables .................................................................................................... 59
4.0 GAS POWER CYCLES ..................................................................................... 62
4.1 Gas Power Cycles ........................................................................................................... 62
4.2 Gas Compressors ........................................................................................................... 63
4.3 The Carnot Cycle ............................................................................................................ 66
4.4 The Brayton Cycle .......................................................................................................... 66
4.5 Illustrative Examples...................................................................................................... 80
5.0 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES ............................................................................. 92
5.1 Vapour Power Cycles ..................................................................................................... 92
i
5.2 The Carnot Vapour Cycle ............................................................................................... 93

5.3 The Rankine Cycle.......................................................................................................... 95
5.4 Regeneration ............................................................................................................... 108
5.5 Illustrative Examples.................................................................................................... 113
6.0 CHP PRIME MOVERS .................................................................................... 123
6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 123
6.2 Fuel-to-Power Equipment ........................................................................................... 129
6.3 Heat-to-Power Equipment .......................................................................................... 147
6.4 CHP Prime Mover Comparisons .................................................................................. 151
6.5. CHP Plant System Requirements ................................................................................ 158
7.0 CO-GENERATION & TRI-GENERATION SYSTEMS ...................................... 161
7.1. Ideal Co-generation Systems ...................................................................................... 161
7.2 Practical Co-generation Systems ................................................................................. 164
7.3 Tri-generation Systems ............................................................................................... 166
7.4 Combined Gas-vapour Cycle Co-generation Systems ................................................. 167
7.5 Performance Analysis of CHP Systems ........................................................................ 169
7.6 Illustrative Examples.................................................................................................... 176
8.0 THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL DESIGN OF CHP SYSTEMS ......................... 187
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 187
8.2 Thermal Load Profiles .................................................................................................. 188
8.3. Electrical Load Profiles................................................................................................ 190
8.4 CHP System Configuration Options ............................................................................. 193
9.0 THE FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR CHP ............................................................. 204
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 204
9.2 CHP Simulation Software and Tools ............................................................................ 206
9.3 CHP Analysis of Existing Facility ................................................................................... 208
9.4 CHP Economic Analysis ................................................................................................ 216
9.5 Calculating Estimated Energy Use and Cost of a CHP plant ........................................ 227
9.6 CHP System Budgetary Construction Costs ................................................................. 229
9.7 Calculating Life Cycle Cost (LCC) .................................................................................. 230
10.0 THE CHP REGULATORY ISSUES IN SINGAPORE ..................................... 233
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 233
10.2 Basic Terminologies and Key Players in the Singapore Electricity Market ................ 233
10.3 Key Players in the Singapore Electricity Industry ...................................................... 235
10.4 Singapore Electricity Market and Electricity Generators .......................................... 237
ii
10.5 The Electricity Generators in Singapore .................................................................... 238

10.6 Factors Affecting Co-generation Plant Development................................................ 239
10.7 Treatment of Embedded Generators ........................................................................ 257
10.8 CHP Registration Procedures in Singapore................................................................ 259
11.0 COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP) SYSTEMS CASE STUDIES .......... 262
11.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 262
11.2 Case Study 1: A 2 MW Tri-generation (CHP) System in a Pharmaceutical Company A in
Singapore ........................................................................................................................... 263
11.3. Case Study 2: A 10 MW Tri-generation (CHP) System in a Pharmaceutical Company B
in Singapore ....................................................................................................................... 266
11.4. Case Study 3: A 6.3 MW Tri-generation (CHP) System in an Industrial Company C in
Singapore ........................................................................................................................... 269
APPENDIX ....................................................................................................................... 276
iii
PREFACE
The Singapore Certified Energy Manager (SCEM) programme offers a formal training
and certification system for energy managers in Singapore and is co-administered by
the National Environment Agency (NEA) and The Institution of Engineers, Singapore
(IES) since 2008. The programme equips facility managers, engineers, technicians
and others who intend to build their careers as energy professionals with the technical
skills and competencies needed to manage energy services within their organisations.
The Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems module is one of the elective modules
in the SCEM programme. This reference manual aims to help SCEM candidates with
their course work and serve as reference material for practising energy managers.
The reference manual contains eleven chapters on different aspects of how to design,
implement, operate and evaluate typical CHP systems to be energy efficient subject
to Singapore regulations. Each chapter includes a brief introduction to assist readers
who may not be familiar with some of the basic concepts associated with each topic,
and the expected learning objectives.
Chapters 1 to 5 cover introduction to CHP systems, fundamentals of thermodynamics

including steam properties, and the building blocks of CHP systems - namely gas and
vapour power cycles.
Chapters 6 to 8 provide a fairly good account of the prime movers used in CHP,
co-generation and tri-generation systems as well as the various considerations to be
followed in the thermal design of CHP systems. This is followed by Chapter 9 which
gives a very good account of a technical and economic feasibility study that one
should undertake prior to decision making with regard to the CHP system.
Chapter 10 provides an account of the Singapore authorities’ regulatory requirements

for the installation, testing, commissioning and operation of CHP systems in
Singapore.
Chapter 11 contains a number of CHP success stories in the form of case studies.
We would like to take this opportunity to thank all those who have assisted in the
preparation of this reference manual by providing technical information, images and
case studies.
Dr Jahangeer K Abdul Halim

Dr Lal Jayamaha
LJ Energy Pte Ltd
1
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMBINED HEAT AND

POWER (CHP) SYSTEMS
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems produce two or three useful outputs
simultaneously. If the CHP system produces two simultaneous outputs, the system is
known as a co-generation system. On the other hand, if it produces three useful
outputs simultaneously, it is known as a tri-generation system. Generally, the
simultaneous outputs are: electricity, heating and/or cooling required in an industrial
set-up. The CHP system generally consists of a fuel handling system, combustion
equipment as well as a prime mover and other conversion equipment like heat
recovery steam generator and absorption chillers depending on the application.
This chapter provides an introduction to CHP systems used in industrial facilities.
Learning Outcomes:
The main learning outcomes from this chapter are to understand:
1. The benefits of CHP systems
2. Potential industrial candidates for CHP systems
3. The different types of CHP systems
1.1. Introduction
In a conventional power plant, only a portion of the energy transferred from the fuel to
the working fluid is converted to work. The remaining portion of the energy is rejected
as waste heat to larger heat sinks like rivers, oceans or the atmosphere. The Sankey
diagram for a conventional power plant is shown in Figure 1.1. As can be seen from
the figure, the rejected heat is about 67% of the total energy input and is wasted
unless it can be recovered and used for other heating applications.
Figure 1.1 Sankey diagram for a conventional thermal power plant
2
Some manufacturing plants such as chemical, pharmaceutical, oil refining, steel

manufacturing and food processing require significant amounts of heat energy. These
industrial plants also consume a large amount of electrical energy. Therefore, in some
cases, it can be economically viable to generate electricity and divert the waste heat
generated for useful heating applications.
Such a system is commonly known as a CHP system. The schematic diagram and
Sankey diagram for such a system are shown in Figures 1.2 and 1.3, respectively.
The overall efficiency can be improved from 33% (Figure 1.1) to 75% or higher (Figure
1.3).
Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of an ideal CHP plant
Figure 1.3 Sankey diagram for a CHP power plant
1.2. Benefits of CHP Systems

Some of the key benefits of a CHP system include:
• Increased total system thermodynamic efficiency

• Lower overall energy cost
3
• Improved power supply reliability (Singapore is an exception)

• Reduced overall CO2 emissions
• Possible reduced investment in power transmission capacity (for non-critical
applications)
• Lower transmission losses
1.3. Main Candidates for CHP

CHP systems can benefit a wide variety of facilities and are widely used. Such
facilities include:
• Oil refineries and Petrochemical Plants

• Waste water treatment plants
• Pharmaceutical plants
1.4. Available Technologies for CHP

There are many technologies available in the market for combined heat and power
generation. They can generally be classified as large, medium and small size
systems based on their electrical power and heat output.
• Large size systems – Steam turbine and combustion turbine (≥5 MW)
• Medium size systems – Internal combustion engine (0.25 – 5 MW)
• Small size systems – Microturbines (<250 kW)
A description of each type of system is provided below.
1.4.1 Steam Turbine

The steam turbine power generation cycle has been the backbone of the power
generation industry. There are three major components in a steam turbine power
generation system: the heat source (the boiler which produces superheated steam),
the turbine itself and a heat sink. The steam turbines are also categorised based on
the exit steam conditions as either a back pressure or condensing steam turbine
system.
1.4.1.1 Back Pressure Turbine

In a back pressure steam turbine (Figure 1.4), the superheated steam produced by
a boiler is supplied to a turbine where part of its energy is extracted to produce work.
The low pressure steam available at the outlet of the turbine is then used for heating
applications including the operation of absorption chillers for cooling. The
condensate is usually recovered and returned back to the boiler.
4
Figure 1.4 Back pressure steam turbine system
The main advantage of such a system is the high overall efficiency because process
heating applications are used as a heat sink to eliminate the need for a condenser
which would otherwise reject heat to the environment.
One of the main disadvantages is that the steam flow rate and therefore the system
output is governed by the thermal load, which is the heat sink. Hence, this system
provides little flexibility for matching the electrical output to the actual electrical load.
Another disadvantage of the back-pressure steam turbine is that it tends to be larger
in size (for the same electrical output) compared to the turbines such as total
condensing turbine as the reduction in enthalpy of steam is lower. It is to be noted
that the power produced by the turbine is the product of the steam mass flow rate
and difference in enthalpy. Hence, for the same power output, the steam mass flow
rate becomes higher resulting in a larger turbine.
Back pressure steam turbines are generally used for applications that have a heat to
power ratio of 4.0 to 14.3 kWt/kWe and an electrical output of more than a few MW.
1.4.1.2 Condensing Steam Turbine

The operation of a condensing turbine is similar to a back pressure turbine except
that steam is exhausted from the turbine at a pressure lower than the atmospheric
pressure to maximise the electrical output (Figure 1.5).
Since the steam available at the exit of the turbine would not be suitable for industrial
applications, steam required for heating applications (including absorption chillers) is
taken from an intermediate stage of the turbine. The low-pressure steam at the exit
of the turbine is exhausted to a condenser, which acts as the main heat sink.
5
Figure 1.5 Condensing steam turbine system
Condensing steam turbines are generally used for applications where the heat to
power ratio is in the range of 2.0 to 10.0 kWt/kWe and the electrical output is more
than a few MW.
1.4.2 Combustion Turbine (Gas Turbine)

In the gas turbine power generation cycle, air enters the compressor at atmospheric
pressure where it is compressed. It then enters a constant-pressure combustion
chamber where fuel is injected. The exhaust gases then leave the combustor at a
high temperature of around 1200C and enter a gas turbine coupled to a generator.
The hot gases after expansion leave the turbine at a temperature of about 450-
600C. The arrangement of a typical system is shown in Figure 1.6. The power
generation efficiency of gas turbine systems is relatively low (about 35%) due to the
need to discharge high temperature gases with a considerable amount of heat
energy at the exit of the turbine.
6
Figure 1.6 Open cycle gas turbine cycle
The overall efficiency of the above system can be improved considerably if the waste
heat available at the exit of the turbine is used for heating applications. This is usually
achieved by directing the hot gases after the expansion process to a waste heat
boiler. The steam produced by the waste heat boiler can be used directly for heating
applications or in high capacity systems. The high-pressure steam can be expanded
through a steam turbine coupled to a generator prior to using the low pressure steam
for heating applications. A typical arrangement of a CHP system using a combustion
gas turbine is shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 CHP system with combustion turbine
Combustion turbine systems are generally used for applications where the heat to
power ratio is in the range of 1.3 to 2.0 kWt/kWe and the electrical output is more than
a few MW.
1.4.3 Internal Combustion Reciprocating Engines

The internal combustion engine works on the principle of the Otto cycle or the Diesel
cycle. The Otto cycle is made up of four stages as shown in Figure 1.8: the intake
stroke where a mixture of air and fuel is taken into a cylinder, the compression stroke
where the mixture is compressed by a piston, the power stroke where the fuel-air
7
mixture is ignited and expanded moving a piston which does mechanical work
followed by the final stage where the exhaust is released to the atmosphere.
Figure 1.8 Four stages in an Otto cycle
The internal combustion engines operating on the Otto cycle can be fuelled by a wide
variety of fuels. These include liquids such as gasoline and heavy oil as well as gases
such as propane, biogas or natural gas.
In an internal combustion engine operating on the Diesel cycle, diesel based fuels
are used instead of petroleum based fuels. The main difference in the cycle is that
the fuel-air mixture is ignited by the heat generated by the compression.
Internal combustion engines can be coupled to generators for power generation.

However, the overall operating efficiency is relatively low (20 to 32%) as a significant
portion of the heat input from the fuel is wasted in the form of hot exhaust gases and
jacket cooling.
Therefore, the overall operating efficiency of an internal combustion engine-driven

power generation system can be improved significantly by operating as a combined
heat and power generation system.
Figure 1.9 shows the arrangement of a typical CHP system using an internal
combustion engine where hot water from jacket cooling is used for operating an
absorption chiller and the exhaust gases are used to generate steam for process
heating applications.
8
Exhaust
Steam
Waste heat boiler
Feed water
Exhaust
Reciprocating
Fuel Generator
engine
Hot water from

jacket
Hot water to
absorption chiller
Heat exchanger
Figure 1.9 Arrangement of an internal combustion engine CHP system
The general sizes of internal combustion engines that can be used for such
applications range from about 50 kW to around 5 MW. The heat to power ratio for
such systems ranges from 1.1 to 2.5 kWt/kWe.
1.4.4 Micro Turbines

Micro turbines are essentially a smaller version of combustion turbine generators.
They are available in output sizes ranging from 25 to 250 kW. Micro turbines are also
designed to operate on a variety of gaseous fuels such as natural gas, biogas and
propane. When used purely for electricity generation, their operating efficiency tends
to be relatively low (20 to 30%).
Due to the high heat content of the exhaust gases, the overall efficiency of power
generation using micro turbines can be improved by using the waste heat from the
exhaust for heating and cooling applications.
A typical arrangement of a CHP system using micro turbines is shown in Figure 1.10.
9
Figure 1.10 Arrangement of a micro turbine CHP system
Single micro turbines can produce electrical power output up to about 250 kW. The
typical heat to power ratio for such systems range from 1.4 to 2.5 kWt/kWe as
summarised in Table 1.1 below.
Technology Steam Turbine Combustion Internal Micro turbine

Turbine combustion
Engine
Size (MW) 0.5 - 150 1 - 200 0.05 - 10 0.025 - 0.25
Electric 25 - 40 25 - 40 (simple) 30 - 50 20 - 30
Efficiency (%)
40 - 60 (combined
cycle)
Overall system 60 - 80 75 - 80 75 - 85 65 - 80
efficiency (%)
Typical uses of Hot water, LP Hot water, LP-HP Hot water, LP Hot water, LP
heat recovery steam, cooling steam, cooling steam, cooling steam, cooling
Fuels Solid, liquid and Natural gas, biogas, Diesel and fuel Natural gas,
gaseous fuels propane, oil biogas,
propane
distillate oil
Relative High High Low Medium

operational &
maintenance
10
expertise
required
Relative capital High High Medium Low

cost for system
Heat to power 2.0 – 10.0 1.3 – 2.0 1.1 - 2.5 1.4 - 2.5
ratio
Table1.1 Summary of the common technologies available for CHP
Summary
A CHP system is the simultaneous production of two or more useful outputs, namely
electricity, heat and cooling. Different types of prime movers are associated with CHP
systems. These prime movers include gas turbines, steam turbines, and reciprocating
engines as well as micro turbines. Further details of CHP systems will be presented
in the subsequent chapters of this reference manual.
References
1. Younus Cengel, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach ed.6, McGraw-Hill,
2006.
2. Ryszard Bartnik, Zbigniew Buryn, Conversion of Coal-Fired Power Plants to Co-
generation and Combined-Cycle Thermal and Economic Effectiveness, Springer-
Verlag London Limited 2011.
3. Neil Petchers, Combined heating, cooling and power handbook: Technologies and
Applications”, Fairmont Press, second edition, 2012
4. Horlock, J.H, “Combined power plants: including combined cycle gas turbine
(CCGT) plants”, Oxford Pergamon Press, 1992
5. Milton Meckler, Sustainable On-Site CHP Systems; Design, Construction and
Operations, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2010.
6. Web page, Department of Energy, USA. URL: www.energy.gov (Accessed on 16
May 2019)
11
2.0 FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS

Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems consist essentially of thermodynamic
equipment in which the working fluid undergoes various thermodynamic processes.
These processes are based on fundamental principles involving laws of conservation
of energy and mass involving thermodynamic properties. A thermodynamic process
can also be considered as a series of state points that the working fluid in the process
undergoes. Therefore, it is of paramount interest for energy managers when handling
CHP systems to understand the fundamental thermodynamic concepts.
This chapter provides the fundamental thermodynamic concepts behind CHP

systems. This Chapter will follow SI units and conversion of the relevant units in this
reference manual to other units is given.
Learning Outcomes:
1. Basic thermodynamics
2. Relevant SI units and their conversions
3. First and Second Laws of thermodynamics as well as work and heat
4. Concept of entropy
2.1 Basic Thermodynamics

In thermodynamics, the storage, transformation and transfer of energy are studied.
Energy can be stored as internal energy (by the temperature difference), kinetic
energy (by virtue of change in velocity), potential energy (due to the change in
elevation), and chemical energy (due to chemical composition). The energy is
transformed from one of these forms to the another and at times transferred across a
boundary as either heat or work. The fundamental understanding of thermodynamics
will enable engineers to carry out the analysis or design of large scale systems like
CHP systems, Heating, Ventilation and Air-conditioning (HVAC) systems and even
nuclear power plants. A thermodynamic system may be regarded as a continuum in
which the activity of the constituent molecules is averaged into measurable quantities
such as pressure, temperature and velocity.
12
The important fundamental thermodynamic terminologies are as follows:

2.1.1 System
A thermodynamic system is a definite quantity of matter contained within some closed
surface. The surface is usually an obvious one like that enclosing the gas in the
cylinder as shown in Figure 2.1. It may also be treated as an imaginary boundary like
the deforming boundary of a certain amount of mass as it flows through a pump.
2.1.2 Surroundings
In thermodynamics, all matter and space external to a system is collectively called its
surroundings. Thermodynamics is mainly concerned with the interactions of a system
and its surroundings, or interaction between two or more systems. Normally, a system
interacts with its surroundings by transferring energy across its boundary.
Figure 2.1 Arrangement of a typical pumping system
2.1.3 Boundary
The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings. The
boundary of a system can either be fixed or movable.
Thermodynamic systems are classified as closed or open systems.
2.1.4 Closed system

In a closed system, a fixed amount of mass exists and no mass can cross its
boundary.
13
2.1.5 Open system (control volume)

An open system is a properly selected region of interest in space. It usually encloses
a device that involves a certain mass flow, e.g. a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. In
many practical cases, an analysis is simplified if attention is just focused on this
control volume in which there is a flow of working fluid, e.g. pumps and turbines. It is
to be noted that both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
2.1.6 Control surface

The boundary of a control volume is called a control surface. It can be real or
imaginary.
2.1.7 Property
Property is any characteristic of a system. A property is any quality that helps to
describe a system. The properties determine the state of a system, which is a
condition as described by the properties at a particular instant during a process or at
idling. In thermodynamics, the common properties are pressure, temperature,
volume, velocity, and position. In addition to the above properties, other properties
must also be considered occasionally. Shape is important in thermodynamic analysis
when surface effects are significant; whereas colour is important when radiation heat
transfer is involved. Properties can be further classified as intensive or extensive.
2.1.8 Intensive properties

Intensive properties are those independent of system size or the amount of material
in a system, e.g. temperature, pressure, and density.
2.1.9 Extensive properties

Extensive properties are those dependent on the size of the system or quantity of
matter in a system, e.g. volume, number of particles and internal energy.
2.10 Specific properties

Specific properties are the ratio of the properties to the mass of the substance.
2.11 Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the total heat content in a stream of fluid. The specific enthalpy is the
enthalpy expressed per unit mass.
14
2.12 Entropy
Entropy is a thermodynamic property which is helpful in assessing the energy quality
during a thermodynamic process. Entropy is explained in detail in section 2.6.
2.13 Thermodynamic equilibrium

Thermodynamic equilibrium exists when the properties are assumed to be constant
from point to point and when there is no tendency to change with time. If the
temperature, say, is suddenly increased at some part of the system boundary,
spontaneous redistribution is assumed to occur until all parts of the system are at the
same temperature and a new thermodynamic equilibrium is reached. In basic
thermodynamic analysis, when the temperature or the pressure of a system is referred
to, it is assumed that all points of the system have the same, or essentially the same,
temperature or pressure.
2.14 Process
A thermodynamic process is a series of successive state points - the path through
which the system passes. If during the process the deviation from equilibrium is
infinitesimal, a quasi-equilibrium process occurs and each state in the process may
be idealised as an equilibrium state.
2.15 Cycle
When a system in a given initial state experiences a series of quasi-equilibrium
processes and returns to the initial state, the system undergoes a cycle. At the end of
the cycle, the properties of the system have the same values they had at the
beginning.
2.16 Isothermal process

An isothermal process is one in which the temperature is held constant. It is to be
noted that the prefix iso- is attached to the name of any property that remains
unchanged in a process.
2.17 Adiabatic process

A process in which there is no heat transfer between a system and its surroundings.
2.18 Isobaric process

An isobaric process is one in which the pressure remains constant.
15
2.19 Isochoric process

An isochoric process is one in which the volume remains constant.
Dimension Unit
Length metre (m)
Mass kilogramme (kg)
Time second (s)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Electric current ampere (A)
Amount of light candela (cd)
Amount of matter mole (mol)
Table 2.1 Fundamental dimensions and their units
2.2 SI Units and Conversions

Any physical quantity can be characterised by dimensions. Units are the magnitudes
assigned to the dimensions. The dimensions are classified as fundamental
dimensions and derived dimensions.
2.2.1 Fundamental dimensions

Fundamental dimensions describe the fundamental properties of a substance or
system, e.g. mass, length, time and temperature. The units assigned to fundamental
dimensions are called fundamental units, e.g. kilogramme (kg), metre (m), second (s)
and degree Celsius (oC).
2.2.2 Derived dimensions

Derived dimensions are the dimensions derived from the fundamental dimensions,
e.g. momentum, speed, volume and work. The units assigned to derived dimensions
are called derived units, e.g. kg.m/s, m/s, m3, kN.m.
2.2.3 SI system of units

A simple and logical system based on a decimal relationship between the various
units, e.g. kilogramme (kg), metre (m), second (s) and degree Celsius (oC).
16
Multiple Prefix
1012 tera, T
109 giga, G
106 mega, M
3
10 Kilo, k
102 hecto, h
101 deca, da
10-1 deci, d
10-2 centi, c
10-3 milli, m
10-6 micro, µ
10-9 nano, n
10-12 pico, p
Table 2.2 Prefixes in SI units
Quantity Symbol SI Units English Units Multiplication factor

for English to SI
conversion
Length L m Ft 0.3048
Mass M kg lb 0.4536
Time t s sec
2
Area A m ft2 0.09290
Volume V m3 ft3 0.02832
Velocity v m/s ft/sec 0.3048
Acceleration a m/s2 ft/sec2
Angular velocity ω rad/s s-1
Weight, Force W, F N lbf 4.448
Density ρ kg/m3 lb/ft3 16.02
Specific weight w N/m3 lbf/ft3 157.1
Pressure, P, т kPa lbf/ft 2
0.04788
Stress W, E J ft-lbf 1.356
Work, Energy Q J Btu 1055.0
Heat transfer P W Ft-lbf/sec 1.356
Power 𝑄̇ W or J/s Btu/s 1055.0
Heat transfer ṁ kg/s lb/sec 0.4536
rate C kJ/kg.K Btu/lb.oR 4.187
17
Mass flow rate 𝑉̇ m3/s ft3/sec 0.02832

Specific heat h kJ/kg Btu/lb 2.326
o
Volume flow s kJ/kg.K Btu/lb. R 4.187
rate 𝑣̇ m3/kg ft3/lb 0.06242
Specific
enthalpy
Specific entropy
Specific volume
Table 2.3 Conversion multipliers from English to SI units
2.2.4 Density, Specific volume, Specific weight

The density of a substance is defined as the mass of the substance per unit volume.
The reciprocal of density is called specific volume (that is volume per unit mass).
Mathematically, Density, ρ = 𝑚/𝑉 (2.1)
Therefore, the Specific volume, v = 1/ρ (2.2)
Associated with (mass) density is weight density or specific weight w, which is

defined as the weight per unit volume.
Weight density, 𝜌𝑑 = 𝑊/𝑉 (2.3)
Specific weight is related to density through W =mg as follows:
𝜌𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔/𝑚/ρ = ρg (2.4)
where, g is the acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
For water, nominal values of density (ρ) and specific weight (ρd) are 1000 kg/m3 and
9810 N/m3, respectively.
For air at sea level, the respective values are 1.21 kg/m3 and 11.86 N/m3.
2.2.5 Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area. The SI unit for pressure is Pa (N/m2) or
kPa (kN/m2) and the working units of pressure are bar (SI) and PSI (British).
18
Pressure variation with elevation is expressed as:
𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ (2.5)
Figure 2.2 Variation of pressure with elevation
In most thermodynamic relations, absolute pressure must be used. Absolute pressure

is measured pressure, or gauge pressure, plus the local atmospheric pressure:
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 (2.6)
A negative gauge pressure is often called a vacuum, and gauges capable of reading
negative pressures are called vacuum gauges. A gauge pressure of –50 kPa would
be referred to as a vacuum of 50 kPa, with the sign omitted. The relationships between
absolute and gauge pressures are shown in Figure 2.3. The word ‘‘gauge’’ is generally
used in statements of gauge pressure; e.g. P =200 kPa gauge. If ‘‘gauge’’ is not
present, the pressure will, in general, be an absolute pressure. Atmospheric pressure
is an absolute pressure and will be taken as 100 kPa (at sea level), unless otherwise
stated. It should be noted that atmospheric pressure is highly dependent on elevation.
It is only about 53 kPa in a mountain city with an elevation of 4000 m.
19
Figure 2.3 Relationship between absolute and gauge pressure
2.2.6 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of molecular activity. In thermodynamics, to understand
the temperature, typically equality of temperature is discussed rather than defining the
temperature at a macroscopic level.
Equality of Temperatures: Let two objects be isolated from the surroundings but
placed in contact with each other. If one object is hotter than the other, the hotter
object will become cooler and the cooler object will become hotter; both objects will
undergo change until all properties (e.g. electrical resistance) of the bodies cease to
change. Such a state of the two objects is known as thermal equilibrium. Hence, we
state that two systems have equal temperatures if no change occurs in any of their
properties when the systems are brought into contact with each other. In other words,
if two systems are in thermal equilibrium, their temperatures are postulated to be
equal. In thermodynamics, the above observation is referred to as the zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics. The zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two systems are
equal in temperature to a third system, they are equal in temperature to each other.
2.2.6.1 Relative Temperature Scale

To establish a temperature scale, it is necessary to choose the number of
subdivisions, called degrees, between two fixed, easily duplicable points - the ice point
and the steam point. The ice point exists when ice and water are in equilibrium at a
pressure of 101 kPa; the steam point exists when liquid water and its vapour are in a
state of equilibrium at a pressure of 101 kPa. On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180
degrees between these two points. On the Celsius (formerly called the Centigrade)
20
scale, there are 100 degrees. On the Fahrenheit scale, the ice point is assigned the
value of 32 and on the Celsius scale it is assigned the value of 0.
Based on the above concepts, the conversion between degree Fahrenheit and degree
Celsius is expressed as follows:
°𝐹 = 1.8°𝐶 + 32 (2.7)
°𝐶 = (°𝐹 − 32)/1.8 (2.8)
2.2.6.2 Absolute Temperature Scale

The Second Law of Thermodynamics allows us to define an absolute temperature
scale.
The relations between absolute and relative temperatures are:

𝑇𝑅 = 𝑡𝐹 + 459.6 (2.9)
𝑇𝑘 = 𝑡𝑐 + 273.15 (2.10)
where the subscript ‘‘F’’ refers to the Fahrenheit scale and the subscript ‘‘C’’ refers to
the Celsius scale. (The values 460 and 273 are used where precise accuracy is not
required.) The absolute temperature on the Fahrenheit scale is given in degrees
Rankine (R), and on the Celsius scale, it is given in kelvins (K). Note: 300 K is read
‘‘300 kelvins,’’ not ‘‘300 degrees Kelvin.’’
2.2.7 Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. As a result, it takes the same unit as work. A system
may possess several different forms of energy. Assuming uniform properties
throughout the system, the kinetic energy, which is by virtue of motion, is given by:
𝐾𝐸 = 1/2𝑚𝑉 2 (2.11)
where V is the velocity of each lump of substance, assumed constant over the entire
system. If the velocity is not constant for each lump, then the kinetic energy is found
by integrating over the system.
21
The energy that a system possesses by virtue of its elevation h above some arbitrarily
selected datum is its potential energy; it is determined from the equation:
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ (2.12)
Where, m = Mass, kg
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
Other forms of energy include the energy stored in a battery, energy stored in an
electrical condenser, electrostatic potential energy, and surface energy. In addition,
there is the energy associated with the translation, rotation, and vibration of the
molecules, electrons, protons, and neutrons, and the chemical energy due to bonding
between atoms and between sub-atomic particles. These molecular and atomic forms
of energy will be referred to as internal energy and designated by the letter U. In
combustion, energy is released when the chemical bonds between atoms are
rearranged.
In thermodynamics, one needs to focus first on the internal energy associated with
the motion of molecules that is influenced by various macroscopic properties such as
pressure, temperature, and specific volume. Internal energy, like pressure and
temperature, is a property of fundamental thermodynamic importance. A substance
always has internal energy, if there is molecular activity associated with it. In
thermodynamics, one does not need to know the absolute value of internal energy,
since the interest is only in its increase or decrease. In thermodynamics, an important
law that is often used when considering isolated systems, is the Law of Conservation
of Energy.
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that the energy of an isolated system
remains constant. Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed in an isolated
system. Energy can only be transformed from one form to another. Let us consider
the system comprising two automobiles that hit head on and come to rest. As the
energy of the system is the same before and after the collision, the initial KE must
simply have been transformed into another kind of energy. In this case, internal
energy is primarily stored in the deformed metal after the collision.
22
2.3 First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics, simply called the First Law, can be stated as “the
net heat transfer is equal to the net work done for a system undergoing a cycle.”
This is expressed in equation form as:
ΣW = ΣQ (2.13)
or, using the symbol to represent integration around a complete cycle as:
δW = δQ (2.14)
The First Law can be illustrated by considering the following experiment. Let a weight
be attached to a pulley-paddle-wheel setup, such as that shown in Figure 2.4. Let the
weight fall a certain distance thereby doing work on the system contained in the tank
shown. The work done is equal to the weight multiplied by the distance dropped. The
temperature of the system (the substance in the tank) will immediately rise by an
amount ΔT. Now, the system is returned to its initial state (the completion of the cycle)
by transferring heat to the surroundings, as implied by the Q in the Figure. This
reduces the temperature of the system to its initial temperature. Applying the First
Law, this heat transfer will be exactly equal to the work that was done by the falling
weight.
Figure 2.4 The First Law applied to a cycle
The First Law of Thermodynamics is often applied to a process as the system

changes from one state to another. Realising that a cycle results when a system
undergoes two or more processes and returns to the initial state, we could consider a
cycle composed of two processes.
Applying the First Law to this cycle involving these processes and after some
mathematical manipulations, Eq. (2.14) can be expressed as:
23
δQ – δW = 𝑑𝐸 (2.15)
For the two state points, the Eq. (2.15) can be written as:
𝑄1−2 − 𝑊1−2 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 (2.16)
Where Q1-2 is the heat transferred into the system during the process from state 1 to
2, W1-2 is the work done by the system on the surroundings during the state change
(process) and E2 and E1 are the quantity of energy at the state points 1 and 2,
respectively.
The energy E consists of different forms of energy: kinetic energy, KE, potential
energy, PE and internal energy, U. The internal energy includes chemical energy and
energy associated with the atom. The internal energy for superheated steam depends
only on pressure and temperature. The internal energy for saturated steam depends
on temperature or pressure and quality of steam. The expression for internal energy
connecting quality of steam is as follows:
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑓 +𝑥(𝑢𝑔 − 𝑢𝑓 ) (2.17)
where, u is internal energy per unit mass with suffices f and g indicating liquid and
vapour, respectively.
2.3.1 Enthalpy
In the solution of problems involving systems, certain products or sums of properties
occur with regularity. One such combination of properties is enthalpy H:
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 (2.18)
where,
U = Total internal energy, kJ
P = Pressure, kPa
V = Volume, m3
The specific enthalpy, h, is found by dividing H by the mass: h = H/m. From Eq. (2.18):
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 (2.19)
24
where,
u = Internal energy, kJ/kg.K
h = Specific enthalpy, kJ/kg
P = Pressure, kPa
v = Specific volume, m3/kg
Enthalpy is a property of a system and is also found in the steam tables. As in the
case of internal energy, in thermodynamics it is only the change in enthalpy or internal
energy that is important. Therefore, we can arbitrarily choose the datum from which
to measure h and u. We choose saturated liquid at 0°C to be the datum point for
water; there h = 0 and u = 0. From a practical point of view, the enthalpy can be treated
as the total heat content in a stream of fluid or stream of air, water or steam, which
are the common working fluids in most industries. This is illustrated in Figure 2.5
below.
Figure 2.5 The First Law applied to a cycle
Figure 2.5 shows a thermodynamic process in which a fluid stream enters with an
enthalpy of h1 and emerges from the process with an enthalpy of h2. If h1 is greater
than h2, based on the understanding of the enthalpy as total heat content, we can call
the process cooling and the other way around, the process can be called heating.
2.3.2 Latent Heat

The amount of energy that must be transferred in the form of heat to a substance held
at constant pressure in order that a phase change occurs is called latent heat. It is the
change in enthalpy of the substance at the saturated conditions of the two phases.
The heat that is necessary to vapourise a unit mass of water at constant pressure is
the latent heat of vapourisation and can be expressed as:
ℎ𝑓𝑔 = ℎ𝑔 −ℎ𝑓 (2.20)
where hg is the enthalpy of saturated steam and hf is the enthalpy of saturated liquid
(obtained from the steam table for the corresponding pressure or temperature).
Corresponding phase change and the associated heat rejected or absorbed for a solid
25
is called latent heat of fusion or melting. When a solid changes phase directly to a
gas, sublimation occurs. The latent heat of fusion and the latent heat of sublimation
are relatively insensitive to pressure or temperature changes. For ice, the latent heat
of fusion is approximately 330 kJ/kg and the latent heat of sublimation is about 2040
kJ/kg. The heat of vapourisation of water is very sensitive to pressure and
temperature. Figures 2.6, 2.7 and 2.8 show the Pressure-volume (P-v) and
Temperature-volume (T-v) diagrams for a pure liquid substance and the various
regions while they undergo a phase change process by absorbing or rejecting the
latent heat. The quality of the two-phase mixture in the two-phase region is defined
by a parameter called quality or dryness fraction, x, defined as:
𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔 /𝑚 (2.21)
where, 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔 ; mg = the mass of vapour fraction and mf = the mass of liquid

fraction
Figure 2.6 P-v diagram for a pure liquid substance
Figure 2.7 T-v diagram for a pure liquid substance
26
Note that vcr is the specific volume at the critical point of water
The various regions as shown in the P-v and T-v diagrams in Figures 2.6 and 2.7 are
defined as follows:
Compressed liquid (subcooled liquid): A substance that is not about to vapourise
Saturated liquid: A liquid that is about to vapourise
Saturated vapour: A vapour that is about to condense.
Saturated liquid–vapour mixture: The state at which the liquid and vapour phases co-
exist in equilibrium.
Superheated vapour: A vapour that is not about to condense (i.e., not a saturated
vapour).
2.3.3 Specific Heats

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one kilogramme of that substance by 1oC. There are two types of
specific heat; specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv) and constant pressure
(Cp). The expressions connecting specific heat capacity C, internal energy u, enthalpy
h and gas constant R, are given below:
𝑑𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇 (2.22)
𝑑ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 (2.23)
𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 (2.24)
𝐶𝑝 /𝐶𝑣 = γ (2.25)
The gas constant R is related to the universal molar gas constant, R (kJ/K.mol) as
follows:
R = R/M, where M is the molecular weight of the gas concerned. The universal gas
constant R is 8.314 kJ/kg.K.
Also, 𝐶𝑝 = R γ/ (γ − 1), 𝐶𝑣 = R / (γ − 1) (2.26)
Since R is a constant for an ideal gas, the specific heat ratio γ will depend only on the
temperature.
27
For gases, the specific heats slowly increase with increasing temperature. Since they
do not vary significantly over large temperature differences, it is often acceptable to
treat Cv and Cp as constants.
For air, we will use Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg.K and Cp = 1.00 kJ/kg⋅K, unless otherwise stated.
For more accurate calculations with air, or other gases, one should consult ideal-gas
tables, which tabulate h(T) and u(T). For liquids and solids, the specific heat capacity
Cp is available from temperature-specific capacity tables from any standard
thermodynamic text book and can be used for the relevant computations. Since it is
quite difficult to maintain constant volume while the temperature is changing, Cv
values are usually not tabulated for liquids and solids; the difference Cp − Cv is quite
small. For most liquids the specific heat is relatively insensitive to temperature
change. For water we will use the nominal value of 4.19 kJ/kg⋅K.
2.3.4 The constant-temperature process

By applying the First Law of Thermodynamics and the ideal gas equation, PV = mRT,
the work done for an isothermal process is expressed as follows:
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 /𝑃1 ) (2.27)
2.3.5 The constant-volume process

The work for a constant-volume quasi-equilibrium process is zero, since dV is zero.
Hence, by applying the First Law and the definition of internal energy, one can quantify
the amount of heat transferred during a constant volume process as:
𝑄 = ṁ 𝐶𝑣 𝛥𝑇 (2.28)
2.3.5 The constant-pressure process

Using the First Law and the definition of internal energy, one can quantify the amount
of heat transferred during a constant pressure process as:
𝑄 = ṁ 𝐶𝑝 𝛥𝑇 (2.29)
2.3.6 The adiabatic process

There are numerous examples of processes where there is no or negligibly small heat
transfer. In thermodynamics, such processes are called adiabatic processes. For an
adiabatic process, the relevant expressions are:
28
𝑇𝑣 (γ−1) = const. (2.30)
𝑇𝑃(1−γ)/γ = const. (2.31)
𝑃𝑉 γ = const. (2.32)
The work done during an adiabatic process is expressed as:
𝑊 = (𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )/(1 − γ) (2.33)

For an adiabatic process, the ratio of specific heat, γ = 1.4.
2.3.7 The polytropic process

In practical applications in industry, most of the processes follow the polytropic
process in which there is some heat transfer, but do not maintain temperature,
pressure or volume constant.
The work done during a polytropic process is expressed as:
𝑊 = (𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )/(1 − 𝑛) (2.34)
where n is the polytropic index which is greater than 1 but less than 1.4.
2.4 The First Law Applied to Control Volumes

The preceding sections focused on closed systems; those in which no mass crosses
the boundary of a system. This is acceptable for many problems of interest and may,
in fact, be imposed on the power plant schematic shown in Figure 2.8. However, if the
First Law is applied to this system, only an incomplete analysis can be accomplished.
For a more complete analysis one should relate Win, Qin, Wout, and Qout to the pressure
and temperature changes for the pump, boiler, turbine, and condenser respectively.
For this, one should consider each device of the power plant as a control volume into
which and from which a fluid flows. For example, water flows into the pump at a low
pressure and leaves the pump at a high pressure; the work input into the pump is
obviously related to this pressure rise. Hence, one must formulate equations that allow
for making the necessary calculations. For most applications, it will be acceptable to
assume a steady and uniform flow. In a steady flow, the flow variables do not change
with time; whereas in a uniform flow, the velocity, pressure, and density are constant
over the cross-sectional area.
29
2.4.1 The conservation of mass

Many devices have an inlet (usually a pipe) and an outlet (also typically a pipe).
Consider a device, a control volume, to be operating in a steady-flow mode with
uniform profiles in the inlet and outlet pipes. During some time increment Δt, a small
amount of mass Δm1 leaves the inlet pipe and enters the device, and the same
amount of mass Δm2 leaves the device and enters the outlet pipe.
The amount of mass that enters the device can be expressed as:
𝑚1 = ρ1 A1 V1 Δt (2.35)
The amount of mass that leaves the device is expressed as:
𝑚2 = ρ2 A2 V2 Δt (2.36)
where, V1 and V2 are the velocities.
The quantity of mass entering or leaving a control volume per unit time is called mass
flux or mass flow rate, which for steady state remains constant.
Therefore, for steady state processes, the mass flow rate, ṁ, can be expressed as:
ṁ = 𝑚1 /Δt = 𝑚2 /Δt = ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2 = ρAV (2.37)
This expression in thermodynamics is known as conservation of mass.

where,
V = velocity, m/s
A = Area, m2
Ρ = Density, kg/m3
m = mass, kg and Δt = time interval, s
2.4.2 Applications of the energy equation

There are several points that must be considered in the analysis of most problems in
which the energy equation is used. As a first step, it is very important to identify the
control volume selected in the solution of the problems. If possible for simplicity, the
control surface should be chosen so that the flow variables are uniform or known
functions over the areas where the fluid enters and exits the control volume. The
30
control surface should be chosen sufficiently far downstream from an abrupt area
change (an entrance or a sudden contraction), that the velocity and pressure can be
assumed to be uniform.
It is also necessary to specify the process by which the flow variables change, such
as incompressible, isothermal, constant-pressure, adiabatic processes. If the working
substance behaves as an ideal gas, then the appropriate equations may be used; if
not, tabulated values must be used, e.g. the steam property table. For real gases that
do not behave as ideal gases, properties can be found from the appropriate tables.
Often heat transfer from a device or the internal energy change across a device, such
as a pump, is not desired. For such situations, the heat transfer and internal energy
change may be taken together as losses. In a pipeline, losses occur because of
friction; in a pump, losses occur because of separated fluid flow around the rotating
blades. For many devices the losses are included as an efficiency of the device. Some
of the commonly used industrial equipment with steady state flows are described
below:
Throttling devices
A throttling device involves a steady-flow adiabatic process that provides a pressure
drop with no significant potential energy changes, kinetic energy changes, heat
transfer, or work. As there is no heat transfer (being a rapid process) or work transfer
during a throttling process, the energy equation for throttling can be simplified to h1 =
h2.
Most of the valves used in industry are throttling devices, for which the above energy
equation applies. Throttling valves used in refrigeration applications cause flashing
resulting from the phase change due to a sudden pressure drop.
Compressors, pumps, and turbines

A pump is a device that transfers energy to a liquid by increasing its pressure.
Compressors and blowers also fall into this category but have the primary purpose of
increasing the pressure in a gas. A turbine, on the other hand, is a device in which
work is done by the fluid on a set of rotating blades. As a result, there is a pressure
drop from the inlet to the outlet of the turbine. In some situations, there may be heat
transferred from the device to the surroundings, but often the heat transfer is
negligible and can be ignored. In addition, the kinetic and potential energy changes
can also be assumed to be negligible.
31
For such devices operating in a steady-state mode, the energy equation can be
modified and written as:
−𝑤𝑠 = ℎ2 – ℎ1 (2.38)
ws is negative for work consuming devices like compressors and positive for work
producing devices like gas or steam turbines.
For liquids, such as water, by neglecting kinetic and potential energy changes, the
energy equation can be written as follows:
(𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 2 )/2 = −𝑤𝑠 = ℎ1 – ℎ2 /ρ (2.39)
Nozzles and diffusers

A nozzle is a device that is used to increase the velocity of a flowing fluid by reducing
the pressure of the fluid. A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure in a flowing
fluid by reducing the velocity. There is no work input into the devices and heat transfer
is usually negligible. With the further assumptions of negligible internal energy and
potential energy changes, the energy equation can be simplified to:
(𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 2 )/2 = ℎ1 – ℎ2 (2.40)
Figure 2.8 Nozzle and diffuser.
As shown in Figure above, a nozzle has a decreasing area and a diffuser has an
increasing area.
Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are used to transfer energy from a hotter body to a colder body or
to the surroundings by means of heat transfer. Practical industrial examples of such
heat exchanges are: heat transfer from the combustion gas in a power plant to the
water in the pipes of the boiler, and the heat transfer from the hot water that leaves
an automobile engine to the atmosphere by use of a radiator. Many heat exchangers
32
utilise a flow passage into which a fluid enters and from which the fluid exits at a
different temperature. The velocity does not normally change in the heat exchanger
and the pressure drop through the passage is usually neglected, and the potential
energy change is assumed to be zero. The selection of control volume for
thermodynamic system analysis purposes is depicted in Figure 2.9. The resulting
simplified energy equation for a heat exchanger is:
𝑄 = ṁ (ℎ2 – ℎ1 ) (2.41)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.9 A heat exchanger. (a) Combined unit. (b) Separated control volumes.
2.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics

The Second Law of Thermodynamics can be stated by the Clausius statement and
the Kelvin-Planck statement. An additional property, entropy, which can be used to
determine whether the Second Law is being violated for any situation, is also
introduced.
The Clausius statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics states that it is

impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and whose sole effect is the
transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter body. This statement can be explained
further by a refrigerator or a heat pump. It states that it is impossible to construct a
refrigerator that transfers energy from a cooler body to a hotter body without the input
of work (Kelvin-Planck statement). The violation of this statement is shown in Figure
2.10 (a). The violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement results in the violation of
Clausius statement as shown in Figure 2.10 (b) because of the net effect of the
refrigerator transferring heat from a colder source to a hotter sink without any work
input.
33
(a) (b)
Figure 2.10 Violation of Second Law of Thermodynamics
where,
TH = Source temperature, K
TL = Sink temperature, K
QH = Heat absorbed, kJ
QL = Heat rejected, kJ
W = Work produced, kJ
The Kelvin-Planck statement of the Second Law states that it is impossible to

construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no other effect than the
production of work and the transfer of heat from a single body. In other words, it is
impossible to construct a heat engine that extracts energy from a reservoir, does the
work, and does not transfer heat to a low-temperature reservoir.
This rule out any heat engine that is 100 percent efficient. It may be worth noting that
the two statements of the Second Law are negative statements. They are expressions
of experimental observations. However, no experimental evidence has ever been
obtained that violates either statement of the Second Law. The example below
demonstrates that the two statements are equivalent.
The heat engine that operates most efficiently between a high-temperature reservoir
and a low-temperature reservoir is the Carnot engine. It is an ideal engine that uses
reversible processes to form its cycle of operation. Therefore, it is also called a
reversible engine. The Carnot engine is very useful, since its efficiency establishes
the maximum possible efficiency of any real engine working between two temperature
limits. From an optimisation point of view, if the efficiency of a real engine is
significantly lower than the efficiency of a Carnot engine operating between the same
limits, then additional improvements may be possible.
34
2.5.1 The Carnot Engine

The cycle associated with the Carnot engine is shown in Figure 2.11, using an ideal
gas as the working substance. It is composed of the following four reversible
processes:
1 → 2: Isothermal expansion. Heat is transferred reversibly from the high-temperature
reservoir at the constant temperature TH. The piston in the cylinder is withdrawn and
the volume increases.
Figure 2.11 The Carnot engine cycle
2 → 3: Adiabatic reversible expansion. The cylinder is completely insulated so that no

heat transfer occurs during this reversible process. The piston continues to be
withdrawn, with the volume increasing.
3 → 4: Isothermal compression. Heat is transferred reversibly to the low temperature
reservoir at the constant temperature TL. The piston compresses the working
substance, with the volume decreasing.
4 → 1: Adiabatic reversible compression. The completely insulated cylinder allows no
heat transfer during this reversible process. The piston continues to compress the
working substance until the original volume, temperature, and pressure are reached,
whereupon the cycle repeats itself.
Applying the First Law to the Carnot cycle, we get:
𝑄𝐻 – 𝑄𝐿 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 (2.42)
35
where QL is assumed to be a positive value for the heat transfer to the low-
temperature reservoir. This allows us to write the thermal efficiency for the Carnot
cycle as:
𝑄𝐿
Ƞ𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 − (2.43)
𝑄𝐻
In terms of temperature, equation (2.43) can be expressed as:
𝑇𝐿
Ƞ𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 − (2.44)
𝑇𝐻
where,
QH = Heat transferred from the source, kJ
QL = Heat rejected to the sink, kJ
Wnet = Net work produced, kJ
The three postulates pertaining to the Carnot engine are:
Postulate 1 It is impossible to construct an engine, operating between two given

temperature reservoirs, that is more efficient than the Carnot engine.
Postulate 2 The efficiency of a Carnot engine is not dependent on the working

substance used or any design feature of the engine.
Postulate 3 All reversible engines operating between two given temperature

reservoirs, have the same efficiency as a Carnot engine operating between the same
two temperature reservoirs. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is dependent only on
the two reservoir temperatures, and can be expressed as:
𝑇𝐿
η = 1− 𝑇𝐻
(2.45)
This expression is obtained by replacing the ratio of the associated heat transfers,
QL/QH with the corresponding temperatures, TL/TH. We can make this replacement for
all reversible engines or refrigerators. We see that the thermal efficiency of a Carnot
engine is dependent only on the high and low absolute temperatures of the reservoirs.
The fact that we used an ideal gas to perform the calculations is not important since
36
we have shown that Carnot efficiency is independent of the working substance.

Consequently, the relationship (2.44) is applicable for all working substances, and for
all reversible engines, regardless of the design characteristics.
The Carnot engine, when operated in reverse, becomes a Carnot heat pump or a
refrigerator depending on the desired heat transfer. The coefficient of performance
(COP) for a Carnot heat pump can be expressed as:
𝑄𝐻
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃,𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 𝑊𝑖𝑛
(2.46)
The performance indicator, Carnot COP, just sets a limit that real devices can only
approach. The reversible cycles assumed are obviously unrealistic, but the fact that
we have limits that we know cannot be exceeded is often very helpful.
2.6 Entropy
To allow us to apply the Second Law of Thermodynamics to a process, we will identify
a property called entropy. This will parallel our discussion on the First Law; first we
stated the First Law for a cycle and then derived a relationship for a process.
Consider the reversible Carnot engine operating on a cycle consisting of the

processes described in the preceding discussion. The quantity ∫δQ/T is the cyclic
integral of the heat transfer divided by the absolute temperature at which the heat
transfer occurs. Since the temperature TH is constant during the heat transfer QH and
TL is constant during heat transfer QL, the integral is given by:
𝛿𝑄 𝑄𝐻 𝑄
∮ = − 𝑇𝐿 (2.47)
𝑇 𝑇𝐻 𝐿
where the heat QL leaving the Carnot engine is considered to be positive. Using Eqs.
(2.43) and (2.44), we see that for the Carnot cycle,
𝑄𝐿 𝑇 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿
𝑄𝐻
= 𝑇𝐿 or 𝑇𝐻
= 𝑇𝐿
(2.48)
𝐻
Substituting this into Eq. (2.47), we find the interesting result:
𝛿𝑄
∮ 𝑇
= 0 (2.49)
37
Thus, the quantity δQ/T is a perfect differential, since its cyclic integral is zero. We let
this differential be denoted by ds, where s depends only on the state of the system.
Based on the preceding discussion, this is the definition of a property of a system.
This extensive property is widely known as entropy; its differential is given by:
𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑇
(𝑟𝑒𝑣) (2.50)
where “rev” emphasises the reversibility of the process. This can be integrated for a
process to give:
2 𝛿𝑄
𝛥𝑆 = ∫1 (𝑟𝑒𝑣) (2.51)
𝑇
From the above equation, it is evident that the entropy change for a reversible process
can be either positive or negative depending on whether energy is added to or
extracted from the system during the heat transfer process. For a reversible adiabatic
process (Q = 0) the entropy change is zero. If the process is adiabatic but irreversible,
it is not generally true that Δs = 0.
Figure 2.12 Temperature – entropy (T-s) diagram for Carnot cycle
We often sketch a temperature-entropy diagram for cycles or processes of interest.

The temperature-entropy diagram for a Carnot cycle is shown in Figure 2.12. The
change in entropy for the first isothermal process from state 1 to state 2 is:
2 𝛿𝑄 𝑄
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = ∫1 𝑇
= 𝑇𝐻 (2.52)
𝐻
38
The entropy change for the reversible adiabatic process from state 2 to state 3 is zero.
For the isothermal process from state 3 to state 4, the entropy change is the negative
of the first process from state 1 to state 2; the process from state 4 to state 1 is also
a reversible adiabatic process and is accompanied with a zero-entropy change. The
heat transfer during a reversible process can be expressed in differential form as:
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = ∫ 𝑇𝑑𝑠 (2.53)
Hence, the area under the curve in the T-s diagram represents the heat transfer during
any reversible process. The rectangular area in Figure 2.12 represents the net heat
transfer during the Carnot cycle. Since the heat transfer is equal to the work
done for a cycle, the area also represents the net work accomplished by the system
during the cycle.
For this Carnot cycle: 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝛥𝑇𝛥𝑠 (2.54)
For the First Law of Thermodynamics, a reversible infinitesimal change can be

expressed as:
𝑇𝑑𝑠 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑈 (2.55)
Eq (2.55) is an important relationship in the study of simple systems assuming a

reversible process. However, since it involves only properties of the system, it holds
for any process including any irreversible process. If we have an irreversible process,
in general:
𝛿𝑊 ≠ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿𝑄 ≠ 𝑇𝑑𝑠 (2.56)
Eq (2.55) still holds as a relationship between the properties since changes in

properties do not depend on the process. Dividing by the mass, we get:
𝑇𝑑𝑠 − 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑢 (2.57)
where the specific entropy is s = S/m.
To relate the entropy change to the enthalpy change, we differentiate the definition of
enthalpy and obtain:
39
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑃 (2.58)
Substituting into Eq. (2.57) for du, we get:
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ – 𝑣𝑑𝑃 (2.59)
2.6.1 Entropy for an ideal gas with constant specific heats

Assuming an ideal gas (Pv = RT), and using Eqs. (2.58) & (2.59), we get:
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢/𝑇 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣/𝑇 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇/𝑇 + 𝑅𝑑𝑣/𝑣 (2.60)
where,
𝑑𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇 (2.61)
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 (2.62)
Integrating and rearranging Eq (2.59), and assuming constant specific heat, yields:
𝑇 𝑃
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑛 (𝑇2 ) − 𝑅 𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 ) (2.63)
1 1
If the entropy change is zero, as in a reversible adiabatic process, Eqs. (2.60) and
(2.61) can be used to obtain:
𝑇2 𝑣 (γ−1)
𝑇1
= (𝑣1 ) (2.64)
2
𝑇2 𝑃 (γ−1)/γ
𝑇1
= (𝑃2 ) (2.65)
1
Combining these two expressions yields:
𝑃2 𝑣 γ
𝑃1
= (𝑣1 ) (2.66)
2
2.6.2 Entropy for an ideal gas with variable specific heats

If the specific heats for an ideal gas cannot be assumed constant over a particular
temperature range, the pressure ratio is expressed as:
40
∅
𝑃2 ∅2 −∅1 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 2) 𝑓(𝑇2 )
𝑅
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) = ∅ = (2.67)
𝑃1 𝑅 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 1) 𝑓(𝑇1 )
𝑅
Thus, we define a relative pressure Pr, which depends only on the temperature, as:
∅
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) (2.68)
𝑅
𝑃2 𝑃𝑟2
= (2.69)
𝑃1 𝑃𝑟1
2.7 Illustrative Examples
Example 2.7.1
Express a pressure gauge reading of 20 mm Hg in absolute pressure at an elevation
of 3,000 m. Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6 g/cm3
Solution
Converting the gauge pressure reading into pascals,
P = ρgh = 13.6 x 1,000 (kg/m3) x 9.81(m/s2) x (20/1,000)(m) = 2,668 Pa = 2.67 kPa
(1 kg/m.s2) = 1 Pa)
The reduction in atmospheric pressure with an elevation of 3,000 m is:
dPatm@3000m = ρgh = 1.2 x 9.81 x 3,000/1000 = 35.32 kPa
Therefore, Patm@3000m = 101.3 - 35.32 = 65.98 kPa

Pabs = Pgauge + Patm = 2.668 + 65.98 = 68.65 kPa
Example 2.7.2
A 3,000 kg automobile travelling at 75 km/h hits the rear of a stationary 900 kg
automobile. After the collision the larger automobile slows to 60 km/h, and the smaller
vehicle has a speed of 67 km/h. Determine the increase in internal energy, taking both
vehicles as the system.
Solution
The kinetic energy before the collision can be determined as: K.Einitial = ½ ma Va2
= ½ x 3,000 (kg) × (75,000/3,600)2 (m/s)2 = 651,041 J
After the collision the kinetic energy is: K.Efinal = ½ ma Va2 + ½ mb Vb2
= ½ x 3,000 × (60,000/3,600)2 + ½ x 900 × (67,000/3,600)2 = 572,534 J
(1 kg m2/s2) = 1 J)
41
where the subscript a and b refers to the first and second automobiles, respectively.
The conservation of energy requires that: K.Einitial = K.Efinal = ΔU (Change in internal
energy)
Therefore, ΔU = 651,041 – 572,534 = 78,507 J = 78.5 kJ
Example 2.7.3
A gas is contained in a vertical, frictionless piston–cylinder device. The piston has a
mass of 5 kg and a cross-sectional area of 40 cm2. A compressed spring above the
piston exerts a force of 70 N on the piston. If the atmospheric pressure is 90 kPa,
what is the pressure inside the cylinder?
Solution:
Referring to the free body diagram of the piston and balancing the vertical forces will
yield:
P x A = Patm x A + W + Fspring
Simplifying for P, we get: P = Patm + (W + Fspring)/A

P = 90 + [(5 x 9.8 + 70)/1,000]/ (40 x 10-4) = 119.75 kPa
Example 2.7.4
A 0.4m3 rigid vessel initially contains saturated liquid–vapour mixture of water at
150°C. The water is now heated until it reaches the critical state. Determine the mass
of the liquid water and the volume occupied by the liquid at the initial state.
42
Solution
Using the steam property table (at critical point)(221.2-bar), v1 = v2 = vcr = 0.00317
m3/kg
The total mass, m = volume/specific volume = V/v = 0.4/0.00317 = 126.18 kg
From the steam table (Reference 3), for 150oC, vf = 0.001091 m3/kg and vg = 0.39248
m3/kg
Therefore, the quality of water at the initial state is:

x1 = (v1 – vf)/vfg = (0.00317 - 0.001091)/(0.39248 – 0.001091) = 0.00531
The mass of the liquid and its volume at the initial state are determined as:
mf = (1-x1) x total mass (m) = (1 – 0.00531) x (126.18) = 125.5 kg
Vf = mf x vf = 125.5 x 0.001091 = 0.136 m3
Example 2.7.5
Air enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 400 kPa, 250°C, and 25 m/s and leaves at
150 kPa and 170 m/s. The inlet area of the nozzle is 70 cm2. Determine (a) the mass
flow rate through the nozzle, (b) the exit temperature of the air
Assume the gas constant R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K
Solution
43
a) The mass is conserved, therefore, ṁ1 = ṁ2 = ṁ

The specific volume and the mass flow rate are determined using the ideal gas
expression:
v1 = RT1/P1 = (0.287 x 523)/400 = 0.375 m3/kg
(kJ/kg.K x K x m2 /N = (kN m/kg K) x K x m2/kN = m3/kg)
ṁ 1 = A1V1/ v1 = (0.007 x 25)/0.375 = 0.466 kg/s
b) Taking the nozzle as the system, which is also a control volume since the mass
crosses the boundary, an energy balance is written as follows:
Energy in = Energy out; Ein = Eout
ṁ 1 = A1V1/ v1 = (0.007 x 25)/0.375 = 0.466 kg/s
ṁ (h1 + V12/2) = ṁ(h2 + V22/2); h2 – h1 = V12/2 – V22/2
But, h = CpT; therefore, Cp,average(T2 – T1) = V12/2 – V22/2
T2 = T1 + [(V12/2 – V22/2/1,000)]/1.02 = 250 + [(252 - 1702)/2/1,000]/1.02 = 222.2°C

(1 kJ/kg = 1,000 m2/s2)
Example 2.7.6
Steam flows steadily through an adiabatic turbine. The inlet conditions of the steam
are 8 MPa, 500°C, and 70 m/s, and the exit conditions are 20 kPa, 94 percent quality,
and 40 m/s. The mass flow rate of the steam is 15 kg/s. Determine (a) the power
output, and (b) the turbine inlet area
Solution
P1 = 8 MPa
T1 = 500oC
V1 = 70 m/s
Steam
ḿ = 15 kg/s
P2 = 20 kPa
x2 = 0.94
V2 = 40 m/s
44
The properties from the steam property tables are read as follows:
P1 = 8 MPa = 80-bar and T1 = 500°C,
v1 = 0.0417 m3/kg, h1 = 3,398 kJ/kg; and
P2 = 20 kPa and x2 = 0.94,

h2 = hf@20kPa + X2 x hfg@20kPa, h2 = 251 + (0.94 x 2,358) = 2,467.5 kJ/kg
(a) Considering a steady state flow and negligible heat transfer (adiabatic flow), the
energy balance is expressed as follows:
ṁ (h1 + V12/2) = Wout +ṁ(h2 + V22/2)
Therefore, Wout = ṁ(h1 – h2) + [(V12/2 – V22/2)/1,000]

= 15 x (3,398 – 2,467.5) + (702/2 - 402/2)/1,000 = 15.6 MW
b) The turbine inlet area is calculated as follows:

ṁ1 = A1V1/ v1, therefore, A1 = (ṁ1 x v1)/V1 = (15 x 0.0417)/70 = 0.00893 m2 = 89.3 cm2
Example 2.7.7
An inventor claims to have devised a cyclical engine for use in space vehicles that
operates with a nuclear-fuel-generated energy source whose temperature is 550 K
and a sink at 300 K that radiates waste heat to deep space. He also claims that this
engine produces 5 kW while rejecting heat at a rate of 15,000 kJ/h. Is this claim valid?
Solution
The Carnot thermal efficiency is expressed as:

ηth,Carnot = 1−TL/TH = 1- (300/550) = 0.455
45
Applying First Law gives,

QH = Wnet + QL = (5 x 3,600) + 15,000 = 33,000 kJ/h
The actual thermal efficiency of the cycle is determined as:
ηth,Carnot = Wnet/QH = (5 x 3,600)/33,000 = 0.545
Since the actual efficiency is more than the maximum possible efficiency, the
inventor’s claim is invalid.
Summary
The fundamental thermodynamic concepts are summarised in this chapter beginning
with thermodynamic systems and concepts. Following the basic concept discussion,
a review of the important units and their conversions has been presented enabling
practising engineers to perform with confidence. The other thermodynamic aspects
discussed in this chapter included: The Laws of thermodynamics, various
thermodynamic devices like pumps, compressors, nozzles and diffusers as well as
heat exchangers. Finally, this chapter also discussed the concepts surrounding
entropy with a number of illustrative examples.
References
1. Cengel Yunus, Thermodynamics: an engineering approach, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 2008.
2. Nag P. K, Engineering Thermodynamics: Tata-McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999.
3. Rogers, G.F.C. and Mayhew, Y.R., Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of

Fluids, Oxford, 2014.
46
3.0 STEAM PROPERTIES

Water can exist as liquid, solid or gas. Steam is the gaseous phase of water. It can
be produced by heating water in a boiler at constant pressure. The heat added to
produce steam can later be extracted easily by condensing it back to water, hence
steam is used for carrying large amounts of heat energy. In addition, steam is not
toxic, it is easily transportable, can be generated relatively efficiently and is not very
costly to generate. Therefore, steam is the most common heating medium in industrial
facilities. Steam is also used in power generation and in various chemical reactions
and processes.
This chapter provides an introduction to some of the basic properties of steam, which
are useful in understanding how boilers and steam systems operate.
Learning Outcomes:
1. The relationship between saturation temperature and pressure
2. Various properties of steam
3. How to use steam tables
3.1 Introduction
Water (H2O) is abundant on earth. Like many substances, it can exist in three physical
states, which are solid, liquid and gas. For H2O, the three states are called ice, water
and steam.
The molecular arrangement and the degree of excitation of the molecules determine
the physical state of H2O. When in the solid state, the molecules are locked together
and can only vibrate about a mean bonded position. If heat is added, the vibration
increases and when the heat added reaches a certain point, some of the molecules
break away from their bonds. At this stage, the solid starts to melt to a liquid state. At
atmospheric pressure, melting of ice occurs at 0°C.
In the liquid phase, the molecules are free to move, but are still close to each other
due to mutual attraction. When heat is added, molecular agitation and collisions
increase. The temperature of the liquid also rises until it reaches the boiling
temperature when some molecules attain sufficient kinetic energy to allow them to
escape from the liquid. However, this is momentary and they fall back into the liquid.
47
Further addition of heat causes the excitation to increase so that some molecules will
have sufficient energy to leave the liquid. When this happens, bubbles of steam will
rise and break through the surface. When the number of molecules leaving the liquid
surface is more than those re-entering, the water freely vapourises into steam.
3.2 Saturation Temperature

When water is heated to its boiling point or its saturation temperature, it is saturated
with heat energy. If more heat is added at this stage while maintaining the pressure
constant, the temperature of the water will not rise but it will result in the water forming
saturated (dry) steam. The temperature of both the boiling water and saturated (dry)
steam will be the same, but the heat energy (per unit mass) will be much greater in
the steam than the boiling water.
At atmospheric pressure, the boiling point or the saturation temperature of water is

100°C. However, if the pressure is increased, the saturation temperature will increase
(water temperature will need to be increased beyond 100oC for it to boil). Similarly, if
the pressure is reduced below atmospheric pressure, water will boil at a temperature
less than 100oC. The relationship between the saturation temperature and the
pressure is known as the steam saturation curve and is shown in Figure 3.1. Water
and steam can coexist at any point on this curve, and both will be at the saturation
temperature. In a steam generation process, the entire liquid water is converted to
steam at a boiling point corresponding to the prevailing pressure at the boiler, the
steam at that state is called saturated (dry) steam.
Figure 3.1 Steam saturation curve
48
The values of saturation temperature at different pressures are shown in Table 3.1.
Saturation
Absolute pressure (bar)
Temperature (oC)
1 99.6
1.01 (atmospheric
100
pressure)
2 120.2
3 133.5
4 143.6
5 151.8
6 158.8
7 165.0
8 170.4
9 175.4
10 179.9
11 184.1
12 188.0
13 191.6
14 195.0
15 198.3
Table 3.1 Saturation temperature of steam at different pressures
Example 3.1
What is the saturation temperature when the pressure is 2.5-bar?
Solution
From Figure 3.2, the saturation temperature at 2.5-bar pressure is approximately
125oC.
49
125oC
`
Figure 3.2 Steam temperature for Example 3.1
Example 3.2
A heating process requires steam at 200oC. What is the minimum required steam
pressure for this application?
Solution
From Figure 3.3, a steam pressure of about 15-bar is required to achieve a saturation
temperature of 200oC.
200oC
Figure 3.3 Steam temperature for Example 3.2
50
3.3 Sensible and Latent Heat

When water is heated by adding heat energy, the temperature of the water rises. Such
a process, where adding heat leads to a corresponding increase in temperature, is
called sensible heating and the heat added is called sensible heat.
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature
per unit of mass of a substance by 1oC. In SI units, specific heat capacity is the amount
of heat in joules required to raise 1 gram of a substance by 1 Kelvin. For water, the
specific heat capacity at atmospheric pressure is 4.19 kJ/kg.K.
For water, the amount of sensible heat required to increase the temperature of 1 kg
of water from 0oC to the boiling temperature is 419 kJ/kg (4.19 kJ/kg.K x 100 K). It is
also called the “liquid enthalpy” or enthalpy of water (explained later in this chapter).
When water is heated to its boiling point, further adding of heat does not increase the
temperature of water but only results in boiling of the water to form steam. Such
heating which does not result in an increase in the temperature of the substance that
is heated but only results in a change in phase is called latent heating. The heat added
during such a process is called latent heat.
Latent heat is energy absorbed during evaporation of a liquid (or released during
condensing of a vapour) that occurs without changing its temperature. The latent heat
in SI units is expressed in joules per unit mass in grams of the substance undergoing
a change of state. For water, the amount of heat required to evaporate 1 kg of water
at its boiling point is termed the “enthalpy of evaporation”. At atmospheric pressure,
the enthalpy of evaporation of water is 2257 kJ/kg.
The liquid enthalpy and enthalpy of evaporation of water at different pressures is

shown in Table 3.2.
Absolute pressure Enthalpy of water Enthalpy of

(bar) (kJ/kg) evaporation (kJ/kg)
1 417 2258
1.01 (atmospheric
419 2257
pressure)
2 505 2202
3 561 2164
4 605 2134
51
5 640 2109
6 670 2087
7 697 2067
8 721 2048
9 743 2031
10 763 2015
11 781 2000
12 798 1986
13 815 1972
14 830 1960
15 845 1947
Table 3.2 Liquid enthalpy and enthalpy of evaporation of water
Example 3.3
At atmospheric pressure, how much sensible heat is required to raise 1000 kg of water
from 30oC to 70oC?
Solution
Specific heat capacity of water atmospheric pressure is 4.19 kJ/kg.K
Therefore, the sensible heat required to raise the temperature of 1,000 kg is,
1,000 kg x 4.19 kJ/kg.K x (70 – 30) K = 167,600 kJ
Example 3.4
At a pressure of 5-bar, how much latent heat is required to boil 1,000 kg of water at
its saturation temperature?
Solution
Latent heat capacity required at 5-bar pressure (from Table 3.2) is 2,109 kJ/kg
Therefore, the total heat required to boil 1,000 kg of water at 5-bar is,
1,000 kg x 2,109 kJ/kg = 2,109,000 kJ
52
3.4 Dryness Fraction

In an industrial type boiler, where heat is supplied only to the water, it is not possible
to produce dry steam. Due to turbulence and splashing in the boiler when bubbles of
steam are released from the water surface, the steam contains some water droplets.
Typically, steam produced by a shell-type boiler will contain about 5% water.
If the water content of the steam is say 4% by mass, then the steam is said to be 96%
dry and has a dryness fraction of 0.96.
Dryness fraction of steam is defined as the ratio of the mass of actual dry steam to
the total mass of wet steam and can be expressed as:
𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔 /(𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑓 ) (3.1)
𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔 /𝑚
where x = dryness fraction

mg = mass of dry steam
mf = mass of water in mixture
m = mass of wet steam = mg + mf
The concept of dryness fraction will be further explained in section 3.7 of this chapter.
Example 3.5
1000 kg of steam contains 50 kg of water. What is the dryness fraction of the steam?
Solution
Dryness fraction, x = mg / mg + mf
= (1,000 – 50) / 1,000

= 0.95
3.5 Superheated Steam

When saturated (dry) steam is further heated so that the temperature of the steam
exceeds the saturation temperature at a particular pressure, the steam is
superheated. Superheating produces steam that has a higher temperature and lower
density than saturated (dry) steam at the same pressure.
53
For instance, steam at 6-bar is at a saturation temperature of 159oC. Now if this steam
is heated to 179oC, the steam will have a superheat of 20oC at 6-bar.
Superheating steam ensures that the steam is completely dry. Superheating is used
in steam driven equipment such as turbines to avoid drop in performance due to the
presence of condensate and to prevent erosion and corrosion. However, superheated
steam is normally not used for heating applications as a higher heat transfer area will
be required when using superheated steam compared to saturated (dry) steam for the
same application. This is because the superheated steam’s density is lower in
comparison to that of saturated (dry) steam.
Example 3.6
Steam at 10-bar is at a temperature of 210oC. What is the degree of superheat of the
steam?
Solution
Saturation temperature of steam at 10-bar (from Table 3.1) is approximately 180oC.
Therefore, the degree of superheat is (210 – 180) oC = 30oC
3.6 Steam Pressure vs Volume

The specific volume is the total volume of steam divided by the total mass of steam
(volume per unit mass). It has units of cubic metre per kilogram (m3/kg). The density
of steam is the reciprocal of its specific volume.
ρ = m/V = 1/ν (3.1)

where,
ρ = density (kg/m3)
m = mass of steam (kg)
V = volume of steam (m3)
v = specific volume (m3/kg)
As steam pressure increases, the density of steam also increases. Since the specific
volume is inversely related to the density, the specific volume decreases with
increased pressure.
54
Figure 3.4 shows the relationship between specific volume and pressure. As can be
seen from the figure, the greatest change in specific volume occurs at lower
pressures. At higher pressures, the change in specific volume is much less.
Figure 3.4 Steam pressure vs specific volume
As the specific volume of water is several orders of magnitude lower than that of
steam, the droplets of water in wet steam will occupy negligible space. Therefore, the
specific volume of wet steam is less than that of dry steam.
Specific volume of wet steam = 𝑣𝑔 𝑥 (3.2)
where,
vg = specific volume of dry steam
x = dryness fraction of the steam
Table 3.3 shows values of specific volumes of dry steam at different pressures.
Therefore, if the specific volume of wet steam is known, the dryness fraction can be
computed as shown in Example 3.7.
55
Specific volume of saturated

Absolute pressure (bar)
steam (m3/kg)
1 1.7
2 0.89
3 0.61
4 0.46
5 0.37
6 0.32
7 0.27
8 0.24
9 0.21
10 0.19
11 0.18
12 0.16
13 0.15
14 0.14
15 0.13
Table 3.3 Specific volume of dry steam
Example 3.7
Steam is at 8-bar (absolute) pressure. The specific volume of the steam is 0.17 m3/kg.
Compute the dryness fraction of the steam.
Solution
From Table 3.3, the specific volume of dry steam at 8-bar is 0.24 m3/kg.
From equation (3.2),

Specific volume of wet steam = vg x
Therefore, the dryness fraction, x = specific volume of wet steam / vg

= 0.17 / 0.24
= 0.71
3.7 Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy is a measure of the energy content of a unit of mass of a substance.
The SI units of specific enthalpy are kJ/kg. For simplicity, specific enthalpy will be
referred to as enthalpy in this reference manual.
56
Figure 3.5 shows the relationship between temperature and enthalpy for water when
it is heated at a constant pressure to form steam.
Temperature
(oC)
Steam
hfg
Mixture
100ºC
Water
xhfg
(1-x) hfg
hf hg Specific
enthalpy
h (kJ/kg)
Figure 3.5 Relationship between temperature and enthalpy
As indicated in Figure 3.5, when water is heated, its temperature rises steadily until it
reaches the saturation point where water cannot exist in the liquid form. At this point,
addition of heat results in the boiling of water, producing steam. Further heating
results in more steam being generated at the same temperature (saturation
temperature). When all the water has been converted into steam, further addition of
heat leads to an increase in steam temperature above the saturation temperature and
the steam is then superheated.
Enthalpy value hf refers to the enthalpy of water when it has reached the saturation
temperature while hg refers to the enthalpy of steam. The difference between hg and
hf is the latent heat of vapourisation, which is denoted by the symbol hfg. The value x
refers to the dryness fraction.
Therefore,
Enthalpy of wet steam ℎ𝑔 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 (3.3)
Enthalpy of dry steam ℎ𝑔 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔 (3.4)
Some values of hf, hg and hfg at different pressures are shown in Table 3.4.
57
For superheated steam, ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡 kJ/kg (3.5)
where,
tsup = superheated temperature of steam (K)
tsat = saturation temperature of steam (K)
(tsup – tsat) = degree of superheat (K)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of steam (kJ/kg.K)
Example 3.8
A boiler is supplied with feedwater at a temperature of 70ºC. The boiler produces
steam at a pressure of 8-bar (abs.) and a temperature of 190ºC.
Determine the quantity of heat supplied per kg of steam generation (excluding losses).
Take the specific heat capacity (Cp) of superheated steam to be 2.76 kJ/kg.K.
Solution
From Table 3.4, the following enthalpy values at 8-bar pressure can be obtained
hf = 721 kJ/kg
hfg = 2,048 kJ/kg
tsat = 170.4ºC (from Table 3.1)
Since steam is produced at 190oC, the steam is superheated.
The enthalpy of superheated steam,

hsup = hf + hfg + Cp (tsup – tsat)
= 721 + 2048 + 2.76 (190 – 170.4)

= 2,823.1 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of feedwater at 70ºC is 293 kJ/kg (70oC x 4.19 kJ/kg)

Therefore, heat added = (2,823.1 – 293) kJ/kg = 2,530.1 kJ/kg
3.8 Steam Pressure vs Enthalpy of Evaporation

Figure 3.5 showed how the enthalpy changes when water is heated to produce steam.
However, the enthalpy of evaporation changes with pressure. As shown in Figure 3.6,
when the pressure increases, the enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) reduces. Therefore, at
58
higher operating pressures, more steam is required to produce the same amount of
heating as the latent heat available becomes less.
Figure 3.6 Enthalpy of evaporation at different pressures
3.9 Condensate and Flash Steam

When high pressure steam is condensed, the condensate will be at the saturation
temperature of the steam. Later when the condensate is returned to the condensate
of the feedwater tank, the pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure. When this
happens, the enthalpy of the condensate has to reduce from the value at the higher
pressure to the value at atmospheric pressure.
For example, condensate at 8-bar pressure (absolute) will have an enthalpy of 721
kJ/kg (from Table 3.4). However, when this condensate pressure is reduced to
atmospheric pressure, the enthalpy can be 419 kJ/kg. The difference of 302 kJ/kg
between the two enthalpy values (721 – 419) is released by evaporating part of the
condensate. The steam formed during such a pressure reduction is called flash
steam.
3.10 Use of Steam Tables

Since water and steam are commonly used for transferring heat energy, their
properties are required for various calculations. Therefore, their properties are
tabulated in so called “Steam Tables”. In these tables, important properties
such as pressure, temperature, enthalpy and specific volume are tabulated. A
sample steam table is provided in Table 3.4. A more detailed version of the
steam table is included in Appendix section of this reference manual.
59
Saturation Specific Enthalpy

Enthalpy of
Absolute temperature volume of Enthalpy of of
saturated
pressure (oC) dry steam evaporation, saturated
water, hf
(bar) (m3/kg) hfg (kJ/kg) steam, hg
(kJ/kg)
(kJ/kg)
1 99.6 1.7 417 2258 2675
1.01
(atmospheric 100 1.67 419 2257 2676
pressure)
2 120.2 0.89 505 2202 2707
3 133.5 0.61 561 2164 2725
4 143.6 0.46 605 2134 2739
5 151.8 0.37 640 2109 2749
6 158.8 0.32 670 2087 2757
7 165.0 0.27 697 2067 2764
8 170.4 0.24 721 2048 2769
9 175.4 0.21 743 2031 2774
10 179.9 0.19 763 2015 2778
11 184.1 0.18 781 2000 2781
12 188.0 0.16 798 1986 2784
13 191.6 0.15 815 1972 2787
14 195.0 0.14 830 1960 2790
15 198.3 0.13 845 1947 2792

Table 3.4 Properties of saturated (dry) steam and water
Example 3.9
Determine the quantity of heat required to produce 1 kg of steam at pressure of 7-bar
(absolute) using water at a temperature of 90ºC, under the following conditions:
a) When the steam is wet and has a dryness fraction of 0.8

b) When the steam is dry saturated
c) When the steam is superheated at a constant pressure to 240oC (assume the
specific heat capacity of superheated steam to be 3.68 kJ/kg K)
Solution
From Table 3.5, at 7-bar
hf = 697 kJ/kg
hfg = 2,067 kJ/kg
tsat = 165ºC
60
a) When the steam is wet

h = hf + x. hfg
h = 697 + 0.8 x 2,067
h = 2,350 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of water at 90ºC = 377 kJ/kg
Therefore, actual heat required

h = 2,350 – 377
h = 1,973 kJ/kg
b) When the steam is dry saturated

h = hf + hfg
h = 697 + 2,067
h = 2,764 kJ/kg
h = 2,764 – 377 = 2,387 kJ/kg
c) When the steam is superheated

h = hf + hfg + Cp (tsup – tsat)
h = 697 + 2,067 + 3.68 (240 -165)
h = 3,040 kJ/kg
h = 3,040 – 377 = 2,663 kJ/kg
Summary
This chapter provides an introduction to some of the basic properties of steam, which
are useful in understanding how boilers and steam systems operate. The relationship
between saturation temperature and pressure, various properties of steam and the
use of steam tables were illustrated using worked examples.
References
1. Jayamaha, Lal, Energy-Efficient Industrial Systems, Evaluation and
Implementation, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2016.
2. Rogers, G.F.C. and Mayhew, Y.R., Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of
Fluids, Oxford, 2014.
3. The Steam and Condensate Loop, Spirax Sarco Limited, England 2008.
61
4.0 GAS POWER CYCLES

A CHP System including a Gas Turbine (GT) working on gas power cycles may be
installed where clean premium fuels like natural gas are available. For thermodynamic
analysis for evaluating the performance of such CHP systems, a fairly good
understanding of the gas power cycle is very important. Among the gas power cycles,
the engineer’s main focus should be understanding the Brayton cycle and its analysis,
to establish the thermal performance of the system.
This chapter presents the gas power cycles with the main focus on the gas turbine
cycle or Brayton cycle.
Learning Outcomes:
1. The basics of gas power cycles
2. The Brayton gas power cycle used for CHP systems
3. Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle
4. Various thermal efficiency enhancement techniques for the Brayton cycle
4.1 Gas Power Cycles

CHP systems using steam or gas power plants are operated in a thermodynamic cycle
as described in Chapter 2 of this reference manual. In a thermodynamic cycle, the
working fluids such as water or gas undergo a series of processes and finally return
to the initial thermodynamic state. In some other power plants like the internal
combustion engine and the gas turbine, the working fluid does not go through a
thermodynamic cycle despite the engine operating in a mechanical cycle. In this
instance, the working fluid has a different composition or is in a different state at the
end of the process than the starting state. Such equipment are sometimes said to
operate on an open cycle, although the word ‘cycle’ is a misnomer. For simplicity, the
performance of an idealised closed Brayton cycle similar to the actual cycle is
analysed. Such a procedure will help in determining the influence of certain variables
on the cycle performance. In the case of a cycle in which the working fluid is a gas,
there is no change of phase. It is always a common practice to idealise the cycle first,
which will simplify the analysis. Subsequently, a real-gas cycle is considered and how
the actual apparatus deviates from the ideal is analysed. After the analysis of the
actual cycle, various techniques are incorporated to modify the ideal cycle such that
the actual cycle efficiency can be improved and tend towards the ideal cycle
62
performance. The techniques include the use of devices such as regenerators, multi-
stage compressors and expanders and intercoolers, and various combinations of
these techniques.
The gas power cycle can work on an open or closed cycle. The four main components
of a gas power cycle are compressor, combustor, turbine and heat exchanger (Figure
4.6). The gas undergoing these processes is assumed to have the characteristics of
an ideal gas. To simplify the gas power cycle analysis, the following assumptions,
known as air standard assumptions, are made:
• The air circulates continuously in a closed loop and always behaves as an
ideal gas
• All the processes that constitute the cycle are internally reversible
• The combustion process is replaced by a heat addition process from an
external source
• A heat rejection process that restores the state of the working fluid to initial
state replaces the exhaust process
4.2 Gas Compressors

Gas compressors are used in gas power cycles to compress the air before it is subject
to combustion process. As in the case of any other thermodynamic device, a control
volume analysis can be done for the gas compressors.
In a gas compressor using the control volume energy equation, the power input to the
compressor can be expressed as follows:
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = ṁ(ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑖 ) (4.1)
where he and hi are the exit and inlet enthalpies, respectively. Here, the compressor
is considered as a fixed volume into which a gas flows and after undergoing the
compression process, the gas emerges from the compressor. Negligible heat transfer
is assumed to occur from the compressor along with negligible inlet and outlet kinetic
and potential energy changes.
There are generally three types of compressors in industry namely reciprocating,

centrifugal, and axial-flow. Reciprocating compressors are especially useful for
producing high pressures but are limited to relatively low flow rates; upper limits of
about 200 MPa with inlet flow rates of 160 m3/min are achievable with a two-stage
63
compressor unit. For high flow rates with relatively low pressure rise, a centrifugal or
axial-flow compressor is more appropriate. In such compressors, a pressure rise of
several MPa for an inlet flow rate of over 10,000 m3/min is achievable. A brief account
of the three types of compressors is given below.
4.2.1 The Reciprocating Compressor

The positions of the piston in a reciprocating compressor are shown in Figure 4.1. The
intake and exhaust valves are closed as shown in (a) when state point 1 is reached
in the P-v diagram of Figure 4.2. An isentropic compression follows as the piston
travels inwards as shown in (b) until the maximum pressure at state point 2 is reached.
The exhaust valve then opens, and the piston continues its inward motion while the
air is exhausted as shown in (c) until state point 3 is reached at top dead centre.
Figure 4.1 A reciprocating compressor
Figure 4.2 P-v diagrams for an ideal and actual cycle of a reciprocating compressor
(a) Ideal cycle (b) Actual cycle
The exhaust valve then closes as shown in (d), and the piston begins its outward
motion with an isentropic expansion process until state point 4 is reached. At this
64
point, the intake valve opens and the piston moves outward during the intake process
as shown in (e) until the cycle is completed.
Figure 4.2 (b) shows the actual operation of the P-v diagram. As the intake and
exhaust valves do not open and close instantaneously, the airflow around the valves
results in pressure gradients during the intake and exhaust strokes. In addition, losses
occur due to the valves, and some heat transfer may also take place. However, the
ideal cycle as shown in Figure 4.2a is simple to analyse and allows us to predict the
influence of proposed design changes on input work, maximum pressure, flow rate,
and other quantities of practical interest. The effectiveness of a compressor is partially
measured by the volumetric efficiency. The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is
defined as the ratio of the volume of gas drawn into the cylinder to the displacement
volume.
That is, referring to Figure 4.2:
ƞ𝑣𝑜𝑙 = (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 )/(𝑉1 − 𝑉3 ) (4.2)
The higher the volumetric efficiency the greater the volume of air drawn in as a
percentage of the displacement volume. This can be increased if the clearance
volume V3 is decreased. To improve the performance of the reciprocating
compressor, one can remove heat from the compressor during the compression
process 1-2.
Using the control volume inlet-outlet concept, the required work of compression for an
adiabatic compressor can be expressed as:
w𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = C𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) (4.3)
Where, wcomp = compressor work, kJ/kg

h = specific enthalpy, kJ/kg
Cp = specific heat capacity, kJ/kg.K
65
4.2.2 Axial-Flow Compressors

A cut-away view of an axial-flow compressor is shown in Figure 4.3. It is similar in
appearance to the steam turbine used in the Rankine power cycle (covered in detail
in Chapter 5). Several stages of blades are needed to provide the desired pressure
rise, with a relatively small rise occurring over each stage. Each stage has a stator, a
series of blades that are attached to the stationary housing, and a rotor. All the rotors
are attached to a common rotating shaft that utilises the power input to the
compressor. The specially designed airfoil-type blades require extreme precision in
manufacturing and installation to yield the maximum possible pressure rise while
avoiding flow separation. The area through which the air passes decreases slightly
as the pressure rises due to the increased density in the higher pressure air. Using
fluid dynamic concepts, the velocity and pressure at each stage can be analysed,
whereas from a thermodynamic point of view, we are concerned only with inlet and
outlet conditions.
Figure 4.3 Cut-away of an axial-flow compressor
4.3 The Carnot Cycle

The most ideal of all the thermodynamic cycles is the Carnot cycle, which is used for
performance comparison of actual cycles. The thermal efficiency of a system working
on the Carnot cycle can be expressed as:
Ƞ𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 − T𝐿 /T𝐻 (4.4)
4.4 The Brayton Cycle

The Brayton cycle is a gas power cycle comprising two constant-pressure and two
isentropic processes. In the Brayton cycle, a single-phase, gaseous working fluid
undergoes the four processes. The air-standard Brayton cycle is the ideal cycle for
the simple gas turbine. The schematic diagrams of a simple open cycle gas turbine
66
utilising an internal-combustion process and the simple closed cycle gas turbine,
which utilises heat-transfer processes are shown in Figures 4.4 and 4.5, respectively.
The P–v and T–s diagrams for the Brayton cycle are shown in Figures 4.6 and 4.7,
respectively.
Figure 4.4 Simple open gas turbine generator
Figure 4.5 Simple closed cycle gas turbine generator
67
Figure 4.6 P-v diagram for Brayton cycle
Figure 4.7 T-s diagram for an ideal Brayton cycle
The analysis of the Brayton cycle can be done with the control volume concept
discussed in Chapter 2 around each of the four devices shown in Figure 4.5.
The energy and entropy equations for the components are expressed as follows:
Compressor:
The energy equation can be expressed as:
68
ℎ1 + 𝑤𝑐 − ℎ2 = 0 (4.5)
The entropy equation can be expressed as:
s1 − s2 = 0 (isentropic process) (4.6)
It is assumed that no heat is transferred from the compressor to the environment,
𝑞=0 (4.7)
Combustion chamber:
ℎ2 + ℎ3 − 𝑞𝐻 = 0 (4.8)
𝑑𝑞
𝑠2 − 𝑠3 + ∫ 𝑇
=0 (4.9)
The process in the combustion chamber is a constant pressure process, i.e.
𝑃3 = 𝑃2 (4.10)
Turbine:
ℎ3 − ℎ4 − 𝑤𝑇 = 0 (4.11)
𝑠3 − 𝑠4 = 0 (isentropic) (4.12)
It is assumed that no heat is transferred from the turbine to the environment,
𝑞=0 (4.13)
69
Heat exchanger:
ℎ4 − ℎ1 − 𝑞𝐿 = 0 (4.14)
𝑑𝑞
𝑠4 − 𝑠1 − ∫ 𝑇
=0 (4.15)
The process in the heat exchanger is a constant pressure process, i.e.
𝑃4 = 𝑃1 (4.16)
The overall conversion efficiency for the cycle can be expressed as:
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝑞𝐿 /𝑞𝐻 = 1 − (ℎ4 − ℎ1 )/(ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) ≈ 1 − 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )/𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

= 1 − T1 (T4 /T1 − 1)/T2 (T3 /T2 − 1) (4.17)
For an ideal cycle we know that the pressure increase in the compressor equals the
pressure decrease in the turbine, i.e.
𝑃3 /𝑃4 = 𝑃2 /𝑃1 (4.18)
For the two isentropic processes we get the power relations as:
𝑃2 /𝑃1 = (𝑇2 /𝑇1 )𝑘/(𝑘−1) = 𝑃3 /𝑃4 = (𝑇3 /𝑇4 )𝑘/(𝑘−1) (4.19)
𝑇3 /𝑇4 = 𝑇2 /𝑇1 (4.20)
Therefore, 𝑇3 /𝑇2 = 𝑇4 /𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇3 /𝑇2 − 1 = 𝑇4 /𝑇1 − 1 (4.21)
The cycle efficiency can be expressed as:
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝑇1 /𝑇2 = 1 − 1/(𝑃2 /𝑃1 )𝑘/(𝑘−1) (4.22)
70
The above expression for cycle thermal efficiency was obtained assuming constant
specific heats, i.e. the specific heat capacity is independent of temperature. For more
accurate calculations, the gas tables should be used, which incorporate the effect of
temperature on specific heat. Such a gas table is known as the ideal gas property
table and is presented in the following section of this Chapter. In an actual gas turbine
cycle, the compressor and the turbine are not isentropic because of the various losses
occurring in them. These losses, which are about 15 to 20 percent, significantly
reduce the efficiency of the gas turbine cycle. That means if the compressor requires
about 60 percent of the turbine’s output (a back-work ratio of 0.6), it leaves only 40
percent useful work output. This relatively low limit of turbine work output is
experienced when the efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are too low.
The actual gas turbine engine differs from the ideal cycle primarily because of
irreversibilities in the compressor and turbine, and because of pressure drop in the
flow passages and combustion chamber (or in the heat exchanger of a closed-cycle
turbine). Thus, the state points in a simple open-cycle gas turbine might be as shown
in Figure 4.8.
The efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are defined in relation to isentropic
processes.
Referring to the state points in Figure 4.8, the isentropic efficiencies of compressor
and turbine are defined as follows:
𝜂𝑠,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = (ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1 )/(ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1 ) (4.23)
𝜂𝑠,𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = (ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑎 )/(ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑠 ) (4.24)
71
T 3
Qin
5'
4a
5
4s
2a
2s 6
1 Heat out
Figure 4.8 T-s diagram for an actual Brayton cycle
Another important feature of the Brayton cycle is the large amount of compressor work
(also called back-work ratio) compared to turbine work. The back-work ratio is the
ratio of compressor work, wcomp to turbine work, wturb. It is quite normal for the
compressor to consume 40 to 80% of the output of the turbine. This is particularly
important in the actual cycle as the effect of losses is considered. The losses result in
a larger amount of compression work from the amount of turbine work produced.
Thus, the overall efficiency drops very rapidly with a decrease in the efficiencies of
the compressor and turbine. In fact, if these efficiencies drop below about 60%, all the
work of the turbine will be required to drive the compressor, and the overall efficiency
will be zero. This is in sharp contrast to the Rankine cycle (covered in Chapter 5),
where only 1 or 2% of the turbine work is required to drive the pump. This
demonstrates the inherent advantage of the cycle utilising a condensing working fluid,
such that a much larger difference in specific volume between the expansion and
compression processes is utilised effectively. The expansion of steam with a greater
specific volume is taking place in a work producing device, namely, steam turbine
(where a greater specific volume will result in production of more turbine work).
Whereas, the compression process, which is by a work consuming device (pump) is
for the boiler feedwater (water with a smaller specific volume will result in lower work
of consumption of the pump). These two inherent advantages of the Rankine cycle
results in greater net work produced and hence, achieving improved thermal efficiency
for the cycle.
4.4.1 The regenerative gas-turbine cycle

The efficiency of the gas turbine cycle could be improved by introducing a regenerator.
The simple open-cycle gas turbine cycle with a regenerator is shown in Figure 4.9,
72
and the corresponding ideal air-standard cycle with a regenerator is shown on the P–
v and T–s diagrams. In cycle 1–2–x-3–4–y-1, the temperature of the exhaust gas
leaving the turbine in state 4 is very much greater than the temperature of the gas
leaving the compressor. Therefore, heat can be recovered from the exhaust gases to
heat the high-pressure gases leaving the compressor. If this is done in a counterflow
heat exchanger (a regenerator), the temperature of the high-pressure gas leaving the
regenerator ideally will have a temperature equal to T4, the temperature of the gas
leaving the turbine. Heat transfer from the external source is necessary only to
increase the temperature from Tx to T3.
The influence of pressure ratio on the simple gas turbine cycle with a regenerator is
shown by considering cycle 1-2’-3’-4-1. In this cycle the temperature of the exhaust
gas leaving the turbine is just equal to the temperature of the gas leaving the
compressor; therefore, utilising a regenerator is not possible. This can be shown more
exactly by determining the efficiency of the ideal gas turbine cycle with a regenerator.
Referring to the state points of Figure 4.10, the thermal efficiency of this cycle with
regeneration can be derived as follows:
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 /𝑞𝐻 = (𝑤𝑡 − 𝑤𝑐 )/𝑞𝐻 (4.25)
𝑞𝐻 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑥 ) (4.26)
𝑤𝑡 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) (4.27)
Figure 4.9 The regenerative Brayton cycle
73
Figure 4.10 T-s diagram for the regenerative Brayton cycle
But for an ideal regenerator, T4 = Tx, and therefore qH = wt.the resulting thermal
efficiency is:
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝑤𝑐 /𝑤𝑡 ≅ 1 − 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )/𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )

= 1 − 𝑇1 (𝑇2 /𝑇1 − 1)/𝑇3 (1−𝑇4 /𝑇3 )
= 1 − 𝑇1 ((𝑃2 /𝑃1 )(𝑘−1)/𝑘 − 1)/𝑇3 ((𝑃2 /𝑃1 )(𝑘−1)/𝑘 − 1) (4.28)
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝑇1 /𝑇3 (𝑃2 /𝑃1 )(𝑘−1)/𝑘 = 1 − 𝑇2 /𝑇3 (4.29)
It is evident from the equation (4.28), for the ideal cycle with regeneration, the thermal
efficiency depends not only on the pressure ratio but also on the ratio of the minimum
to the maximum temperature. We note that, in contrast to the Brayton cycle, the
efficiency decreases with an increase in pressure ratio. The effectiveness or efficiency
of a regenerator is given by the regenerator efficiency, which is defined with reference
to Figure 4.10. State x represents the high-pressure gas leaving the regenerator. In
the ideal regenerator there would be only an infinitesimal temperature difference
between the two streams, and the high-pressure gas would leave the regenerator at
temperature T’x, and T’x = T4. In an actual regenerator, which must operate with a
finite temperature difference Tx, the actual temperature leaving the regenerator is
therefore less than T’x.
Referring to Figure 4.10, the regenerator efficiency is expressed as:
74
𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑔 = (ℎ5 − ℎ2𝑎 )/(ℎ5 ′ − ℎ2𝑎 ) (4.30)
If the specific heat is assumed to be constant, the regenerator efficiency can also be
written as:
𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑔 = (𝑇5 − 𝑇2𝑎 )/(𝑇5 ′ − 𝑇2𝑎 ) (4.31)
A higher efficiency can be achieved by using a regenerator with a greater heat-

transfer area. However, this also increases the pressure drop, resulting in additional
loss. Therefore, both the pressure drop and the regenerator efficiency must be
considered in determining which regenerator gives maximum thermal efficiency for
the cycle. From an economic point of view, the cost of the regenerator must be
weighed against the savings that can be achieved by its use.
Note that this expression for thermal efficiency given in eq.(4.28) is quite different from
that for the Brayton cycle. For a given pressure ratio, the efficiency increases as the
ratio of minimum to maximum temperature decreases. But, surprisingly, as the
pressure ratio increases the efficiency decreases, an effect opposite to that of the
Brayton cycle. Hence it is to be anticipated that for a given regenerative cycle
temperature ratio, there is a particular pressure ratio for which the efficiency of the
Brayton cycle will equal the efficiency of the regenerative cycle. This is shown for a
temperature ratio of 0.25 in Figure 4.13.
Figure 4.11 The P-v diagram for a regenerative Brayton cycle
75
Pressure Ratio
Figure 4.12 Effectiveness of Brayton and regenerative cycle
In actual practice, the temperature of the air leaving the regenerator at state 3 (Figure
4.11) must be less than the temperature of the air entering at state 5. Also, T6 > T2.
4.4.2 The intercooling, reheat, regenerative gas-turbine cycle

In addition to the regenerator of the previous section there are two other common
techniques for increasing the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine cycle. First, an
intercooler can be incorporated into the compression process; air is compressed to
an intermediate pressure, cooled in an intercooler, and then compressed to the final
pressure. This reduces the work required for the compressor, as it tends towards the
most efficient isothermal process and it reduces the maximum temperature reached
in the cycle. The intermediate pressure is determined by equating the pressure ratio
for each stage of compression; that is, referring to Figure 4.13, P2/P1 = P4/P3. Figure
4.15 shows the effect of multi-stage compression with intercooling. The shaded area
is the savings in compressor power input.
76
Figure 4.13 Brayton cycle with multistage compression, intercooling, reheating and
regenerative cycle
Figure 4.14 The effect of multi-stage compression and intercooling on the work input
Figure 4.15 Brayton cycle with multistage compression, intercooling, reheating and
regenerative cycle
77
The second technique for increasing thermal efficiency is through the use of a
reheater. The intermediate pressure is determined as in the compressor; we again
require that the ratios be equal; that is, P6/P7 = P8/P9. Since P9 = P1 and P6 = P4, we
see that the intermediate turbine pressure is equal to the intermediate compressor
pressure for our ideal-gas turbine. Finally, we should note that intercooling and
reheating are never used without regeneration. In fact, if regeneration is not
employed, intercooling and reheating reduce the efficiency of a gas turbine cycle.
In any actual gas turbine cycle, the temperature effect on specific heat capacity needs
to be allowed for. Figure 4.16 shows the ideal gas property table taking into account
the temperature effect of specific heat capacity.
78
o o
T h u s T h u s
pr vr pr vr
(K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg*K) (K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg*K)
200 199.97 0.3363 142.56 1707.0 1.29559 450 451.80 5.775 322.62 223.6 2.11161
210 209.97 0.3987 149.69 1512.0 1.34444 460 462.02 6.245 329.97 211.4 2.13407
220 219.97 0.4690 156.82 1346.0 1.39105 470 472.24 6.742 337.32 200.1 2.15604
230 230.02 0.5477 164.00 1205.0 1.43557 480 482.49 7.268 344.70 189.5 2.17760
240 240.02 0.6355 171.13 1084.0 1.47824 490 492.74 7.824 352.08 179.7 2.19876
250 250.05 0.7329 178.28 979.0 1.51917 500 503.02 8.411 359.49 170.6 2.21952
260 260.09 0.8405 185.45 887.8 1.55848 510 513.32 9.031 366.92 162.1 2.23993
270 270.11 0.9590 192.60 808.0 1.59634 520 523.63 9.684 374.36 154.1 2.25997
280 280.13 1.0889 199.75 738.0 1.63279 530 533.98 10.37 381.84 146.7 2.27967
285 285.14 1.1584 203.33 706.1 1.65055 540 544.35 11.10 389.34 139.7 2.29906
290 290.16 1.2311 206.91 676.1 1.66802 550 555.74 11.86 396.86 133.1 2.31809
295 295.17 1.3068 210.49 647.9 1.68515 560 565.17 12.66 404.42 127.0 2.33685
300 300.19 1.3860 214.07 621.2 1.70203 570 575.59 13.50 411.97 121.2 2.35531
305 305.22 1.4686 217.67 596.0 1.71865 580 586.04 14.38 419.55 115.7 2.37348
310 310.24 1.5546 221.25 572.3 1.73498 590 596.52 15.31 427.15 110.6 2.39140
315 315.27 1.6442 224.85 549.8 1.75106 600 607.02 16.28 434.78 105.8 2.40902
320 320.29 1.7375 228.42 528.6 1.76690 610 617.53 17.30 442.42 101.2 2.42644
325 325.31 1.8345 232.02 508.4 1.78249 620 628.07 18.36 450.09 96.92 2.44356
330 330.34 1.9352 235.61 489.4 1.79783 630 638.63 19.84 457.78 92.84 2.46048
340 340.42 2.149 242.82 454.1 1.82790 640 649.22 20.64 465.50 88.99 2.47716
350 350.49 2.379 250.02 422.2 1.85708 650 659.84 21.86 473.25 85.34 2.49364
360 360.58 2.626 257.24 393.4 1.88543 660 670.47 23.13 481.01 81.9 2.50985
370 370.67 2.892 264.46 367.2 1.91313 670 681.14 24.46 488.81 78.61 2.52589
380 380.77 3.176 271.69 343.4 1.94001 680 691.82 25.85 496.62 75.50 2.54175
390 390.88 3.481 278.93 321.5 1.96633 690 702.52 27.29 504.45 72.56 2.55731
400 400.98 3.806 286.16 301.6 1.99194 700 713.27 28.80 512.33 69.76 2.57277
410 411.12 4.153 293.43 283.3 2.01699 710 724.04 30.38 520.23 67.07 2.58810
420 421.26 4.522 300.69 266.6 2.04142 720 734.82 32.02 528.14 64.53 2.60319
430 431.43 4.915 307.99 251.1 2.06533 730 745.62 33.72 536.07 62.13 2.61803
440 441.61 5.332 315.30 236.8 2.08870 740 756.44 35.50 544.02 59.82 2.63280
79
Figure 4.16 Ideal gas property table with the temperature effect on specific heat
capacity
Example 4.5.1
Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine at 100 kPa and 25°C (T1). For a pressure
ratio of 5 and a maximum temperature (T3) of 850°C, determine the back-work ratio
(BWR) and the thermal efficiency for this Brayton cycle. Assume constant specific
heat.
80
Solution
Back-work ratio, BWR = wcomp/wturb
Assuming constant specific heat, BWR = Cp(T2 - T1) / Cp(T3 - T4) = (T2 - T1) /(T3 – T4)
T1 = 298 K, T3 = 1,123 K, T2 = T1(P2/P1)(k-1)/k = 298 (5)0.2857 = 472 K (refer to equation
4.19, k = 1.4 for an isentropic process)
Similarly,
T4 = T3(P4/P5)(k-1)/k = 1,123 (1/5)0.2857 = 709.1 K
Therefore, the BWR = (472 – 298)/(1123 – 709) = 0.42 = 42%
The thermal efficiency is calculated as follows:
ƞthermal = 1 – (P2/P1)(1-k)/k = 1 – (5)-(0.2857) = 0.369 = 36.9%
Example 4.5.2
Assume the compressor and the gas turbine in the previous example each have an
efficiency of 75 percent. Determine the back-work ratio (BWR) and the thermal
efficiency for the Brayton cycle, assuming constant specific heats
Solution
The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is given as:
81
Ƞs,comp = ws,comp / wa,comp

Therefore, wa,comp = Cp(T2 - T1)/ Ƞs,comp = (1/0.75) (472 – 298) = 232 kJ/kg
The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is given as:
Ƞs,turb = wa,turb/ ws,turb
Therefore, wa,turb = Cp(T3 – T4) x Ƞs,turb = (0.75) (1,123 – 709.1) = 310.42 kJ/kg
Therefore, actual BWR = wa,comp / wa,comp = 232 /310.42 = 0.747 = 74.7%
Ƞthermal = wnet/ Qin = (wa,turb - wa,comp) / Qin, where, Qin = Cp(T3 – T2a)
The actual compressor work also can be written as:
Wa,comp = Cp(T2a – T1), therefore, T2a = Wa,comp + T1 = 232 + 298 = 530 K
Therefore, the total heat input in the cycle is:
Qin = Cp(T3 – T2a) = 1.0(1123 – 530) = 593 kJ/kg
Ƞthermal = wnet/ Qin = (wa,turb - wa,comp) / Qin = (310.42 – 232) / 593 = 0.132 = 13.2%
Example 4.5.3
Add a regenerator of effectiveness 0.8 to the gas-turbine cycle in the previous
example and calculate the thermal efficiency and the back-work ratio, assuming
constant specific heats.
Solution:
Referring to the T-s diagram below:
T 3
Qin
5'
4a
5 4
2a
6
1 Heat out
S
Ƞthermal = wnet/ Qin = (wa,turb - wa,comp) / Qin

Here, the presence of a regenerator results in a reduction in the addition of heat to
the cycle.
Referring to the Figure above, the heat added in the cycle, Qin can be expressed as:
Qin = Cp(T3 – T5)
Ƞs,turb = (T3 – T4a)/ (T3 – T4)
Therefore, T4a = 1,123 – [0.75 (1,123 – 709.1)] = 812.5 K
82
The effectiveness of the regenerator is defined as:

Ɛ = (T3 – T5)/ (T3 – T4a)
Substituting the known temperatures in the effectiveness expression and cross
multiplying yields:
T5 = 1123 – [0.8 (1,123 – 812.5)] = 874.6 K
Therefore, Qin = Cp(T3 – T5) = 1 (1,123 – 874.6) = 248.4 K
Ƞthermal = wnet/ Qin = (wa,turb - wa,comp) / Qin = (310.42 – 232) / 248.4 = 0.315 = 31.5%
The back-work ratio in this case does not change based on the information provided.
Example 4.5.4
In an ideal Brayton cycle, the air enters the compressor at 1-bar and 30°C. The
pressure of the air leaving the compressor is 12-bar and the maximum temperature
in the power cycle is 1,100°C. Taking the temperature effect of specific heat capacity,
determine:
a. The pressure and temperature at each point in the cycle
b. The compressor work
c. The turbine work
d. Back-work ratio
e. The thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Solution
Using the steam property table, v1 = v2 = vcr = 0.003106 m3/kg
The total mass, m = volume/specific volume = V/v = 0.4/0.003106 = 128.78 kg
(a) For the given information, T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K, using the ideal gas property
table of Figure 4.16,
h1 = 303.2 kJ/kg, Pr1 = 1.435
Pr1/ Pr2 = P1/ P2, therefore, Pr2 = Pr1 x P2/ P1 = 1.435 x 12 = 17.22
For Pr2 = 17.22, using the ideal gas property table,
83
h2 = 616.7 kJ/kg, T2 = 609.2 K

For the given information, T3 = 1,100 + 273 = 1,373 K, using the ideal gas property
h3 = 1,483.05 kJ/kg, Pr3 = 415.41
Pr3/ Pr4 = P3/ P4, therefore, Pr4 = Pr3 x P4/ P3 = 415.41/12 = 34.61
h4 = 751.03 kJ/kg, T4 = 735 K
(b) Referring to the ideal Brayton cycle T-s diagram,
The compressor work input, wcomp = h2 – h1 = 616.7 – 303.2 = 313.5 kJ/kg
(c) Referring to the ideal Brayton cycle T-s diagram,
The turbine work produced, wturb = h3 – h4 = 1,483.05 – 751.03 = 732.02 kJ/kg
(d) Back work ratio, BWR = wcomp/wturb = 313.5/732.02 = 0.428 = 42.8%
(e) Ƞthermal = wnet/ Qin = (wturb - wcomp) / Qin

Qin = h3 – h2 = 1483.05 – 616.7 = 866.35 kJ/kg
= (732.02 – 313.5) / 866.35 = 0.483 = 48.3%
Example 4.5.5
In an actual Brayton cycle, the air enters the compressor at 1-bar and 30°C. The
pressure of the air leaving the compressor is 12-bar and the maximum temperature
in the power cycle is 1,100°C. Determine:
a. The temperature at each point in the cycle
c. The turbine work
d. Back-work ratio
e. The thermal efficiency of the cycle
Assume the isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine as 80% and 85%,
respectively.
Solution
84
h1 = 303.2 kJ/kg, Pr1 = 1.435
h2 = 616.7 kJ/kg, T2 = 609.2 K
Ƞs,comp = ws,comp / wa,comp = (h2 – h1) / (h2a – h1)
Therefore, h2a = [(616.7 – 303.2)/0.8] + 303.2 = 695.08 kJ/kg
For h2a = 695.08 kJ/kg, using the ideal gas property table,
T2a = 683 K
For the given information, T3 = 1100 + 273 = 1,373 K, using the ideal gas property
h3 = 1,483.05 kJ/kg, Pr3 = 415.41
h4 = 751.03 kJ/kg, T4 = 735 K
Ƞs,turb = wa,turb / ws,turb = (h3 – h4a) / (h3 – h4)
Therefore, h4a = 1,483.05 - [(1,483.05 – 751.03) x 0.85] = 860.83 kJ/kg
For h4a = 860.83 kJ/kg, using the ideal gas property table,
T4a = 835.2 K
(b) Referring to the actual Brayton cycle T-s diagram,

The compressor work input, wacomp = h2a – h1 = 695.08 – 303.2 = 391.88 kJ/kg
(c) Referring to the ideal Brayton cycle T-s diagram,

The turbine work produced, waturb = h3 – h4a = 1,483.05 – 860.83 = 622.22 kJ/kg
(d) Back work ratio, BWR = wacomp/waturb = 391.88/622.22 = 0.63 = 63%
85
(e) Ƞthermal = wnet/ Qin = (waturb - wacomp) / Qin

Qin = h3 – h2a = 1,483.05 – 695.08 = 787.97 kJ/kg
= (622.22 – 391.88) / 787.97 = 0.292 = 29.2%
Example 4.5.6
Consider an ideal gas turbine cycle with two stages of compression and two stages
of expansion. The pressure ratio across each stage for the compression and
expansion is 8:1. Air enters the compressor at 1-bar and 30°C. The combustion gas
enters each turbine with a temperature of 1,100°C. In addition, the cycle is
incorporated with a regenerator with an effectiveness of 70%. Taking the effect of
temperature on the specific heat capacity, determine:
c. The turbine work
d. Back-work ratio
e. The thermal efficiency of the cycle
Solution
h1 = 303.2 kJ/kg, Pr1 = 1.435
h2 = 550.05 kJ/kg, T2 = 560 K
For the given information, T3 = 1,100 + 273 = 1,373 K, using the ideal gas property
h3 = 1,483.05 kJ/kg, Pr3 = 415.41
86

h4 = 751.03 kJ/kg, T4 = 735 K
(b) Referring to the ideal Brayton cycle T-s diagram and assuming the intercooling
after the first stage of the compression cools down the compressed gas to the initial
temperature of 30oC,
The compressor work input, wcomp = 2 x (h2 – h1) = 2 x (550.05 – 303.2) = 493.7 kJ/kg
(c) Referring to the ideal Brayton cycle T-s diagram and assuming the reheating after
the first stage of the expansion reheats the compressed gas to the initial turbine inlet
temperature of 1100oC,
The turbine work, wturb = 2 x (h3 – h4) = 2 x (1,483.05 – 751.03) = 1,464 kJ/kg
(d) Back work ratio, BWR = wcomp/wturb = 493.7/1,464 = 0.337 = 33.7%
(e) Ƞthermal = wnet/ Qin = (wturb - wcomp) / Qin

Qin = (h6 – h4) + (h8 – h7)
Referring to the two-stage T-s diagram above,
T6 = 1,373 kJ/kg, Pr6 = 415.41
h7 = 840.93 kJ/kg, T7 = 817.2 K
Therefore, Qin = (1,483.05 – 751.03) + (1,483.05 – 840.93) = 1,374.14 kJ/kg
Ƞthermal = (1,464 – 493.7) / 1,374.14 = 0.706 = 70.6%
Example 4.5.7
A two-stage air compressor has an intercooler between the two stages. Air enters the
compressor at 1-bar and 30°C and the air leaving the compressor has a pressure of
16-bar. The constant pressure intercooler cools the air to the inlet temperature.
Determine the specific compressor work and the intercooler heat transfer rate.
87
Solution
(a) For the given information, T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K, using the ideal gas property table
of Figure 4.16,
h1 = h3 = 303.2 kJ/kg, Pr1 = 1.435
For a two-stage compression process, the pressure ratio is 4.
h2 = 451 kJ/kg, T2 = 450 K
Referring to the two-stage ideal Brayton cycle T-s diagram and assuming the
intercooling after the first stage of the compression cools down the compressed gas
to the initial temperature of 30oC,
The compressor work input, wcomp = 2 x (h2 – h1) = 2x(451 – 303.2) = 295.6 kJ/kg
The intercooler heat transfer rate, Qintercooler = (h2 – h3) = (451 – 303.2) =147.8 kJ/kg
Example 4.5.8
The gas turbine cycle shown in the Figure is part of a CHP system. In the first turbine,
the gas expands to a pressure of P5. The gas is then expanded in the second turbine
connected to the drive wheels. Considering the working fluid to be air throughout the
entire cycle and assuming the cycle to be an ideal one, taking the temperature effect
of specific heat, determine:
a. The intermediate pressure P5
b. The specific work output from the gas turbines
c. The mass flow rate through the turbine
d. The air temperature entering the combustor T3
e. The thermal efficiency of the gas turbine cycle
88
Solution
(a) For the given pressure ratio of 8, the optimum intermediate pressure is:
Pintermediate = √𝑃1 𝑃2 = √8 = 2.83-bar
For the given information, T4 = 1,500 K, using the ideal gas property table of Figure
4.16,
h4 = h6 = 1,635.97 kJ/kg, Pr4 = 601.9
Pr4/ Pr5 = P4/ P5, therefore, Pr5 = Pr1 x P5/ P4 = 601.9/2.83 = 212.6

h5 = h7 = 1,239.35 kJ/kg, T5 = 1,167 K
89
(b) Referring to the ideal Brayton cycle T-s diagram and assuming the reheating after
the first stage of the expansion reheats the compressed gas to the initial turbine inlet
temperature of 1500 K,
The turbine work, wturb = 2 x (h4 – h5) = 2 x (1,635.97 – 1,239.35) = 793.24 kJ/kg
(c) For the given information, T1 = 300 K, using the ideal gas property table of Figure
4.16,
h1 = 300.19 kJ/kg, Pr1 = 1.386
h2 = 544.06 kJ/kg, T2 = 539.7 K
The compressor work, wcomp = h2 – h1 = 544.06 – 300.19 = 243.87 kJ/kg
Net power from the gas turbine cycle, wnet = wturb - wcomp
= 793.24 – 243.87 = 549.37 kJ/kg
Pnet = ṁg x wnet; therefore, the gas mass flowrate through the turbine is:
ṁg = Pnet / wnet = 175/549.37 = 0.319 kg/s
(d) The effectiveness of the regenerator is assumed to be 0.75

Therefore, Ɛ = (h3 – h2)/ (h7 – h2)
Solving the effectiveness expression for h3:
h3 = [(1,239.35 – 544.06) x 0.75] + 544.06 = 1,065.52 kJ/kg
For h3 = 1,065.52, using the ideal gas property table,

T3 = 1,017 K
Ƞthermal = wnet/ Qin = (wturb - wcomp) / Qin
Qin = (h4 – h3) + (h6 – h5) = (1,635.97 – 1,065.52) + (1,635.97 – 1,239.35)
= 967.07 kJ/kg
Ƞthermal = 549.37/ 967.07 = 0.568 = 56.8%
Summary
The gas power cycle or Brayton cycle, which is widely used in combined heat and
power cycles, has been presented. The Brayton cycle analyses is done for both the
ideal and actual cycles. Various thermal efficiency improvement techniques have also
been discussed with their analysis. A number of illustrative examples are included at
the end of the Chapter to give practising industrial professionals a good feel of the
analysis of the ideal and actual Brayton cycles.
90
References
York, 2008.
2.Nag P. K, Engineering Thermodynamics: Tata-McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999.
91
5.0 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES

In CHP systems, it is very common to have a steam turbine deployed as a bottoming
cycle to generate electricity and heat. This arrangement is very common in countries
where there is no premium fuel like natural gas. The steam turbines work on vapour
power cycles, in which the working fluid, water undergoes phase changes in the cycle
components like boiler, turbine and condensers. Hence, practising engineers are
recommended to have thorough understanding of the vapour power cycles with the
phase change processes depicted in P-v and T-s diagrams.
This chapter presents the vapour power cycles with the main focus on the gas turbine
cycle or Brayton cycle.
Learning Outcomes:
1. Basics of vapour power cycles
2. The Rankine vapour power cycle used for CHP systems
3. Thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle
4. Various thermal efficiency enhancement techniques for the Rankine cycle
5.1 Vapour Power Cycles

CHP systems using steam power plants are operated in a cycle. In a cycle, the
working fluids such as water or gas undergo a series of processes and finally return
to the initial state. In some other power plants like the internal combustion engine and
the gas turbine, the working fluid does not go through a thermodynamic cycle despite
the engine operating in a mechanical cycle. In this instance, the working fluid is in a
different composition or is in a different state at the end of the process than its starting
state. Such equipment is sometimes said to operate on an open cycle (the word ‘cycle’
is a misnomer though). Steam power plants, which are widely used around the world,
operate on a closed cycle.
In this Chapter, idealised vapour power cycles are discussed and analysed.
Subsequently, an real-life cycle is considered and how the actual apparatus deviates
from the ideal is analysed. In addition, various techniques are incorporated to modify
the basic cycles that are intended to improve performance.
92
5.2 The Carnot Vapour Cycle

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified
temperature limits. Hence, the Carnot cycle is used as an ideal cycle for vapour power
plants, as a comparison for the performance of the actual cycles. However, it is to be
noted that the Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for vapour power cycles. In all our
subsequent analysis of the Carnot cycle, we assume steam to be the working fluid
since it is the working fluid used in vapour power cycles. Figure 5.1 shows a steady-
flow Carnot cycle operated within the saturation dome of a pure substance. Heat is
added to the fluid reversibly and isothermally in a boiler represented by the process
line 1-2. The process 2-3 shows an isentropic expansion of the fluid in a turbine. The
process 3-4 is a condensation process, which is reversible and isothermal, and takes
place in a condenser. The fluid returns to its initial state after the isentropic
compression process 4-1 in a compressor.
Boiler
2
1 Q12 (+ve) W 23 (+ve)
W 41 (-ve) Turbine
3
Compressor
Q34 (-ve)
4 Condenser
Figure 5.1 An ideal Carnot cycle
T
1 2
4 3
s
Figure 5.2 T-s diagram of an ideal Carnot cycle
93
However, there are a number of impracticalities associated with the cycle:
1. Isothermal heat transfer to or from a two-phase system is not difficult to achieve in

practice since maintaining a constant pressure in the device automatically fixes the
temperature at the saturation value. Therefore, processes 1-2 and 3-4 can be
approached closely in actual boilers and condensers. The maximum temperature of
the cycle is limited by limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems as it
has to remain under the critical-point value, which is 374oC for water. Based on the
definition of Carnot cycle efficiency, the thermal efficiency of the cycle is limited by the
maximum temperature of the cycle.
2. The expansion process 2-3 can be approximated as close to isentropic by a well-

designed turbine. However, as can be seen from Figure 5.2, the quality of the steam
decreases during this process. The poor quality of the steam is not healthy for the
turbine as it has to handle moisture laden steam, which may cause catastrophic
damage. That is why it is a common practice that steam with quality (dryness fraction)
of less than about 90 percent is not recommended in the operation of steam power
plants.
3. The isentropic compression process 4-1 of the Carnot cycle as shown in Figure 5.2
is the compression of a two-phase (liquid–vapour) mixture to a saturated liquid. There
are two difficulties associated with the process. Firstly, it is not easy to control the
condensation process so precisely as to end up with the desired quality at state 4.
Secondly, it is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases. Some
of these problems could be eliminated by modifying the Carnot cycle. However, such
a modified Carnot cycle could introduce other problems such as isentropic
compression to extremely high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable
pressures. Therefore, it is evident that the Carnot cycle is not a practical cycle and is
not a realistic model for vapour power cycles.
Referring to the T-s diagram for the Carnot cycle shown in Figure 5.2, the following
equations for various processes can be written:
Heat input in boiler 𝑄12 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 (5.1)
Work output in turbine 𝑊23 = ℎ2 − ℎ3 (5.2)
94
Heat rejected in condenser 𝑄34 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 (5.3)
Work input in compressor 𝑊41 = ℎ4 − ℎ1 (5.4)
Net work 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊23 − 𝑊41 = 𝑄12 − 𝑄34 (5.5)
Work ratio 𝑟𝑤 = (𝑊23 − 𝑊41 )/𝑊23 (5.6)
For fixed upper and lower temperature limits, the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle
is the highest and can be expressed as:
ƞ𝑐 = 1 − 𝑇3 /𝑇1 (5.7)
As can be seen from eq (5.7), the thermal efficiency increases with the increase of
average temperature at which heat is added to the system, or with the decrease of
average temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.
5.3 The Rankine Cycle

Most of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated by
heating the steam to the saturated state in the boiler and condensing it completely in
the condenser. Such a modification is depicted schematically on a T-s diagram in
Figure 5.4. The resulting cycle is called the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for
vapour power plants as shown in Figure 5.3. It is assumed that such an ideal Rankine
cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities and consists of the following four
processes. The processes, referring to both Figures 5.3 and 5.4, are:
Isentropic compression in a pump, process 5-6

Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler, process 6-2
Isentropic expansion in a turbine, process 2-3
Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser, process 3-5
95
Boiler
2
6 Q62 (+ve) W 23 (+ve)
W 56 (-ve) Turbine
3
Pump Q35 (-ve)
5 Condenser
Figure 5.3 The modified Carnot cycle (ideal Rankine cycle)
T
1 2
6
5 4 3
s
Figure 5.4 T-s diagram of an ideal Rankine cycle
As seen from Figure 5.3, the water enters the pump at state 5 as saturated liquid and
is compressed isentropically to the operating pressure and fed to the boiler as
feedwater. The water temperature increases due to a slight decrease in the specific
volume of water during this isentropic compression process. The vertical distance
between states 5 and 6 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated for clarity and
simplification. It will be interesting to note that if water were truly incompressible, there
would not be a temperature change at all during this process. The feedwater enters
the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 6 and leaves as a saturated vapour at state
96
2. The boiler is essentially a large heat exchanger where the heat generated from
combustion gases is transferred to the water at near constant pressure. The boiler,
together with the section where the steam is superheated, if any, is often called the
steam generator. The section of the boiler where the steam is superheated is called
the superheater.
The saturated steam vapour at state 2 enters the turbine, where it is expanded
isentropically and produces work by generating a torque on the shaft connected to an
electric generator. Both the pressure and the temperature of the steam decrease
during this process to values at state 3. At state point 3, the steam enters the
condenser. At this point, the steam is usually a saturated liquid–vapour mixture with
a relatively high quality. The steam undergoes a phase-change in the condenser and
is condensed at near constant pressure. As in the case of the boiler, a condenser is
basically a large heat exchanger exchanging heat (heat rejection) to a cooling medium
such as a lake, a river, or the atmosphere. The steam leaves the condenser at a
saturated liquid state and enters the pump, thus completing the cycle. In areas where
water is scarce and precious, the power plants are cooled by air instead of water. This
method of cooling is considered in those places where it is highly important to
conserve water.
Referring to the T-s diagram of Figure 5.4, the area under process curve 6-2
represents the heat transferred to the water in the boiler and the area under the
process curve 3-5 represents the heat rejected in the condenser. The area enclosed
by the cycle curve is the net work produced during in the cycle. As seen from the T-s
diagram, the area enclosed is the difference between the heat added in the boiler and
heat rejected in the condenser. An energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle includes
the four components in the cycle: the pump, boiler, turbine, and condenser, which are
steady-flow devices as described in Chapter 2 of this manual. Therefore, the four
processes that make up the Rankine cycle can be analysed as steady-flow processes.
It is to be noted that the kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are usually
small relative to the work and heat transfer terms and are therefore usually neglected.
Referring to the T-s diagram for the Rankine cycle and using the steady flow energy
analysis described in Chapter 2, the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be
established as follows:
Heat input in boiler 𝑄62 = ℎ2 − ℎ6 (5.8)
97
Work output in turbine 𝑊23 = ℎ2 − ℎ3 (5.9)
Heat rejected in condenser 𝑄34 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 (5.10)
Work input in pump 𝑊56 = ℎ6 − ℎ5 (5.11)
As the enthalpy at point 6 is difficult to establish from the steam property table, it is
indirectly determined using the pump work equation:
𝑊56 = 𝑣𝑓@5 (𝑃6 − 𝑃5 ) (5.12)

Where, vf@5 = Specific volume at state point 5
Net work from the cycle, 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊23 − 𝑊56 = 𝑄62 − 𝑄34 (5.13)
Work ratio is expressed as: 𝑟𝑤 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 /𝑊23 (5.14)
Therefore, the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle:
ƞ𝑡ℎ,𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 /𝑄62 = (𝑄62 − 𝑄34 )/𝑄62 (5.15)
The Carnot cycle efficiency is maximum because the heat added and rejected are at
constant upper and lower temperature, respectively. In sharp contrast, for Rankine
Cycle, the heat added and rejected in the Rankine cycle are not at constant upper
and lower temperature, respectively. Therefore, the Rankine thermal efficiency is less
than that of the Carnot cycle.
That is : ƞ𝑡ℎ,𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 < ƞ𝑡ℎ,𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 (5.16)
As previously stated, with reference to the efficiency of the Carnot cycle, the Rankine
cycle thermal efficiency can be optimised through elevating the temperature at which
the heat is added to the cycle or decreasing the temperature at which the heat is
rejected. This can be achieved by carrying out one of the three techniques alone or
through the combination of the techniques:
(i) Lowering the condenser pressure

(ii) Increasing boiler pressure
98
(iii) Superheating steam to high pressure
5.3.1 Deviation of actual vapour power cycles from idealised ones

The actual vapour power cycle is different from the ideal Rankine cycle depicted in
Figure 5.3. This departure of the actual cycle is because of associated irreversibilities
in various components of the cycle. The entropy generation resulting from fluid friction
and heat loss (heat transfer between two finite temperature differences) to the
surroundings is the source of the irreversibility. Steam leaves the boiler at a somewhat
lower pressure because of the pressure drop resulting from fluid friction. This causes
pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the piping between various
components. In addition, the pressure at the turbine inlet is somewhat lower than that
at the boiler exit due to the pressure drop in the connecting pipes. The pressure drop
in the condenser is usually very small. To compensate for these pressure drops, the
water must be pumped to a sufficiently higher pressure than that required by the ideal
cycle. This necessitates a larger pump and larger work input to the pump contributing
to the lower thermal efficiency of the actual Rankine cycle. The other major source of
irreversibility is the transmission line heat loss from the steam to the surroundings as
the steam flows through various components. The larger the steam transmission
network, the higher the transmission heat loss, resulting in lower thermal efficiency of
the cycle. To maintain the same level of cycle net work output, more heat needs to be
transferred to the steam in the boiler to compensate for these undesirable cycle heat
losses. This results in an undesirable drop in the thermal efficiency of the actual
Rankine cycle. The T-s diagram of an actual Rankine cycle is shown in Figure 5.5.
3
T 100 bar
2a
2s
0.2 bar
1 4s 4a
Figure 5.5 T-s diagram of an actual Rankine cycle
99
Among the above stated irreversibilities, of particular importance are those associated
with the pump and the turbine. Thermodynamically, pumps and compressors are
classified as work-consuming devices whereas the turbines are work-producing
devices. The deviation of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can be
accounted for by defining isentropic efficiencies. With reference to Figure 5.5, the
isentropic efficiencies of pump and turbine are defined as:
ƞ𝑠,𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = W𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 /W𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = (ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1 )/(ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1 ) (5.17)
ƞ𝑠,𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = W𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 /W𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = (ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑎 )/(ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑠 ) (5.18)
As seen from the T-s diagram of Figure 5.5, the state points 2a and 4a are the actual
exit state points of the pump and the turbine, respectively, and 2s and 4s are the
corresponding states for the isentropic cases. The analysis of actual vapour power
cycles should also take other factors into consideration. In actual condensers, for
example, the liquid is usually sub-cooled to prevent cavitation. The rapid vapourisation
and condensation of the fluid at the low-pressure side of the pump impeller may
damage it. In addition, losses occur at the bearings between the moving parts as a
result of friction. Also, steam and air leaks during the cycle operation are other two
sources of loss, which affects the cycle thermal efficiency. Finally, the power
consumed by auxiliary equipment such as fans that supply air to the furnace should
also be considered in evaluating the overall performance of power plants. The power
plant auxiliary equipment such as feedwater pump and fan, could if possible be
optimised based on the load, which will help to improve the cycle efficiency.
5.3.2 Improvement opportunities to increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle

Considering the unprecedented technological advancement in recent years, there
could be many improvement opportunities for steam power plants. Considering that
steam power plants are responsible for the production of most electric power around
the world, it is of paramount importance to attempt to improve their thermal efficiency
by incorporating available state-of-the-art technologies as even small increase in
thermal efficiency can result in huge fuel savings.
100
As described in the preceding section, the basic idea behind all the modifications to
increase the thermal efficiency of a power cycle remains the same: that is to increase
the average temperature at which heat is added to the steam in the boiler or decrease
the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the
condenser.
The three techniques that can be used for realising this for the simple ideal Rankine
cycle are described below:
5.3.2.1 Lowering the Condenser Pressure
T
1 2
Initial condenser
pressure, P4 5
5' 4 3
Reduced 4' 3'

condenser
pressure, P4’
Increase in W net
s
Figure 5.6 T-s diagram showing lowering of condenser pressure in a Rankine cycle
As seen from the Rankine cycle T-s diagram in the preceding section, the heat
rejection process line can be lowered by reducing the condenser pressure in the cycle.
This in turn reduces the heat rejection temperature and improving the cycle thermal
efficiency. Steam from the turbine enters as a saturated mixture in the condenser at
the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure inside the condenser. As a
result, lowering the operating pressure of the condenser will translate into a lower
temperature of the steam, which means the temperature at which heat is rejected is
reduced as well. Figure 5.6 shows the effect of lowering the condenser pressure on
the Rankine cycle efficiency. It is to be noted that for performance comparison, the
turbine inlet state is maintained the same. The shaded area on this diagram
represents the increase in net work output as a result of lowering the condenser
pressure from P4 to P4’.
As seen from the Figure, the heat input requirements also increase, represented by
the area under curve 5’-1-2, but this increment is very small. Therefore, the net effect
101
of lowering the condenser pressure is an increase in the thermal efficiency of the

Rankine cycle. Steam power plants usually operate well below the atmospheric
pressure. This is to take maximum advantage of the increased efficiencies at low
pressures. There is no major problem associated with this below-atmospheric
operation of the condenser because of the closed loop operation of vapour power
cycles. However, lowering of the condenser pressure is limited by the availability of
cooling medium in terms of cooling temperature. Obviously, it cannot be lower than
the saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the cooling medium. For
effective heat transfer in the condenser, the difference between the saturation
temperature of the steam and cooling medium temperature should at least be kept at
10oC. In a tropical country like Singapore, the cooling water temperature can range
from 26 to 29.4oC. Based on this cooling water temperature and the temperature
difference requirement, the lowest pressure corresponding to the saturation
temperature of 36 to 39.4oC is in the range of 0.06 to 0.07-bar. This means there is a
derating requirement when the power plant is procured from a country where the
climate is different from that in tropical countries.
When the condenser pressure is lowered, it may cause leakage into the condenser of
lower condenser pressure, which is less than atmospheric pressure. A very low
condenser pressure also increases the moisture content of the steam at the final
stages of the turbine, as can be seen from Figure 5.6. The presence of large quantities
of moisture is not desirable as it decreases the turbine efficiency and subjects turbine
blades to erosion and damage.
The effects of lowering the condenser pressure is summarised below:

• Condenser pressure is reduced from P3’ to P3
• Steam rejects heat at saturation temperature corresponding to condenser
pressure
• Lowering condenser pressure means lowering heat rejection temperature
• Net work output increases with decrease in condenser pressure
• Pump work W4’5’>W45, (however this increase is very small)
• Net effect is an increase of overall thermal efficiency
• Condenser pressure should be saturation pressure corresponding to about
10oC higher than the coolant temperature
• Dryness fraction of steam decreases
102
5.3.2.2 Superheating Steam to High Temperature

Lowering the condenser pressure to make the heat rejection at the condenser as low
as possible results in the undesirable lower quality of the steam at the final stages of
the expansion in the turbine. This undesirable effect could be mitigated through
superheating the steam. Superheating the steam definitely elevates the average
temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler without increasing
the boiler pressure. The effect of superheating on the performance of vapour power
cycles is depicted on the T-s diagram shown in Figure 5.8. The net work increase
through this superheating of the steam is indicated by the shaded area on the T-s
diagram. However, there is an increase in the heat input to the cycle. Thus, both the
net work and heat input increase as a result of superheating the steam to a higher
temperature. The net effect is an increase in thermal efficiency of the cycle, resulting
from the increase in the average temperature at which heat is added in the boiler.
Metallurgical conditions limit the temperature to which steam can be superheated.
Based on state-of-the-art technology, the highest steam temperature allowed at the
turbine inlet is about 620oC. Any increase in this value depends on improving currently
available materials or finding new ones that can withstand higher temperatures. In this
regard ceramics are considered to be potential materials in the future.
3 Superheater
Boiler Q34 (+ve)
4
1 Q (+ve) W 45 (+ve)
13
Turbine
W 61 (-ve)
5
Pump Q56 (-ve)
6 Condenser
Figure 5.7 Superheating of steam in a Rankine cycle
103
T 4
2 3
6 5' 5
Increase in W net
s
Figure 5.8 T-s diagram showing superheating of steam in a Rankine cycle
The effects of superheating the steam in the boiler are summarised below:
• Average temperature at which heat is added to steam can be increased

without increasing boiler pressure by superheating the steam to high
temperatures
• Both heat input and net work increase, while the steam flow rate remains
unchanged
• The thermal efficiency of the cycle increases
• Dryness fraction of steam increases with superheating, which is desirable
• Specific steam consumption, SSC (mass flow of steam required per unit power
output) decreases
5.3.2.3 Increasing Boiler Pressure
3 Superheater
Boiler Q34 (+ve)
4
1 Q (+ve) W 45 (+ve)
13
Turbine
W 61 (-ve)
5
Pump Q56 (-ve)
6 Condenser
104
Increase in W net
T 4'
2' 4
3'
2 3
1'
1
6 5' 5
Decrease in W net
s
Figure 5.9 T-s diagram showing increasing of pressure in a Rankine cycle
Another way of increasing the average temperature during the heat-addition process
is to increase the operating pressure of the boiler. This, in turn, raises the average
temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam and thus raises the thermal
efficiency of the cycle. From the first principle, it is clear that increasing boiler pressure
will cause the temperature of heat addition to rise. This will result in a thermal
efficiency increase of the Rankine cycle. The effect of increasing the boiler pressure
is shown in Figure 5.9. As can be seen from the figure, the dryness fraction of steam
decreases, which is not desirable. However, this low dryness fraction or steam quality
issue can be corrected through reheating the steam.
Operating pressures of boilers have gradually increased over the years from about
28-bar in 1922 to over 300-bar today, generating enough steam to produce a net
power output of 1 GW or more in a large power plant. There are many modern
supercritical steam power plants.
The effects of increasing the boiler pressure is summarised below:
• Increasing boiler pressure will increase temperature of heat addition

• Thermal efficiency of cycle increases
• Dryness fraction of steam decreases, which is not desirable
• This undesirable effect can be corrected by reheating steam
105
5.3.2.4 The ideal reheat Rankine cycle

As noted in the previous section, increasing the boiler pressure increases the thermal
efficiency of the Rankine cycle, but the quality of the steam towards the final stages
of expansion in the turbine is compromised. This shortcoming can be addressed as
follows:
Superheater Reheater
Q34 (+ve) Q56 (+ve)
Boiler
3 6
4 5 W 67 (+ve)
1 Q (+ve)
13
Turbine
W 81 (-ve)
W 45 (+ve) 7
Pump Turbine Q56 (-ve)
8 Condenser
Figure 5.10 Reheating of steam in a Rankine cycle
4
6
T 3
2
5
1
8 7
s
Figure 5.11 T-s diagram showing reheating of steam in a Rankine cycle
106
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures before it enters the turbine. This
will bring in the desirable effect of increasing the average temperature thus increasing
the cycle thermal efficiency. However, this is not a viable option because of the
metallurgical limitation in withstanding very high temperatures.
2. Perform a two-stage expansion in the turbine with the deployment of reheat in

between the stages. This is a modified version of a simple ideal Rankine cycle with
the incorporation of a reheat process. Figures 5.10 and 5.11 show a Rankine cycle
with two-stage expansion and the reheating, and the corresponding T-s diagram,
respectively. Reheating improves the quality of the steam (lower moisture content) at
the final stage of the expansion in the turbine. In the first stage, the high-pressure
steam is expanded in the high pressure turbine isentropically to an intermediate
pressure. The steam after the first stage of expansion is returned to the boiler where
it is reheated at constant pressure, typically to the inlet temperature of the first turbine
stage. The reheated steam is then expanded isentropically in the low-pressure turbine
down to the condenser pressure.
Referring to the T-s diagram for the reheat cycle shown in Figure 5.11, the total heat
input and the total turbine work output for a reheat cycle are expressed as follows:
𝑞𝑖𝑛,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (ℎ4 − ℎ1 ) + (ℎ6 − ℎ5 ) (5.19)
𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (ℎ4 − ℎ5 ) + (ℎ6 − ℎ7 ) (5.20)
The incorporation of the single reheat generally improves the cycle thermal efficiency
by about 4 to 5 percent resulting from the increase in the average temperature at
which heat is added in the boiler. It is to be noted that the average temperature during
the reheat process can be increased by increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach to the most efficient process in thermodynamics, namely an
isothermal process at the maximum temperature.
In general, the use of more than two reheat stages is not technically and economically
feasible. The theoretical improvement in efficiency from the second reheat is about
half of that which results from a single reheat. If the turbine inlet pressure is not high
enough, double reheat would result in superheated exhaust. This is undesirable as it
107
would cause the average temperature for heat rejection to increase and thus the cycle
efficiency to decrease. The reheat temperatures are very close or equal to the turbine
inlet temperature. The optimum reheat pressure is about one-fourth of the maximum
cycle pressure. For example, the optimum reheat pressure for a cycle with a boiler
pressure of 160-bar is about 40-bar. The reheat cycle, which is essentially deployed
to reduce the moisture content at the latter stage of the expansion, could be avoided
if there are suitable materials available to withstand very high temperature resulting
from superheating.
The effects of two-stage expansion of the steam with reheating is summarised below:
• Dryness fraction approaches to 1.0

• Thermal efficiency of cycle increases
• Represents a practical solution to low dryness fraction problem
• Used frequently in modern turbines
5.4 Regeneration
The average temperature at which the heat is added to the steam in the boiler is
affected by the temperature at which the feedwater enters the boiler. If this
temperature can also be increased by deploying certain practical techniques, the
thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle could be further improved. One such technique
is called regeneration. The regeneration process is realised by extracting or “bleeding”
steam from turbine at various points. Extracted steam is used to heat the feedwater
using a heat exchanger called feedwater heater or regenerator. Feedwater heaters
can be of two types - open feedwater heater and closed feedwater heater. In both
types, heat exchange takes place between the bled steam and the feedwater in either
a direct or indirect manner.
In an open feedwater heater, the heat is transferred from the steam to the feedwater
by direct mixing of two fluid streams. Whereas in a closed feedwater heater, the heat
is transferred from the steam to the feedwater without mixing the two fluid streams.
Regeneration also provides a convenient means of deaerating feedwater to prevent

corrosion in the boiler. Deaerating is the removal of dissolved air from the feedwater
resulting from air leaks into the condenser. Regeneration also helps to control the
large volume flow rate of steam at the final stage of turbine expansion resulting in
reduction of turbine size.
108
Open Feedwater Heater

An open feedwater heater (OFWH) is a direct-contact feedwater heater, basically a
mixing chamber where the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater
exiting the pump. The steam is extracted from the turbine such that the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure. Figures 5.12 and 5.13 show
the schematic of a steam power plant with one open feedwater heater and the T-s
diagram of the feedwater cycle, respectively.
W 23 (+ve)
2 W 34 (+ve)
Boiler Turbine
4 (1-y) kg
Q12 (+ve) 3
Q45 (-ve)
1
y kg
Condenser
W 71 (-ve) 5
Feed Pump W 56 (-ve)
6
Feed Pump
7
Open Feed Heater (mixed)
Figure 5.12 Open feedwater in a Rankine cycle
T 1 1 kg
6'
3
6 7 y kg
5
(1-y) kg 4
s
Figure 5.13 T-s diagram for an open feedwater heater in a Rankine cycle
109
As shown in Figure 5.12, in an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, steam enters the
turbine at the boiler pressure at state point 2 and expands isentropically to an
intermediate pressure of state point 3. After this intermediate expansion, some steam
is extracted at this state point 3 and routed to the feedwater heater. The remaining
steam continues to expand isentropically to the condenser pressure at state point 7.
This steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the condenser pressure at
state point 1. The condensed water (the feedwater) enters an isentropic pump, where
it is pumped to the feedwater heater pressure of state point 2. The pressurised
feedwater is routed to the feedwater heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted
from the turbine. The fraction of the steam is extracted in such a manner that the
mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure of state point 3.
A second pump increases the pressure of the feedwater to the boiler pressure of state
point 4. The feedwater is then heated to the turbine inlet temperature at state point 2,
hence, completing the cycle.
Referring to the T-s diagram of Figure 5.13, the open feedwater heater cycle is
illustrated as follows:
For each 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, y kg expands partially in the turbine and is
extracted at state point 3. The remaining (1-y) kg expands completely to the
condenser pressure. Therefore, the mass flow rates are different in different
components. For instance, if the mass flow rate through the boiler is m· , for example,
it is (1-y)m· through the condenser. This aspect of the regenerative Rankine cycle
should be considered in the analysis of the cycle as well as in the interpretation of the
areas on the T-s diagram.
Referring to the T-s diagram of the open feedwater heater, the expression for the heat
and work expressions in the cycle are expressed as follows:
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 (5.21)
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ4 − ℎ5 ) (5.22)
𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (ℎ2 − ℎ3 ) + (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ3 − ℎ4 ) (5.23)
𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛 = (1 − 𝑦)𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝5−6 + 𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝7−1 (5.24)

where, y = ṁ3/ ṁ2, the fraction of steam extracted from the turbine
110
𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝5−6 = 𝑣5 (𝑃6 − 𝑃5 ) (5.25)
𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝7−1 = 𝑣7 (𝑃7 − 𝑃1 ) (5.26)
Referring to the Figure 5.13, for an isentropic process (entropy, S = constant), the
entropies can be related as follows:
𝑆2 = 𝑆3 = 𝑆4 = 𝑆𝑓@𝑃5 + 𝑥𝑆𝑓𝑔@𝑃5 (5.27)
As seen from the preceding discussion, the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle
increases through the increase in the average temperature at which the heat is added
through the use of OFWH. It is to be noted that the thermal efficiency can be further
improved by increasing the number of OFWHs in the cycle. It is common in many
large plants in operation today to use as many as eight open feedwater heaters.
However, the optimum number of feedwater heaters needs to be determined by
carrying out a cost benefit analysis in terms of economic considerations.
Closed Feedwater Heater

The closed feedwater heater is another type of feedwater heater frequently used in
steam power plants. Heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater
without any mixing taking place. Hence, the two streams now can be at different
pressures as they do not mix. Figures 5.14 and 5.15 show a schematic of a closed
feedwater heater incorporating a Rankine cycle and the T-s diagram for such a cycle,
respectively. In an ideal CFWH, the feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the
extracted steam, which ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction
pressure. In actual power plants, the feedwater leaves the heater below the exit
temperature of the extracted steam because a temperature difference of at least a
few degrees is required for any effective heat transfer to take place. The condensed
steam is then either pumped to the feedwater line or routed to another heater or to
the condenser through a device called a trap.
111
W 23 (+ve)
2 W 34 (+ve)
Boiler Turbine
y kg
3 4 (1-y) kg
Q12 (+ve)
Q45 (-ve)
1 9
Mixing 5
8 7 W 56 (-ve)
chamber 6
Feed Pump
W 78 (-ve) Closed Feed Heater
Feed Pump
Figure 5.14 Closed feedwater heater in a Rankine cycle
T
8 1 kg
1
9 3
6
7 y kg
5
(1-y) kg 4
s
Figure 5.15 T-s diagram showing closed feedwater heater in a Rankine cycle
The function of a trap is to trap the vapour while allowing liquid to be throttled to a
lower pressure region. The process across the trap is an isenthalpic process, i.e. the
inlet and outlet enthalpies remain the same.
112
The comparison between open and closed feedwater heaters can be summarised as
follows:
• Open feedwater heaters (OFWH) are simple in construction and inexpensive
and have good direct heat transfer characteristics
• OFWHs can bring the feedwater to the saturation state
• For each OFWH, a pump is required to handle the feedwater
• CFWHs are more complex because of the internal tubing network. As a result
they are more expensive
• Heat transfer in a CFWH is less effective because it is indirect
• However, a CFWH does not require a separate pump for each heater since
the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different pressures
• Most steam power plants use a combination of open and closed feedwater
heaters
Example 5.5.1
A steady-flow Carnot cycle uses water as the working fluid. Water changes from
saturated liquid to saturated vapour as heat is transferred to it from a source at 300oC.
Heat rejection takes place at a pressure of 30 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram
relative to the saturation lines, and determine
(a) the thermal efficiency, (b) the amount of heat rejected, and (c) the net work output.
Solution
113
Given: TH = 300oC = 573 K, TL = Tsat@30kPa = 342.1 K

(a) ƞthermal,C = 1 – TL / TH = 1 – 342.1/573 = 0.403 = 40.3%
(b) The heat supplied during this cycle is the enthalpy of vapourisation
qin = hfg@300C = 2336 kJ/kg
Therefore, heat rejected, qL = (TL / TH) x qin = (342.1 /573) x 2,336 = 1,394.7 kJ/kg
(b) The net work output, wnet = ƞthermal,C x qin = 0.403 x 2,336 = 941.4 kJ/kg
Example 5.5.2
Consider a steady-flow Carnot cycle with water as the working fluid. The maximum
and minimum temperatures in the cycle are 370.6oC and 70.6oC. The quality of water
is 0.881 at the beginning of the heat-rejection process and 0.1 at the end. Show the
cycle on a T-s diagram relative to the saturation lines, and determine (a) the thermal
efficiency, (b) the pressure at the turbine inlet, and (c) the net work output.
Solution
114
Given: TH = 370.6oC = 643.6 K, TL = 70.6oC = 343.6 K

(a) ƞthermal,C = 1 – TL / TH = 1 – 343.6/643.6 = 0.466 = 46.6%
(b) Also, s2 = s3 = sf + x3sfg
Therefore, s2 = s3 = 0.962 + 0.881 x 6.783 = 6.937 kJ/kg K
Using s2 = 6.937 kJ/kg K and T = 370.6oC from the steam table, P2 = 24-bar.
(c) The network, wnet is the enclosed area in the T-S diagram.
s4 = sf + x4sfg = 0.962 + 0.1 x 6.783 = 1.64 kJ/kg K
wnet = (s3 – s4) (TH – TL) = (6.937 – 1.64) (643.6 – 343.6) = 1,589 kJ/kg
Example 5.5.3
A steam power plant operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle between the pressure
limits of 40-bar and 0.06-bar. The temperature of the steam at the turbine inlet is
350oC, and the mass flow rate of steam through the cycle is 40 kg/s. Show the cycle
on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines and determine (a) the thermal
efficiency of the cycle and (b) the net power output of the power plant.
Solution:
Referring to the T-s diagram and using the given pressures and temperature, from
the steam table:
h4 = 3094 kJ/kg, s4 = 6.584 kJ/kg K
Also, s4 = s5 = [email protected] + x5 [email protected], 6.584 = 0.521 + (x5 x 7.808)
Therefore, x5 = 0.777
h5 = [email protected] + x5 [email protected], h5 = 152 + (0.777 x 2,415) = 2,028.5 kJ/k
Ƞthermal, Rankine = wnet/ Qin = (wturb – wpump) / Qin
115
wturb=h4 – h5 = 3,094 – 2,028.5 = 1,065.5 kJ/kg

wpump = [email protected] x (P2 – P5) x 100 = 0.001 x (40 – 0.06) x 100 =3.99 kJ/kg
Also, wpump = h1 – h6 , therefore, h1 = wpump + h6 = 3.99 + 152 = 156 kJ/kg
Qin = h4 – h1 = 3,094 – 156 = 2,938 kJ/kg
(a) Ƞthermal, Rankine = (wturb – wpump) / Qin = (1,065.5 – 3.99)/2,938 = 0.361 = 36.1%
(b) Net power from the turbine = ṁsteam x (wturb – wpump)
= 40 x (1,065.5 – 3.99) = 42,460 kW = 42.46 MW
Example 5.5.4
A simple ideal Rankine cycle which uses water as the working fluid operates its
condenser at 45oC and its boiler at 350oC. Calculate the work produced by the turbine,
the heat supplied in the boiler, and the thermal efficiency of this cycle when the steam
enters the turbine without any superheating.
Solution
the steam table:
h2 = 2,565 kJ/kg, s2 = 5.214 kJ/kg K
Also, s2 = s3 = sf@45C + x3 sfg@45C, 5.214 = 0.521 + (x5 x 7.808)
Therefore, x5 = 0.777 = 77.7%
h5 = [email protected] + x5 [email protected], h5 = 152 + (0.777 x 2415) = 2,028.5 kJ/k
wturb=h4 – h5 = 3,094 – 2,028.5 = 1,065.5 kJ/kg
116
Qin = h4 – h1 = 3,094 – 156 = 2,938 kJ/kg

(a) Ƞthermal, Rankine = (wturb – wpump) / Qin = (1,065.5 – 3.99)/2,938 = 0.361 = 36.1%
(b) Net power from the turbine = ṁsteam x (wturb – wpump)
= 40 x (1,065.5 – 3.99) = 42,460 kW = 42.46 MW
Example 5.5.5
Consider a 250 MW steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle.
Steam enters the turbine at 10 MPa and 500oC and is cooled in the condenser at a
pressure of 10 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines,
and determine (a) the quality of the steam at the turbine exit, (b) the thermal efficiency
of the cycle, and (c) the mass flow rate of the steam.
Solution
4
T 2 100 bar 3
1
0.1 bar
6 5
s
the steam table:
(a) For 10 MPa = 100-bar and 500oC
h4 = 3,373 kJ/kg, s4 = 6.596 kJ/kg K
Therefore, x5 = 0.793 = 79.3%
(b) h5 = [email protected] + x5 [email protected], h5 = 192 + (0.793 x 2392) = 2,088.9 kJ/k

wturb=h4 – h5 = 3,373 – 2,088.9 = 1,284.1 kJ/kg
117

Qin = h4 – h1 = 3373 – 202 = 3171 kJ/kg
Ƞthermal, Rankine = (wturb – wpump) / Qin = (1,284.1 – 9.99)/3,171 = 0.401 = 40.1%
(c) Given the net power from the turbine = 250 MW

That is, 250 x 1,000 = ṁsteam x (1284.1 – 9.99)
Therefore, ṁsteam = 196.2 kg/s
Example 5.5.6
A steam Rankine cycle operates between the pressure limits of 100-bar in the boiler
and 20 kPa in the condenser. The turbine inlet temperature is 450oC. The turbine
isentropic efficiency is 90 percent, the pump losses are negligible, and the cycle is
sized to produce 3 MW of power. Calculate the mass flow rate through the boiler, the
power produced by the turbine, the rate of heat supply in the boiler, and the thermal
efficiency
Solution
4
T 2 100 bar
3
1
0.2 bar
5 4s 4a
the steam table:
(a) For 100-bar and 450oC
h4 = 3,241 kJ/kg, s4 = 6.484 kJ/kg K
Also, s4 = s4s = [email protected] + x4s [email protected], 6.484 = 0.832 + (x4s x 7.5)
Therefore, x5 = 0.754 = 75.4%
h4s = [email protected] + x4s [email protected], h4s = 251 + (0.754 x 2,358) = 2,028.9 kJ/k
Ƞs,turb = (wa,turb / ws,turb) = (h4 – h4a) / (h4 – h4s)
That is, 0.9 = (3,241 - h4a) / (3,241 – 2,028.9)
Therefore, h4a = 2,150.1 kJ/kg
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wnet = wturb – wpump = (3,241 – 2150.1) – 9.98 = 1,080.92 kJ/kg
Pnet = ṁsteam x wnet; that is: 3 x 1,000 = ṁsteam x 1,080.92
Therefore, ṁsteam = 2.78 kg/s
Power from the turbine, Pturb = ṁsteam x (h4 - h4a) = 2.78 x (3,241 – 2,150.1) = 3,032
kW
Heat supplied in the boiler, Qin = (h4 – h1)
wpump = h1 – h6 , therefore, h1 = wpump + h6 = 9.98 + 251 = 261 kJ/kg
Therefore, Pin = ṁsteam x (h4 – h1) = 2.78 x (3241 – 261) = 8,284.4 kW
Ƞthermal, Rankine = Pnet/ Pin = 3,000/8,284.4 = 0.362 = 36.2%
Example 5.5.7
An ideal reheat Rankine cycle with water as the working fluid operates the boiler at
17,000 kPa, the reheater at 3,000 kPa, and the condenser at 90 kPa. The temperature
is 500oC at the entrance of the high-pressure and low-pressure turbines. The mass
flow rate through the cycle is 1.89 kg/s. Determine the power used by pumps, the
power produced by the cycle, the rate of heat transfer in the reheater, and the thermal
efficiency of this system
Solution
4
T 2 170 bar 6
3
1 30 bar
5
0.9 bar
8 7
the steam table:
h4 = 3,281 kJ/kg, s4 = 6.26 kJ/kg K
sg@30bar = 6.186 kJ/kg K
Also, s4 = s5 = 6.26 kJ/kg K
119
Since s4 = 6.26 > sg@30bar, the steam is still superheated after the first stage of
expansion.
For 30-bar and 6.26 kJ/kg K, from the superheated steam property table,
h5 = 2,842.5 kJ/kg
For 30-bar and 500oC
h6 = 3,456 kJ/kg, s6 = 7.233 kJ/kg K
Also, s6 = s7 = [email protected] + x7 [email protected], 7.233 = 1.27 + (x4s x 6.124)
Therefore, x7 = 0.973 = 97.3%
h7 = [email protected] + x7 [email protected] = 405 + (0.973 x 2,266) = 2,609.8 kJ/k
Ppump = ṁfw x wpump (Assumed ṁfw = ṁsteam)
Therefore, Ppump = 1.89 x 16.91 = 31.96 kW
The net power produced by the cycle:

Pturb = ṁsteam x wnet
wnet = wturb – wpump = (h4 – h5) + (h6 – h7) – wpump
= (3,281 – 2,842.5) + (3,456 – 2,609.8) – 16.91 = 1,267.8 kJ/kg
Therefore, Pturb,net = ṁsteam x wnet = 1.89 x 1267.8 = 2,396 kW
The total heat input rate in the cycle, Pin = ṁsteam x [(h4 – h1) + (h6 – h5)]
wpump = h1 – h8 , therefore, h1 = wpump + h8 = 16.91 + 405 = 421.91 kJ/kg
Pin = 1.89 x [(3,281 – 421.91) + (3,456 – 2,842.5)] = 6,563.2 kW
Ƞthermal, Rankine = Pnet/ Pin = 2,396/6,563.2 = 0.365 = 36.5%
Example 5.5.8
A steam power plant operates on an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle. Steam enters
the turbine at 6 MPa and 450oC and is condensed in the condenser at 20 kPa. Steam
is extracted from the turbine at 0.4 MPa to heat the feedwater in an open feedwater
heater. Water leaves the feedwater heater as a saturated liquid. Show the cycle on a
T-s diagram and determine (a) the net work output per kilogram of steam flowing
through the boiler and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
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Solution
W23 (+ve)
2 W34 (+ve)
Boiler Turbine
Q12 (+ve) 3 4 (1-y) kg

Q45 (-ve)
1
y kg
Condenser
W71 (-ve) 5 W (-ve)
Feed Pump 6
56
Feed Pump
7
Open Feed Heater (mixed)
2
60 bar
T
1
6' 4 bar 3
6 7
5 0.2 bar
4
s
the steam table:
h2 = 3,633 kJ/kg, s2 = s3 = s4 = 6.958 kJ/kg K
sg@4bar = 6.897 kJ/kg K
Since s3 = 6.958 > sg@4bar, the steam is still superheated after the first stage of
expansion.
For 4-bar and 6.958 kJ/kg K, from the superheated steam property table,
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h3 = 2,766 kJ/kg
Therefore, x4 = 0.865 = 86.5%
h4 = [email protected] + x4 [email protected] = 251 + (0.865 x 2,358) = 2,290.7 kJ/k
Pump work input, w5-6 = [email protected] x (P6 – P5) x 100 = 0.001 x (4 – 0.2) x 100
= 0.38 kJ/kg
Pump work input, w7-1 = vf@4bar x (P1 – P7) x 100 = 0.001 x (90 – 4) x 100
= 8.6 kJ/kg
wnet = wturb – wpump = (h2 – h3) + (h3 – h4) – (w5-6 + w7-1)
= (3,633 – 2,766) + (2,766 – 2,290.7) – (0.38 + 8.6) = 1,333.3 kJ/kg
The total heat input rate in the cycle, Qin = h2 – h1

W7-1 = h1 – h7 , therefore, h1 = w7-1 + h7
h7 = hf@4bar = 605 kJ/kg
Therefore, h1 = 8.6 + 605 = 613.6 kJ/kg
Qin = 3,633 – 613.6 = 3,019.4 kJ/kg
Ƞthermal, Rankine = wnet/ Qin = 1,333.3/3,019.4 = 0.442 = 44.2%
Summary
The vapour power cycle, also known as the Rankine cycle, which is widely used in
combined heat and power cycles has been presented. The working fluid in the
Rankine cycle is steam. Both the ideal and actual Rankine cycles have been
presented and analysed thermodynamically. Various thermal efficiency improvement
techniques have also been discussed with their analysis. A number of illustrative
examples are included at the end of the chapter to give practising industrial
professionals a good feel of the analysis of the ideal and actual Rankine cycles.
References
1.Cengel Yunus, Thermodynamics: an engineering approach, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 2008.
2.Nag P. K, Engineering Thermodynamics: Tata-McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999.

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6.0 CHP PRIME MOVERS

This chapter provides detailed information on various prime movers used in CHP
Systems. The selection of prime movers in a CHP system is of paramount importance
as far as the optimum operation of the system is concerned. One can select a prime
mover with a better electrical conversion efficiency or low electrical conversion
efficiency for the application. The decision on such a selection is arrived at by
analysing the facility’s thermal load vs electrical load requirements. This chapter
covers the different types of prime movers available in the market along with their
suitability for industrial applications for meeting thermal and electrical load
requirements.
Learning Outcomes:
1. Different types of prime movers
2. Selection of prime movers
3. Advantages and disadvantages of different types of prime movers
4. Applications of CHP systems involving the prime movers
6.1. Introduction
As discussed in the preceding sections of this reference manual, co-generation or tri-
generation CHP systems, produce both electrical power and useful heat from the
same fuel source. In any CHP system, one group burns the fuel to produce heat in
order to produce rotary power for electricity, where heat is a by-product. Some CHP
systems derive electricity directly from the chemical process of oxidation of fuel, and
again heat is a by-product. In the most common group of CHP systems, fuel is directly
burned in a prime mover process. Examples of such a CHP group include internal
combustion engines and combustion turbines. In each case, the combustion follows
the expansion of the combustion gases, resulting in outputs of rotary power to drive
an electrical generator. With internal combustion, the hot gases expand inside a
cylinder with a piston and the expansion drives the piston. These prime movers are
called internal combustion engines, e.g. automotive engines, and are closely related
to vehicle engines.
A second group of fuel-fired CHP systems burns the fuel in a boiler to produce high
pressure and often superheated steam. The steam produced is delivered to a steam
turbine. Expansion of steam through the turbine blades produces rotary power which
123
drives an electrical generator. The steam turbine process is often used in large
commercial electricity generation power plants.
When the CHP system is used with steam driving the turbine, the heat energy rejected
during condensation can be used for space heating or cooling of buildings or various
industrial processes. For this to work, the discharged steam from the turbine must be
piped to a low-pressure steam heat use, which is needed at the same time as the
steam turbine operation. This necessitates a balance between a thermal load
recovered from the turbine exhaust and the power output of the steam turbine. Boilers
with supplementary firing and thermal storage systems are common in industry to help
balance load requirements.
It is important to ensure that temperature and pressure of the exhaust steam matches
the load requirements. It is worthwhile to note that the lower the temperature and
pressure needed by the facility, the more energy is available to the steam turbine.
Note that in comparison to gas turbines, boilers and steam-driven turbines have more
flexibility in the fuel which drives the process. Steam necessary to drive a steam
turbine can be produced by any fuel which can be burned in a boiler or waste heat
derived from a process. In a combined cycle power plant, waste heat from a gas-fired
combustion turbine produces steam that drives a steam turbine or is injected back
into the combustion turbine for additional power. A common application today is to
install a backpressure steam turbine in an existing steam boiler and steam distribution
system. Boilers are sometimes operated at higher pressure than is required to deliver
the steam, and with a backpressure steam turbine, steam expands through the turbine
to the lower pressure needed to deliver the steam to the loads served, producing
power as a by-product.
Another type of CHP set-up is using a fuel cell, which does not need mechanical
energy to produce electricity. A chemical reaction occurs within the cells through the
combining of hydrogen and oxygen. The products of that chemical reaction are
electrical energy, water vapour, and heat. The source of the hydrogen could be natural
gas or town gas depending upon the availability of such sources. The natural gas or
town gas undergoes a fuel refining process producing the hydrogen gas. In CHP
plants, the waste heat is used to meet the heating energy needs of buildings or
processes. The temperature of the waste heat depends on the specific fuel cell
process. While the temperature in some fuel cell processes is quite low (e.g. 65oC to
85oC for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells, PEMFC), in other processes, the
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waste heat temperature is high enough (e.g. 75oC to 1000oC for Solid Oxide Fuel
Cells, SOFC) to produce steam for a combined process.
In this Chapter, the different types of prime movers used in CHP systems are
discussed. The power produced by the prime mover is typically used to generate
electricity. The power generated can also be used as mechanical power to drive
pumps, chillers, and compressors in an industrial set-up. As noted, heat may be
produced directly in the prime mover, and/or heat can be recovered from the prime
mover exhaust stream using an appropriate heat recovery method. Heat recovery is
a critical component of CHP systems which essentially reduces the fuel input energy
wastage. Subsequently, the recovered heat is used to produce additional power, hot
water, steam, chilled water, and/or desiccant dehumidification.
Generally, CHP prime movers can be classified into two types, namely: fuel-to-power
equipment (FPE) and thermal-to-power equipment (TPE). The FPE prime mover
equipment is fired with premium gaseous fuels such as natural gas, methane from
wastewater plants or landfills, or liquid fuels such as light oils, biofuels. It is to be noted
that fuel cells are a fuel-to-energy process. Hence fuel cells do not produce rotary
power and are not considered as prime movers.
In Singapore and the region, natural gas (NG) is the preferred fuel as it is readily
available via a piped distribution system from Indonesia and Malaysia. Furthermore,
with the commissioning of the Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) terminals in Jurong Island,
an NG based industrial system’s operational reliability is unmatched. Natural gas is
cleaner than fuel oil, coal, wood, or agricultural waste, etc.
NG has a smaller carbon footprint than most other fuels. NG, therefore, may not have
the environmental problems associated with other such fuels.
Typical prime movers used in CHP systems include the following:

• Internal combustion (IC) reciprocating engine generators
• Spark ignition engines
• Diesel cycle engines
• Combustion turbine generators (CTGs)
• Microturbines
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Thermal-to-power prime mover equipment includes processes where heat is

developed by a source outside the prime mover. This includes both boiler-produced
steam and waste heat derived from another process. It also includes processes where
waste heat is generated by one of the primary prime movers discussed above.
The selection of prime mover type should be based on the following:

• Available heat recovery rate
• Electrical capacity
• Efficiency
• Size range
Typical thermal-to-power prime mover equipment include the following:

• Steam turbines
• Steam-driven reciprocating engines
• Stirling engines (external combustion engines)
• Organic Rankine cycles
A typical CHP system requires many other additional components and/or systems to
constitute a complete CHP plant. However, the actual requirements may vary
depending on the CHP system itself. Experience suggests that the following
components/systems are common to many CHP applications in the industry:
• Fuel supply system(s)

• Gas compressors
• Combustion air
• Turbine inlet cooling
• Exhaust systems
• Exhaust heat recovery systems
• Lube oil systems
• Lube oil heat recovery or cooling system
• Engine jacket cooling water
• Water treatment systems
• Cooling towers for heat rejection
• Starting system (Battery or Compressed air)
• Black start generator/backup power system
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• Integration technology/system for integrating voltage and phase with local grid
supplies
• Control system for the plant and engine
A waste heat recovery system can be used to recover the waste heat available from
prime movers and converting it to useful outputs such as power, process heat loads
through the generation of hot water or steam or building cooling with the help of
absorption chillers. It is to be noted that in Singapore and the region, the most
common application of CHP systems is to provide steam, hot water, and/or chilled
water for process heating and cooling. CHP systems producing two and three useful
outputs simultaneously from the same fuel source are called co-generation and tri-
generation systems, respectively and will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7.
A comparison of the prime movers commonly used in CHP systems is given in Table
6.1. This comparison will be helpful for facility managers, engineers and operators
alike to understand equipment considerations and how prime movers integrate into
their complete CHP system. This in turn will help them to be more effective and
productive in their day-to-day management of their CHP systems and thereby
increasing the CHP system’s operational efficiency.
127
Prime Movers Diesel NG Combustion Steam Micro Fuel

Engine Engine Turbine Turbine turbine Cells
Size (MW) 0.05 - >10 0.05 - 7 1 - 200 Any size 0.025 – 0.02 –
0.25 0.4
Electrical 30 - 50 25 - 40 25 – 40 (simple) 30 - 42 20 - 30 40 – <
Efficiency (%) 40 – 60 (combined) 50
Heat Rate 7,000 – 9,700 – 8,500 – 13,600 8,100 – 11,300 – 7,000 –

(Btu/kWh) 11,300 13,600 11,300 17,000 8,500
Waste Heat 1,000 – 1,000 – 3,400 – 12,000 NA 400 - 650 140 -
Recoverable 5,000 5,000 700
(Btu/kWh)
Waste Heat 80 - 480 260 - 540 260 - 590 NA 200 - 340 60 -
Temperature 370
(oC)
Typical Uses Hot water, Hot Heat, hot water, LP- LP Heat, hot Hot
of Waste Heat LP steam, water, LP HP steam, district steam, water, LP water,
Recovered district steam, heating/cooling district steam HP-LP
heating/co district heating steam
oling heating/
cooling
Fuels Used Diesel and NG, NG, biogas, All NG, H2,
residual oil biogas, propane, distillate biogas, NG,
propane oil propane, propan
distillate e
oil
Fuel Pressure <0.3 0.1 – 3.2 8 - 35 NA 2.5 – 7.0 0.03 –

(bar) 3.2
Typical 90 - 95 92 -97 90 - 98 Close to 90 - 98 >95

Availability (%) 100
Time between 25,000 – 24,000 – 30,000 – 50,000 >50,000 5,000 to 10,000

Overhauls 30,000 60,000 40,000 –
(hours) 40,000
Start-up time 10 s 10 s 10 min – 1 h 1h–1 60 s 3h–1

day day
Noise M-H M-H M M-H M L
Legend: M – Moderate, H – High, L - Low
Table 6.1 Different types of prime movers and their characteristics
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6.2 Fuel-to-Power Equipment

As discussed, most fuel-to-power equipment burn fuel in a combustion process that
converts the chemical energy of the fuel into rotational kinetic energy, which can be
transmitted through a shaft to produce electrical power in an electrical generator (fuel
cells are an exception to this). Fuel-to-power prime mover equipment are usually
connected to an electrical generator. While the great majority of CHP systems use
mechanical energy to drive a generator to produce electricity, other alternatives
involving chemical reactions are currently being studied and implemented. Several
types of fuel-to-power equipment exist today that can effectively generate power.
When a prime mover and generator is a factory assembled package, the package is
generally known as a “gen-set.”
It is worth noting that the basic criterion for a CHP system is that it produces both
thermal and electrical energy from a single fuel source. In this respect, CHP differs
from the typical electrical power generation plant today. The other factor in the
economic feasibility of a CHP system is an attractive utilisation factor (U.F) i.e.the
almost complete use of the input energy value with the help of an effective heat
recovery system. The recovered heat is generally used for process heating to pre-
heating applications depending on the quality of the recovered heat.
There are different choices and methods available when developing a CHP system.
One basic configuration of a CHP system is the use of an internal combustion (IC)
reciprocating engine or combustion turbine generator (CTG) with heat recovery
equipment capturing exhaust heat and heat from the IC engine cooling jacket, etc.
The IC engine type of system is most often used where the electrical loads are 2 to 3
MW or less, and where the need for thermal heat is low in comparison to the need for
electrical power (for a relatively low heat to power ratio application). Since IC engine
prime movers tend to be more fuel efficient than combustion turbines, there is
proportionally more electrical power and less heat energy derived per unit fuel energy
input.
IC engines are available in the market with sizes ranging from less than 50 kW to
more than 15 MW. The CTGs’ capacities range from approximately 1 MW to over 100
MW. The CTGs require high-pressure gas supply or gas compressors to provide the
necessary gas pressure. Typically, the CTGs have higher exhaust temperatures and
higher volume exhaust. Hence, CTGs are used for applications where high-
temperature recovered heat is required, such as high-pressure steam, or low-
129
pressure high-temperature oil. CHP systems using CTG as the prime mover also have
higher heat-to-power ratios than IC engine-based CHP systems. Hence, applications
requiring high year-round, 24 hours-a-day heat loads are better candidates for CTG
based CHP systems.
On the other hand, internal combustion engine-based systems are most suited for
applications which require lower recovered waste heat temperatures, such as hot
water or low-pressure steam of less than about 1 bar. It is worth noting that IC engines
can be used with lower quality fuels, e.g. methane gas from a wastewater treatment
plant or a garbage landfill. Generally, IC engine-based CHP systems require less
specialised maintenance, training, and auxiliary equipment than CTG-based CHP
systems.
6.2.1 IC Reciprocating Engines

Engine Types
IC reciprocating engines are machines that translate the linear movement of pistons
into the rotational movement of a crankshaft through a combustion process. Fuel
subjected to combustion process, heats and expands the fuel-air mixture inside a
cylinder which drives the piston. Most engines available in the market today are multi-
cylinder for smoother power delivery. Figure 6.1 below shows a photograph of a
reciprocating engine prime mover. The two basic types of IC reciprocating engines
are spark ignition (SI) and compression ignition (CI) engines.
Figure 6.1 Photograph of a reciprocating engine prime mover (Courtesy of MWM

Engines)
130
Both the engines (SI and CI) are available to operate in either a 4 or 3 stroke
combustion cycle. The 4 strokes of the 4-stroke cycle are: intake, compression,
power, and exhaust. Engines can be either naturally aspirated or turbocharged
engines. In naturally aspirated engines, air and fuel are mixed in a carburetor and the
intake stroke draws in the fuel-air mixture. Whereas a turbocharged engine has a
compressor which compresses air and discharges that air into the combustion
chamber during the intake stroke. To eliminate carburetors or external mixing of fuel
and air, in most cases, only the air is injected by the turbocharger and fuel is directly
injected into the combustion chamber. In either case, a turbocharged engine can
deliver more power because there is a greater density of fuel and air in the process.
The 2-stroke cycle differs from the 4-stroke cycle in that it combines the power and
intake strokes into one stroke while the exhaust and compression strokes are
combined into a second common stroke. Start-up time for reciprocating engines can
be fast, around 10 seconds for diesel-fueled engines. Generally, warm-up times take
significantly longer and depend upon the mass of the system. In cold climates (not
applicable in Singapore), the warm-up time can be reduced if the system includes a
crankcase heater to keep the engine warm. Therefore, it is recommended to consider
a crankcase heater as mandatory for a CHP system serving as an emergency power
system in an industrial facility in cold climates.
As the name suggests, in spark ignition engines, a spark is added at the end of the
compression stroke that ignites the fuel-air mixture to start the power stroke.
Compression ignition engines differ from spark ignition engines, in that there is no
spark added to the air-fuel mixture to start combustion. Instead, the intake air is
compressed by the piston’s motion reducing the volume of the cylinder. A CI engine
uses a very high compression ratio which heats the air in the chamber to a point high
enough to ignite the fuel. At the top of the compression stroke fuel is injected into the
hot compressed air in the combustion chamber causing a spontaneous ignition. The
heat of combustion develops very high pressure which drives the piston in an
expansion stroke. When a compression engine is first started a glow plug is heated
by an electric source. Once the engine is running and hot, the glow plug is no longer
needed.
The most common fuel used in CI engine is diesel fuel (No. 2 oil). CI engines can also
be fueled by a wide range of petroleum products (up to No. 6 oil). CI engines, also
referred to as Diesel cycle engines, can also be fired with gaseous fuel in combination
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with liquid fuel, called pilot oil, used as the ignition agent in dual fuel engines. Note
that the fuel in a compression cycle engine needs to have a fairly high flash point to
prevent ignition until full compression is achieved at the top of the piston stroke.
6.2.2 Turbo- or Supercharger Power Boosters

Both SI and CI engines can be outfitted with turbo or superchargers to increase power
output, leading to improved efficiency. As noted above, a turbocharger is a relatively
small compressor that is mounted on a common shaft with a small turbine. As hot
exhaust gas enters the turbine and expands, the turbine spins, spinning the
compressor impeller at the same time. Engine intake air is routed through the
compressor to pre-compress the combustion air, creating a denser air charge entering
the cylinder. A supercharger is another type of compressor that also works to pre-
compress the air. It is to be noted that a supercharger does not rely on exhaust gas
to drive the compressor. Instead, superchargers are belt or gear-driven from the
engine’s crankshaft, using a small amount of engine output power to yield a greater
overall power output. Nowadays, turbochargers are the most commonly utilised pre-
compression tools in CHP systems. A turbo-charged engine arrangement is shown in
Figure 6.2 below.
Figure 6.2 A turbo-charged engine arrangement
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6.2.3 Size Ranges

IC engine generators are available in a wide range of sizes to meet many industrial
applications. Both natural gas and diesel fuel fired engines can have electrical outputs
ranging from 50 kW to 15 MW.
6.2.4 Useable Exhaust Temperatures/Useable Heat

As discussed, waste heat in the form of hot water or sometimes in the form of low-
pressure steam can be recovered from reciprocating engine jacket manifolds, after-
coolers, lubrication systems, and engine exhaust. In terms of temperature, the highest
potential is from exhaust gases followed by the engine jacket. The lowest temperature
potential is heat recovery from lube oil cooling systems. Note that lube oil cooling
systems are particularly temperature sensitive due to oil breakdown at high
temperature.
The total amount of available waste heat from an engine is the total amount of fuel
energy input less the energy value of the rotary power produced. It is to be noted that
all the waste heat produced cannot be usefully recovered. As an example, engine
heat loss by radiation and convection to the space is not possible to recover. Also,
the heat carried away by the water vapour resulting from the combustion of fuel cannot
be recovered. Condensation in the exhaust is avoided because of potential corrosion
of the exhaust system due to the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3).
The latent heat in the water vapour is a significant part of the heat of combustion,
around 10% in the case of natural gas, and depends on the type of fuel burned. For
example, fuel oil derives more energy from carbon, which creates less water vapour
than does natural gas. The Lower Calorific Value (LCV) is the heating value of the
fuel less the latent heat of vapourisation for water in the fuel. The latent heat of
vapourisation of the water vapour during combustion is a function of the fuel type and
its chemistry, and most processes do not recover the water vapour energy. Hence,
most engine manufacturers rate their engines based on LCV. On the other hand, the
Higher Calorific Value (HCV) is the heating value of the fuel including latent heat of
vapourisation of water. While engine performance may be rated based on the LCV of
fuel, fuel purchases are typically based on the HCV. Therefore, owners, operators
and engineers must take these differences into consideration in their engineering
calculations.
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The amount of waste heat which can be recovered from the IC engine depends on
the type of engine, the temperature at which the heat recovery occurs, and on the
type and capacity of the heat recovery equipment. In general, a turbocharged engine
has more of its waste heat in the exhaust gases than a naturally aspirated engine.
The higher the temperature at which beneficial heat recovery must occur, the less
energy that can be recovered.
The typical distribution of input fuel energy for a reciprocating engine operating at
rated load is tabulated as follows:
Figure 6.3 Sankey diagram for reciprocating engine energy distribution
The latent heat of vapourisation for the water vapour created by combustion of
hydrogen is lost in the exhaust gases unless the gases are cooled to a point where
the water vapour condenses. Condensing systems can be highly efficient and improve
CHP sustainability, but, as noted, the exhaust system must be designed for the
corrosive condensate (e.g., constructed of stainless steel). Most of the heat in jacket
water and lube oil cooling can be recovered and used. Typical heat recovery practices
can recover some 60 to 80% or higher of the heat in the exhaust gases depending on
various factors including the thermal output temperature, with the highest efficiency
achieved when the exhaust gases are cooled to near ambient temperatures. With
respect to the fuel distribution percentages discussed above, it should be noted that
the percentages vary with manufacturer and model as well as with engine load.
As noted, the quantity and quality of the heat that can be collected from reciprocating
engines per kilowatt of power produced (heat to power ratio) is lower than what can
be obtained from CTGs which have higher thermal-electric ratios. Firstly, less of the
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fuel energy is converted to shaft horsepower in a typical CTG versus a typical IC

engine meaning more waste heat is available with a CTG. Secondly, with a CTG,
nearly all the waste heat is in the exhaust air stream versus an IC engine. Thirdly, the
exhaust gas temperatures are much higher with a CTG than most of the waste heat
from a reciprocating engine. Most engine jacket cooling systems operate at around
90oC and offer a good opportunity to recover heat in the form of hot water. For many
applications, the exhaust heat can be recovered into the coolant loop using an
exhaust-to-liquid heat exchanger to provide a single form of heat recovery. As noted
above, a few internal combustion engines permit coolant to reach around 120oC
above atmospheric pressure and then allow the coolant to flash into low-pressure
steam of about 1 bar after leaving the engine jacket in an ebullient cooling system.
6.2.5 Heat Rate and Electrical Efficiency

The heat rate is defined as the amount of input energy required by the prime mover
to produce 1 unit of power. CHP heat rate for natural gas fueled SI engines can range
between about 10,000 to 14,000 Btu/kWh, while the heat rate for CI engines can be
as low as 7,000 Btu/kWh. It is to be noted that a lower heat rate means that less
energy is required per kWh produced.
Typically, SI engines between 100 and 900 kW have observed electric efficiencies
between about 25 and 30% based on the HCV. Larger SI engines, above 4,000 kW
electrical output, have efficiencies of around 36%, based on the HCV. Note that given
the electrical efficiency, the heat rate can be easily calculated (or vice versa) as heat
rate is equal to the inverse of electric efficiency multiplied by 3,413 (the number of Btu
per kWh).
Cooling Water Requirements

The heat developed by reciprocating engines of either type (SI or CI engines) must
be rejected to prevent overheating the engine parts which may lead to premature
engine failure. A coolant loop is used to absorb this heat from the various engine
components to ensure that all engine components remain functional. Cooling water
with glycol is used as the coolant in many CHP system applications to absorb the
generated heat and to transfer it to other useful applications through heat recovery
principles.
A coolant loop required for engine components include the following:
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• The engine jacket, or block

• Turbochargers
• Aftercoolers
• Lube oil coolers
• Exhaust heat recovery devices
The coolant loop can be the “jacket water system” which transfers heat to beneficial
heat load applications and/or to heat rejection to keep the engine cool.
Noise and Vibration

Due to the reciprocating motion of the internal components, IC engines tend to
produce significant vibration and noise. The noise includes low-frequency rumble
denoted by a continual, loud, thumping sound emanating from the engine block. This
noise can be a problem and is typically addressed by sound attenuation inside an
enclosure. The attenuation could be either incorporating the attenuation techniques
in the CHP plant building housing or through a special dedicated enclosure, or both.
Additional noise can occur from improperly positioned or designed air intake and
discharge systems and/or inadequately muffled exhaust systems. Positioning exhaust
discharges and air louvres and vents away from places where noise will cause
problems can reduce some of the observed noise.
It is worth noting that not all the engine noise can be mitigated through these
techniques. Installing reciprocating engines in sound-insulated engine rooms is one
good way to help mitigate unwanted sound. Engines are usually mounted on vibration
isolators to greatly reduce vibration transmission from the engine to surrounding
areas. Where vibration is likely to cause problems, an isolated inertia base is often
used in addition to vibration isolation on the engine. While a heat recovery heat
exchanger will help reduce translated engine noise, an exhaust muffler may also be
required.
6.2.6 Combustion Turbines

Combustion turbines and combustion turbine generators (CTGs) are gaining
popularity in CHP installations nowadays, where power requirements are consistent
throughout the day and there is consistent use for the relatively larger quantity of high-
grade thermal energy throughout the year. Although the thermodynamics of
combustion for turbines and reciprocating engines is similar, the mechanical process
is vastly different. In a multistage combustion turbine, a multistage air compressor is
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mounted on a common shaft to a multistage turbine. Outside air is ducted to the

compressor, where the pressure and temperature are increased before being
delivered to the combustor. In the combustor, the hot, compressed air is mixed with
fuel and ignited resulting in high-pressure, high temperature gas. The high
temperature, high pressure gas is subsequently expanded in the turbine to provide
shaft power. The shaft power is used to drive the generator and to drive the
compressor with a certain percentage of back power ratio (ratio of compressor power
to turbine power). Figure 6.4 below shows a photograph of a combustion turbine prime
mover.
Figure 6.4 Photograph of a combustion turbine prime mover
Turbine capacity and efficiency is strongly dependent on the temperature of the air
entering the compressor, and, therefore, many combustion turbine systems precool
the air entering the CTG compressor. Precooling the combustion turbine inlet air
provides more air flow and greater compressor efficiency. Greater turbine inlet air flow
can produce more CTG power output resulting in greater efficiency. Some turbine
inlet air cooling systems use evaporative cooling, since air density is related to dry
bulb temperature. Other turbine inlet air cooling systems use chilled water from
absorption chillers driven by recovered steam from the steam turbine generator
exhaust. Still others cool the inlet air using chilled water from ice storage with the ice
produced by electric power at night when other facility electrical loads are lower. The
advantage of ice is that it can produce lower inlet air temperatures than can be
produced with chilled water from absorption chillers.
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6.2.6.1 Types and Sizes

Combustion turbines (CTs) are either single-shaft or two-shaft designs and are
classified as either aero-derivative or industrial type. Aero-derivative combustion
turbines are available from many manufacturers in electrical capacities ranging from
about 1 MW up to about 15 MW. The CTs simple cycle efficiency can be up to 40%
based upon LCV with recuperated turbine and no heat recovery. As previously
discussed, the fuel-to-electrical efficiency can be increased by the use of waste heat
steam to produce more power (combined cycle). Steam generated in a waste heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG) located at the turbine discharge can produce more
electrical power in a steam turbine generator (STG) or it can be injected into the CTG
combustor after the compressor to increase the flow of gases through the turbine.
This will also help to cool the gases to reduce NOx, and increase the CTG power
produced.
Industrial combustion turbines are built for stationary electrical generation and are
available in much higher capacities (up to around 500 MW). Industrial combustion
turbines are heavier than their aero-derivative counterparts and are generally less
efficient. Industrial combustion turbines have maximum simple cycle efficiencies of
approximately 36% based on HCV. As discussed above, the heat rate for combustion
turbines increases with increased inlet air temperature while, at the same time, power
output capacity falls linearly. Experience suggests that a 5oC increase in air
temperature approximately equates to about a 5% decrease in power output.
Combustion turbine inlet cooling, as discussed, can be effective in maintaining
consistent power output even at higher outside air temperatures.
The amount of inlet pressure loss and combustion turbine backpressure also affects
the performance of the combustion turbine generator, and the CTG inlet and outlet
pressure drops need to be kept within the turbine manufacturer’s allowable limits. An
approximate 0.5% decrease in power output can be expected for each inch of water
column increase in air inlet pressure drop, therefore the design of the combustion
turbine air inlet system is critical to successful, sustainable CHP operations.
6.2.6.2 Heat Rate and Electric Efficiency

Combustion turbines’ average fuel-to-electrical shaft efficiencies generally range from
about 25 to 40% based on the HCV. It is to be noted that larger CTGs are more
efficient than smaller ones. Heat rates vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and
model to model, and in general range from about 8,500 to almost 14,000 Btu/kWh.
The balance of the fuel energy input is discharged in the exhaust and a minor amount
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through convection and radiation or internal coolants in large turbines. A minimum

stack exhaust temperature of approximately 150oC is typically required to prevent
condensation (unless the exhaust system is specifically designed for exhaust gas
condensation). Due to potential corrosion of exhaust systems, exhaust temperatures
should not drop below 150oC in an exhaust system without design for condensation.
6.2.6.3 Useable Exhaust Temperatures/Useable Heat

Combustion turbines typically run very hot with combustor exhaust gases sometimes
exceeding 1,200oC. At the turbine exit, exhaust temperatures are reduced to
temperatures between 450 and 600oC, due to the expansion of the hot gas through
the turbine(s). The exhaust temperatures coupled with high exhaust flow rates lead to
opportunities for heat recovery and duct firing, which are not feasible with
reciprocating engines. In CHP plants, where combustion turbine electric generation
efficiency is of utmost importance, regenerators or recuperators can be employed in
the exhaust air stream to preheat the compressed air that enters the combustor
thereby leading to higher electrical efficiency resulting in slightly decreased fuel
consumption.
The combustion turbine exhaust contains a large percentage of excess air. Therefore,
afterburners/duct burners may be installed in the exhaust to create a supplementary
firing system providing additional steam. Installation of duct burners can be very
efficient, reaching an estimated maximum efficiency that exceeds 90%.
6.2.6.4 Cooling Water Requirements

Combustion turbines do not have the same cooling requirements as IC reciprocating
engines. Turbines do not have a crankcase or reciprocating parts that require cooling
and the only typical requirement for internal cooling is for the oil that lubricates the
compressor/ turbine shaft bearings and possibly the electric generator. As discussed
above, cooling could often be utilised to pre-cool the intake air stream to improve the
efficiency of the system. For example spraying water in the suction path is practised.
As a rule of thumb, the power output of a turbine decreases by approximately 1% for

every 1°C rise in intake air temperature. As ambient air to the compressor intake is
never the same temperature throughout the year. Combustion turbine inlet cooling
(CTIC) systems lower or always maintain the desirable low intake temperature to
ensure the stable power output. While indirect/direct evaporative cooling is the most
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common CTIC system type, chilled water coils and direct expansion (DX) refrigerant
coils can be used to provide even greater benefit in situations with high outside air
temperatures especially those with high humidity.
Some of the advantages of using CTIC are:

• Increased power output capacity,
• Lower heat rate,
• Extended turbine life,
• Improved system efficiency
Figure 6.5 Effect of turbine inlet air cooling on output power
Example:
If the turbine inlet cooling is improved from 42oC to 32 oC, estimate the improvement
in the power output and heat rate for the turbine.
Solution:
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From the above diagram :
The % improvement in relative output power ratio = 0.06%

The % improvement in relative heat ratio = 0.025%
6.2.6.5 Noise/Vibration
Combustion turbines exhibit noise differently from reciprocating engines and generate
high-frequency noise and vibrations. An operating combustion turbine can be loud
and uncomfortable to the casual observer. Manufacturers often attenuate this noise
by enclosing their turbine generators in sound-insulated enclosures. Locating the
CTG in an enclosure reduces sound levels considerably but will not
eliminate/attenuate the sound completely. Additional sound attenuation equipment is
typically installed on turbine generators to further lower noise to acceptable levels.
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Figure 6.6 Gas turbine sound attenuation enclosure
Sound attenuation equipment includes inlet air silencers and exhaust silencers.
However, if the CTG exhaust flows through a HRSG and exhaust stack, the HRSG
may attenuate the exhaust noise sufficiently without an exhaust silencer. Vibration
levels in combustion turbines are generally low as the rotational nature of the
assembly does not include reciprocating parts. It is to be noted that vibration is
important as the machines operate at high speeds (around 10,000rpm) making the
system easy to trip due to smallest imbalance in rotor due to compressor or turbine
fouling.
6.2.7 Microturbines
Microturbines are very small combustion turbines, which feature an internal heat
recovery heat exchanger called a recuperator. In a microturbine, the inlet air is
compressed in a radial compressor and then preheated in the recuperator using heat
from the turbine exhaust. Heated air from the recuperator is mixed with fuel and
subject to ignition in the combustor chamber and the resulting hot combustion gas is
then expanded in the expansion and power turbines. The expansion turbine drives
both the compressor and generator connected to a common single-shaft. Whereas,
two-shaft turbine designs use the turbine’s exhaust to power a second turbine (called
the power turbine) that drives the generator. The power turbine exhaust is then utilised
in the recuperator to preheat the air from the compressor. Microturbines can be
designed to operate on a number of fuels, including natural gas, propane, landfill gas,
digester gas, sour gases, and liquid fuels such as biodiesel, gasoline, kerosene, and
diesel fuel/heating oil, for example. It is to be noted that operating fuel pressures for
microturbines may require built in fuel compressors that are offered as options by
most manufacturers these days.
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Microturbines are ideally suited for distributed generation applications due to their
flexibility in connection methods, ability to provide stable and extremely reliable power,
and low emissions.
Types of microturbine applications include the following:
• Peak shaving and base load power (grid parallel)

• CHP
• Stand-alone power
• Backup/standby power
• Primary power with grid as backup
Figure 6.7 below shows a photograph of a micro-turbine prime mover.
Figure 6.7 Photograph of a micro-turbine prime mover (Courtesy of Capstone

Microturbine)
In CHP applications, the waste heat from the microturbine is used to produce hot
water to heat building(s), to drive absorption cooling, desiccant dehumidification
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equipment, and to supply other thermal energy needs in a building or industrial

process.
6.2.7.1 Commonly Available Microturbine Sizes

Microturbines are presently available with electrical outputs varying from about 30 to
300 kW. While this range of electrical outputs is relatively low compared to other prime
mover technologies, the smaller footprint of the microturbine makes it ideal for
installing them in parallel, creating large banks of microturbine generator sets to
create larger power production arrays. This concept offers some benefits over a
single, larger CTG. One of the advantages of a microturbine array is that if one
machine is out of operation, the facility will not lose its entire electrical generation. A
microturbine array can also maintain good efficiency throughout a variable electrical
demand by controlling the number of microturbines in operation based on the load
situation (better part-load control). This will make the operating machines in the array
operate at full load efficiency. However, one disadvantage of microturbine is their
construction cost which is more expensive than a single large prime mover of equal
capacity.
6.2.7.2 Efficiencies and Heat Rate for Microturbines

Microturbines exhibit shaft efficiencies of between 20 and 30%, based upon the HCV
of fuel, which corresponds to a heat rate of between 11,300 and 17,000 Btu/kWh. As
microturbines reduce power output by reducing mass flow and combustion
temperature, efficiency at part-load can be below that of full-load efficiency. Thermal
output ranges from 200 to 350°C which is suitable for supplying heat for a variety of
facilities’ heat load applications.
6.2.8 Fuel Cells

Engine or gas turbine–based CHP systems rely on the combustion of fuel to produce
high-pressure, high temperature gas that can expand to provide useful work as
previously described. The expanded gases are utilised by the specific equipment and
provide mechanical and thermal energy. In fuel cells, the oxidation process occurs
across membranes which cause electron transfer. Note that fuel cells directly create
electric power without a prime mover or generator. Traditionally, the power generation
process in a fuel cell is considered as a pure chemical reaction rather than a
combustion process eventhough most typical fuel cell-based systems have a fuel and
an oxidiser and so the process is technically a combustion process. The working
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principle of a fuel cell is depicted in Figure 6.8 and that a commercial fuel cell based
CHP system is shown in Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.8 Working principle of a hydrogen fuel cell
Figure 6.9 A commercial 1 kW fuel cell CHP system
Some of the advantages of fuel cells include the following:

• Fuel cells are practically emission free of undesirable exhaust gases
• Highly efficient
• Operate at very low noise levels
• Able to adjust to changes in electrical loads
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The most common fuel cells (phosphoric acid process) reject heat (the chemical
reaction byproduct) in the 60 to 90°C range and are about 40 to 55% efficient in
electric generation. Other processes have different efficiencies, different temperature
heat discharge and different cost per watt. For example, molten carbon is about 55%
efficient and discharges heat at temperatures high enough (300 to 350°C) to produce
high-pressure steam for the facilities’ requirements.
6.2.8.1 Types of fuel cells

Fuel cells differ from simple batteries in that they use a continuous supply of fuel for
the chemical reaction or can operate for extended periods of time provided there is a
continuous uninterruptable supply of fuel. Although many variations exist, the most
common type of fuel cell uses hydrogen as the fuel source and the oxygen in air to
complete the chemical reaction. The source of the hydrogen is typically natural gas
(however, pure hydrogen, propane, and diesel fuel can also be used). The by-product
of the chemical reaction from the fuel cell is hot water, which can be used for domestic
purposes. The use of smaller capacity fuel cells of about 1 to 2 kW is common in
Japanese households.
As hydrogen (the fuel) enters the fuel cell and is mixed with air (containing oxygen),
the fuel is oxidised as shown in Figure 6.5, broken down into protons and electrons.
In the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and phosphoric acid fuel cell
(PAFC), positively charged ions move through the electrolyte across a voltage to
produce electric power after which the protons and electrons are recombined with
oxygen in the air to make hot water. As this water is removed from the fuel cell, more
protons are pulled through the electrolyte, resulting in further power production.
6.2.8.2 Cost and Availability

Despite the fact that fuel cells are excellent candidates for CHP, the main
disadvantage lies in the very high capital cost per installed kilowatt in comparison to
other available CHP prime mover options. This cost disadvantage together with
concerns about the exotic materials and developing technologies used in fuel cells,
have limited their widespread application. For example, a fuel cell manufacturer in the
United States of America produces a 200-kW unit that sells for approximately US$ 1
million (US$5,000/ kW). This is approximately 3 to 4 times the cost of an equivalent
IC engine or combustion turbine generator system. Ongoing research and
development suggest that larger fuel cells (1,000 kW) are also in development and
are expected to sell for U.S. $1,500 to $2,000 per kilowatt sometime in the future. This
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pricing is closer to what might be considered feasible for installation in a cost-effective

CHP plant.
6.2.8.3 Efficiencies and Heat Rate

Fuel cell electric generation efficiencies range from 40 to more than 50% with
hydrogen supplied fuel cells (versus hydrocarbon supplied), which corresponds to a
heat rate of less than 7,000 to about 8,500 Btu/kWh.
6.3 Heat-to-Power Equipment

Heat-to-power generating equipment in CHP systems utilises heat produced by some
other process to generate electricity or rotary power. The most common heat-to-power
generating equipment is a steam turbine generator which is driven by either steam
produced in a boiler or steam recovered from the waste heat of the fuel-fired prime
mover(s) discussed above. When waste heat from a prime mover produces steam for
use in a steam turbine, the waste heat produces additional power. The heat energy
could also be used to generate hot water, steam, or chilled water that would have
otherwise been produced using one of the conventional methods.
6.3.1 Steam Turbines

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts the heat content, enthalpy, of
steam into rotational mechanical power. The rotational power can drive pumps,
centrifugal chiller compressors, and other mechanical devices. Steam turbines are
often used to drive an electrical power generator.
A steam turbine generator can make use of the thermal energy produced in a heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG) to generate additional power. With a conventional
boiler system, to qualify as combined heat and power, boiler produced steam must be
used for both heating (and/or thermally driven cooling) and power. Sometimes, this
means steam is produced at temperatures and pressures greater than needed for the
facility’s heating or cooling needs/applications, and the steam is expanded through a
STG to the pressure needed for use by the facility. This type of CHP system produces
power in direct relation to the thermal load. As a retrofit project where there is an
existing steam boiler and steam distribution system, such a system is often very cost-
effective to install. The backpressure turbine used is very efficient because all the
steam exiting the turbine is beneficially used.
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6.3.1.1 Types of Steam Turbines

Steam turbines are available in two types: axial-flow turbines and radial-flow turbines.
Axial-flow steam turbines are those in which high-pressure steam is introduced into
the turbine inlet at one end of the turbine and steam flows along the turbine’s axis of
rotation driving finned (bladed) wheels, or stages, that spin much like a windmill spins
under the influence of the wind. Axial-flow steam turbines are sub-categorised as
follows:
• Non-condensing / backpressure turbines

• Total condensing turbines
• Automatic extraction turbines
• Non-automatic extraction turbines
• Induction/mixed-pressure turbines
• Induction-extraction turbines
High pressure
steam
Power
Turbine
Low pressure
steam to process
(a) (b)
High pressure
steam
Power
Turbine
Low pressure
steam to condenser
Medium/low pressure Condenser

steam to processes
Condensate
(c)
Figure 6.10 Different types of turbines (a) extraction turbine (b) total condensing
turbine (c) extraction cum total condensing turbine
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Axial-flow turbines are also defined by the type of stages and blades. The blades can
either be impulse or reaction. Impulse blades are fixed to the turbine wheel and
undergo rotation from the force of the steam hitting the turbine blades, while reaction
blades also undergo rotation due to the nozzle effect as the steam leaves the blades.
Radial-flow steam turbines are dramatically different from their axial-flow
counterparts. In a radial-flow steam turbine, high-pressure steam enters the turbine in
the center of the turbine impeller and decompresses radially, perpendicular to the
turbine’s axis of rotation. This drop in steam pressure (and energy) provides the
motive force that causes the rotation of the turbine and, thus, the rotation of the shaft
driving any mechanical device or generator. Multi-stage radial-inflow steam turbines
are factory prepackaged equipment that includes two or more impellers connected
through reduction gearing with steam piping installed between stages to transport
steam from one stage to the next. Condensate, if any, is removed between stages,
since turbines (of all types) operating at high rpm can be severely damaged if
subjected to trace water droplets.
A non-condensing backpressure steam turbine’s exhaust is under pressure, and is

therefore called a backpressure turbine. The backpressure can be at any pressure
required by the low-pressure secondary steam system, so long as that pressure is
lower than the turbine inlet pressure. The greater the pressure difference the more
potential for generation of power. Backpressure steam turbines provide an energy
efficient method to reduce steam pressures compared to using pressure-reducing
valves which lose much of the steam energy. Most of the energy difference between
the steam entering and leaving a backpressure turbine is converted to shaft power so
the process is quite efficient.
For example, if a steam boiler can produce about 14-bar absolute steam and only 5-
bar is needed for distribution, a backpressure steam turbine can be used to generate
power operating on the energy difference between 14 and 5-bar absolute steam. The
power produced is a function of the steam pressure difference across the
backpressure turbine and the steam flow.
Typically, the steam flow rate is related to the heat loads served and usually varies
depending on the applications they are serving. Another application may serve part
of a steam plant needs where different pressures are needed. For example, a hospital
may need about 10-bar steam for sterilizers and 1-bar steam for domestic water and
space heating, absorption cooling, and other processes. When the steam is produced
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by waste heat recovery from a prime mover like a combustion turbine the application
is similar. Steam is generated at pressures higher than needed for the thermal loads
served. The steam pressure is then reduced through a backpressure turbine to the
pressure needed to serve the thermal loads.
A total condensing steam turbine is a steam turbine that exhausts into a condenser
where the exhausted steam is condensed. The condenser will be in a vacuum
allowing much more enthalpy to be obtained from each pound of steam, making the
steam turbine thermodynamic process much more efficient. Most condensers are
water cooled but some condensers are air cooled. Condensing turbines are the usual
choice in commercial electrical power plants since the only need is for electrical
power. A condensing turbine provides more rotational power for the steam available
but most of the energy is lost in condensing. With a backpressure turbine, the
condensing occurs in serving the thermal loads and is therefore beneficial. The overall
efficiency in serving both power and thermal needs is therefore much greater for a
backpressure turbine. In any case, a power plant that does not serve a heat load is
not a CHP system.
Extraction condensing turbines allow steam to be removed from the turbine at any
reduced pressure, including multiple reduced pressures. So, for example, steam
could enter the steam turbine generator at 13 barg and a portion of the steam could
be extracted at 7 barg to feed the medium pressure steam system; a second
extraction port could also bleed off steam at 1 barg for use in the low-pressure steam
system, and the remaining steam would drive the turbine to produce useful work as it
expands through the rest of the turbine. Since the steam bleed-off serves beneficial
thermal needs, such a plant is a CHP system.
The existence of multiple steam turbine types offers mechanical engineers several
options to consider when analysing and designing the most efficient CHP plants.
Steam turbine exhaust, when reduced in both pressure and temperature, can be used
to supply heat exchangers, absorption chillers, pumps, or other equipment that are
designed to operate with steam and that are installed in place of electrically driven
equipment.
6.3.1.2 Steam Turbine Capacity Ranges

Steam turbines are commonly available in practically any size with some units
installed in power generation plants exceeding 100 MW. Since there is no combustion
150
process, steam turbines have no environmental impacts, unlike combustion turbines.

Steam turbines are likely to be available to make use of CHP produced steam of any
quantity, and combustion turbine exhaust duct firing can very efficiently increase the
steam production in a combined CTG CHP system.
6.3.1.3 Isentropic Efficiency Range

Steam turbine thermodynamic efficiencies are directly related to the efficiency of the
Carnot cycle; therefore, the temperature of the heat source and the temperature of
the heat sink set the maximum possible theoretical efficiency. The higher the steam
temperature and the colder the condenser water, the higher the theoretical
thermodynamic efficiency. Due to irreversibility (entropy), real systems will be less
efficient than that predicted by the theoretical Carnot cycle. The efficiency of the
turbine design at converting the energy of the steam into shaft energy is also an
important factor. Steam turbines of high-quality construction can have isentropic
efficiencies as high as 90%. Note, the isentropic efficiency is the efficiency of the
steam turbine to convert steam energy into shaft power and is not the same as overall
thermodynamic cycle efficiency, which is much lower. To achieve high thermodynamic
cycle efficiency, commercial power plants have boilers able to produce very high-
pressure steam (often about 70 barg or more) and superheat the steam. On the other
end of the process, the condenser produces as much vacuum as possible, which is a
function of the condensing temperature. Some very large plants draw cold ocean or
deep lake water. Still most of the steam energy is in the phase change from vapour
to liquid and is thus only partially available to a condensing steam turbine.
6.3.1.4 Noise/Vibration
Steam turbines, like combustion turbines, experience high-frequency noise and
rotational vibrations. Noise from a steam turbine is generally around 90 dBA or less,
which requires hearing protection when spending an extended time near the
equipment. Turbines are also provided with acoustic housing. Facility team should
also note that noise from steam flow in pipes and the operation of pumps may be of
greater concern.
6.4 CHP Prime Mover Comparisons

Reciprocating engines, gas combustion turbines, fuel cells, and steam turbines all
have various advantages and disadvantages when compared to one another. This
section compares the characteristics of the various prime movers deployed in CHP
plants.
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6.4.1 Electrical Output and Electric Efficiency

The electrical output of the various prime mover technologies ranges from a few
kilowatts (microturbine) to hundreds of megawatts (steam turbine). The electric
efficiency (total electrical output divided by the total energy input) of CHP systems
involving different technologies ranges from 20% (microturbine) to over 50% (fuel
cells). The CHP systems using natural gas reciprocating engine have electrical
efficiencies ranging from 25 to 45% and power output ranging from 50 kW to 5 MW.
Whereas, the CTG based CHP system has efficiencies ranging from 25 to 40% with
a simple cycle and 40 to 60% with a combined cycle based on the HCV of the fuel.
CTG power output typically ranges from 3 to 200 MW. However, nowadays, some
manufacturers are producing CTG units with power output ranging from 1 MW to
1,000 MW (summarised in Table 6.2)
6.4.2 Heat Recovery Potentials

Based on the prime movers used, different CHP systems have different heat recovery
potentials. Some CHP systems may produce low temperature hot water (LTHW), less
than 120°C, low-pressure steam (1 barg or less), or medium-pressure steam. Some
heat recovery systems are a part of the equipment served. A good example is an
exhaust gas-fired absorption chiller-boiler that directly intakes the exhaust from the
prime mover and uses the hot exhaust gases directly to drive the absorption process
and to produce hot water for other applications. Another occasional thermal use is
direct heating or drying, which can be highly efficient as exhaust gas transfers its
energy as it cools to ambient temperature.
In some industrial applications, the exhaust from a gas turbine is directed to a process
such as drying agricultural products or wood. This application beneficially uses the
waste heat without an intermediate recovery process. Such applications are also
extremely cost-effective. LTHW is typically recovered from IC reciprocating engines,
although low-pressure steam (less than 2 barg) can be obtained from high
temperature engine exhaust. Medium-pressure steam (up to about 17 barg) is
typically recovered from a HRSG that uses the CTG exhaust as a heat source. Fuel
cells typically generate LTHW (about 80°C depending upon the fuel cell technology),
which can be used for pre-heating or domestic hot water production.
CTG generally exhibits higher heat to power ratios and generate substantially more
heat in comparison to IC engines. The useable temperature of the recovered heat
varies. For example, some applications can use cooling tower water from a steam
turbine plant to heat agricultural processes, fish farms, or air-drying using heat at 25
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to 32°C. On the other extreme, a duct-fired combustion turbine may recover heat from
the 600°C exhaust.
6.4.3 Fuels and Fuel Pressures

As discussed, CHP systems can be designed to operate on different types of fuels
including, but not limited to, natural gas, diesel fuel, landfill gas, digester gas, propane,
wood or agricultural waste, etc. However, as far as CHP plants in Singapore are
concerned, the most commonly utilised fuel is natural gas. Natural gas is widely
available through local utilities and is rarely subject to interruption that will affect the
operations of the facility. When considering the use of natural gas, or any other fuel,
the engineer must ensure that the selected prime mover equipment is able to operate
with that fuel source. Typically, CTGs and microtubines can be designed to operate
on fuels including natural gas, biogas, and propane. It is to be noted that natural gas
and diesel-based IC engines, although similar in mechanical function, are designed
to operate on different fuels. Natural gas IC engines can be designed to operate on
natural gas, biogas, and propane, while diesel IC engines can be designed to operate
on diesel fuel, biodiesel, or residual oil. Fuel cells can be designed to operate on
natural gas, pure hydrogen gas (H2) or propane. If a CHP plant installation includes
equipment involving the use of dirty fuels such as digester gas, additional fuel-
treatment equipment are required. Such fuels require cleaning and drying before it
can be used in the combustor of the engines.
The fuel pressure required to operate fuel-to-power prime mover equipment in CHP
systems varies between 0.03 and 3 barg for fuel cells to between 8 and 35 barg for
CTGs. Natural gas-based IC engines are designed to operate on low-pressure gas.
Typically, CHP Prime movers that require high-pressure fuel, including CTGs and
microturbines, require gas compression equipment to increase the pressure of the
utility delivered fuel to the required pressure at the prime mover (summarised in Table
6.2).
6.4.4 Power Density

The area needed for a CHP plant is a major consideration especially in space-scarce
countries like Singapore. By knowing the power density in kW/m2, engineers can
estimate the CHP plant square footage that will be required for a calculated facility
level electrical load. Generally, the footprint for CHP plant fuel-to-power prime mover
equipment installations does not vary widely between the systems considered.
Experience suggests that CTG and microturbine based CHP Plant energy footprints
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are small, varying from about 0.25 to 0.7 ft2/kW and 0.2 to 1.6 ft2/kW, respectively.
Generally, IC reciprocating engines take more room than CTG for the same power
output. The energy footprints for natural gas and diesel engines vary from about 0.25
to 0.35 ft2/kW. Note that fuel cell-based CHP plants can have some of the largest
energy footprints among all the CHP plant fuel-to-power equipment at up to 5 ft2/kW.
STG-based CHP plant energy footprints are noted to be extremely low, typically less
than 0.15 ft2/kW. However, it is to be noted that STGs represent the thermal-to-power
classification of CHP prime mover equipment, therefore, additional space must be
catered for the steam producing equipment such as HRSG and other similar heat
exchangers.
6.4.5 Online Availability and Time between Overhauls

Electric power or heat generation capability of a CHP system is largely determined by
the availability of the installed CHP system prime mover equipment’s ability to
consistently operate to meet the facility electrical and heat loads. All the fuel-to-power
prime mover equipment described above have online availability between 90 and
95%, operating on various fuels such as natural gas, biogas, and propane.
Availability is a key issue while considering a CHP plant. The availability of the CHP
system is associated with the nature of the load at the facility level. Therefore, if the
load served by the CHP system is critical in nature, there must be a backup system.
If the backup draws power from the local grid, there are associated charges which
need to be addressed in the economic feasibility study of the CHP system. Obviously,
CHP plants with multiple prime movers will be impacted less by down time because
of the availability of other prime mover(s) during the down time of one prime mover.
The appropriate, diligent selection of equipment in conjunction with proper preventive
maintenance largely eliminates down time. However, it is to be noted that no CHP
system will ever achieve 100% availability.
Overhaul of CHP systems involves the scrutiny of major components of the prime
mover equipment for the purposes of restoring the operations through reconstruction,
etc. Generally, equipment manufacturers/vendors have backup/replacement
equipment available at their factories during the overhaul of the system thereby
limiting the CHP system’s down time. The recommended best practice is that prime
mover equipment be overhauled at regular intervals to ensure that the CHP plant
operates consistently and with optimum performance in terms of efficiency. CTGs are
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typically operated between 35,000 to 55,000 hours between major overhauls.

Whereas, the microturbine based CHP system operates between 4000 and 45,000
hours between overhauls. Feedback from industry suggests that IC engines could be
operated between 20,000 and 60,000 hours between overhauls. Fuel cells are
recommended to operate between 8,000 and 42,000 hours. Finally, the operating
hours for STG based CHP systems can range from 40,000 to 50,000 hours between
overhauls. It is worth noting that the operating hours between overhauls are also
dependent on the steam quality in terms of cleanliness and quality of the steam used
to operate the machines.
6.4.6 Start-Up Time

Start-up times of CHP plant prime mover equipment should be assessed when
evaluating electric and heat load profiles and selecting prime mover equipment to
serve the estimated electric and heat loads. Start-up times vary greatly between all
different types of CHP prime movers. For example, typical start-up time for diesel
engines, microturbines and CTGs are about 10s, 60s and 10m to several hours,
respectively. Note that some prime mover equipment may take even longer to start
up. E.g. from 3 hours to up to 2 days for fuel cells and from 1 hour to 1 day for some
STGs. Generally, steam turbine generators start quickly, significant time may be
required to bring boiler and steam distribution pipes to a proper operation point. It is
to be noted that although IC engines have very fast start-up times, the time required
to properly warm up the plant will be significantly longer (e.g. no crankcase heaters in
use).
6.4.7 Noise
As CHP systems consist of prime movers, which are essentially rotating machinery,
such as reciprocating engines, combustion turbines, and compressors, they generate
high decibel noise and vibration. Such noise and vibrations not only affect facility
equipment and personnel but also neighbouring facilities and residents. Excessive
vibration without proper control can propagate, causing damage to equipment as well
as adjacent equipment and structures. In some areas, more recently developed
zoning laws specify permissible noise levels in terms of octave band frequency levels.
The noise produced by the CHP system must be added to existing noise levels before
the system is installed to calculate the post-CHP noise level. CHP systems can
generate significant levels of noise from multiple components, including engines,
engine exhaust, compressors, and cooling fans.
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Noise generated by the prime movers can be reduced or attenuated using acoustic
insulation, acoustic barriers, air attenuation baffles, and exhaust silencers. Vibration
reduction will not only contribute to noise reduction but is also necessary between
rotating machinery and connected structures, piping, ductwork, and equipment.
Vibration reduction is normally accomplished by mounting the equipment on spring
vibration isolators and using flexible couplings between the rotating machinery and
other equipment, piping, and ductwork. In almost all cases, CHP equipment requires
noise attenuation and vibration isolation. This should be considered in the beginning
phase of design and may require input from an acoustic specialist in sensitive areas,
such as locations close to residential developments, libraries, theatres, and
healthcare facilities. Consideration also should be given to other sources of vibration
and their potential to interfere with CHP equipment operation. Locations should also
be checked for existing sources of vibration that might impact the operation of the
CHP plant components, which typically comprise high-speed rotating machinery that
are also sensitive to high levels of vibration. In some cases, the location of the CHP
plant may need to change to mitigate noise and vibration issues if other methods
cannot provide sufficient attenuation.
Noise level is expressed in terms of Decibels. Noise produced by the various

technology prime movers ranges from low to a very high decibel level (up to 95 dB(A)).
If the noise levels from the prime movers are beyond the regulated limit set by the
authorities (NEA), noise containing enclosures may have to deployed at the source.
Generally, IC reciprocating engines exhibit more low-frequency higher amplitude
linear vibrations than CTGs and STGs, which tend to exhibit higher frequency noise
and vibration. Microturbines share the same type of noise characteristics as CTGs,
only to a lesser degree due to their relatively smaller sizes. However, it is to be noted
that noise is increased when multiple units are arranged in the plant room and are in
operation simultaneously. Among the CHP technologies, fuel cells produce the least
noise. It is to be noted that the high-pitched noise of a steam turbine is far easier to
attenuate than the rumble of an IC engine.
In general, the prime movers are typically selected based on the heat to power ratio
required for a facility’s application. The chart in Figure 6.8 shows different options for
the selection of prime movers based on heat to power ratio.
The above comparison is summarised in Table 6.2 below.
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Prime Electrical Heat Recovery Fuels and Power Availa- Start- Noise
Movers Output Potentials Fuel density, bility, % up
and Pressures kW/m2 time
Electric
Efficiency
Reciproc- 50 kW to 5 HW & LP steam Natural gas, 30 to 43 90 to 95 10 s Low
ating MW; 25 to generation (2 biogas and frequen
engine 40% bar) propane, cy
diesel noise
Micro- 20 to 50% HW & MP steam Natural gas, 6 to 53 90 to 95 60 s High
turbine generation biogas and frequen
propane cy
noise
CTG 3to 200 HW & MP steam Natural gas, 15 to 43 90 to 95 10 m High
MW; 40 to generation (up biogas and frequen
60% to 17 bar) propane cy
(combined noise
cycle)
Table 6.2 Comparison of different prime movers used in CHP
Figure 6.11 Chart for selection of prime movers
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6.5. CHP Plant System Requirements
At facility level, a CHP plant support system will be determined by the type of CHP
prime mover used and the type of heat production and the subsequent uses for
various applications.
Accordingly, typical support systems required for a CGT based CHP system include
the following:
• Combustion-air system: louvers, ducting, air filters, turbine inlet cooling, inlet
air silencer
• High-pressure gas system such as air compressors
• Low-pressure gas system such as pressure reducing valves
• Turbine exhaust system such as ducting, duct burners, superheater, Heat
Recovery Steam Generators, (HRSG), emission system
• control system including continuous emissions monitoring system (CEMS) as
required
• Electric power generator distribution system such as substations, switchgear,
motor
• Control centres, electrical and mechanical protection devices
• Lube oil system such as lube oil cooler, lube oil pump, day tanks
• Fire protection systems such as smoke detectors, sprinkler systems
• Chemical storage and emergency showers
For a CTG CHP system using a HRSG, the following typical support systems will also
be required:
• Main steam system such as non-return valve, pressure reducing valves, steam
traps to remove condensate
• Condensate system: condensate receiver(s), condensate pumps, de-aerating
feed tank
• Feedwater system: feedwater pumps, feedwater control station (feedwater
control valves)
• Emission control systems typically have support subsystems, such as
ammonia/ urea storage and delivery.
For an IC reciprocating engine CHP system, the following typical support systems will
be required:
• Combustion-air system: louvres, ducting, air filters, inlet air silencer
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• Low-pressure gas system: pressure reducing valves

• Engine exhaust system: piping, heat exchangers for hot water generation
through heat recovery, emission control system, CEMS
• Electric power generator distribution system: substations, switchgear, motor
control centres, electrical and mechanical protection devices
• Jacket water system: jacket water pumps, expansion tank, radiator, heat
exchangers
• Hot water supply and return system: hot water pumps, heat exchangers, coils,
control valves
• Lube oil system: lube oil cooler, lube oil pump (if needed or not supplied on
the engine), day tanks
If a chiller plant is to be part of the CHP plant, the following additional support systems
will likely be required as well:
• Chilled water supply and return system: chilled water pumps, distribution
system,
coils, control valves, water treatment
• Condenser water supply and return system: cooling towers, condenser water
pumps, water treatment
• Auxiliary systems can include:
Compressed air
Backup fuel oil storage
Makeup water
Treated water: deionised/reverse osmosis (DI/RO)
Fire protection systems
The above CHP system plant requirements are depicted with the help of a flow chart
in Figure 6.9.
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Figure 6.12 Flow chart showing CHP plant system requirements
It is the responsibility of the CHP design engineer to understand and evaluate the
different fuel-to-power prime movers available in the market versus what will best
serve the facility. Each prime mover option has various heat load options and the type
of prime mover, generated heat quality, and heat uses incorporated into the CHP plant
will determine the plant systems required. It is recommended that the design engineer
should be familiar with each system listed in the preceding sections.
Summary
The selection of suitable prime mover is important for the optimum operation of a CHP
system at an industrial facility level. In this Chapter different types of prime movers
are presented with their characteristics described, such that a practising facility level
engineer could make the prime mover selection decision based on their heat to power
ratio at their respective facilities.
Reference
1. ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals, 2009
2. U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy: Review of Combined Heat and Power Technologies, October 2006
3. https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/combined-heat-and-power (Last accessed on
16 May 2019)
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7.0 CO-GENERATION & TRI-GENERATION SYSTEMS

Growing concern over climate change is prompting more and more industrial players
to move towards energy efficient operations of their plants. The industry trend is to
minimise the losses in systems and processes. One way to do that is the recovery
and reuse of the energy content in industrial waste streams. By recovering and
reusing energy in the waste streams, the utilisation factor (efficiency) will tend towards
90% to 95% at its best. One of the systems involving such an energy recovery is
called Combined Heat and Power (CHP) System. CHP systems can be either co-
generation or tri-generation systems. In a co-generation system, two useful outputs
are produced simultaneously; e.g. electricity, cooling or heating, whereas in a tri-
generation system, there are three useful outputs, namely electricity, cooling and
heating. This chapter provides a detailed discussion of co-generation and tri-
generation systems.
Learning Outcomes:
1. Ideal co-generation system
2. Practical co-generation system
3. Combined gas-vapour cycle co-generation system
4. Performance analysis of CHP systems
7.1. Ideal Co-generation Systems

In a normal thermodynamic cycle, a portion of the heat transferred to the working fluid
is converted to work, which is high-grade energy. The remaining portion of the heat is
rejected to rivers, lakes, oceans, or the atmosphere as waste heat because its quality
(or grade) is too low to be of any practical use. This wastage, which is a penalty paid
for the production of the high-grade energy, causes the cycle to operate in an
inefficient manner. The requirement of the high-grade energy emanates from the
engineering fact that electrical or mechanical work is the only form of energy on which
many engineering devices such as a fan, pump, compressor, etc. can operate.
However, many industrial systems or devices require energy input in the form of heat
for their various processes. Industries that rely heavily on process heat include
chemical, pulp and paper, oil production and refining, steel making, food processing,
and textile industries. The steam is generated by burning a readily available fuel like
coal, oil, natural gas, or another fuel in a furnace and transferring the resulting heat to
the feedwater in a closed vessel, called a boiler. Consider the operation of a process-
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heating plant without any heat losses due to convection and radiation. All the heat
transferred to the steam in the boiler is used in the process-heating units, as shown
in Figure 7.1. In this case, the process heating seems like a perfect operation with
practically no waste of energy. However, if one considers the Second Law of
Thermodynamics, which essentially deals with the quality of the energy, no such
perfect thermodynamic process is possible.
This can be attributed to the fact that there is a degradation of energy when the high
furnace temperature in the order of around 1,400oC to 1,500oC is transferred to water
to produce steam at about 200oC or below, which is an irreversible process. Whenever
there is an irreversibility associated with any process, the resulting undesirable
entropy generation leads to a loss in exergy or work potential. For the same reason,
it is recommended not to use high-quality energy to accomplish a task that could be
accomplished with low-quality energy.
Many industries around the world that use large amounts of process heat also
consume a large amount of electric power. Therefore, it makes economical as well as
engineering sense to use the already-existing work potential to produce power instead
of letting it go to waste. This would result in a plant that co-generates both the
electricity and heat, known as a co-generation plant. In general, co-generation is the
production of more than one useful form of energy such as electricity and heat from
the same energy source. Either a steam-turbine cycle (Rankine cycle) or a gas turbine
cycle (Brayton cycle) or even a combined cycle can be used as the power cycle in a
co-generation plant.
Figure 7.1 shows the schematic of an ideal steam-turbine co-generation plant.

Assume that the plant is to supply process heat Qprocess at a pressure of 5-bar at a rate
of 100 kJ/s (kW). To meet this demand, at first the steam is to be expanded in a turbine
to a pressure of 5-bar producing power at a rate of 50 kW. It is possible to adjust the
steam flow rate such that steam leaves the process heating section as a saturated
liquid at 5-bar. Now, the steam is pumped to the boiler pressure with the help of a
pump and is heated in the boiler to the required temperature. The feedwater pump
work is usually very small and can be neglected. Disregarding any heat losses, the
rate of heat input in the boiler is determined from an energy balance to be 150 kW.
Looking at the ideal co-generation cycle, the most striking feature of the ideal steam-
turbine co-generation plant shown in Figure 7.1 is the absence of a condenser. Thus,
no heat is rejected from this plant as waste heat. In other words, all the energy
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transferred to the steam in the boiler is utilised as either process heat or electric
power. Thus, the efficiency (Utilisation Factor, U.F.) of an ideal co-generation plant is
a perfect 100%. Such a co-generation plant is not practical though.
50 kW
Turbine
Boiler
Qin =
150 kW 100 kW
Pump Process
Figure 7.1 Schematic of an ideal co-generation system
The Utilisation Factor, U.F. of a co-generation plant is defined as:
𝑈. 𝐹 = (Ẇ𝑛𝑒𝑡 + Q 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 )/Q 𝑖𝑛

Where, Ẇnet = Net turbine work
Qprocess = Process heat, and
Qin = Boiler heat input
Alternatively, the utility factor is defined in terms of just heat rejected in the condenser
and heat absorbed in the boiler as follows:
𝑈. 𝐹 = 1 − Q 𝑜𝑢𝑡 /Q 𝑖𝑛 (7.2)
Where,
Qout = Heat rejected in the condenser, and
Qin = Heat added in the boiler
Strictly speaking, Qout also includes all the undesirable heat losses from the piping
and other components, but they are usually small and are thus neglected. It also
includes combustion inefficiencies such as incomplete combustion and stack losses
when the utilisation factor is defined based on the heating value of the fuel.
As mentioned in the preceding section, the utilisation factor of the ideal steam-turbine
co-generation plant is 100%. However, actual co-generation plants can have
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utilisation factors as high as around 80%. It is worthwhile to note that modern co-
generation plants can have an even higher utilisation factor.
In the co-generation plant of Figure 7.1, in the absence of the turbine, the heat needs
to be transferred in the boiler at a rate of only 100 kW instead of at 150 kW. The
additional 50 kW of heat supplied is converted to work.
7.2 Practical Co-generation Systems

In any industry, the power and process requirements constantly vary with respect to
changes in production. The ideal steam-turbine co-generation plant described above
is not practical because it cannot adjust to the variations in power and process-heat
loads. The schematic of a more practical co-generation plant is shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.3 shows the T-s diagram for the practical co-generation system described in
the Figure 7.2.
The practical co-generation cycle depicted in Figure 7.2 works as follows:

1. Under normal operation, some steam is extracted from the turbine at an
intermediate pressure P6 (which can be predetermined).
2. The remaining steam expands to the condenser pressure P7 and is then
condensed at constant pressure and temperature (saturation temperature).
4
Expansion
valve Turbine
Boiler 5
6
7
Process
3
heater
8
9 Condenser
Pump 1
2
Pump
Figure 7.2 Schematic of a practical co-generation system
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T 4
9 5
3
2 6
8
1 7
Figure 7.3 T-s diagram of a practical co-generation system
3. When the process heat demand is high, all the steam is routed to the process
heating by isolating the condenser path (m7 = 0). For this mode of the co-
generation operation, the waste heat available is zero.
4. If the process heat is still not sufficient, some steam leaving the boiler is
throttled by an expansion or pressure-reducing valve (PRV) to the extraction
pressure P6 and is directed to the process-heating unit.
5. Maximum process heating is realised when all the steam leaving the boiler
passes through the expansion valve (m5 = m4). In this mode of operation, no
power is produced.
6. When there is no demand for process heat, all the steam passes through the
turbine and the condenser (m5 = m6 = 0), and the co-generation plant operates
as an ordinary steam power plant.
The rates of heat input, heat rejected, and process heat supply as well as the power
produced for this co-generation plant can be expressed mathematically as follows:
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ṁ3 (ℎ4 − ℎ3 ) (7.3)
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ṁ7 (ℎ7 − ℎ1 ) (7.4)
Performing an energy balance at the process heater yields:
𝑄𝑝 = ṁ5 ℎ5 + ṁ6 ℎ6 − ṁ8 ℎ8 (7.5)
𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = (ṁ4 − ṁ5 ) (ℎ4 − ℎ6 ) + ṁ6 (ℎ6 − ℎ7 ) (7.6)
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We call the above co-generation plant an ideal plant when the plant operates
optimally. The conditions for such an optimum operation are as follows:
1. All the steam expands in the turbine to the extraction pressure and continues to
the process heating unit.
2. No steam passes through the expansion valve or the condenser; thus, no waste
heat is rejected (m4 = m6 and m5 = m7 = 0). This condition may be difficult to
achieve in practice because of the constant variations in the process heat and
power loads, and equipment limitation. But the plant should be designed so that
the optimum operating conditions are approximated most of the time.
Over the years, the economic feasibility of the co-generation system was dependent
on fuel tariffs. When the fuel tariffs were extremely high at the beginning of the last
century, the use of co-generation systems was very common. Power plants were
integrated to provide district heating/cooling (for thermal comfort), hot water, and
process heating for residential and commercial buildings. When the fuel tariff became
cheaper, the popularity of the district heating/cooling systems declined. However, the
rapid rise in fuel prices in the 1970s brought about renewed interest in district heating.
In recent years, co-generation plants have proved to be economically very attractive.
As a result, more and more such plants have been installed all around the world
including in Singapore.
7.3 Tri-generation Systems

A CHP system producing three simultaneous effects from a single fuel, a tri-
generation system, is shown in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4 A Tri-generation CHP system
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The three useful effects: electrical power, heating (steam) and cooling (chilled water)
are circled in the figure. As seen from the figure, a gas turbine cycle is topping the
steam turbine cycle. The steam is generated with the help of a waste heat boiler or
heat recovery steam generator using the recovered waste heat from the gas turbine
exhaust. The high pressure (HP) steam is expanded in the steam turbine generating
additional power. The expanded low pressure steam (LP) is sent to the adsorption
chiller, which in turn produces the chilled water.
7.4 Combined Gas-vapour Cycle Co-generation Systems

The thermal efficiency of power plants working on gas turbine power (Brayton) cycle
is about 35% in comparison to those working on vapour power (Rankine) cycles,
which have a thermal efficiency of up to 45% at the best. However, the continued
quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather innovative modifications to
conventional power plants. One such modification is involving a gas power cycle
topping a vapour power cycle, which is called the combined gas-vapour power cycle,
or simply the combined cycle. The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas
turbine (Brayton) cycle topping a steam turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher
thermal efficiency than either of the cycles executed individually. Typically, gas turbine
cycles operate at considerably higher temperatures than steam cycles. Due to
technological advancements in metallurgy and the development of new materials, the
maximum temperature to which the turbines can be subjected to has increased over
the years. For example, the maximum fluid temperature at the turbine inlet is about
650oC for modern steam power plants and the corresponding temperature for the gas
turbine power plant is as high as about 1500oC. As heat is supplied at a higher
average temperature , gas turbine cycles have a greater potential for higher thermal
efficiencies (the basic concept derived from an ideal Carnot cycle). However, the main
disadvantage in a gas turbine cycle is the relatively higher temperature exhaust gas
leaving the gas turbine. However, this drawback can be mitigated through the use of
a regenerator, whereby the compressed air coming out of the compressor of the cycle
is preheated using the exhaust gas with the help of a heat exchanger (as shown in
Figure 4.10 in Chapter 4). This will improve the thermal efficiency of the cycle by
reducing the heat input at the combustion chamber of the cycle. It is also to be noted
that the very high temperature exhaust gas (500 to 550oC) could well be used in a
Waste Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) to produce superheated steam and
run a steam power cycle. The resulting cycle is a combined vapour power cycle or
combined cycle as shown in Figure 7.5.
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Fuel Combustion
chamber
GAS
CYCLE Gas
Compressor
Turbine
Exhaust
gases
Air in
Heat Steam
exchanger Turbine
STEAM
CYCLE Process
Condenser
Pump
Figure 7.5 Schematic of a combined vapour cycle co-generation system
In the combined cycle power plant, energy is recovered from the exhaust gases by
transferring it to the feedwater in an HRSG. Typically, more than one gas turbine is
needed to supply sufficient heat content to the steam. In addition, the steam cycle
may involve regeneration as well as reheating. Energy for the reheating process can
be supplied by burning some additional fuel in the oxygen-rich exhaust gases.
Developments in gas turbine technology have made the combined gas-steam cycle
economically very attractive. The combined cycle increases the efficiency without
greatly increasing the initial cost. In fact, many new power plants operate on combined
cycles. There is also a trend around the world to convert existing steam- or gas turbine
plants to combined-cycle power plants. Such conversions result in thermal efficiencies
of well over 50%.
All the three main power generators (Tuas Power, Senoko Power and Power Seraya)
as well as some of the smaller ones in Singapore use the combined vapour power
cycles for power generation, accounting for more than 95% of the 13 GW of installed
power plant capacity. Hot combustion gases enter the gas turbines at about 1,150oC,
and steam enters the steam turbines at about 500oC. Steam is cooled in the
condenser by cooling water at an average temperature of about 25oC. A 1,350-MW
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combined-cycle power plant was built in Ambarli, Turkey, in 1988 by Siemens of

Germany. It was the first commercially operating thermal plant
in the world to attain an efficiency level of as high as 52.5 percent at design operating
conditions. This plant has six 150MW gas turbines and three 173MW steam turbines.
It is to be noted that some power plants using the combined vapour power cycle have
even achieved a thermal efficiency of about 60%. In Singapore, an efficiency of 55%
is reported from a power plant working on the combined vapour power cycle.
7.5 Performance Analysis of CHP Systems

Co-generation systems can be broadly classified as those using steam turbines, gas
turbines and DG sets. Steam turbine co-generation systems involve different types of
configurations with respect to mode of power generation such as extraction,
backpressure or a combination of backpressure, extraction and condensing.
Gas turbines with heat recovery steam generators are another mode of co-generation.
The entire system is dynamic and depends on power and steam load variations in the
plant. A performance assessment would yield valuable insights into co-generation
system performance and any need for further optimisation.
The purpose of the co-generation plant performance test is to determine the power
output and plant heat rate. In certain cases, the efficiency of individual components
like the steam turbine is addressed specifically where performance deterioration is
suspected. In general, the plant performance will be compared with the base line
values arrived at for the plant operating condition rather than the design values. The
other purpose of the performance test is to show the maintenance accomplishment
after a major overhaul. In some cases the purpose of evaluation could even be for a
total plant revamp.
7.5.1 Performance Terms and Definitions

The terminologies related to the performance evaluation of co-generation systems are
defined as follows:
Overall plant heat rate is expressed as:
ṁ𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 (ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 − ℎ𝑓𝑤 )/𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (7.7)
169
Overall plant fuel rate is expressed as:
ṁ𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 /𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (7.8)
(total fuel consumption for turbine and steam)
Turbine isentropic efficiency is defined as:
𝛥ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 /𝛥ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑠 (7.9)
Air compressor efficiency is expressed as:
𝛥ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 /𝛥ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝,𝑠 (7.10)
Overall gas turbine efficiency = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑘𝑊)/ṁ𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐺𝐶𝑉 (7.11)
HRSG efficiency = ṁ𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 (ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 − ℎ𝑓𝑤 )/ṁ𝑓𝑔 C𝑝𝑓𝑔 ΔT𝑓𝑔 + ṁ𝑓,𝑎𝑢𝑥 𝐺𝐶𝑉
(7.12)
7.5.2 Field Testing Procedure for Co-generation

The test procedure for each co-generation plant will be developed individually taking
into consideration the plant configuration, instrumentation and plant operating
conditions. A method is outlined in the following section for the measurement of heat
rate and efficiency of a co-generation plant.
Test Duration:
The test duration is site-specific and in a continuous process industry, 8-hour test data
should give reasonably reliable data. In the case of an industry with a fluctuating
electrical/steam load profile a set 24-hour data sampling for a representative period
is recommended.
7.5.3 Measurements and Data Collection:

The suggested instrumentation (online/ field instruments) for the performance
measurement is as follows:
Steam flow measurement : Orifice flow meters
Fuel flow measurements : Volumetric measurements / Mass flow meters
170
Air flow / Flue gas flow : Venturi / Orifice flow meter / Pitot tubes
Flue gas Analysis : Zirconium Probe Oxygen analyser
Unburnt Analysis : Gravimetric Analysis
Temperature : Thermocouple
Cooling water flow : Ultrasonic flowmeter
Pressure : Pressure Gauges/transducers
Power : Clamp on power meters
Condensate : Ultrasonic flow meter
It is essential to ensure that the data is collected during steady state plant running
conditions. Among others, the essential parameters to be collected for co-generation
plant performance evaluation are tabulated below:
No Quantity to be computed Parameters
1 Steam inlet to turbine Flow rate
Pressure
Temperature
2 Fuel input to boiler/gas turbine Fuel flow rate
Composition
3 Combustion air Flow rate
Pressure
Temperature
4 Process extraction steam Flow rate
Pressure
Temperature
5 Back pressure steam to process Flow rate
Pressure
Temperature
6 Condensing steam Pressure or
Temperature
7 Condensate from turbine Flow rate
Temperature
8 Turbine bypass steam Flow rate
9 Flue gas to HRSG Pressure
Temperature
10 Exit flue gas Temperature
Composition
171
Excess O2
11 Cooling water to condenser Flow rate

Temperature in and out
Table 7.1: List of parameters for the performance testing

The various electrical energy-related parameters are as follows:
1. Total power generation for the trial period from individual turbines
2. Hourly average power generation
3. Quantity of power import from utility (Grid)
4. Quantity of power generation from DG sets
5. Auxiliaries power consumption
7.5.4 Calculations for Steam Turbine Co-generation System

Figure 7.6 below shows the process flow diagram for a typical co-generation plant.
The following calculation procedures have been provided:
• Turbine efficiency.
• Overall plant heat rate (kJ /kWh)
Energy Performance Assessment of Co-generation and Turbine
Figure 7.6 Process flow diagram for co-generation plant
Establish the specific enthalpies from the steam table (Appendix) for the given steam
conditions:
Using P1 and T1, steam enthalpy at turbine inlet: h1 kJ/kg

Using P2 and T2, Sg2 is read from the steam property table and compared with the
entropy at the state point 1 (assuming isentropic first stage expansion). The type of
172
steam after the expansion is determined and the enthalpy at the state point 2 is read
from the appropriate steam property table (saturated or superheated steam table) i.e.
enthalpy at 1st extraction: h2 kJ/kg
Using P3 and T3, Sg3 is read from the steam property table and compared with the
enthalpy at 1st extraction: h3 kJ/kg
Using P3 and T3, Sg is read from the steam property table and compared with the
enthalpy at 1st extraction: h2 kJ/kg. Referring to Figure 7.6, h11 is the enthalpy of
feedwater at boiler pressure, typically used to quantify heat input into the boiler.
Wherever there is wet steam after the expansion in the turbine, the dryness fraction
and the enthalpy of the steam are determined as follows:
𝑆1 = 𝑆2 = 𝑆𝑓 + 𝑥𝑆𝑓𝑔 (7.13)
Where, x is the dryness fraction of steam.
ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 (7.14)
(Relevant pressure and temperature are read from the steam property table)
Dryness fraction of the steam after the last expansion is estimated by assuming the
expansion processes in the turbine to be isentropic. The typical dryness fraction value
after the final expansion is 0.88 to 0.92.
The specific work produced by the turbine at each extraction point is calculated as
follows:
At the first extraction point = ℎ1 − ℎ2 kJ/kg (7.15)
At the second extraction point = ℎ2 − ℎ3 kJ / kg (7.16)
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From the second extraction to the condenser = ℎ3 − ℎ4 kJ/kg (7.17)
The actual enthalpies, taking the isentropic efficiencies of the pumps and turbine into
account, can be established based on the isentropic efficiency definition (refer to the
T-s diagram shown in Figure of the illustrative example 7.6.4 below)
The process heat, the net power output and the Utility Factor of the co-generation
plant are determined as follows:
Q 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = ṁ𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 Δh𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 (7.18)
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 − 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 (7.19)
𝑈. 𝐹 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 + 𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 (7.20)

Where,
Qin = Heat input in the boiler.
7.5.5 Example of co-generation system performance analysis

A distillery plant having an average production of 40 kilolitres of ethanol is having a
co-generation system with a backpressure turbine. The plant steam and electrical
demand are 5.3 Tons/hr and 200 kW, respectively. The process flow diagram is
shown in the figure below. The gross calorific value of natural gas is 38,000kJ/kg.
Boiler feedwater temperature is assumed to be 85oC.
The co-generation system performance analysis is carried out as follows:
174
Referring to the diagram and using 16-bar and 300oC, from the superheated steam
table, the enthalpy h1 = 3,036.2 kJ/kg
Using 3-bar and 140°C, from the superheated steam table, h2 = 2,748.8 kJ/kg
Heat energy input to turbine is calculated as:
h1– h2 = (3036.2 – 2748.8) = 287.4 kJ/kg
Total steam flow rate, Q1 = 6000 kg/hr = 1.67 kg/s
Power generation = 200 kW
Energy input to the turbine = 1.67 x 287.4 = 480 kW
Power generation efficiency of the turbo alternator,
ƞturbo-alternator = 200/480 = 0.416 = 41.6 %
ƞturbo-alternator = 41.6%
ƞalternator = 92 % (Typical efficiency of an alternator)
ƞgear = 98 % (Typical efficiency of a very efficient gear)
ƞturbine = ƞturbo-alternator / (ƞalternator x ƞgear) = 0.416/(0.92 x 0.98) = 0.461
Quantity of steam bypassing the turbine = Nil
Natural gas consumption of the boiler = 1,600 kg/hr.
Overall plant heat rate, kJ/kWh

= ṁsteam x (hsteam, kJ/kg – hfw, kJ/kg)/ Poutput, kW
= 6,000 x (3,036.2 – 355.9)/200 = 80,409 kJ/kWh*
hfw = hf@85C = 355.9 kJ/kg
*Note: The plant heat rate is in the order of 80,409 kJ/kWh because of the use of a
backpressure turbine. This value will be much reduced while operating on fully
condensing mode. However, with a backpressure turbine, the energy in the steam is
not wasted, as it is utilised in the process.
Overall plant fuel rate including boiler = 1,600/200 = 8 kg NG / kW
The following points are observed from the analysis of the co-generation cycle.
• The efficiency of the turbine generator set is as per manufacturer design
specification. There is no steam bypass indicating that the power generation
potential of the process steam is fully utilised.
• At present the power generation from the process steam completely meets the
process electrical demand, or in other words the system is balanced.
• It is to be noted that similar steps can be followed for the evaluation of the
performance of a gas turbine based co-generation system.
175
Example 7.6.1
Steam enters the turbine of a co-generation plant at 70-bar and 600oC. One-fourth of
the steam is extracted from the turbine at 8-bar pressure for process heating. The
remaining steam continues to expand to 15 kPa. The extracted steam is then
condensed and mixed with feedwater at constant pressure and the mixture is pumped
to the boiler pressure of 70-bar. The mass flow rate of steam through the boiler is 50
kg/s. Disregarding any pressure drops and heat losses in the piping, and assuming
the turbine and the pump to be isentropic, determine the net power produced and the
utilisation factor of the plant.
Solution
Referring to the T-s diagram and using steam property table

h1 = hf@14kPa = 220 kJ/kg
v1 = vf@14kPa = 0.001 m3/kg
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wpump-1 = v1 (P2 – P1) = 0.001 (800 – 15) = 0.785 kJ/kg

h2 = h1 + wpump-1 = 220 + 0.785 = 220.785 kJ/kg
Performing an energy balance at the mixing chamber yields:

ṁ4h4 = ṁ2h2 + ṁ3h3
Therefore, h4 = (ṁ2h2 + ṁ3h3)/ṁ4 = [(12.5)(220.78) + (37.5)(721)]/50 = 595.6 kJ/kg
wpump-2 = v4 (P5 – P4) = 0.001 (7,000 – 800) = 6.2 kJ/kg

h5 = h4 + wpump-2 = 595.6 + 6.2 = 601.8 kJ/kg
Using 70 bar and 600oC from the superheated steam property table,
h6 = 3,649 kJ/kg, s6 = 7.088 kJ/kg.K
Using 8 bar and s6 = s7 = 7.088 kJ/kg.K, h7 = 2977.4 kJ/kg

For 14 kPa, sg = 8.031 kJ/kg.K, therefore the steam at the state point 8 is wet.
The dryness fraction x8 is determined as follows:
s6 = s7 = s8 = sf@14kPa + x8 sfg@14kPa = 7.088 kJ/kg.K
That is, 0.737 + x8 7.294 = 7.088 kJ/kg.K
h8 = hf@14kPa + x8 hfg@14kPa = 220 + 0.87 x 2,376 = 2,287.12 kJ/kg
The net turbine work is calculated as follows:

WTurbine = ṁ6(h6 – h7) + ṁ8(h7 – h8)
= 50(3,649 – 2,977.4) + 37.5(2,977.4 – 2,287.12) = 59,465 kW
wpump,in = wpump-1 + wpump-2 = 37.5(0.786) + 50(6.2) = 339.5 kW
Wnet = WTurbine - wpump,in = 59,465 – 339.5 = 59,125 kW
Qprocess = ṁ7(h7 – h3) = 12.5(2,977.4 – 721) = 28,205 kW
Qin = ṁ5(h6 – h5) = 50(3,649 – 601.8) = 152,360 kW
The co-generation utility factor, U.F = (Wnet + Qprocess)/ Qin = (59,125 + 28,205)/152,360
= 0.573 = 57.3%
Example 7.6.2
Steam is generated in the boiler of a co-generation plant at 10 MPa and 450oC at a
steady rate of 5 kg/s. In normal operation, steam expands in a turbine to a pressure
of 0.5 MPa and is then routed to the process heater, where it supplies the process
177
heat. Steam leaves the process heater as a saturated liquid and is pumped to the
boiler pressure. In this mode, no steam passes through the condenser, which
operates at 20 kPa. (a) Determine the power produced and the rate at which process
heat is supplied in this mode. (b) Determine the power produced and the rate of
process heat supplied if only 60 percent of the steam is routed to the process heater
and the remainder is expanded to the condenser pressure.
Solution
Referring to the T-s diagram and using steam property table,

v4 = vf@5bar = 0.001 m3/kg
wpump-2 = v4 (P5 – P4) = 0.001 (10,000 – 500) = 9.5 kJ/kg (1 bar = 100 kPa)
Here h3 = h4 as all the steam is passed through the process heater
h3 = hf@5bar = 640 kJ/kg = h4
h5 = h4 + wpump-2 = 640 + 9.5 = 649.5 kJ/kg
Using 100 bar and 450oC from the superheated steam property table (Reference 3),
h6 = 3241 kJ/kg, s6 = 6.419 kJ/kg.K
For 5 bar, sg = 6.822 kJ/kg.K, therefore the steam at the state point 7 is wet.
s6 = s7 = sf@5bar + x7 sfg@5bar = 6.419 kJ/kg.K
That is, 1.86 + x7 4.962 = 6.419 kJ/kg.K
h7 = hf@5bar + x7 hfg@5bar = 640 + 0.92 x 2,109 = 2,580.3 kJ/kg

WTurbine = ṁ6(h6 – h7) + ṁ6(h6 – h7)
= 5(3,241 – 2,580.3) = 3,303 kW
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wpump,in = wpump-2 = 5(9.5) = 47.5 kW

Wnet = WTurbine - wpump,in = 3,303 – 47.5 = 3,255 kW
Qprocess = ṁ7(h7 – h3) = 5(2,580.3 – 640) = 1,940 kW
s6 = s8 = sf@20kPa + x8 sfg@20kPa = 6.419 kJ/kg.K
That is, 0.832 + x8 7.075 = 6.419 kJ/kg.K
h8 = hf@20kPa + x8 hfg@20kPa = 251 + 0.789 x 2358 = 2,111.4 kJ/kg
wpump-1 = v1 (P2 – P1) = 0.001 (500 – 20) = 0.48 kJ/kg
h2= h1 + wpump-1 = 251 + 0.48 = 251.48 kJ/kg
ṁ4h4 = ṁ2h2 + ṁ3h3
Therefore, h4 = (ṁ2h2 + ṁ3h3)/ṁ4 = [(2)(251.48) + (3)(640)]/5 = 484.5 kJ/kg
h5 = h4 + wpump-2 = 484.5 + 9.5 = 494 kJ/kg

WTurbine = ṁ6(h6 – h7) + ṁ8(h7 – h8)
= 5(3,241 – 2,580.3) + 2(2,580.3 – 2,111.4) = 4,241.3 kW
wpump,in = wpump-2 + wpump-2 = 3(9.5) + 2(0.48) = 29.5 kW
Wnet = WTurbine - wpump,in = 4,241.3 – 29.5 = 4,211 kW
Qprocess = ṁ7(h7 – h3) = 3(2,580.3 – 640) = 5,820 kW
Example 7.6.3
Consider a co-generation power plant modified with regeneration. Steam enters the
turbine at 90-bar and 400oC and expands to a pressure of 16-bar. At this pressure,
35 percent of the steam is extracted from the turbine, and the remainder expands to
10 kPa. Part of the extracted steam is used to heat the feedwater in an open feedwater
heater. The rest of the extracted steam is used for process heating and leaves the
process heater as a saturated liquid at 16-bar. It is subsequently mixed with the
feedwater leaving the feedwater heater, and the mixture is pumped to the boiler
pressure. Assuming the turbines and the pumps to be isentropic, show the cycle on a
T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine the mass flow rate of
steam through the boiler for a net power output of 25 MW.
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Solution:
Referring to the schematic and T-s diagram and using steam property table
(Reference 3),
v1 = vf@10kPa = 0.001 m3/kg
wpump-1 = v1 (P2 – P1) = 0.001 (1600 – 10) = 15.9 kJ/kg
h2 = h1 + wpump-1 = 192 + 15.9 = 207.9 kJ/kg

h4 = 0.35h9 + 0.65h3
Therefore, h4 = (0.35h9 + 0.65h2) = (0.35)(721) + (0.65)(207.9) = 387.4 kJ/kg
wpump-2 = v4 (P5 – P4) = 0.001 (9,000 – 1,600) = 7.4 kJ/kg

h5 = h4 + wpump-2 = 387.4 + 7.4 = 394.8 kJ/kg
180
Using 90-bar and 400oC from the superheated steam property table (Reference 3),
h6 = 3,118 kJ/kg, s6 = 6.286 kJ/kg.K
Using 16-bar and sg = 6.422 kJ/kg.K, which is greater than s6 = s7 = 6.286 kJ/kg.K,
therefore the steam at state point 7 is wet.
s6 = s7 = s8 = sf@16bar + x7 sfg@16bar = 6.286 kJ/kg.K
That is, 2.344 + x7 4.078 = 6.286 kJ/kg.K
h7 = hf@16bar + x7 hfg@16bar = 859 + 0.94 x 1,935 = 2,677.9 kJ/kg
That is, 0.649 + x8 7.5 = 6.286 kJ/kg.K
h8 = hf@10kPa + x8 hfg@10kPa = 192 + 0.75 x 2,392 = 1,986 kJ/kg

wpump,in = wpump-1 + wpump-2 = 0.65ṁ6 (7.4) + ṁ6 (15.9)
Wnet,turbine = ṁ6(h6 – h7) + 0.65ṁ6(h7 – h8) - wpump,in = 25,000 kW
ṁ6 (3,118 – 2,677.9) + 0.65ṁ6 (2,677.9 – 1,986) – [0.65ṁ6 (7.4) + ṁ6 (15.9) ]
= 25,000 kW
ṁsteam = ṁ6 = 28.76 kg/s
Example 7.6.4
A textile plant requires 4 kg/s of saturated steam at 20bar, which is extracted from the
turbine of a co-generation plant. Steam enters the turbine at 90bar and 500oC at
a rate of 11 kg/s and leaves at 10 kPa. The extracted steam leaves the process heater
as a saturated liquid and mixes with the feedwater at constant pressure. The mixture
is pumped to the boiler pressure. Assuming an isentropic efficiency of 86 percent for
both the turbine and the pumps, determine (a) the rate of process heat supplied, (b)
the net power output from the system, and (c) the utilisation factor of the CHP plant.
181
Solution
(Reference 3),
v1 = vf@10kPa = 0.001 m3/kg
wpump-1 = v1 (P2 – P1) = 0.001 (2,000 – 10) = 19.9 kJ/kg
h2 = h1 + wpump-1 = 192 + 19.9 = 211.9 kJ/kg
Isentropic efficiency of pump and turbines are given as 0.86.
ƞs,pump = (h2 – h1)/ (h2’ – h1)
Therefore, h2’= h1 + (h2 – h1)/ ƞs,pump = 192 + (211.9 – 192)/0.86 = 215 kJ/kg

ṁ4h4 = ṁ3h3 + ṁ8 h2’
182
Therefore, h4 = (ṁ3h3 + ṁ8 h2’)/ ṁ4 = [(4.0)(909) + (11.0)(215)]/11.0 = 545.5 kJ/kg
wpump-2 = v4 (P5 – P4) = 0.001 (9,000 – 2,000) = 7 kJ/kg

h5 = h4 + wpump-2 = 542.4 + 7 = 394.8 kJ/kg
ƞs,pump = (h5 – h4)/ (h5’ – h4)
Therefore, h5’= h4 + (h5 – h4)/ ƞs,pump = 545.5 + (549.4 – 545.5)/0.86 = 550 kJ/kg
Using 90-bar and 500oC from the superheated steam property table,
h6 = 3633 kJ/kg, s6 = 6.958 kJ/kg.K
Using 20-bar, sg = 6.340 kJ/kg.K, which is less than s6 = s7 = 6.286 kJ/kg.K, therefore
the steam at state point 7 is superheated.
Therefore, using 20-bar and , s6 = s7 = 6.958 kJ/kg.K
h7 = 3,138 kJ/kg
ƞs,turb1 = (h6 – h7’)/ (h6 – h7)
Therefore, h7’= h6 - (h6 – h7) ƞs,turb1 = 3633 - (3,633 – 3,138)0.86 = 3,207.3 kJ/kg
That is, 0.649 + x8 7.5 = 6.958 kJ/kg.K
ƞs,turb2 = (h7 – h8’)/ (h7 – h8)
Therefore, h8’= h7 - (h7 – h8) ƞs,turb2 = 3138 - (3,138 – 2,201)0.86 = 2,332 kJ/kg
(a) The rate of process heat supplied,
Qprocess = ṁ7(h7’ – h3) = 4(3,207.3 – 909) = 9,193 kW
The net power output from the system is calculated as follows:

PTurbine = ṁ6(h6 – h7’) + ṁ8(h7’ – h8’) = 4(3,633 – 3,207.3) + 7(3,207.3 – 2,332)
= 7,830 kW
Ppump,in = Ppump-1 + Ppump-2 = 7(19.9) + 11(7) = 216.3 kW
Pnet,system = PTurbine - wpump,in = 7,830 – 216.3 = 7,613 kW
Qin = ṁ5(h6 – h5’) = 11(3,633 – 550) = 33,913 kW
The co-generation utility factor, U.F = (Pnet,system + Qprocess)/ Qin = (7,613 +

9,193)/33,913 = 0.496 = 49.6%
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Example 7.6.5
Consider a co-generation power plant that is modified with reheat and that produces
4 MW of power and supplies 8 MW of process heat. Steam enters the high-pressure
turbine at 90-bar and 500oC and expands to a pressure of 12-bar. At this pressure,
part of the steam is extracted from the turbine and routed to the process heater, while
the remainder is reheated to 500oC and expanded in the low-pressure turbine to the
condenser pressure of 10-kPa. The condensate from the condenser is pumped to 12-
bar and is mixed with the extracted steam, which leaves the process heater as a
compressed liquid at 110oC. The mixture is then pumped to the boiler pressure.
Assuming the turbine to be isentropic, show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect
to saturation lines, and disregarding pump work, determine (a) the rate of heat input
in the boiler and (b) the fraction of steam extracted for process heating.
Solution
184
(Appendix),
v1 = vf@10kPa = 0.001 m3/kg
wpump-1 = v1 (P2 – P1) = 0.001 (2,000 – 10) = 19.9 kJ/kg
h2 = h1 + wpump-1 = 192 + 19.9 = 211.9 kJ/kg
h3 = hf@110oC = 461 kJ/kg
Using 90-bar and 500oC from the superheated steam property table (Appendix),
h6 = 3385 kJ/kg, s6 = 6.657 kJ/kg.K
Using 12-bar, sg = 6.523 kJ/kg.K, which is less than s6 = s7 = 6.657 kJ/kg.K, therefore
the steam at state point 7 is superheated.
Therefore, using 12-bar and , s6 = s7 = 6.657 kJ/kg.K
h7 = 2,810 kJ/kg
The amount of process heat supplied = ṁ7 (h7 - h3) = 8,000 kW
That is, ṁ7 (2,810 - 461) = 8,000 kW
Therefore, ṁ7 = 8,000 kW/(2,810 – 461) = 3.41 kg/s
Using 12-bar and 500oC from the superheated steam property table,
h8 = 3,220 kJ/kg, s8 = 7.539 kJ/kg.K
s8 = s9 = sf@10kPa + x9 sfg@10kPa = 7.539 kJ/kg.K
That is, 0.649 + x9 7.5 = 7.539 kJ/kg.K
The power output from the system disregarding the pump power is expressed as
follows:
PTurbine = ṁ6(h6 – h7) + ṁ8(h8 – h9) = ṁ6(h6 – h7) + (ṁ6 - ṁ7) (h8 – h9) = 4,000 kW
i.e. ṁ6(3,633 – 3,003) + (ṁ6 – 3.14) (3,220 – 2,392) = 4,000 kW
Therefore, ṁ6 = 4.52 kg/s

ṁ4h4 = ṁ3h3 + ṁ2 h2
Therefore, h4 = [ṁ3h3 + (ṁ6 - ṁ7)h2]/ ṁ6
= [(3.14)(461) + (4.52 – 3.14)(192)]/4.52 = 378.8 kJ/kg
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Disregarding the pump work, h5 = h4 = 378.8 kJ/kg

Qin,boiler = ṁ5(h6 – h5) + ṁ9(h8 – h7)
= 4.52(3,633 – 378.8) + 1.38(3,220 – 3,003) = 15,007 kW
Summary
Industrial professionals dealing with CHP systems need to understand the optimum
operation of a CHP system in terms of its heat and electricity requirements. As far as
design is concerned, the CHP system can be for a co-generation or a tri-generation
system with the gas turbine topping the cycle. This chapter provided a detailed
introduction to CHP systems starting with the discussion of an ideal CHP cycle and
finally the most widely used combined vapour power cycle, which is the most popular
power generation cycle in Singapore as well. The chapter also includes a number of
illustrative examples for better understanding of the optimum operation of co-
generation and tri-generation systems.
References
York, 2008.
2. Nag P. K, Engineering Thermodynamics: Tata-McGraw-Hill, New York 1997
3. G. F. C. Rogers and Y. R. Mayhew, Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of
Fluids, Fifth Edition (SI Units), 1998
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8.0 THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL DESIGN OF CHP

SYSTEMS
This chapter provides a detailed account of the thermal and electrical design of a
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems. Prior to the thermal and electrical design
of a CHP system for a facility, it is very important to understand the electrical and heat
load requirements for the facility. The CHP system design can either be heat load
matching or electricity load matching. This Chapter covers considerations such as
understanding of electrical and thermal load requirements in order to ensure a CHP
system is beneficial for a particular application. A Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) of the
proposed system subject to various local codes of practices and regulations has to be
carried out to get a clear picture of the financial return that the investment on the
proposed CHP system would bring in. The financial aspects that are to be considered
prior to the planning of a CHP system will be covered in Chapter 9 of this reference
manual.
Learning Outcomes:
1. The thermal load profile and its estimation
2. The electrical load profile of a facility
3. Heat to power ratio and their significance in the CHP system design
4. The CHP system selection options
5. Factors other than electrical and thermal loads in the selection of a CHP
system
8.1 Introduction
There are many considerations to be made in designing an optimal CHP plant that
meets the facility level requirements. The load profile and demand are two of the major
considerations but these two alone may not provide the whole input required in the
decision on CHP system design. However, the load profile and demand data will
determine the heat to power ratio of a facility which in turn would provide the required
information for the proper selection of a CHP system in an optimum manner.
Therefore, it is very important to understand these data as a preliminary step. Load
profiles are developed to properly understand the loads throughout the year to
facilitate the optimum efficiency operation of the CHP system. These data will also
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serve as a baseline against which the output of the CHP system can be examined
from time to time.
8.2 Thermal Load Profiles

Based on the historical data for at least 12 months, an annual load profile can be
developed. Simultaneously, an hourly CHP output model can be run on design
parameters including load factors, efficiencies, and standby or supplemental energy
requirements. This type of detailed modeling does provide accurate analysis of CHP
performance against historical data and necessary adjustments can be made for
external parameters such as ambient conditions, production levels, and occupancy.
For future predictions, some kind of statistical tools like regression analysis could be
used, albeit with a certain degree of inaccuracy. However, this level of data is rarely
available for loads other than the electrical loads, and estimates must be drawn from
the available data on how the loads function. Generally, it should be possible to
establish the thermal loads of an industrial facility from the monthly or annual gas
usage, etc., for example, Million Metric British Thermal Unit (MMBTU) of natural gas
billed to the facility by the gas vendor. In the case of oil and coal, data on delivery
quantities can be used. In such cases, an assessment must be made on the monthly
use of the fuel, which may best be determined through discussions with facility
personnel. Typically, the total fuel throughput must also be adjusted using the existing
thermal conversion devices to calculate the total monthly thermal loads. This must be
further refined to apportion the correct volume of fuel to each addressable load. In the
absence of individual data for each load, estimates should be made for the portion of
energy use associated with each load. Figure 8.1 shows a two-year thermal load
profile of a production facility considering a CHP system. In general, it will be useful
to review three to five years of historical billings or monthly fuel use data to identify
and ascertain the long-term trends and to assess whether the most recent 12-month
data are typical and representative of the facility’s operational thermal demand. It is
to be noted that the latest 12-month data forms the basis of CHP system modelling
and design. It is necessary to use any available data to develop profiles, which are
often supplemented by short-term data collection or data collected using sub-
metering. In the case of a boiler steam generation estimation in the absence of an
onsite steam mass flow meter, measurement of boiler feedwater may provide a
reasonably accurate and inexpensive measure of steam generation rate by the boiler.
Figure 8.2 shows daily steam demand for the production facility considered for a CHP
system installation.
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Figure 8.1. Two-year thermal load profile of a production facility
It will be very useful to quantify steam system/boiler losses from an operational and
maintenance point of view. It is common to use periodic readings of the gas meter in
conjunction with an inventory of gas-fired equipment and more generic data such as
water use patterns as a basis for creating a thermal load profile for the facility. If an
energy audit was carried out in the recent past, the data acquired in the energy audits
could be a reliable source of energy data too, assuming the data collected include
salient data points. The energy audits may include short-term metering or other data
collection efforts that can be the basis of information required for the CHP system. In
addition, one should identify existing site operational problems related to the thermal
application, anticipated future changes, and any other factors that should be
considered in any CHP system analysis. Typically, a level-3 audit covering all the
heating and cooling application in conjunction with the historical utility bills will be
helpful for the development of a reliable load profile. In the absence of any detailed
energy audit of the facility, the plant logs by the supervisors will also form a useful
source of data provided one understands the basis of such logs. For this, the following
questions
Figure 8.2 Daily steam load requirement for a Production Facility
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could be prompted: When during the day or shift are data entered? Are data taken at
the same time each day or during successive shifts? Are the terms used on the log
consistent with generally accepted practice? Are the data available from the logs
consistent with metered, utility-supplied data? Once these estimates have been
developed and monthly use profiles developed, the data must be further refined to
calculate the load usage during operating hours for a facility that does not support
8760-hour operation of a CHP plant. The resulting addressable loads during operating
hours must then be plotted and further analysed to establish the base, average, and
peak loads so that the true load factor for the CHP system could be established.
8.3. Electrical Load Profiles

Electricity demand data can be trend logged at an appropriate time interval to provide
a very precise baseline for facility electrical load profiling. These data may be less
accurate in situations where the data provided are actually the aggregated values
from two or more meters. In this situation, some effort is required to understand the
actual load characteristics for each meter, because only a single meter may be served
by a CHP system unless inverters and additional controls are added between the
power output of the CHP system and the loads. The electrical load data are usually
obtained by the facility owner from the local utility supplier, which continually monitors
and records this information for its own billing purposes. In some situations, the facility
owner should be able to download the data directly from the utility web portals
wherever the access is granted. The data for a full year is a minimum requirement to
properly understand the seasonal variations, and data for more than one year can be
obtained and should be reviewed to properly understand ambient temperature impact.
The above data are normally provided as a CSV (comma separated value) file that
can easily be read by programs like Excel spreadsheet for further analysis. The data
are typically trend logged in kW. In some cases, the data may be provided as kWh
readings, in which case the actual kW demand can be derived by dividing the kWh
value by the ratio of the period to one hour. For example, if the data were provided as
kWh readings in 15-minute intervals, then the actual demand is the reading value
divided by 0.25. If the readings were in 30-minute intervals, then the actual demand
is the reading divided by 0.5.
Figure 8.3 shows a weekly electrical load profile for a production facility based on
utility-provided 5-minute interval demand data. As seen from the figure, the facility has
a base load of approximately 800 kW. It is also obvious from the figure that there is a
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trend of high demand during working days followed by low demand for weekends.
There are also some anomalies where readings appear to go to zero for short periods
three times during the year and a single event when the demand increased to
approximately 75% more than the normal demand for a short period.
Figure 8.3 Weekly electrical load profile for a production facility
To better understand what exactly is happening, further analysis of the data is

required. For this, a daily analysis of the acquired data could be performed. The daily
load profile now reveals in greater detail how the facility operates throughout the day.
Workdays would follow a regular pattern of startup, production during the day, and
shutdown in the evening. In the daily load profile analysis, there could be some data
anomalies as shown in Figure 8.4 that may need to be investigated further.
Figure 8.4 Hourly electric load profile for a production facility
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For example, one of the anomalies could be a single zero reading that occurred on
one of the week days. In this situation, the readings before and after this reading could
be examined and if it found to be typical for the period, the reasons for the zero data
anomaly, which is a short duration event could be one of the following
• a grid failure
• testing of standby generators
• a meter malfunction
It is to be noted that this does not affect the design of the CHP system other than
possibly enhancing the value of CHP as a backup system if this and the other similar
anomalies were in fact grid failures.
On the other hand, there are cases where a high demand anomaly is found between
an interval. For example, in Figure 8.5, between 2:30 a.m. and 3:00 a.m, the electrical
power demand surged to almost twice the demand in the previous and subsequent
intervals. The demand recorded was also found to be significantly higher than the
peak demand reading of about 850 kW. It is highly unlikely that the facility actually
required this level of power to operate, especially at 2:30 a.m. on a Sunday, which
normally is the lowest load time. The likely causes for such a surge in power demand
could either be one of the following:
• a fault level or short circuit current
• a meter malfunction
In either case, this should be investigated with facility personnel, and, if no fault is
recorded, this should be reported to the local utility provider and a corresponding
adjustment needs to be made for the affected period.
Figure 8.5 Hourly electric load profile for a production facility
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8.4 CHP System Configuration Options

The outputs from a CHP system are electrical or mechanical power and heat and/or
cooling from the same input fuel energy source. The first of the two or three output
energy streams produced by a topping-cycle CHP system is power. A topping CHP
system cycle is a cycle whereby power or electricity is produced first followed by heat
or cooling outputs. The waste heat exhaust in the electricity/power generation process
is then recovered with the help of heat recovery devices and converted to useful
energy that can be applied to facility process loads. In a topping cycle, the prime
mover that generates the power can be of different types, e.g. reciprocating internal
combustion engines, combustion turbines, micro-turbines or even fuel cells. A
detailed discussion of the prime movers is provided in the Chapter 6 of this reference
manual. Each prime mover has different characteristics, both in terms of the amount
of input energy that is converted to power and heat and/or cooling as well as the form
that the heat or thermal output takes.
Experience with the CHP systems in Singapore suggests that all topping-cycle CHP
systems have a nominal overall efficiency (utilisation factor, U.F) of approximately
70%. The overall efficiency calculation takes into account the electrical or mechanical
power as well as recovered thermal energy for the facility process loads or preheating.
Bottoming-cycle systems have CHP efficiencies of approximately 80%. It is to be
noted that the CHP system efficiency can be increased if the system is applied to a
thermal load that requires low-quality heat, but for most practical applications the load
temperature requirements keep the overall efficiency at these levels. Depending on
the CHP configurations, the performance level in terms of power efficiency versus
thermal efficiency varies. A good example is a topping-cycle CHP system which may
have 32% electrical and 38% thermal efficiency or 38% electrical and 32% thermal
efficiency.
In bottoming-cycle CHP systems, fuel is burned and utilised for thermal energy first
and that is then used to drive a power generation device such as a steam turbine or
generators working on organic Rankine cycles. The remaining thermal energy based
on the quality of the thermal energy is further recovered to meet other small or medium
scale thermal applications in the facility. Experience also suggests that CHP systems
working on bottoming-cycle generally have lower electrical efficiencies, ranging from
about 15% to 25%, with superior thermal efficiencies of about 55% to 65%.
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The key performance indicators helping to evaluate the performance of a CHP system
are electrical and thermal efficiency. Along with many other characteristics to be
considered, the first CHP configuration option to be reviewed is the heat to power
(H/E) ratio. The heat to power ratio is a function of the power and thermal efficiencies
of the system. The heat to power (H/E) ratio is a primary criterion in matching the
facility loads with the appropriate CHP configuration.
The possible number of CHP configurations is largely determined by the facility level
heat to power ratio. There is always a misconception regarding the CHP prime movers
that are operated in a CHP system because the prime movers are often described in
terms of their rated electrical efficiency, leading one to intuitively believe that the 45%
efficient engine is “superior in performance” to the 40% efficient engine. However, it
is to be noted that the “superior” engine is the one that best matches the load
requirements. It is obvious that a 45% electrically efficient engine will convert more of
the fuel to electricity and less to thermal output. Therefore, if the facility application is
limited by the electrical base load and has a higher thermal load than the CHP
system’s output, then a better option could be to select an engine with a lower
electrical efficiency. This will enable more of the fuel energy to be converted to thermal
energy, matching most of the thermal load by the CHP plant.
Applications such as district heating systems that use bottoming cycle configurations
require very high heat to power ratios, because the system addresses large thermal
loads with relatively small electrical loads available in the plant. On the other hand, if
the limiting factor is thermal load availability, the higher electrically efficient engine
could be selected for the CHP system. This will provide more power while maintaining
a high thermal load factor.
From an economic point of view, the better option should be reviewed against energy
costs to determine how to optimise fuel conversion efficiencies with the help of a Cost
Benefit Analysis (CBA), etc. A CHP system’s heat to power ratio (H/E) depends on
the cycle, prime mover type and design, heat recovery systems used, thermal
conversion technology type and design, and the load quality requirements of the
facility. A second CHP system characteristic equally important in determining the CHP
configuration that best meets facility needs, is the temperature requirements of the
thermal load applications. The CHP systems that provide high-temperature energy
streams are more easily applied to various loads, whereas lower-temperature CHP
systems have some restrictions on the type of loads they can serve. For example,
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non-recuperated combustion turbines that have an exhaust temperature of about

450°C could generate high-pressure steam without losing much of their heat recovery
potential. On the other hand, a recuperated combustion turbine with an exhaust
temperature of about 320° C will lose a considerable amount of its heat recovery
potential if high pressure steam is required. Combustion turbines with and without
recuperator are shown in Figures 8.6 and 8.7, respectively. However, it is worth noting
that both the systems will retain high heat recovery potential if they are designed to
produce hot water at about 70°C.
Figure 8.6 A combustion turbine with recuperator
Figure 8.7 A combustion turbine without recuperator
Besides the important heat to power (H/E) ratio criterion, there are numerous other
issues when a CHP system is designed for a facility. A facility may meet all the general
requirements for the application of a specific CHP plant size and configuration, but
fuel availability or emissions limitations by the authorities could be among the pressing
195
issues that must be addressed for the successful implementation of the CHP system.
Stringent and rigid requirements may affect the CHP system design in terms of heat
to power ratio optimisation. An economic analysis performed with these stipulations
may look less attractive to one without the considerations of the regulations and
stipulations by the local authorities. Such issues related to CHP systems are
discussed briefly in the following sections.
Example:
An industrial facility has decided to go for a CHP system (Co-generation plant). Steam
is available at 35 T/h with a pressure of 70-bar and 500oC. The process steam
requirements are given in the Table below.
Process Steam flow, T/h Pressure, bar Temperature, oC

Process # 1 4 20 300
Process # 2 10 8 180
Process # 3 21 5 160
Design the CHP system with single turbine. The facility requires 5 MW electrical
power. Find out whether the CHP system is self-sufficient, or any additional power
needs to be purchased from the local grid. Assume efficiencies of turbine and
generator are 72% and 92%, respectively.
Solution:
Enthalpy of steam at the turbine inlet: 3,410 kJ/kg

Steam mass flow rate = 35 T/h = 35,000 kg/h
Heat available at the turbine inlet = 35,000 x 3,410 = 119.35 GJ/h
Enthalpy of steam at the turbine extraction 1 (20-bar, 300oC) = 3,025 kJ/kg

Heat extracted at the turbine extraction 1 = 4,000 x 3,025 = 12.10 GJ/h
Overall turbo-alternator efficiency = Output power/Input power = ƞt x ƞg

Input power = total heat at the turbine inlet – total extracted heat from the turbine
= 119.35 – (12.10 + 27.92 + 58.11) = 21.22 GJ/h
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Power generation (Output power) = 21.22 x ƞt x ƞg = 21.22x0.72 x 0.92 = 14.06 GJ/h

= 3.91 MW
Therefore, the electrical power to be imported from the grid = 5.0 – 3.91 = 1.09 MW
8.4.1 CHP system power quality

When a CHP system is planned and designed, due diligence and consideration
should be given for the quality of the power, simply called power quality. The main
power quality issues are:
• unbalanced voltage the ratio of max. voltage deviation from mean of 3 phases
to the average voltage of the 3 phases)
• high reactive currents leading to poor power factor ( Power factor is defined
as the ratio of actual power (kW) to the apparent power (kVA).
• high level of harmonics (Harmonics are electrical signal distortions caused by

inadvertent interference of nearby signals)
These power quality issues will impair the operation of some sensitive equipment or
cause them to underperform. In addition, poor power quality can negatively impact
the performance and life of a CHP system. The power quality issues will also prevent
the CHP system getting grid synchronised, affecting the import of electricity from the
local grid. Hence, power quality issues will be thorny ones regardless of whether the
CHP system is in island or grid-syncronised modes of operations.
8.4.2 Fuel characteristics of a CHP system

The reliability of the supply of fuel to a CHP unit will affect the project in many ways
depending upon the critical nature of the application. Hence, the first thing that needs
to be checked as far as the CHP system fuel supply is concerned is its availability. As
far as CHP systems in Singapore are concerned, premium fuel such as Natural Gas
(NG) is widely used. With the commissioning of the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
terminals in Singapore, NG is starting to flow through most of the country. Hence, NG
is more reliable in Singapore for use as a premium fuel in gas turbines, etc. In many
instances, the application of CHP will increase the peak fuel throughput in a facility
that has an existing supply, and so a sufficient amount of fuel should be contracted
for CHP systems involving critical applications.
In addition, careful consideration should also be given to fuel intake pressure because
many prime movers require high-pressure fuel to operate. For example, combustion
turbines require from 5 to 21-bar absolute pressure for the smallest to largest unit,
197
respectively. Reciprocating engines and fuel cells generally require from 1.2-bar for
smaller units to over 2-bar for larger units. Fuel pressure can be augmented with gas
pressure boosters/compressors, but these systems will consume additional power
ranging from under 3% for smaller combustion turbines to over 5% for larger units
with low pressure supply.
When biogas is used as CHP system fuel, it may consume very high booster system
power because the pressure at the supply point can be close to zero. In addition to
the fuel availability and off-take pressure, fuel quality must also be checked. CHP
systems using fuel cells may have fuel quality requirements (Contaminant free fuel,
the contaminants are CO, H2S and NH3) that exceed that provided by the local utility.
It is important to recognise that not all gas supplies are of equal quality, with many
gas grids accepting synthetic gas or other forms of gas that may have a deleterious
effect on the gas quality, particularly just downstream from the point of injection. It is
very common practice to have a fuel quality statement from the gas utility provided to
the engine supplier to confirm the fuel compatibility. When considering CHP systems
that are fueled by biogas or synthetic gas, a higher level of investigation regarding
fuel energy content and impurities is required. Gas pretreatment equipment will most
likely be required to remove moisture, sulfur, particulate matter, siloxanes, and other
impurities. In addition, the operation and performance ratings of the engine must be
characterised for the specific energy content of the fuel.
Low energy gases, such as municipal wastewater treatment plant anaerobic digester
gas, are compatible with many engines, but these engines must be configured for the
application and will not perform at the same capacity or efficiency as if the engine
were configured for typical pipeline quality natural gas. Gas cleanup requirements can
be relaxed if higher maintenance costs and more frequent maintenance intervals are
allowed, but there may be little alternative to implementing high level gas pretreatment
equipment if engine exhaust aftertreatment is required, because fouling of catalysts
can occur very quickly if fuel quality is low.
Solid fuel biomass, such as woody biomass, can be directly combusted in a boiler to
produce steam that turns a backpressure steam turbine to generate power, with the
exhaust steam going to process or heating. Alternatively, the biomass can be
pyrolysed to produce syngas, which can be combusted in an engine to produce power
and heat. In these CHP systems, the fuel quality and energy content are a function of
the type and moisture content of the biomass as well as the combustion or pyrolysis
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process used. Such systems are generally designed around the specific feedstock
and must be appropriately sized to the throughput of fuel necessary to provide the
energy output required by the facility.
Although natural gas is the predominant fuel for CHP systems in the continental
United States, CHP systems can also be operated with a variety of fuels, including
diesel or propane. In all cases, the fuel specifications should be reviewed with the
prime mover supplier to ensure that the available fuel quality is in line with the
manufacturer’s requirements as well as its impact on warranty, maintenance, and
emissions.
8.4.3 Electric Interconnection

Interconnection with the electrical utility grid provides a number of benefits to CHP
systems, including the availability of supplemental and standby power, increased
reliability, and operating flexibility. Most CHP systems are interconnected to the
electrical utility grid, and interconnection issues are a critical concern in the design
and operation of a CHP system. Though utility interconnection issues typically deal
with protection of the utility from the effects of the CHP system, it is also necessary to
consider protection of the on-site generator from problems caused by the utility grid.
Utility interconnection concerns include the following:
Power Quality: One of the concerns by grid operators in Singapore, the Power
System Operator (PSO) is that an interconnected on-site generator should not
degrade the quality of power supplied by the utility in any circumstances. This is
measured by voltage and frequency stability, power factor, and harmonic content. In
general, with the exception of induction generators and inverters, the quality of power
available from an on-site generator will exceed the quality of power that is available
from the grid. From the owner’s perspective, poor grid power quality, whether caused
by facility loads or the utility, are of equal concern. Short-term metering to document
power variations of a few seconds or less may be required where the end-user
processes are characterised by short, significant changes in load. In this case, it is
necessary to establish that the selected prime mover can respond to short-term
variations in load.
Power Safety: Grid operators in Singapore (PSO) are concerned that an

interconnected generator has the potential to energise a utility circuit that is not being
powered by the utility. This condition can result in a safety hazard to utility personnel
199
working on that circuit. Most utilities will require the CHP system to install a reverse
power relay and an external disconnect switch that is accessible by utility personnel
and that can be used to disconnect and lock out the CHP system. For CHP systems
connected to local grids, additional protective devices will be required to ensure the
utility that the generator can be disconnected when required. These devices generally
must be reviewed by and meet the approval of the authorities before an
interconnection will be allowed. Generally, expertise of an electrical professional
engineer is needed.
Grid Fault Protection: Utility operation of the grid can be quite complex and include
the coordination of relays, switches, and fault control. The interconnection of a CHP
system or any other active source of power within the grid generally must be reviewed
by the utility to avoid jeopardising the ability of the utility to manage grid operations.
This includes the calculation and declaration of the fault level or short circuit current
during the design stage of the CHP system.
8.4.4 Ancillary and other equipment

Power-house ancillary subsystems such as water treatment, power supply,
condensate return, deaeration, cooling towers, and controls are used to support the
CHP system. If existing subsystems are to be used, then they must be adequately
maintained, have capacity, and be able to provide the quality required for the CHP
system. If the existing subsystems are not adequate, then the cost of new subsystems
and equipment should be included in the CHP project budget. Major existing energy
components such as boilers, hot water generators, emergency power generators, and
chillers will often still provide for the needs of the facility beyond the capacity of the
CHP system. When CHP plants are designed to meet baseload requirements, the
additional load is typically met using the existing equipment in parallel with the CHP
plant. In some situations, the installation of a CHP system may defer or eliminate the
need to replace a major component, thus providing a capital cost credit toward the
project. For new construction or major renovations, the installation of a CHP system
can be integrated with the installation of other major components, including boilers
and chillers, thus minimising total project cost.
In all scenarios and particularly where existing equipment is used to support a new
CHP plant, it is important to review the equipment loads when the CHP system is fully
operational in order to ensure that the existing ancillary equipment has the turndown
necessary to accommodate the CHP plant. For example, where a CHP plant that
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generates 9 million Btu (9.5 GJ) of steam is added to an existing facility with a 300 hp
steam boiler (10 million Btu/h) (2943 kW) that is at times fully loaded, it will be
necessary to either adjust the existing boiler to provide for stable operation at 1 million
Btu/h (294 kW) or add a new small boiler to provide the supplementary steam. It is
not unusual that existing facilities have boilers that cannot operate efficiently below
30% of their nominal capacity such that, if the CHP thermal output is slightly less than
the load, a new boiler may need to be incorporated as part of the CHP plant.
It is also important to recognise that, while CHP may provide a less costly source of
power and thermal energy, it will not solve pre-existing problems with the site steam
and hot or chilled-water systems or inadequacies in the power distribution system or
automated control systems. Any CHP review or audit should attempt to identify any
such inadequacies in the facility thermal and electrical distribution systems which
should be fixed before installation of a CHP plant. Equally, any potential energy
efficiency measures that would impact the loads intended to be addressed by the CHP
plant should be implemented before installation of CHP equipment. Addressing such
issues after installation of CHP may not only result in wasted resources, but also lead
to poor performance of the CHP plant, resulting in lower efficiencies and higher-than
anticipated maintenance costs.
8.4.5 Emissions
Local air quality emissions requirements for stationary engines, fuel cells, or boilers,
in the case of biomass CHP systems, are an important consideration for CHP system
design. Most projects, as a minimum, are required to ensure that project emissions
comply with local air quality requirements as defined by the local jurisdictional
authority. (See Chapter 10 for further information on emissions considerations.) This
may require the addition of exhaust aftertreatment devices, which must be included
in the project capital cost as well as operation and maintenance costs, because most
of these devices do consume chemicals and require replacement of components.
Lower restrictions may be placed on renewable fuels, such as landfill gas or digester
gas, but if these systems require exhaust aftertreatment, then a high level of gas
pretreatment will most likely be required to prevent fouling of any catalysts used for
exhaust aftertreatment. Consideration must also be given to the location of the point
of emissions of the stack. The location must comply with local regulations that
normally prescribe distances from air intakes, open windows, etc., as well as sensitive
receptors (people).
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8.4.6 Maintenance requirements of CHP Systems

CHP plants’ availability is about 95% and they operate closer to the availability of the
system. Since a CHP system operates continuously, regular maintenance of the
system involving the prime mover, thermal recovery and conversion equipment, and
accessories such as gas pressure boosters, controls, pumps, and exhaust
aftertreatment is of paramount importance. Continual preventive and predictive
maintenance are required to sustain the performance and reliability of the plant as
well as maximise the life of the CHP system equipment. It is also important to comply
with emissions standards by the regulatory agencies like the National Environment
Agency (NEA). Generally, maintenance costs of the CHP system can be a significant
part of the total operating costs, typically representing up to 25% to 30% of operating
costs when including engine rebuild or major overhaul. Maintenance requirements for
various types of prime movers depends on their types. Experience suggests that to
maintain a plant in good working condition through its full life cycle (which can go up
to 20 to 30 years), the prime movers need to be subject to full overhauls or changeout
of major components. The main variable in terms of maintenance requirements is the
frequency of maintenance intervals, which can be a design consideration, particularly
for critical or remote applications.
8.4.7 Operating requirements

CHP systems are designed to operate on auto mode with some kind of load control
based on power or thermal load requirements. Local electric utility grid interconnection
normally requires automation of the prime mover to ensure compliance with certain
grid connection protocols. Like many other systems, sophisticated state-of-the-art
remote monitoring has minimised the man and machine interaction - in a CHP system,
the interaction between the man and the prime mover. From an operational point of
view, the prime mover requires people with specialised operational skills, typically
provided by the prime mover manufacturers themselves or by the facility personnel
trained by the prime mover specialists. In contrast, the operation requirements for
heat recovery and thermal conversion equipment are typically the same as those for
standard boilers, heat exchangers, absorbers, or other such equipment. The CHP
system plant thermal equipment is also subject to existing equipment regulations by
the government agencies like National Environment Agency, etc. For example, if the
CHP plant is generating high-pressure steam, and regulations require specific boiler-
licensed personnel to operate such equipment, then the CHP plant thermal equipment
will also be subject to the same set of requirements. For cost effectiveness, it is
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recommended to have the existing boiler/chiller plant personnel operate and maintain
the CHP system plant thermal equipment.
Summary
Understanding the basic concepts underlying the design and selection of a CHP
system is of paramount importance. This chapter provided an account of the thermal
system design of a CHP system for a facility based on the heat to power ratio of the
facility as well as the other relevant local regulations and codes of practices. The
importance of considering beyond the heat and load requirements are also
emphasised in this chapter.
References
1. Cengel Yunus, Thermodynamics: an engineering approach, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 2008.
2. Nag P. K, Engineering Thermodynamics: Tata-McGraw-Hill, New York,
1999.
3. ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals, 2009
4. U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy: Review of Combined Heat and Power Technologies,
October 2006
5. https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/combined-heat-and-power (Last accessed
on 16 May 2019)
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9.0 THE FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR CHP

This chapter provides a detailed account of how a feasibility study is to be carried out
prior to considering a CHP system for an industrial facility. Understanding the current
energy sources and conversion technology along with their consumption and cost can
form a baseline. This allows the facility owner to explore reducing annual energy
consumption and cost. One way to make use of most of the fuel energy input is by
using a CHP system described in the preceding chapters. However, before deciding
on such a CHP system, it is very important to carry out a technical and economic
feasibility study. In this chapter, various levels of such a feasibility study along with
the economic analysis tools that can be used for the cost benefit analysis of a CHP
system are presented.
Learning Outcomes:
1. The basics of feasibility analysis
2. CHP simulation software and tools
3. Analysis of existing CHP systems
4. Different levels of CHP feasibility studies
5. CHP economic analysis
9.1 Introduction
Prior to the consideration of a successful Combined Heat and Power (CHP) system,
a careful economic and technical feasibility evaluation of the system needs to be
carried out to convince the top management of the firm. The process of performing
the feasibility study for a CHP system includes a preliminary screening study as well
as a detailed and comprehensive study. During the feasibility study, information on
existing or proposed facilities including cooling, electrical, heating load data, etc. are
collected and analysed. In addition, technically feasible solutions to effectively and
efficiently meet the facility’s load requirements are developed. Finally, an economic
analysis using a suitable economic tool is conducted. The economic analysis shall
include estimating energy usage and the resulting cost, preparing budget cost
estimates, and calculating life-cycle costs to determine the recommended plant size
and configuration.
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The three phases of a CHP feasibility study for an existing installation are shown in
Table 9.1. Table 9.2 provides an indication of the time, effort and information required,
and typical cost.
Stages Purpose
Site screening and defining scopes To evaluate and ascertain if the site is a good
candidate for a CHP system
Preliminary assessment (Level 1) To evaluate and ascertain if a CHP system is
technically appropriate and has economic
potential
Detailed assessment (Level 2) Data collection, analysis and optimisation of
the CHP system including conceptual design
Table 9.1. Three phases of a CHP feasibility study
Stages Time required Information required Cost of study
Site screening and 2 days Site information to a Negligible
defining scopes minimal level and average
utility cost. e.g. Site layout,
nature of business, types of
energy used, energy tariff
and annual energy cost etc.
Preliminary 3 – 5 weeks 3 years of utility bills, $10,000
assessment building operation
(Level 1) information, building loads
including electrical, ACMV
and process heating loads,
future forecast on
production expansion,
equipment addition,
projected energy cost
Detailed 1 – 4 months Data collection for two to $10,000 to $100,000
assessment three weeks period, data
(Level 2) analysis and modelling,
conceptual design and cost
estimates
Table 9.2. Information required for the feasibility study
For new installations, the integration of a CHP system is like any other mechanical
and electrical system (such as hybrid chiller plants and air side systems). The
feasibility of CHP systems in new installations should be part of the project design
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process, which is typically performed during the programming or planning stage. For
the above-mentioned CHP feasibility studies, currently, quite a number of popular and
proven building energy simulation programs are available. Some of the commonly
used software are: HAP, Visual DOE, eQuest, Energy Plus and IES, etc.
The cost-effectiveness of CHP systems can be evaluated in the early stages of the
system design. A section of this chapter describes the procedure of analysing a CHP
system for new construction.
9.2 CHP Simulation Software and Tools

Due to the variable nature of loads in an industrial environment, detailed sizing of CHP
systems is not straightforward for most practical situations. The occurrence of
concurrent heating and cooling loads as well as the varying nature of electrical
demand, along with plant-level equipment performance factors and the time-variant
nature of electrical and gas tariffs make the sizing an even more complicated process.
In addition, due to unprecedented technological advancement, several state-of-the-

art feasible equipment and system configurations are available. Selection of the best
among them while considering issues of uncertainty and variability is a challenging
task indeed. However, the availability of numerous proven energy simulation and
analysis software provides some degree of respite in the CHP system feasibility study.
If one does not have access to these software, a customised Excel spreadsheet could
also be developed for the feasibility study of the system. Figure 9.1 shows a computer
screen shot of such a customised Excel spreadsheet developed for CHP systems in
Singapore.
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PLANT INFORMATION Parameters

5MW Gas
System: Turbine
No of machines 1
Max electricity Load in MW * assume 30% electrical
(gross) 4.7 efficiency
Max auxiliary electricity Load
in MW 0.3
Actual CHP Electrical Load in

MW (gross): 4.70
Actual CHP Electrical Load in
MW (net): 4.40
Actual Steam from CHP (t/h) 12.00
CHP Load factor 100%

CHP Availability 100%
Load profile Steady
Annual Operating hours 8300

HSFO (US$/MT) 400
FX (US$ to S$) 1.5
Hurdle Rate 10%
$
Cost per CHP (S$) 8,500,000.00
No of years amortised 15
Units Current With CHP Assumptions

Electricity
Electrical Base Load demand MW 6 6
For CHP -
electricity
import during
Annual Electricity imported downtime to be
from Grid MWh 49800 13280 considered
CHP system
Annual Electricity generated availability to
from CHP MWh 0 36520 be considered
Steam
Steam demand (8 barg, 1 t/h approx
saturated) t/h 12 12 0.644MW
Annual Steam generated by
Boilers Tons/A 99600 0
CHP system
Annual Steam generated by availability to
CHP Tons/A 0 99600 be considered
Annual Fuel consumption
(LHV basis)
To cater for CHP
Boiler mmbtu 243171 0 downtime
CHP system
mmbtu availability to
CHP (no duct firing capability) (HHV) 0 488041 be considered
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Figure 9.1 A sample CHP feasibility analysis Excel spreadsheet
9.3 CHP Analysis of Existing Facility

CHP analysis of an existing industrial facility is initiated with a site screening taking a
maximum of two days. This site screening will help to determine if a CHP system
makes technical and economic sense for the facility’s year-round operations. This
screening is typically conducted in liaison with the facility managing team, answering
specific questions before undertaking the engineering and economic analyses. As
indicated in Table 9.2, the required information for this screening is minimal.
Formulation of a simple spreadsheet will also be helpful for this case with the
spreadsheet addressing the question “Is My Facility a Good Candidate for CHP?” A
set of 12 questions is shown in Table 9.3; if the answer is yes for three or more of
these questions, the facility may be a good candidate for CHP. If the site is indeed
found to be a good candidate, a Level 1 feasibility study could be undertaken.
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No. Questions
1 What is your current electricity tariff? More than $0.13/kWh?
2 Are you concerned about the impact of current or future energy tariffs on your
business operations?
3 Are you concerned about power reliability? Is there a substantial financial or
other impact to your business if the business operation is disrupted for 1 hr.?/
for 10 minutes?
4 Does your facility operate more than 5,000 hours per year?
5 Do you have heating (steam, hot water, chilled water using absorption chiller,
hot air, etc.) requirement throughout the year?
6 Currently, do you have a central plant?
7 Do you anticipate a replacement, upgrading or retrofitting of central plant
equipment within the next 3-5 years?
8 Do you anticipate a facility/production expansion within the next 3-5 years?
9 Have you already retrofitted your facility with any energy efficient measures
but still have high energy cost?
10 Do you intend to reduce your inefficient energy consumption impact on the
environment?
11 Do you have access to any nearby biomass resources? e.g. food processing
waste etc.
Table 9.3. Questionnaire for the CHP suitability check
9.3.1 CHP Level 1 feasibility study

The purpose of the CHP Level 1 feasibility study is to determine the technical
applicability and the economic benefits of the CHP system for the facility under
consideration. Essentially, the level 1 feasibility study requires an experienced facility
level engineer familiar with CHP technology and with a good understanding of the
electrical, thermal, and cooling loads as well as the equipment operation. The main
task of this facility engineer will be to collect and analyse data, and apply his/her
engineering judgement to whether the CHP system will deliver economic benefits to
the facility.
The CHP level 1 feasibility study starts with data collection with highly accurate
instrumentation. For example, temperature, flow rate and power are trend logged for
a sufficient period of time with thermistors, non-intrusive type flow meters (ultrasonic
flow meter) and clamp-on power meters, respectively.
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Prior to the data gathering, a level 1 feasibility analysis checklist comprising the
following main elements is prepared:
• Contact information
• Site information and data
• As-built drawings of building, chiller and boiler plants, etc.
• Electricity and fuel use data
• Thermal loads like heating, cooling, domestic hot water, etc.
• Existing equipment design specifications
• Other relevant data
These data can be acquired by liaising with the facility team that is in charge and
responsible for the daily operation of the various systems and equipment.
Subsequent to the data collection, the engineer will proceed with the following tasks:
Hurdle Identification
This first and foremost step involves the identification of any major uncontrollable
hurdles that will prevent the project from being implemented. Typical examples of
such hurdles are:
• long-term corporate power purchase contracts that will not allow installation of
on-site power generation
• local utility and regulatory policies that add CHP constraints and costs
• stringent local building and environmental codes
• special requirements for the stack to exhaust the products of combustion
• space for prime mover and auxiliary equipment
• noise level constraints, etc.
If any one of these hurdles is revealed during this stage of the economic analysis, it
should be eliminated by adopting the optimum and best available solution.
Conceptual Engineering Design

This stage includes the sizing and identifying of prime mover technology along with
thermally operated equipment such as absorption chillers for waste heat utilisation.
Basically, the conceptual engineering design of the CHP system will be based on the
site load requirements such as electrical, cooling and heating load profiles.
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The electrical energy consumption profile could be obtained from utility bills, sub-
metering (electrical, steam/hot water, chilled water) or in some cases, from trend data.
The cooling and heating load profiles could be obtained from the trend logged data of
a sufficient duration (e.g. two weeks).
Another approach for obtaining the building load profiles is by calibrated simulation.
This is the use of hour-by-hour building energy simulation by using energy simulation
software such as Carrier Hourly Analysis Program (HAP) or Equest to calibrate
various physical inputs to the developed building model so that the actual energy use
from utility bills or other sources matches closely with that predicted by the building
energy simulation. The accuracy of the calibrated simulation depends heavily on the
data available from the site personnel. The results of the calibrated simulation are a
set of 8760 hourly values for electrical demand, thermal energy for space heating,
domestic hot water, and cooling energy. This information along with proper tools can
be used for optimal sizing of the prime mover and thermally operated chiller with
available analytical tools. It can be as simple as a customised Excel spreadsheet.
In cases where the site has already implemented (or plans to implement) energy
conservation measures (ECM), it is important to take these measures into account in
the optimal sizing of the prime mover(s) and, if applicable, the absorption chiller. In
addition to equipment sizing, the engineer or the CHP project developer will
investigate the proper prime mover technology (reciprocating engines, gas turbine,
microturbine, etc.). Despite the capability of the available analytical tools to optimise
the prime movers, it is suggested that several prime mover alternatives be considered.
This could be in terms of the prime mover sizes, technology, the best available
absorption chillers, etc.
In the event of the unavailability of an optimum sizing tool, it is advisable for the design
engineer to start off with a prime mover or movers with the capability of providing a
portion of the site electrical power demand and the majority of the site thermal load.
The shortfall site electrical power resulting from this design approach could be
imported from the Singapore electricity grid. This approach is known as thermal load
matching resulting in higher system efficiency since it maximises the use of waste
heat.
The following is a summary of different types of CHP design options:
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Island Mode Operation: where the CHP site is stand-alone, i.e. the CHP plant is not
connected to the local grid, and hence all the thermal and electrical needs have to be
met by the CHP system. In this mode of operation, excess standby capacity for
scheduled and unscheduled maintenance as well as momentary demand spikes and
energy creep issues must also be considered.
Electric Base Load Design: Sized by electric base-load where the CHP system is
sized such that it meets the minimum electricity billing demand which can be
established from the past electricity bills. Any shortfall in electrical power is purchased
from the local electricity grid. Similarly, any thermal energy shortfalls have to be met
by a separate economical heating source.
Thermal Base Load Design: where the CHP system is sized so that most of the
facility’s thermal load is met with heat recovered from the CHP prime mover, with any
excess electrical power sold to the electricity grid and any shortfalls in electrical power
met by importing from the local grid.
Intermediate Loads Design: where some amount of thermal load and some amount
of electrical load are met by the CHP system. In reality, this is probably the most
common design option because of the fact that the final CHP design and equipment
sizing will depend on location-specific economics and issues such as energy security
and reliability. Economic issues not only involve the consideration of cost of thermal
and electrical energies, but also the operation and maintenance costs of the
equipment as well as environmental costs.
Peak Load Design: where the CHP system is specifically designed to shed electrical
demand during the peak period, and thereby save on demand charges.
Economic Analysis
The CHP level 1 feasibility study is intended to determine the economic feasibility of
a CHP system. An economic analysis is very important as well at this stage of the
CHP system feasibility study. Typically, one should carry out an economic analysis
using just a simple payback period tool to quantify the economic benefits without
taking into account the time value of money and discounting factors. etc. As the name
suggests, this simple payback way of evaluating the economic return is the simplest
compared to more accurate and sophisticated methods such as net present value,
internal rate of return (IRR), and life-cycle costs (LCC). The simple payback period
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method is the least accurate of all the methods because it does not take into account
the time value of money, unlike all the other more accurate economic tools.
The simple payback period is the ratio of the capital or investment cost to the annual
net cost savings. The cost of borrowing money, inflation, and other factors associated
with the operation of the system during its lifetime are ignored in this method.
However, the simple payback analysis does take into account the following:
• Heat and power produced by the CHP system, and the estimated amount of
each to be used on the site
• Avoided costs of utility-purchased heat and power
• Cost of fuel associated with running the CHP system
• Cost estimates to install and maintain the system
• Available incentives for CHP installations
These variables are applied to each of the proposed alternatives. It should be noted
that, often, estimated equipment pricing is quite accurate at this initial stage, but other
project development costs (such as the cost of CHP system tie-in and site
construction expenditures, additional structural work, noise and pollution) are
preliminary. Given these uncertainties it is important that reasonable estimates for all
other turnkey costs associated with CHP system implementation, operation, and
maintenance be included in this preliminary budget. Sometimes additional analysis
will be required to account for benefits such as backup power in events of utility outage
or potential increase in the utility rates.
The determination to proceed to a level 2 feasibility study will depend on the simple
payback estimates, since owners have an upper threshold value based on their own
economic criteria., If all of the previously mentioned costs and benefits are included
in the preliminary economic analysis, it should provide a fairly accurate representation
of the opportunity or benefit of the CHP project. It should be clear, however, that the
results of this economic analysis are simply a necessary phase before proceeding to
the more accurate economic study that is part of the level 2 feasibility study.
Typical Report Outline for CHP Level 1 Feasibility Study

The recommended structure of a level 1 CHP feasibility study shall be as follows:
1. Executive summary
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2. Preliminary analysis and assessment

(a) Facility description
(b) Baseline utility cost
(c) Facility electrical, thermal, and cooling load profiles
(d) CHP systems design options and alternatives
(e) Engineering and energy analysis of CHP system design alternatives
(f) Emissions
(g) Utility interconnection
(h) Power reliability
(i) Budgetary installation and maintenance costs
3. Economic analysis
4. Conclusions and recommendations for level 2 feasibility study
5. Appendix
9.3.2 CHP level 2 feasibility study

Once a level 1 feasibility study has found that CHP is economically and technically
feasible, the level 2 feasibility study can be started. Many of the preliminary
assumptions used in the level 1 feasibility study will be replaced with more accurate
data. Additional data such as operational goals, controls, monitoring, and off-grid
capabilities will also be considered in this study. This will help to revise and optimise
the preliminary sizing presented in the level 1 feasibility study. The results of level 2
feasibility study should include all the information needed to make a decision on
whether to proceed with the project, and typically include the following:
• More accurate estimated construction, operation, and maintenance pricing

• Estimates of the final project economics with a simple payback schedule and
a life-cycle cost analysis of the total investment
The economic analysis will be based on final system sizing and proposed operation
and will be based on more accurate thermal and electrical load profiles. Accurate data
in this regard is measured data obtained from trending (utilising the existing control
system or installing new instrumentation) or from electrical utility interval data.
Planned site expansion or new construction has to be considered and coordinated
with various entities in this facility; for example, engineering, planning, and
construction. In cases where the CHP plant is part of a new construction substantial
cost savings can be achieved, and these avoided costs have to be incorporated in the
total implementation cost resulting in improved return on investment of the system.
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Several site visits and a comprehensive review of the existing conditions will be
required as part of this study, thereby allowing the decision maker to make a well
supported decision.
Typically, a CHP level 2 feasibility analysis report should include the following:
• Site load profiles
• System operational schedule
• Mechanical and electrical system components
• Heat recovery
• Systems efficiency
• Sound levels
• System vibration
• Space considerations
• System availability during utility outage
• Utility interconnection
• Emissions and permitting
• Capital cost
• Fuel costs
• Maintenance costs
• Availability of incentives
Economic analysis including life-cycle analysis

• Financing options
• Preliminary project schedule
• Supporting documents for project execution (proposals, costs, design documents,
etc.)
Typical Report Outline for Level 2 Feasibility Study

As in the case of CHP level 1 feasibility study report, the recommended structure of a
level 2 CHP feasibility study shall be as follows:
• Executive summary
• Description of existing site plan and equipment
• Site energy requirement
• CHP equipment selection
• Description of preferred CHP system
• System operation
• Regulatory and permitting requirements overview
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• Total CHP systems costs

• Assumptions for cash flow analysis
• Discounted cash flow analysis for preferred system
• Appendices
9.3.3 CHP feasibility study for new facilities

CHP systems for new installations can be considered during the early stages of the
design or called conceptual design phase. The same qualification test of existing
facility can be applied for the new facilities as well. If a CHP system is found to be
favourable, the designer can propose a CHP system as part of the development of
the design alternatives. With the increased utilisation of building energy simulation
programmes like IES, Equest and Energy Plus, etc., a preliminary model of the facility
can be developed to assist the designer in analysing various design alternatives. A
proposed CHP system can be one of the alternatives or one of several design
alternatives involving different CHP system sizes. Since optimal CHP prime mover
sizing is more complex than other mechanical and electrical equipment in buildings,
it can be very beneficial to combine the strength of the building energy simulation
program and other tools for optimal selection of the CHP prime mover and absorption
chiller.
9.4 CHP Economic Analysis

CHP economic analysis is the process by which the economic factors surrounding a
proposed CHP plant are analysed to determine if the project makes economic sense
and that the project is a good investment of the stakeholders’ funds. The criteria for
defining a project as economically viable will vary from project to project, but at a
minimum the project typically needs to save money over the “business-as-usual”
(BAU) case. More stringent criteria may require the project to perform at least as well
as a competing investment. Methods of economic analysis vary from a simple
payback analysis to the more complicated and detailed life-cycle-cost (LCC) analysis
discussed in detail in this chapter.
Economic Feasibility
It is recommended to perform an energy audit, to identify areas where improvements
to existing utility systems can be made. Design of a CHP system should be based on
an optimised energy base-load.
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The cost benefit of installing a CHP plant shall be made by comparing with the
following:
• Current methods/ costs of power procurement
• Current methods / costs of heat (steam) procurement (fuel / technology)
• Age of current systems (do they need to be replaced?)
• Other factors to consider include:
• Company’s hurdle rate
• Any plant expansion
• Availability of fuel
• Engineering Capability (O&M support, Facility Management, etc.)
• Modifications to Infrastructure (If any)
• Load profile
A Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) provides the CHP system developer with a snapshot
of the current market condition. The CBA should not be used to make a decision to
invest in a CHP system because other factors also need to be considered. The other
factors which are to be considered include oil prices, availability of fuel, fuel switching
as well as foreign exchange. One or more of these factors may change with time
which would diminish the attractiveness of implementing a CHP system. Therefore, a
sensitivity study should also be made based on changes in these factors. It is also a
good idea to determine the breakeven point at which it does not make sense to invest.
Figure 9.2 Sensitivity analysis for a CHP system
The various economic tools used in the economic analysis of a CHP system are:
• Simple payback period
• Return on investment (ROI)
• Cash flow analysis
• Net present value (NPV)
• Discounted payback period
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• Internal rate of return (IRR)
Each of these economic tools is briefly described in the following sections.
Simple Payback Period

Simple payback period is an estimation of how long it will take to recover the initial
investment.
Mathematically, Simple payback period = Capital investment / annual savings
Example:
The investment for a new energy efficient chiller is $1 million. The expected annual
savings is $100,000
Solution
Simple payback period = $ 1million / $100,000 = 10 years
The advantages and disadvantages of the Simple Payback Period are as follows:
Advantages:
• Simple to use
• Gives an immediate indication of how long it will take to recover the
investments
• Useful when time scale is small
• Provides an indication of when cash flow will become positive
Disadvantages:
• Does not consider time value of money
• Does not account for cash flows after payback period
Return on Investment (ROI)

The Return on Investment expresses the annual return from the project as a
percentage of the investment cost
Mathematically, ROI = (Annual net cash flow / capital cost) x 100
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In order to make an investment decision, the rate of return should be higher than cost
of capital (interest rate). The greater the difference between ROI and interest rate, the
better the investment for the project
The advantages and disadvantages of the ROI are as follows:
Advantages:
• Simple to use
• Provides indication of Return from investment (to compare with cost of capital)
Disadvantages:
• Does not consider time value of money
• Does not consider variable nature of cash flow
Example
A new chiller A will cost $500,000 and will provide savings of $80,000 a year. Another
new chiller B will cost $550,000 and will provide savings of $85,000 a year. Compare
the ROI for the above 2 options.
Solution
Return on Investment (ROI) for the chiller A = $80,000/$500,000 = 0.16 = 16%

Return on Investment (ROI) for the chiller B = $85,000/$550,000 = 0.155 = 15.5%
Cashflow Analysis
Cash flow resulting from a project may not be uniform due to reasons such as varying
nature of electricity tariff, maintenance cost, utilisation hours of the new system, tax
rates, etc. Hence, a cashflow analysis covering the entire life span of the new system
or equipment needs to be carried out. An example of such a cash flow analysis is
given below:
Example 9.1
The investment cost for new equipment is $250,000. Expected energy savings are
$50,000 based on the present electricity tariff. There will be no maintenance cost for
the first year of operation. Thereafter, the annual preventive maintenance cost will be
$5,000 a year. An additional maintenance cost of $5,000 will be charged every 5 years
starting from the 5th year of operation. Assume that the electricity tariff will increase
by 5% a year from the 2nd year, prepare the cash flow for the first 10 years of
operation.
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Solution
Time Value of Money

Project cash flows (expenditure and savings) will result during the expected life of the
project. The typical project life of a CHP system would be close to 20 years or more.
Therefore, the value of cash flows resulting during different years will not be the same.
To assess the feasibility of a project taking this into account, the present and future
cash flows need to be converted to a common basis. A discounting factor is used to
convert all the future cash flows to the present value (PV) of money. For example, if
$1.00 is deposited in a bank account which pays 5% interest, the money deposited
will be worth $1.05 in one year. Therefore, money value of $1.05 in one year has a
present value of $1.00. Similarly, the value of $1.00 in one year has a present value
of $0.95 (i.e. 1/1.05 = 0.95).
Present value can be expressed mathematically as:

PV = FV / (1 + i)n
where,
FV = future value of cash flow at end of year “n”
i = interest rate or discounting rate
n = number of years in the future
Example 9.2
Calculate the PV for a cash flow of $100,000 which will result in the 2nd year if the
discounting rate is 5%.
Solution
PV = FV / (1 + i)n = 100,000/(1+0.05)2 = $90,702
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Net Present Value (NPV)

Net present value is the sum of the present values of cash flows resulting from a
project.
Net present value can be expressed mathematically as:

𝐹𝑣𝑛
NPV = ∑𝑛
1 − 𝐼0
(1+𝑖)𝑛
where,
FVn = future value of cash flow at end of year “n”
Io = initial investment
For a project economic evaluation using NPV,

If NPV > 0, the investment would add value to the company and the project may be
accepted
If NPV < 0, the investment would diminish value from the company and the project
should be rejected
If NPV = 0, the investment would not gain or lose value for the company and the
decision whether to proceed or reject the project would depend on other factors
Example 9.3
Calculate the NPV for the following two projects taking the discounting rate to be 5%
Solution
Project A:
NPV = 200,000/(1+0.05)1+200,000/(1+0.05)2+200,000/(1+0.05)3+200,000/(1+0.05)4
– 500,000
= 190,476 + 181,406 + 172,768 +164,540 - 500,000
= $209,190
Project B:
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NPV = 260,000/(1+0.05)1+260,000/(1+0.05)2+260,000/(1+0.05)3+260,000/(1+0.05)4
– 700,000
= 247,619 + 235,828 + 224,598 + 213,903 – 700,000
= $221,948
Table 9.4 Discounting factor
If the project NPV (based on the discounting rate used) is positive, the project is
considered to be acceptable.
The advantages and disadvantages of NPV are as follows:

Advantages:
Considers time value of money
Takes into account variable nature of cash flow
Can tell whether the investment will increase the company’s value
Disadvantages:
Requires an estimate of the cost of capital
Provides an absolute $ value (not a %)
The discounting rate used in the economic analysis of a CHP system project should
take into consideration the following:
• borrowing cost
• return on investment (opportunity cost)
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• project risk and other factors
Examples (without considering risk) :

If a CHP system project requires funds to be borrowed at 7% interest rate - the
discounting rate should be 7%. On the other hand, using the firm’s own funds, if an
alternative investment can bring returns of 10%, then the discounting rate should be
taken as 10%.
If one of the CHP system projects requires $4 million for which $1 million is to be
borrowed at 7% while $3 million will be from the company’s own funds which can yield
10% in an alternative investment, then the discounting rate is calculated by giving the
respective weightage on the borrowed and own money as follows:
Discounting rate can be taken as 10%, or weighted average = (0.25 x 7%) + (0.75 x
10%) = 9.25%
Discounted Payback Period

This method uses the discounted cash flows to compute the payback period and
therefore accounts for time value of money.
Mathematically, discounted payback period is expressed as:

Discounted payback period = year before recovery + (unrecovered cost at the
beginning of the year / cash flow during the year)
Example 9.4
Calculate the discounted payback period for the following project taking the
discounting rate to be 7%
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Solution
Discounted payback period = year before recovery +

(unrecovered cost at the beginning of the year / cash flow during the year)
= 3 + (1,500,000 – 1,175,028) / 457,737
= 3 + 0.71
= 3.71 years
Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

The economic evaluation tool, Internal Rate of Return, calculates the rate of return a
CHP system investment is expected to make. The rate of return is the interest
(discounting) rate at which the NPV = 0 (i.e. discounted benefits = discounted costs)
NPV = 0 = FV0/(1+i)0 + FV1/(1+i)1 + FV2/(1+i)2 +……. + FVn/(1+i)n
where,
FVn = future value of cash flow at end of year “n” (positive for savings and negative
for expenditure)
In the IRR method of economic evaluation, the value of “i” (discounting rate) needs to
be calculated by trial & error. IRR should be higher than the “hurdle rate” for the
company investing in the CHP system project. For different CHP system investment
options, the one with the highest rate of return should normally be chosen.
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Example 9.5
For the following project cash flow, compute the IRR
Solution
1 2 3 4
NPV = 0 = 200,000/(1+i) + 200,000/(1+i) + 200,000/(1+i) + 200,000/(1+i) - 500,000
By trial & error, use i = 5%
1 2 3
NPV = 200,000/(1+0.05) + 200,000/(1+0.05) + 200,000/(1+0.05) +
200,000/(1+0.05)4-500,000 = 190,476 + 181,406 + 172,768 + 164,540 - 500,000
= $209,190
Next try i = 15%
1 2 3
NPV = 200,000/(1+0.15) + 200,000/(1+0.15) + 200,000/(1+0.15)
4
+200,000/(1+0.15) -500,000
= 173,913+ 151,229+ 131,503+ 114,351 - 500,000
= $70,996 (still positive)
Next try i = 25%
1 2 3
NPV = 200,000/(1+0.25) + 200,000/(1+0.25) + 200,000/(1+0.25)
4
+ 200,000/(1+0.25) -500,000
= 160,000+ 128,000+ 102,400+ 81,920 - 500,000
= $-27,680
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Therefore, this project investment, the IRR is between 15% and 25%.
It is to be noted that the NPV, IRR types of economic evaluation can easily be carried
out using the built-in functions of the Excel spreadsheet.
The advantages and disadvantages of the IRR method are as follows:
Advantages:
Uses time value of money
Considers variable cash flows
Able to compare with hurdle rate
Disadvantages:
Requires an estimate of the cost of capital
Does not show improvement in $ value
Cannot allow more than one change in sign of cash flows
Some of the terminologies related to the economic analysis are described below:
Inflation Rates
Inflation rates are the rates at which the costs of goods or services increase. The
inflation rates vary from country to country.
The inflation rates that are typically considered in a Life Cycle Cost analysis are as
follows:
• Cost of energy (purchased electricity and fuel),
• Cost of labour (operations and maintenance labor, as well as administrative
labour costs),
• Cost of permits,
• Cost of spare parts and general goods
Length of Analysis
The length of the LCC analysis of a CHP system is an important consideration. A
typical Life Cycle Cost Analysis is approximately 20 to 25 years, though it will vary
from project to project. As a CHP system consists of different components with varying
useful service life, it would be more difficult to estimate the useful life span of the entire
CHP plant. For example, the plant building may have a 50-year life, the prime mover
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a 20-year life, and the piping a 30-year life. The confidence level of the economic
analysis weakens as one gets into more micro levels of the CHP project. However,
the project investors may have a standard analysis length that is used for all analyses,
or a specified time period in which they need to achieve the projected savings.
Salvage Value
Salvage value, or scrap value as it is interchangeably called, is the value of an asset,
usually with a fairly high capital cost, at the end of its useful service life, e.g. car,
chiller, boiler, building, etc. Whether or not salvage value is considered is primarily
dependent on the length of the analysis, as discussed in the above paragraph. If the
salvage value of any equipment that reaches the end of its useful service life is
considered in the Cost Benefit Analysis, one of the stumbling blocks or hurdles in the
economic analysis could be overcome. It is also to be noted that the actual effective
amount of the salvage value and its significance to the overall analysis depends on
many factors, such as whether the equipment was fully depreciated at the point of
salvaging, market value of the equipment, which in turn can be affected strongly by
the advancement of related technologies, and the cost of demolition/removal of the
item, etc.
9.5 Calculating Estimated Energy Use and Cost of a CHP plant

The energy cost constitutes the lion’s share of the annual costs in the Life Cycle Cost
analysis of a CHP plant. The energy usage could be estimated from the historical data
or simulated from computer modeling. In Singapore, typically, the energy use in the
industrial sector is in the form of electricity or natural gas consumption. In Singapore,
the electricity tariffs are expressed in $/kWh, while natural gas tariff is usually
expressed in $/MMBtu. Electricity rate schedules also include demand charge, which
is an additional charge separate from the rate charge. Demand charge depends on
the maximum power usage during the on-peak period, also referred to as the demand
period. The purpose of the demand charge is to reflect the cost of providing utility and
distribution capacity to meet a facility’s peak electrical requirement. With the recent
liberalisation of the Singapore electricity market, the utility suppliers in the contestable
sectors tailor their rates specifically to the needs of their consumers. In the Singapore
electricity market, there are peak and off-peak tariffs.
The various energy costs that are to be considered in the CHP system cost estimates
are as follows:
• Electrical energy costs.
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• Electricity power costs (demand charges).

• Standby charges. (Some electrical utilities will charge an interconnected
facility a standby charge to guarantee electrical power capacity equal to the
installed capacity of the CHP plant.
• Natural gas or fuel oil charges.
In order to estimate the energy costs, one must first estimate the energy usage in the
facility where the CHP system is going to be installed. The first step in establishing
the energy usage is to analyse the facility energy usage profiles through measurement
or from the historical utility bills for at least 3 or 4 years.
Energy usage profiles that are considered in analysing a CHP plant are electricity
usage, thermal usage (e.g., heating, domestic hot water production), and cooling
usage. The interaction of these energy usages determines how the facility’s energy
needs will be met using the conventional method, as well as under each of the CHP
options being considered. Once the energy usage is determined, costs can be
assigned to each component of energy used (or saved).
These days, several commercially available proven and user-friendly software

programmes are available for estimating the energy usage of many types of CHP
system applications. Some of the advantages in using the software models are ease
of use, repeatability, and presumed quality assurance of the model. Disadvantages of
using the software include limitations in modelling unique CHP plant applications, and
the model may have unnoticed flaws producing inaccurate but sensible outputs.
Customised spreadsheet models can be created that allow for very detailed analysis
of unique or “out of the ordinary” CHP applications, or allow the modelling to report a
unique aspect of the results.
Advantages of spreadsheet modelling with for example, Microsoft Excel, include:

• Ability to build a detailed and customised model
• Increased ability to follow the logic behind each calculation step
Some of the disadvantages of spreadsheets are:

• Models require more time for initial creation and checking
• A higher chance of errors if close attention is not paid to detail
• A lack of annual hour-by-hour calculation
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• Making even small changes to the model once it is substantially complete can
prove challenging
Estimating Annual Operation and Maintenance Costs involves calculating the

following costs:
• Preventive/periodic maintenance of CHP equipment

• Costs of consumables (lubricants, test gas for emissions monitoring, etc.)
• Repair of CHP equipment
• Rebuilding equipment during the life of the analysis
• Cost of permitting and annual testing (i.e., permit to operate, emissions
control)
• testing
• Cost of operators and maintenance personnel
• Cost of administrative staff
9.6 CHP System Budgetary Construction Costs

Depending on the depth of the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis being prepared, budget
construction cost estimates can range anywhere from a cost ($) per kilowatt basis to
a detailed item-by-item cost estimate basis. One can obtain equipment
manufacturer/vendor quotes, cost estimating publications, contractor estimates, and
professional costs estimators to come up with the total budgetary construction cost. It
is advisable to always obtain multiple vendor quotes for all major equipment because
of the expensive nature of such equipment. The key to preparing an accurate budget
construction cost estimate is having a keen understanding of how the plant will be
constructed. For example, knowing the installation cost of a main item alone may not
be adequate and will not provide an accurate cost indication unless a clear picture is
also available of the cost of all components., For example, in the case of a piping
installation, the piping cost has to be furnished along with that of hangers, supports,
and bracing in order to estimate the correct cost. Thinking further about possible
constraints of the installation location, if the installer will be working in a tight space or
at high platform levels, then the earlier assumed project cost may increase as a result
of higher than anticipated installation costs.
CHP system construction cost estimation based on publications provide the raw
material and labour costs. However, the actual cost may vary by 10% to 20 % for
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materials and up to 50% for labour. Location factors also need to be considered while
estimating the budgetary construction cost of CHP systems.
Other factors include the following:
Local Taxes: Sales tax may be applicable to all purchased material depending on the
locale and is applied to the subtotal including the above markups and location factors.
General requirements: General requirements such as contractors’ cost of
reproduction, office equipment, construction trailers, mobilisation and demobilisation,
project management, etc. Typical values are often around 5 percent and are either
estimated individually or the 5 percent factor is applied to the subtotal including the
sales tax.
Contingency: It is common to have a contingency amount to be added to cover

unexpected costs. Contingencies may range from 5% to 25% based on the nature of
the cost estimates.
Insurance and bonds: This is for the contractors and their labour and even for an
expensive piece of equipment, this could be roughly around 3%.
Contractor’s overhead and profit. This typically ranges from 10 to 15 percent and is
applied to the subtotal including the insurance and bonds.
Owner’s project costs. Project costs additional to the budget construction costs should
be included in the LCC analysis. These include: cost of engineering design, testing,
and inspection fees, and the owner’s construction administration. Project costs are
typically about 20% of the construction costs.
9.7 Calculating Life Cycle Cost (LCC)

Life Cycle Cost is the summation of all the component costs such as the capital cost,
the annual operating and maintenance costs including energy costs, the borrowing
cost and any taxes. The time value of money is used for converting the future value
of money to present value (the net present value) so that alternatives can be
compared on an ‘apples to apples’ basis.
Table 9.5 Example of economic factors assumed for the LCC
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A sample of Life Cycle Cost calculation is shown in Tables 9.6 to 9.7. Table 9.5 shows
assumed economic factors like discounting rate, fuel and electricity escalation rates,
etc. Table 9.5 shows the annual costs, escalated year by year over the project life and
equated to the present worth, and Table 9.6 provides a summary of the LCC
calculation. In a sample calculation as shown in Table 9.6, the total present cost is
$49,378,164 which is the sum of the $12,000,000 project cost and the $37,378,164
NPV of the annual costs.
Table 9.6 Sample Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCC)
Note that the sum of the annual costs is nearly $62 million, but the future value is
discounted to the amount shown in Table 9.6. The total present costs of an alternative
would then be compared with that of other alternatives to determine the alternative
with the lowest LCC.
Project Cost ($) NPV of Annual Cost ($) Total Present Cost ($)
12,000,000 37,378,164 49,378,164
Table 9.7 Sample Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCC)
Note that the sum of the annual costs is nearly $49 million, but the future value is
discounted to the amount shown in Table 9.7. The total NPV of an alternative would
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then be compared with that of other alternatives to determine the alternative with the
lowest LCC.
Summary
As with any major engineering project, the CHP system planning and design stage
needs a detailed technical and economic feasibility study to evaluate the feasibility of
going ahead with the project. In this chapter, such a feasibility study along with various
economic analysis tools are presented to aid practising industry professionals
currently dealing with or who may deal with CHP systems in future.
References
2006.
2. ASHRAE Fundamentals, Handbook, 2009
3. American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, URL:https://aceee.org ›
Topics (Last accessed on 16 May 2019)
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10.0 THE CHP REGULATORY ISSUES IN SINGAPORE

This chapter provides detailed information on the regulatory framework one should
follow in the planning and implementation stages of Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Systems in Singapore.
Learning Outcomes:
1. The registration of different types of CHP systems
2. The basic terminologies associated with the regulatory requirements
3. The Singapore electricity market
4. The various local authorities involved in the CHP system registration
10.1 Introduction
Prior to the planning, design and implementation of a CHP system, it is very important
to have a good understanding of various local regulatory requirements in Singapore
as far as CHP systems are concerned. Singapore’s national electricity grid is highly
interconnected and complex, and regulatory requirements are also stringent for grid-
connected CHP systems. The important CHP related regulatory requirements are
controlled by EMA, EMC and NEA, etc. In this Chapter, such regulatory requirements
are described for practising engineers to have a better understanding of the relevant
regulatory requirements pertaining to CHP systems.
10.2 Basic Terminologies and Key Players in the Singapore Electricity Market
In this section, a brief account of the basic terminologies and the key players in the
Singapore electricity market are provided.
Basic terminologies
1. Co-generation: Simultaneous generation of heat and electrical power
2. CCGT: Combined Cycle Gas Turbine
3. Dispatch: The process by which generation is coordinated in real time to meet

demand
4. PSO: Power system operator. In Singapore, the power system operator is

the Energy Market Authority of Singapore (EMA)
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5. Dispatchable generator: A generator that is capable of following dispatch

instructions from the PSO
6. Dispatch Period: A thirty-minute time interval beginning on the hour or the half-
hour during which dispatch is being effected
7. Node: Any of the injection or exit points on the transmission system in the
market model
8. Nodal price: An electricity price at a specific location
9. Real-time dispatch: A schedule determined by the Energy Market Authority

that contains the quantities of energy, reserve and regulation scheduled in
respect of a registered facility
10. EMA: Energy Market Authority, the PSO in Singapore
11. EMC: Energy Market Company
12. Real-time market: The wholesale electricity markets operated by the EMC for
energy, reserve or regulation
13. Regulation: In relation to a generating unit, the frequent adjustment to its

output so that any power system frequency variations or imbalances between
load and the output from generation facilities can be corrected
14. Regulator: The entity that has regulatory oversight over the Singapore
electricity market (the EMA)
15. Reserve: Spare capacity that can be used quickly to maintain supply when
there is mismatch between supply and demand
16. WEQ: Withdrawal Energy Quantity from the grid
17. IEQ: Injection Energy Quantity into the grid
18. USEP: Uniform Singapore Energy Price
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19. HEUC: Hourly Energy Uplift Charges
20. MEP: Market Energy Price
The size of the CHP systems and their corresponding categorisation is tabulated as
follows:
CHP Capacity Category
< 1MWe Small
1 to 10 MWe Medium
> 10 MWe Large
Table 10.1: CHP system categorisation based on the size
10.3 Key Players in the Singapore Electricity Industry

10.3.1 The Market Operator
The Energy Market Company (EMC) is the electricity market operator in Singapore.
The EMC is a joint venture between the EMA and M-Co (The Marketplace Company)
Pte Ltd, a wholly-owned subsidiary of M-Co International Ltd of New Zealand.
10.3.2 The Power System Operator

The Energy Market Authority is the Power System Operator (PSO) in Singapore. As
the PSO, the EMA ensures the reliable supply of electricity to consumers and the
secure operation of the power system. The EMA as the PSO also controls the
dispatch of generation facilities in the National Electricity Market of Singapore
(NEMS). In addition, the EMA coordinates outage and emergency planning, and
directs the operation of Singapore’s high-voltage transmission system.
10.3.3 The Transmission Licensee

SP Power Assets is the Transmission Licensee in Singapore. It owns the national
power grid in Singapore. SP Power Assets has appointed SP Power Grid as the
transmission agent to operate and maintain the Singapore power grid.
10.3.4 The Generation Licensees

Singapore’s three largest electricity generating companies are Senoko Power, Power
Seraya and Tuas Power. There are other electricity generation companies as well,
who contribute to the Singapore electricity market with their smaller capacity
generators. More information on the Singapore power generators and their respective
generation capacities will be described in the next section of this chapter.
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As per the Singapore regulations, any company that generates electricity needs a
generation licence if one or more generating units have an individual nameplate rating
of 10 MW or above. If the generation system is connected to the national power grid,
the generating unit(s) must be registered with EMC and will have to compete to secure
dispatch in NEMS.
10.3.5 The Wholesaler (Generation) Licensees

In Singapore, if a power generation company has a generating unit with an individual
nameplate rating of less than 10 MW but more than 1 MW, and if that generator is
connected to the grid, it will need a wholesaler (Generation) licence.
A licence is also needed if a company has a generating unit whose nameplate rating
is less than 1 MW but wishes to sell this electricity to the grid.
10.3.6 The Wholesaler (Interruptible Load) Licensees

The wholesaler interruptible load licensees are the electricity consumers or
companies that provide services to other consumers who are willing to offer their loads
to be interrupted. In Singapore, all the wholesaler interruptible load licensees need to
have a wholesaler interruptible load licence.
10.3.7 The Market Support Services Licensee (MSSL)

Singapore Power (SP) Services is the Market Support Services Licensee (MSSL) in
Singapore. As an MSSL, SP Services provides market support services such as retail
settlement, meter reading and meter data management, consumer registration, and
transfer processing for contestable consumers who switch from one retailer to
another. The contestable consumers, classified based on their annual electricity
consumption, are those who are entitled to choose their electricity retailer. In addition,
SP Services also provides the following:
1. Indirect access to the NEMS by contestable consumers who have not
appointed a retailer
2. Supply of electricity to non-contestable consumers at regulated tariffs
3. Providing of billing and payment collection of charges for use of the power grid
on behalf of the Transmission Licensee, SP Power Assets
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10.3.8 The Electricity Retail Licensees

In Singapore there are two types of licensed electricity retailers, namely market
participant retailers (MPRs) and non-market participant retailers (NMPRs).
MPRs have to be registered with EMC to purchase electricity from the NEMS to sell
that electricity on to contestable consumers.
NMPRs do not have to register with EMC to participate in the NEMS since they
purchase electricity indirectly through SP Services, the MSSL.
10.4 Singapore Electricity Market and Electricity Generators

The structure of Singapore’s electricity market is illustrated in Figure 10.1 below. As
can be seen from the Figure, the main players include generation companies, the
power grid operator, the power system operators, the electricity market operator, the
market support services licensee and the electricity retailers.
Figure 10.1 The Singapore electricity market structure
The Singapore electricity market settlement is illustrated in Figure 10.2 below. As can
be seen from the Figure, the Energy Market Company (EMC) plays a central role in
the Singapore electricity market settlement.
Figure 10.2 The Singapore electricity market settlement
237
10.5 The Electricity Generators in Singapore

The electricity generating companies in Singapore and their generation capacities are
tabulated below (as of January 2019):
Generating Companies Generation Capacity (MW)

Senoko Energy 3,300
YTL Power Seraya 3,100
Tuas Power Generation 2,670
Sembcorp Cogen 1,215
Keppel Merlimau Cogen 1,340
National Environment Agency 178
Keppel Seghers waste-to-energy plant 22
Senoko waste-to-energy plant 55
Shell Eastern Petroleum 60
Exxon Mobil Asia Pacific Pte Ltd 633
PacificLight Power (formerly GMR / 800
Island Power)
Table 10.2 Generation companies and their installed capacities in Singapore
The total installed capacity in Singapore is about 13 GW. Considering Singapore’s

peak demand during weekdays and weekends as shown in Figures 10.3 and 10.4,
respectively, Singapore has surplus electricity generation capacity.
Figure 10.3 The typical weekday energy demand profile in Singapore
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Figure 10.4 The typical weekend energy demand profile in Singapore
10.6 Factors Affecting Co-generation Plant Development

The various factors affecting co-generation plant development in Singapore are listed
below, followed by a brief account of each factor.
The factors considered:

• Plant or Factory Requirements
• Energy Balance
• Availability of Fuel
• Location of Co-generation plant (Availability of Land)
• Operating Mode – Grid-Synchronised or Island mode
• Economic Feasibility
• Regulatory requirements
• Fault Level Considerations
10.6.1 Plant or Factory requirements

Understanding the type of business helps provide insight into the economic feasibility
of operating a CHP plant. Generally, businesses with the following characteristics are
good candidates for CHP applications in Singapore.
• Continuous and steady operation (in service for 24 hours)

• Have a high heat load requirement relative to electrical load
• Typical annual operational hours exceed 85% (i.e. > 7446 hours)
239
A typical power consumption profile of an industrial set-up is shown in Figure 10.5

below.
Figure 10.5 Typical power consumption profile
When a CHP plant is going to be installed in a greenfield kind of facility, the facility
may not have adequate infrastructure and availability of backup utility supply at the
beginning. The advantages and disadvantages when a CHP system is planned in
such a greenfield set-up are as follows:
Advantages:
• Infrastructure for interfacing is planned or made ready, e.g. connection to the
grid takes fault level contribution into account
• Disruptions to operations are minimal
• Operational savings achieved from start of operations (in an optimised system)
Disadvantages:
• Lack of historical utility demand data – over-design of systems could occur
• Construction team have different objectives (capacity over optimal operation)
e.g. electrical demand projected based on Maximum Power Rating
• Sunk cost of new equipment has to be factored into cost benefit study
On the other hand, when a CHP plant is going to be installed in a brownfield kind of
facility, the facility may have adequate infrastructure and availability of backup utility
supply in the beginning. The advantages and disadvantages when a CHP system is
planned in such a brownfield set-up are as follows:
Advantages:
• Historical data is available for analysis – design with confidence
• Utility assets are close to full depreciation, or need to be replaced
• Plant improvements can be incorporated into the design
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Disadvantages:
• Plant operations may be momentarily disrupted, e.g. during the tie-in between
the CHP system and existing plant systems
• Lack of available or suitable space
• Substantial modifications (including hot taps) may have to be made
• Brownfield construction cost is high
The typical requirements for electrical power and heat for the various sectors in
Singapore are tabulated as follows:
Table 10.3 Typical CHP heat to power ratio for industries in Singapore
As can be seen from the Table, good CHP candidates are those with a fairly good
heat to power ratio. This suggests that when the waste heat produced could be well
utilised for their heating applications, the CHP system becomes optimum.
It is to be noted that even within similar industries, utility requirements may differ
widely. One good example is the common trend in the pharmaceutical industries
where the Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API plants) are better CHP candidates
than the Biologics plants.
Consideration of the current method of energy procurement is also important in the

planning stage of the CHP system. For instance, currently the electricity is from the
electrical grid, and the heat requirement from the boiler, heat pump and cooling
requirement is from the electrical chillers or absorption chillers. Some industries (such
as in food processing) burn their spent or waste feed stocks (such as cocoa shells) in
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biomass boilers to make steam or hot water. Compared to gas or diesel-based boilers,
their fuel costs $0. In such a scenario, their fuel cost will be zero. Factors such as this
also need to be considered in the planning stage of the CHP system.
Some industries obtain their cooling/heating requirement by connecting to a District

Cooling System (DCS), but these are usually seen in commercial buildings and large
plant complexes. The bottom-line is: various methods of energy procurement will
affect the economic considerations of implementing a CHP system.
The motivation of industrial players for the development of a co-generation system in

their industrial premises may differ as follows:
• Competitors have implemented such systems
• Overseas plants have implemented similar systems, why not here?
• News reports indicate that CHP systems make sense
• Our electricity demand is very large
• We need to reduce our carbon output
However, the economic feasibility of a co-generation plant can only be established by

performing a Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA).
A CBA is a comparison of current energy procurement costs versus the costs incurred
by a potential CHP system. It provides a snap shot of the various cost issues at any
point in time and gives insight into the feasibility of the potential CHP development.
Load consumption pattern also plays an important role in deriving the economic
benefit from a CHP system. For example, a steady continuous consumption pattern
is desirable when considering CHP system implementation for the following reasons:
• It is preferable for certain systems, such as gas turbines, to operate at an

economically optimal load (generally > 80% running load)
• Below the optimal load condition, the economic benefits of running a CHP
system diminishes
• The payback period for the investment will be shorter
• From the system viewpoint, discontinuous sub-optimal loading creates stress,
which may shorten the life of the machine
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• The efficiency of the CHP system also decreases with sub-optimal heat to
power ratios (due to the discharge of unused heat into the atmosphere)
10.6.2 Operating hours

The number of operating hours is a contributing factor to the economic evaluation
when deciding whether to implement a CHP system.
The operating hours of the industrial plant affects how the CHP system will be
scheduled for maintenance. Plants that produce different products will see differing
utility loads, This will also affect the design at which the operating load of the CHP
system is optimal, as well as the operation strategy. As far as the load consideration
for the CHP system design is concerned, a reliable monthly electrical load profile
needs to be established as shown in Figure 10.6. From the monthly load profile, the
continuous load and the CHP base load can be established. The CHP design is based
on the baseload in order to avoid the part-load operations of the CHP system.
Figure 10.6 Example of monthly electrical load profile
10.6.3 Critical load consideration

The distinction between critical load and non-critical load affects the way the grid
connection is made, as well as the type of contingencies and level of contracted
capacity required.
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Figure 10.7 Connection of critical and non-critical loads to the grid
It would make a clear distinction if the CHP system can be connected to non-critical
loads. This could reduce the contracted capacity significantly. It is to be noted that in
some cases, island mode operation (a CHP system operation without connecting to
local grid) may be considered by the facility owner.
On the other hand, it will not make any clear distinction if the grid connection is
necessary for backup purposes. In such situations, the contracted capacity for the
industrial plant may not be reduced or just partially reduced.
10.6.4 Energy Balance

Energy balance or heat to power ratio, as the name suggests, is the ratio of a plant’s
heat requirement to the electrical power requirement. Generally, heat to power ratio
varies based on the application. Typically, a CHP system is running optimally as far
as its operations are concerned if the heat to power ratio is 1.7 or more.
It is to be noted that most plants with CHP systems installed are net importers of
electricity. The heat requirements of any plant or facility can be boosted through
supplementary firing.
Example for Heat to Power Ratio

Heat required: 7.5 MW (approximately equivalent to 10 tons of saturated steam)
Power required: 4.5 MW
Heat to Power ratio: 1.67
Experience suggests that typical industries in Singapore with high heat requirements
are:
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• Pharmaceutical plants
• Chemical industry
• Petro-Chemical industry
• Food processing industry
Generally, the industries with CHP systems export excess electricity to the grid only
under special circumstances. Some of the circumstances are as follows:
• Excess process fuel that needs to be consumed, for example:

o a chemical plant’s process waste gas
o special purpose bio-digestion plants
• Where the co-generation plant is the primary heat generator, for example:
o a refinery
• Where the factory/plant has to be split into different sites due to space
constraints (subject to EMA’s approval), for example:
o The company operates two sites that are on separate plots, but both
sites are majority owned by the company. Also, the company must
demonstrate that the reason for the two different plots was due to a
lack of space
10.6.5 Availability of fuel

The availability of a reliable premium fuel such as natural gas is one of the important
factors in the efficient and seamless operation of a CHP system.
Some of the fuel types most commonly available and used - or planned for use - in
co-generation plants in Singapore are:
• Natural Gas
• Process / Waste Gas / Waste Oil
• Bio-gas
• Biomass
• Diesel / Renewable diesel
• Town gas
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In Singapore, natural gas is available in the Western and Northern areas. Currently,
most of the power generation, about 95%, uses natural gas. In addition, all the co-
generation plants in Singapore run on natural gas. With the commissioning of the
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) terminal in Jurong Island in 2013, the natural gas
availability in Singapore is highly stable and reliable, with the power generation
companies largely benefitting from it. In Singapore, the Natural Gas price is tied to
HSFO price in Asia and converted based on calorific value in mmBTU.
Figure 10.8 Natural Gas transmission network in Singapore (Reference 5)
The factors that need to be considered when using Natural Gas include gas off take
pressure (depending on the location, technology and availability). The current (as of
May 2019) average natural gas tariff in Singapore for large consumers is about
S$16/mmBTU.
246
Figure 10.9 High pressure and low pressure Natural Gas lines in Singapore
(Reference 5)
10.6.6 Location of Co-generation plant (Availability of Land)

Another important factor that needs to be considered while implementing a CHP
system in an industrial set up is the space requirement. While allocating the space for
the system, maintenance of the CHP in terms of easy and safe access to the CHP
equipment should also be considered. The recommended distance allowance from
nearby obstructions and buildings is shown in Figure 10.10. Any shortcomings in such
stipulated distances need to be readjusted by consulting with the CHP supplier and
the relevant authorities.
Figure 10.10 Typical CHP system installation distance guideline
The height of the CHP stack needs to be in compliance with the National Environment
Agency’s (NEA) guidelines (refer to the NEA web portal www.nea.gov.sg for more
247
information). The stack height requirement for the CHP system installation is shown
in Figure 10.11.
The NEA Code of Practice on Pollution Control for fuel-burning equipment also needs
to be complied with during the CHP implementation. The NEA Code of Practice on
Pollution Control for emission control of fuel burning states that: A chimney of an
approved height should be provided for safe dispersion of flue gases from fuel burning
equipment. The design chimney height computed from the SO2 emission calculation
shall not be lower than 3m from roof of factory or 15m from ground level, whichever
is higher.
Figure 10.11 Typical CHP system stack height guideline
A CHP plant should be situated near to the utility building. It is generally better to site
CHP plants close to the point where the steam interface occurs, to reduce the
complexity and distance of the steam and condensate pipes, as well as other services
(such as instrument air).
Figure 10.12 Recommended CHP system installation near the utilities
248
While planning the CHP system installation, the noise emitted from the CHP system
needs to be addressed. The noise emission data in decibels can be obtained from the
CHP engine supplier and that should be compared with the noise level permitted by
the authorities. If the noise level exceeds the level allowed by the local authorities,
some kind of remedial actions to mitigate the noise level must be considered to reduce
it to the acceptable level. In addressing the noise emission through various strategies,
be mindful about the following:
• Sound propagation to surrounding buildings and public roads
• Proximity to buildings nearby has the effect of amplifying high frequency noise
The noise emission of a CHP plant and amplification of the noise is illustrated in Figure
10.13 below.
Figure 10.13 CHP system noise emission and propagation
The other factors that need to be considered are:

• Preferable to site away from tall buildings / Hazardous work areas
• If the CHP Plant is sited in a Class 1 area, equipment, pipes and cables may
have to be explosion-proof
• The CHP Plant stack height will have to be taller than nearby buildings, and
additional height adds to costs
A CHP plant usually requires space for the following:

• Selected prime mover
• Heat recovery system / blowdown sump
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• Control room
• MCC room
• Transformers
• Water Treatment / Chemical dozing skid (for greenfield facility)
Industrial experience suggests that a 5MW Gas Turbine Driven CHP plant will require
approximately 30m x 20m of space.
10.6.7 Operating Mode – Grid-Synchronised or Island mode

Co-generation plants are usually synchronised to Grid (50Hz). Island mode is
considered only when the loads are not critical. In industry, co-generation plants
usually provide for base load, with the grid providing residual and backup supply. To
ensure reliable seamless power supply for industrial applications with critical load, the
industry contracts a particular capacity (kW) from the utility, called contracted
capacity. In Singapore, there are various schemes available for Contracted Capacity.
Three models for the declared contracted capacity are shown in Figures 10.14 and
10.15. In the model shown in Figure 10.14, there is one tri-generation system
producing B MW of power and A MW is imported from the grid. The total requirement
for the load is (A+B) MW and the declared capacity is A+B MW. This model is
operating without a load limiter switch. In the right-hand side model shown in Figure
10.14, the difference is on the declared capacity. This model declares only A MW
assuming the load limiter will do the load shedding within the allotted time frame. The
allowable capacity in this model is 20% more than the declared capacity of A MW.
Figure 10.15 shows a model with two tri-generation systems with each producing 1/2B
MW. The declared capacity is only (A+1/2B) MW despite the load requirement of
(A+B) MW. In this model, the assumption is that at any time only one generator will
fail. As in the case of the previous model, the allowable capacity that can be drawn
from the grid is 20% more than the declared (A+1/2B) MW, based on the condition
that the load limiter will kick in and perform the load shedding within the allotted time
frame.
250
Figure 10.14 Contracted capacity scheme with and without load limiter and a
single generator
Figure 10.15 Contracted capacity scheme with load limiter and two generators
10.6.8 Contracted Capacity Schemes

The three contracted capacity schemes are summarised below:
1. Summation Scheme (SS)
(i) Declare Contracted Capacity
(ii) Maximum Demand = Import + Generation
2. Capped Capacity Scheme (CCS)

(i) Grid committed to provide capacity requested by customer
(ii) Tripping requirement at customer’s switchboard
(iii) Customer installs Load Limiting Device (LLD)
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120% of Contracted Capacity

Given 10 sec to manage load shedding
Capped Capacity Scheme
Figure 10.16 Capped contracted capacity scheme (courtesy of EMA)
3. Extended Capped Capacity Scheme (ECCS)

Tripping requirements (for activation of tripping device) as follows:
• 120% of the Contracted Capacity (CC) for more than 100 seconds; or
200% of CC for more than 10 seconds
The penalty for exceeding the allotted time frame for the load shedding is as follows:
• 5 times CC charge for demand exceeding 120% and up to 200% of CC
• 12 times CC charge for demand exceeding 200% of CC
Figure 10.17 Extended Capped Capacity Scheme (courtesy of EMA)
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Energy Conventional CHP (with grid CHP (Island

support) mode)
Peak √ x x
Off Peak √ x x
Market related charges
PSO √ √ Net x
EMC √ √ Net x
AFP √ √ Gross x
MEUC √ √ Net x
HEUC √ √ Net x
Use-of-System
Peak √ x x
Off peak √ x x
Contracted Capacity √ √ x
Uncontracted Capacity √ √ x
Reactive Power √ √ x
MSSL Charges
Meter reading √ √ Net x
MSS basic services √ √ Net x
Billing & collection √ √ Net x
Retail market system related charge √ √ Net x
Legend:
√ Applicable
x Not Applicable
Energy costs based solely on fuel consumption
Substantial savings fromreduction in UOS
Figure 10.18 Various charges for CHP with and without grid synchronization
10.6.9 Fault Level Considerations

The fault level is measured in current or MVA. Current = Voltage divided by
Resistance. When a short circuit occurs (low resistance), a large current flows. This
causes the operation of protective devices (fuses and circuit breakers open) to isolate
the fault.
The amount of Fault Current depends on the following parameters:
• Voltage
• Capacity of Transformer (higher capacity, higher fault current)
• Impedance (lower impedance, higher fault current)
Types of fault can be one of the following:

• 3 Phase
• Phase to Phase
• Single Phase to Ground
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Protection systems are designed to isolate only the faulty section of network. If the
fault current rating is too high, it may not be interrupted. If the fault current rating is
too low, the protective devices may not operate.
Electrical Switchgear is designed to withstand normal and fault current

E.g. 25kA, 3 sec for 22kV, 65kA, 3 sec for 400V, etc.
Circuit Breakers are designed to interrupt normal and maximum fault current.
E.g. 25kA for 22kV, 65kA for 400V, etc.
If the actual fault current is higher than the equipment designed rating, the equipment
will fail. Singapore’s electrical network is interconnected to improve reliability and
availability. This will result in an increase in fault current contribution.
Every transformer has “%” impedance value stamped on the nameplate. It is stamped
because it is a tested value after the transformer has been manufactured. The test is
as follows: A voltmeter is connected to the primary of the transformer and the
secondary 3-Phase windings are bolted together with an ampere meter to read the
value of current flowing in the 3-Phase bolted fault on the secondary. The voltage is
brought up in steps until the secondary full load current is reached on the ampere
meter connected on the transformer secondary.
Example 1: Determine the % impedance stamping for a 1000KVA 13.8KV –

480Y/277V transformer
Solution
Determine the transformer Full Load Amps (FLA)

FLA = KVA / 1.73 x L-L KV
FLA = 1000 / 1.732 x 0.48
FLA = 1,202.85
The 1000KVA 480V secondary full load ampere is 1,202A.
When the secondary ampere meter reads 1,202A and the primary Voltage Meter
reads 793.5V.
The percent of impedance value is 793.5 / 13800 = 0.0575.
Therefore, % Z = 0.0575 x 100 = 5.75%
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This implies that if there was a 3-Phase Bolted fault on the secondary of the
transformer then the maximum fault current that could flow through the transformer
would be the ratio of 100 / 5.75 times the FLA of the transformer,
i.e. 17.39 x the FLA = 20,903A = 20 kA
based on the infinite source method at the primary of the transformer. A quick
calculation for the Maximum Fault Current at the transformer secondary terminals is:
FC = FLA / %PU Z FC = 1202 / 0.0575 = 20,904A
This quick calculation can help to determine the fault current on the secondary of a
transformer for the purpose of selecting the correct overcurrent protective devices that
can interrupt the available fault current. The main breaker to be installed in the circuit
on the secondary of the transformer has to have a KA Interrupting Rating greater than
21,000A. Be aware that feeder breakers should include the estimated motor
contribution too. If the actual connected motors are not known, then assume the
contribution to be 4 x FLA of the transformer. Therefore, in this case the feeders would
be sized at 20.904 + (4 x 1202) = 25,712 Amps.
Example 2: Determine the Fault Level Current (FLC) for the transformers shown in
the Figure below:
Solution
FLA = KVA / 1.73 x L-L KV

FLA = 1000 / 1.732 x 0.4
FLA = 1,443.4 A
FLC = FLA x 100/6 = 1,443.4 x 100/6 = 24,056 A = 24 kA
For the circuit on the right-hand side, the FLC = 24 kA x 2 = 48 kA
255
Figure 10.19 Fault level current
10.6.10 Regulatory requirements

The genset, the land on which the on-site load and genset are situated, and the facility
constituting the load, must be majority owned by the same company. The genset and
load must be located on the same contiguous plot. Generally, cable between genset
and load cannot be connected between two separate plots of land. The company must
hold an electricity license. The genset shall be registered at the wholesale market
according to the Market Rules.
In Singapore, the registration of the co-generation facility is done as tabulated below:

CHP capacity Registration Characteristics
(MW)
≥ 10 MW •
Registered as generation facility - Centrally scheduled - dispatched
based on “offers” into market
• - Metered on a half hour basis
• - Settled by wholesale market - based
on nodal energy price
1- 10 MW Registered as generation settlement - Self-Scheduled (but may choose to be
facility centrally scheduled)
- Metered on a half hour basis
- Paid based on nodal energy price
≤ 1 MW Not Registered or Settled in - Self-scheduled
Wholesale Market - Settled in retail market - based on
monthly meter readings
- Effectively receive Uniform Singapore
Energy Price
Table 10.4: CHP system registration categories
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10.7 Treatment of Embedded Generators

‘Embedded generation’ means generators producing power principally for internal
purposes. While this includes on-site generation on the same premises owned by the
same party as a large load, various other ownership and locational structures will also
be considered.
Such a CHP system would typically use an external fuel source (e.g. gas or distillate).
‘Embedded co-generation’ refers to embedded generation that provides electricity as
well as other products such as process steam, hot water and/or chilled water. Such
generation may use an external fuel source (e.g. gas or distillate) or within plant fuel
(e.g. non-saleable refinery product).
10.7.1 Benefits of Embedded Generation

Many of the benefits of embedded generation are recognised in the regulatory
arrangements.
However, there are some areas where the benefits of embedded cogenerators in
particular are not reflected in the charges they pay or receive. The key areas where
the NEMS does not reward embedded cogenerators for the benefits they could
potentially provide are: Greenhouse gas emission reductions and fuel diversity during
a gas crisis.
The potential options to recognise these benefits are as follows:
Implement a more comprehensive GHG reduction scheme such as:
• Tradable permits or carbon tax;

• Provide an explicit subsidy for co-generation
• Offer reduced license fee for co-generation
Offer limited ‘net’ treatment of EMC, PSO, MEUC and MSS charges
(depending on value of GHG & fuel diversity benefits)
The current EMA policy is a ‘gross’ treatment on the embedded generators as
far as the above charges are concerned. For example: a 30 MW embedded
generating company having an onsite demand of 50 MW draws the remaining
20 MW from the grid. But, the EMC, PSO, MEUC and MSS charges are based
on 50 MW instead of a net treatment of 20 MW.
257
EMA policy on the treatment of embedded generators is as follows:
• Reserve charges: Embedded generators should continue to pay charges for

reserve and regulation as per current treatment (‘gross’ treatment)
• Non-reserve charges: Embedded generators will be granted net treatment on
non-reserve charges, provided they will not export to the grid
10.7.2 General Comments on Embedded Generators

• Embedded cogenerators provide several benefits to the system including
energy efficiency, lower emissions and supply security
• Therefore, efficient embedded co-generation should be encouraged but the
current ‘gross load’ treatment penalises embedded co-generation – the NEMS
is one of the few markets that applies a gross treatment
10.7.3 EMC directed by EMA

• Embedded generation should also not be required to be centrally dispatched
• EMC to modify the Market Rules for net treatment of embedded generators
• EMC to implement the net treatment of EMC fees, PSO fees and MEUC for
embedded generators
• EMC to enable price neutralisation to be performed if the market participant
with embedded generation facilities (who has granted authorisation for price
neutralisation by EMA) purchases electricity via a retailer
10.7.4 Nodal Price Neutralization

The Singapore wholesale electricity market pays generators at the generator’s nodal
price (MEP) and charges loads USEP plus HEUC. USEP is a volume weighted
average nodal price at all consumption nodes. When constraints occur, any one
generator’s nodal price could vary significantly from USEP plus HEUC. Thus, an
embedded generator could be paid a price for its generation which is substantially
different from the price charged for its consumption. This exposes it to nodal price
risk.
Example:
Under the Market Rules, one settlement account is assigned to a group of embedded
generators.
258
To calculate the amount of neutralisation adjustment for each such settlement

account, there are separate 2 situations: (For simplicity, we use an example where
there is only one embedded generation facility in an embedded generator group.)
Case 1: Associated Load (WEQ) is greater than or equal to Generation (IEQ)

Here, the embedded generator has withdrawn more than or equal to its injection.
Before neutralization, it would have been charged (USEP+HEUC)*WEQ for
withdrawal and paid MEP*IEQ.
With neutralization, it should receive a credit of IEQ * (USEP+HEUC – MEP).
Case 2: Associated Load (WEQ) is less than Generation (IEQ)

Here, the embedded generator has injected more than its withdrawal. With
neutralization, it should receive a credit of WEQ * (USEP+HEUC – MEP).
10.8 CHP Registration Procedures in Singapore

Preliminary: Submit Official Letter to EMA informing of the intention to install
embedded generator
After Approval from EMA, the various steps that need to be followed are tabulated
below:
259
Steps Activity Agency concerned

1
1.1 Submit Consultation form to connect to transmission system PGrid
1.2 Consultation with PG
2
2.1 Submit Application form to connect to transmission system PGrid
2.2 Submit gas connection application PGas
2.3 Submit application for wholesaler license (generation) EMA
2.4 Submit PSO/MP Agreement PSO
3
3.1 Check - Documents 2.1, 2.3 and 2.4 approved or signed
4
4.1 2nd Consultation with PG (power quality, protection, etc) PGrid
4.2 Submit application for Market participant registartion EMC
4.3 Consultation with PSO PSO
5
5.1 Sign Supplementary agreement to connection agreement on metering charges PGrid
Table 10.5 Typical CHP registration flow diagram in Singapore
Summary
Understanding the Singapore regulatory framework to register a CHP system in the
Singapore electricity market is important for industry professionals taking care of the
CHP systems. In this chapter, the Singapore electricity market and the various players
in the electricity market are presented. The various regulations for the registration of
a grid synchronised CHP system is also presented.
260
References
1. Cengel Yunus, Thermodynamics: an engineering approach, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 2008.
2. Nag P. K, Engineering Thermodynamics: Tata-McGraw-Hill, New York,
1999.
3. Energy Market Authority (EMA) web page, URL:
https://www.ema.gov.sg/index.aspx (Last accessed on 16 May 2019)
4. Singapore Power web page
5. Singapore Power Gas web page, http://www.powergas.com.sg
6. Singapore Certified Energy Manager (SCEM) Lecture Notes by LJ Energy
Pte Ltd
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11.0 COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP)

SYSTEMS CASE STUDIES
This chapter provides three CHP system installations in Singapore as case studies.
The CHP systems described in this chapter are either tri-generation or co-generation
systems. All three CHP systems are installed by industrial companies for their plant
utility requirements. In order to respect the sensitivity of the information provided by
the three companies, the case studies are kept anonymous.
.
Learning Outcomes:

1. The actual CHP system implementation
2. Actual performance of the CHP
3. The benefits attained through the CHP implementation
11.1. Introduction
As discussed in the preceding Chapters, in a conventional power plant, only a portion
of the energy transferred from the fuel to the working fluid is converted to work. The
remaining portion of the energy is rejected as waste heat to larger heat sinks such as
rivers, oceans or atmosphere. This was evident from the Sankey diagram for a
conventional power plant shown in Chapter 1. As seen from the figure, the rejected
heat is about 67% of the total energy input and is wasted unless it can be recovered
and used for other heating applications.
Some manufacturing plants like chemical, pharmaceutical, oil refining, steel

manufacturing and food processing require significant amount of heat energy. These
industrial plants also consume a large amount of electrical energy. Therefore, in some
cases, it can be economically viable to generate electricity and divert the waste heat
generated for useful heating applications.
262
Figure 11.1 Schematic diagram of an ideal CHP plant
The following benefits are derived by the companies implementing a CHP system:
• Increased total system thermodynamic efficiency

• Lower overall energy cost
• Improved power supply reliability
• Reduced overall CO2 emissions
• Reduced investment in power transmission capacity
• Lower transmission losses
11.2 Case Study 1: A 2 MW Tri-generation (CHP) System in a Pharmaceutical

Company A in Singapore
Background
The principal activity of this pharmaceutical company is the manufacture of vaccine
products. The company started its operation in 2009 and currently operates at 40%
of the full production capacity. The production is expected to continue ramping up
during the planning stage of this tri-generation project.
The company uses electricity, steam, chilled water and hot water in its operations.
Currently, the company buys electricity from the grid, while steam is produced
separately by its natural gas fired fire-tube boilers. Chilled water is produced by the
electrical chillers and hot water is produced from steam with the help of a heat
exchanger. The utility demand of the company prior to the tri-generation system
implementation is schematically represented in Figure 11.2.
263
Figure 11.2 The utility demand of the company A before the CHP system
implementation
Before the tri-generation system implementation, the company had 2 nos. of 22

tons/hour boilers (1 operating and 1 serving as a standby unit). The current average
steam demand is 3 tons per hour while the peak steam demand is 5 tons per hour.
Since the boilers are considerably oversized, the boiler is running at sub-optimal
efficiency of 80% due to the poor turn-down ratio.
In order to improve the energy efficiency of its plant, the industrial company decided
to install a tri-generation plant to partially meet the demand for electricity, steam, and
chilled water, and fully meet the demand for hot water. The rationale for the sizing of
the tri-gen facility is to achieve the highest fuel utilisation efficiency of about 83%. The
company also decided to replace the existing boilers with high efficiency boilers. The
new boilers’ efficiency was estimated to be 90% at a steam load of 1.3 tons per hour.
It was anticipated that the implementation of these measures would help to reduce
the energy consumption of the company by 10% at the facility level. The proposed
system is shown schematically in Figure 11.3.
264
Figure 11.3 The proposed energy efficient system including a CHP system for
Company A
Figure 11.3 is a schematic diagram of the proposed 1.8 MW tri-generation system

comprising a natural gas fired engine, heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) and a
200 RT absorption chiller.
Project Description
The tri-generation project involves the installation of the following key equipment:
• A 1.8 MW gas engine to generate electricity

• A heat recovery steam generator to generate 1.2 tons per hour of steam at 8
barg pressure
• A hot water economiser to generate 350 kW of hot water
• An absorption chiller to produce 200 RT of chilled water using hot water from
gas engine jacket
Considering the steam usage profile (peak demand of 5 tons/hour and average
demand of 3 tons at 40% production load) and the projected average steam demand
of 4.5 tons/hour at production full load, the company proposed to replace the existing
2 nos. of 22 tons/hour boilers with 2 nos. of 5 tons/hour fire-tube boilers (1 operating
and 1 serving as standby) with economisers to supplement the steam production from
the tri-generation plant.
265
The company estimated that the annual energy savings of the project is 33,647,050
MJ or $1,364,126 (using a natural gas tariff of $20.5821/mmBtu and an electricity tariff
of $0.2128/kWh, the electricity and gas tariffs in Singapore in 2013). The project was
completed in a year.
A summary of the baseline and post-implementation energy consumption and the

energy savings calculations are tabulated below.
Item Baseline Post- Savings

implementation
Energy (MJ/year) 319,792,438 288,681,487 31,110,950
Cost (S$) 8,909,603 7,618,400 1,291,203
CO2 emission (Ton) 21,417 17,880 3,537
Outcome of the CHP system implementation

A CHP (Tri-generation system) comprising an engine, waste heat recovery boiler and
an absorption chiller have been installed by the company A. An energy savings
calculation has been performed for the baseline energy consumption and post-
implementation energy consumption. The computation results suggest that an annual
energy savings of 31,110,950 MJ/year has been achieved resulting from the
implementation of the tri-generation system, which translates into an annual cost
savings of about $1,291,203 /year based on the 2013 electricity and NG tariffs in
Singapore. It has also been established from the measurements that a post-
implementation CO2 emission reduction of about 3,500 tons/year is achievable for the
company.
11.3. Case Study 2: A 10 MW Tri-generation (CHP) System in a Pharmaceutical

Company B in Singapore
Background
Pharmaceutical company B used to depend on the electricity from the national grid
for plant use and to produce chilled water for air conditioning and plant cooling
systems. The electricity drawn from the grid prior to the implementation of the CHP
system (tri-generation) was about 12 to 13 MW. Out of this electricity drawn from the
grid, about 9 to 10 MW of electricity was for plant use, and 3 MW for operating the
electrical chiller producing chilled water for plant use. The company plant also used
to consume significant amount of fuel energy (natural gas) for the production of steam
for plant use. The electricity and fuel use details for the plant are depicted in Figure
266
11.4. The tri-generation system using a gas turbine as the prime mover is shown in
Figure 11.5.
Figure 11.4 The utility demand flow diagram of company B before the CHP system
implementation
In order to improve the energy efficiency of its plant, the industrial company B decided
to install a 10 MW tri-generation plant to meet the majority of the company’s demand
for electricity and partial demand of steam, chilled water, and hot water. As with
company A, the rationale for the sizing of the tri-gen facility is to achieve the highest
fuel utilisation efficiency of about 83%. It was anticipated that the implementation of
these measures would help to reduce the energy consumption of the company by
about 12% at the facility level. The proposed tri-generation system is shown
schematically in Figure 11.7.
Figure 11.5 The CHP system implemented by Company B
267
The process flow diagram after the installation of the CHP system is shown in Figure
11.6 below. As can be seen from the Figure, the CHP plant produces about 10 MW
of electricity reducing the grid drawn electricity amount to 3 MW. In addition, the waste
exhaust from the two gas turbines are producing 4,000 RT of cooling with the help of
the steam driven absorption chiller. The steam quantity used in the absorption chiller
is about 15.5 tons/hr which is part of about 24 tons/hr steam generated by the waste
heat recovery boiler.
Figure 11.6 The process flow diagram of the company after the CHP system
implementation
Figure 11.7 The utility situation of the company, post-CHP system implementation
268
The post-implementation utility situation of the company in a nutshell is depicted in

Figure 11.7. As seen from the Figure, the bulk of the plant’s electricity and heat comes
from the CHP system. The plant keeps standby boilers for their critical loads in the
event of the CHP undergoing maintenance, etc. In addition, the company has reduced
contracted capacity quite substantially.

A 10 MW CHP (Tri-generation system) comprising two gas turbines, waste heat
recovery boiler and 4,000 RT absorption chiller have been installed by company B.
Due to the implementation of the CHP system, the electricity drawn from the plant is
reduced quite significantly from 13 MW to 3 MW resulting in notable cost savings. An
energy savings calculation has been performed for the baseline energy consumption
and post-implementation energy consumption. In addition, company B has also
achieved reliable and seamless energy supply for their business continuity. The
company also managed to build a positive image from the environmentally friendly
nature of their business through significant reduction of CO2 emission resulting from
the energy efficiency achieved from the CHP system project. Company B became a
role model for other pharmaceutical companies in Singapore to invest in green and
sustainable technologies. From the point of view of business competitiveness, this
kind of project helps to attract more investment due to low energy costs.
11.4. Case Study 3: A 6.3 MW Tri-generation (CHP) System in an Industrial

Company C in Singapore
Background
Company C is a Japanese company, which is a leader in innovative technologies and
materials for food products. The company is a global manufacturer and supplier of
high-quality cocoa butter equivalents (CBE), non-lauric cocoa butter replacers (CBR),
lauric cocoa butter substitute (CBS) as well as other specialty oils and fats. Prior to
the CHP implementation, the company’s electricity and steam demands were met by
the local electricity grid and steam boilers, respectively. Before the implementation of
the CHP system, the annual electricity and steam demands for the company C used
to be about 3.4 MW & 166,000 Tons, respectively. This constitutes a total annual
energy consumption (fuel and electrical energy) of about 660 TJ. The high demand
for heat and electricity which are sourced in a conventional manner makes the plant
269
operation inefficient. Company C potentially risks losing its competitive edge in this
highly competitive and volatile market. Therefore, the management decided to
introduce a CHP system producing electricity and steam simultaneously. The utility
source details prior to the CHP implementation at company C are shown in Figure
11.8. As can be seen from the Figure, company C procured the electricity from the
national grid and used LFO and diesel to generate the steam using medium pressure
boilers.
Figure 11.8 The utility source details of company C
Figure 11.9 The post-CHP system utility source details of company C
The CHP system (co-generation) generates about 6.32 MW of electricity and 30

tons/hr of saturated medium pressure steam at 13 barg. Out of the generated
electrical power, it supplies 4.5 MWe and 30 tons/hr to the facilities of company C
and exports the rest of the electricity to the national grid. The co-generation plant has
replaced the existing oil-fired boilers and now parallel feed on grid electricity. The co-
generation plant supplies electricity to company C and exports excess electricity to
the power grid so as to maintain the highest efficiency. All the exhaust heat from the
270
gas turbine is recovered by a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG). The details
of the gas fired co-generation system is shown in Figure 11.10 and 11.11 for the
unfired and fired mode, respectively.
Figure 11.10 The gas turbine-based co-generation system (unfired mode) installed
at company C
The specifications of the Kawasaki gas turbine generator are tabulated in Table 11.1
and a photograph of the gas turbine is shown in Figure 11.14.
Turbine type GPB80D

Model Kawasaki M7A-03D
Electrical power output 6.32 MW
Generator capacity 8,400 kVA

Voltage 3.3 kV
Frequency 50 Hz
Fuel type Natural gas
271
Table 11.1 The gas turbine specifications
Figure 11.11 The gas turbine-based co-generation system (fired mode) installed at
company C
Figure 11.12 Photograph of the gas turbine installed at company C
272

The benefits derived by company C through the implementation of the CHP (co-
generation) system, as with the two previous case studies presented, are the
significant amount of electrical energy and fuel energy savings along with the
substantial amount of CO2 emission reductions. The annual electricity and steam
demand of company C are about 3,400 kW (28,700 MWh) and 20 Tons/hr (166,200
Tons), respectively.
The annual energy savings for Company C resulting from the installation of the CHP
system is depicted in Figure 11.13 and the corresponding cost savings in Figure
11.14.
Figure 11.13 The annual energy savings for Company C through the installation of
the CHP system
The annual energy savings in absolute and percentage terms are as follows:
Annual energy savings : 147.8 TJ (140,095 MMBtu)
% energy savings : 22 %
Figure 11.14 The annual cost savings for Company C through the installation of the
CHP system
273
Annual energy cost savings : $ 3,564,392

% energy cost savings : 31 %
The annual reduction in CO2 emissions for company C resulting from the installation
of the CHP system is depicted in Figure 11.15
Figure 11.15 The annual CO2 emissions reduction for company C through the
installation of the CHP system
The annual CO2 emissions reduction in absolute and percentage terms are as
follows:
Annual CO2 emissions reduction: 18,300 tons of CO2
% CO2 emissions reduction: 39 %
Some of the useful references for further reading on various programmes on CHP
in Europe and USA are included in the references.
Summary
A CHP system is the simultaneous production of two (co-generation) or more useful
outputs, namely electricity, heat and cooling (tri-generation). Three industrial
implementations of CHP systems as case studies have been presented in this
chapter. At the end of each case study, the benefits achieved from the installation of
the CHP systems are highlighted in terms of the energy and cost savings as well as
the reduction in CO2 emissions.
References
2006.
274
2. Ryszard Bartnik, Zbigniew Buryn, Conversion of Coal-Fired Power Plants to Co-

generation and Combined-Cycle Thermal and Economic Effectiveness, Springer-
Verlag London Limited 2011.
3. Neil Petchers, Combined heating, cooling and power handbook: Technologies and
Applications”, Fairmont Press, second edition, 2012
4. Horlock, J.H, “Combined power plants: including combined cycle gas turbine
(CCGT) plants”, Oxford Pergamon Press, 1992
5. Web page, Department of Energy, USA. URL: https://www.energy.gov/ (Last
accessed on 16 May 2019)
Recommended further reading on CHP:

1. European Commission Energy Efficiency Programmes;
https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-efficiency/cogeneration-heat-
and-power
2. European Environment Agency web page; https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-
and-maps/indicators/combined-heat-and-power-chp-1/combined-heat-and-
power-chp-2
3. European Union Energy Policy: Co-generation directive;
http://www.inforse.org/europe/eu_cogen-di.htm
4. Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Partnership/US EPA;
https://www.epa.gov/chp
5. CHP Project Development Handbook;
https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/downloads/chp-project-development-
handbook-us-environmental-protection-agency-chp
275
APPENDIX
STEAM PROPERTY TABLE (Courtesy of Wiley Blackwell Publisher)
276
277
278
279

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Reference Manual for

Combined Heat and Power Systems

Professional Level Elective Module of Singapore Certified

National Environment Agency

5.2 The Carnot Vapour Cycle ............................................................................................... 93

10.5 The Electricity Generators in Singapore .................................................................... 238

Chapters 1 to 5 cover introduction to CHP systems, fundamentals of thermodynamics

Chapter 10 provides an account of the Singapore authorities’ regulatory requirements

Dr Jahangeer K Abdul Halim

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMBINED HEAT AND

This chapter provides an introduction to CHP systems used in industrial facilities.

2. Potential industrial candidates for CHP systems

3. The different types of CHP systems

Figure 1.1 Sankey diagram for a conventional thermal power plant

Some manufacturing plants such as chemical, pharmaceutical, oil refining, steel

Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of an ideal CHP plant

Figure 1.3 Sankey diagram for a CHP power plant

1.2. Benefits of CHP Systems

• Increased total system thermodynamic efficiency

• Improved power supply reliability (Singapore is an exception)

1.3. Main Candidates for CHP

• Oil refineries and Petrochemical Plants

1.4. Available Technologies for CHP

A description of each type of system is provided below.

1.4.1 Steam Turbine

1.4.1.1 Back Pressure Turbine

Figure 1.4 Back pressure steam turbine system

1.4.1.2 Condensing Steam Turbine

Figure 1.5 Condensing steam turbine system

1.4.2 Combustion Turbine (Gas Turbine)

Figure 1.6 Open cycle gas turbine cycle

Figure 1.7 CHP system with combustion turbine

1.4.3 Internal Combustion Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1.8 Four stages in an Otto cycle

Internal combustion engines can be coupled to generators for power generation.

Therefore, the overall operating efficiency of an internal combustion engine-driven

Hot water from

Figure 1.9 Arrangement of an internal combustion engine CHP system

1.4.4 Micro Turbines

Figure 1.10 Arrangement of a micro turbine CHP system

Technology Steam Turbine Combustion Internal Micro turbine

Size (MW) 0.5 - 150 1 - 200 0.05 - 10 0.025 - 0.25

Relative High High Low Medium

Relative capital High High Medium Low

Table1.1 Summary of the common technologies available for CHP

2.0 FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS

This chapter provides the fundamental thermodynamic concepts behind CHP

2.1 Basic Thermodynamics

The important fundamental thermodynamic terminologies are as follows:

Figure 2.1 Arrangement of a typical pumping system

2.1.4 Closed system

2.1.5 Open system (control volume)

2.1.6 Control surface

2.1.8 Intensive properties

2.1.9 Extensive properties

2.10 Specific properties

2.13 Thermodynamic equilibrium

2.16 Isothermal process

2.17 Adiabatic process

2.18 Isobaric process

2.19 Isochoric process

2.2 SI Units and Conversions

2.2.1 Fundamental dimensions