1 History of Refrigeration: Lesson
1 History of Refrigeration: Lesson
1
History Of Refrigeration
1.1. Introduction
Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a
temperature below that of the surroundings, the aim being to cool some product or space to
the required temperature. One of the most important applications of refrigeration has been the
preservation of perishable food products by storing them at low temperatures. Refrigeration
systems are also used extensively for providing thermal comfort to human beings by means
of air conditioning. Air Conditioning refers to the treatment of air so as to simultaneously
control its temperature, moisture content, cleanliness, odour and circulation, as required by
occupants, a process, or products in the space. The subject of refrigeration and air
conditioning has evolved out of human need for food and comfort, and its history dates back
to centuries. The history of refrigeration is very interesting since every aspect of it, the
availability of refrigerants, the prime movers and the developments in compressors and the
methods of refrigeration all are a part of it. The French scientist Roger ThÝvenot has written
an excellent book on the history of refrigeration throughout the world. Here we present only a
Ans: b) and f)
In Europe, America and Iran a number of icehouses were built to store ice. Materials
like sawdust or wood shavings were used as insulating materials in these icehouses. Later on,
cork was used as insulating material. Literature reveals that ice has always been available to
aristocracy who could afford it. In India, the Mogul emperors were very fond of ice during
the harsh summer in Delhi and Agra, and it appears that the ice used to be made by nocturnal
cooling.
In 1806, Frederic Tudor, (who was later called as the “ice king”) began the trade in ice
by cutting it from the Hudson River and ponds of Massachusetts and exporting it to various
countries including India. In India Tudor’s ice was cheaper than the locally manufactured ice
by nocturnal cooling. The ice trade in North America was a flourishing business. Ice was
transported to southern states of America in train compartments insulated by 0.3m of cork
insulation. Trading in ice was also popular in several other countries such as Great Britain,
Russia, Canada, Norway and France. In these countries ice was either transported from colder
regions or was harvested in winter and stored in icehouses for use in summer. The ice trade
reached its peak in 1872 when America alone exported 225000 tonnes of ice to various
countries as far as China and Australia. However, with the advent of artificial refrigeration the
ice trade gradually declined.
The art of making ice by nocturnal cooling was perfected in India. In this method ice
was made by keeping a thin layer of water in a shallow earthen tray, and then exposing the
tray to the night sky. Compacted hay of about 0.3 m thickness was used as insulation. The
water looses heat by radiation to the stratosphere, which is at around -55˚C and by early
morning hours the water in the trays freezes to ice. This method of ice production was very
popular in India.
As the name indicates, evaporative cooling is the process of reducing the temperature
of a system by evaporation of water. Human beings perspire and dissipate their metabolic
heat by evaporative cooling if the ambient temperature is more than skin temperature.
Animals such as the hippopotamus and buffalo coat themselves with mud for evaporative
cooling. Evaporative cooling has been used in India for centuries to obtain cold water in
summer by storing the water in earthen pots. The water permeates through the pores of
earthen vessel to its outer surface where it evaporates to the surrounding, absorbing its latent
heat in part from the vessel, which cools the water. It is said that Patliputra University
situated on the bank of river Ganges used to induce the evaporative-cooled air from the river.
Suitably located chimneys in the rooms augmented the upward flow of warm air, which was
replaced by cool air. Evaporative cooling by placing wet straw mats on the windows is also
very common in India. The straw mat made from “khus” adds its inherent perfume also to the
air. Now-a-days desert coolers are being used in hot and dry areas to provide cooling in
summer.
Certain substances such as common salt, when added to water dissolve in water and
absorb its heat of solution from water (endothermic process). This reduces the temperature of
the solution (water+salt). Sodium Chloride salt (NaCl) can yield temperatures up to -20˚C
and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) up to - 50˚C in properly insulated containers. However, as it is
this process has limited application, as the dissolved salt has to be recovered from its solution
by heating.
Ans: b) and d)
Ans: a)
Oliver Evans in his book “Abortion of a young Steam Engineer’s Guide” published in
Philadelphia in 1805 described a closed refrigeration cycle to produce ice by ether under
vacuum. Jacob Perkins, an American living in London actually designed such a system
in1835. The apparatus described by Jacob Perkins in his patent specifications of 1834 is
shown in Fig.1.1. In his patent he stated “I am enabled to use volatile fluids for the purpose of
producing the cooling or freezing of fluids, and yet at the same time constantly condensing
such volatile fluids, and bringing them again into operation without waste”.
John Hague made Perkins’s design into working model with some modifications. This
Perkins machine is shown in Fig.1.2. The earliest vapour compression system used either
sulphuric (ethyl) or methyl ether. The American engineer Alexander Twining (1801-1884)
received a British patent in 1850 for a vapour compression system by use of ether, NH 3 and
CO2.
The man responsible for making a practical vapor compression refrigeration system
was James Harrison who took a patent in 1856 for a vapour compression system using ether,
alcohol or ammonia. Charles Tellier of France patented in 1864, a refrigeration system using
dimethyl ether which has a normal boiling point of -23.6˚C.
Carl von Linde in Munich introduced double acting ammonia compressor. It required
pressures of more than 10 atmospheres in the condenser. Since the normal boiling point of
ammonia is -33.3˚C, vacuum was not required on the low pressure side. Since then ammonia
is used widely in large refrigeration plants.
David Boyle, in fact made the first NH3 system in 1871 in San Francisco. John
Enright had also developed a similar system in 1876 in Buffalo N.Y. Franz Windhausen
developed carbon dioxide (CO2) based vapor compression system in Germany in 1886. The
carbon dioxide compressor requires a pressure of about 80 atmospheres and therefore a very
heavy construction. Linde in 1882 and T.S.C. Lowe in 1887 tried similar systems in USA.
The CO2 system is a very safe system and was used in ship refrigeration until 1960s. Raoul
Pictet used SO2 (NBP -10˚C) as refrigerant. Its lowest pressure was high enough to prevent
the leakage of air into the system.
The domestic refrigerator using natural ice (domestic ice box) was invented in 1803
and was used for almost 150 years without much alteration. The domestic ice box used to be
made of wood with suitable insulation. Ice used to be kept at the top of the box, and low
temperatures are produced in the box due to heat transfer from ice by natural convection. A
drip pan is used to collect the water formed due to the melting of ice. The box has to be
replenished with fresh ice once all the ice melts. Though the concept is quite simple, the
domestic ice box suffered from several disadvantages. The user has to replenish the ice as
Refrigeration systems are also used for providing cooling and dehumidification in
summer for personal comfort (air conditioning). The first air conditioning systems were used
for industrial as well as comfort air conditioning. Eastman Kodak installed the first air
conditioning system in 1891 in Rochester, New York for the storage of photographic films.
An air conditioning system was installed in a printing press in 1902 and in a telephone
exchange in Hamburg in 1904. Many systems were installed in tobacco and textile factories
around 1900. The first domestic air conditioning system was installed in a house in Frankfurt
in 1894. A private library in St Louis, USA was air conditioned in 1895, and a casino was air
conditioned in Monte Carlo in 1901. Efforts have also been made to air condition passenger
rail coaches using ice. The widespread development of air conditioning is attributed to the
American scientist and industrialist Willis Carrier. Carrier studied the control of humidity in
1902 and designed a central air conditioning plant using air washer in 1904. Due to the
pioneering efforts of Carrier and also due to simultaneous development of different
components and controls, air conditioning quickly became very popular, especially after
1923. At present comfort air conditioning is widely used in residences, offices, commercial
buildings, air ports, hospitals and in mobile applications such as rail coaches, automobiles,
Figure 1.3 shows the basic components of a vapour compression refrigeration system.
As shown in the figure the basic system consists of an evaporator, compressor, condenser and
an expansion valve. The refrigeration effect is obtained in the cold region as heat is extracted
by the vaporization of refrigerant in the evaporator. The refrigerant vapour from the
evaporator is compressed in the compressor to a high pressure at which its saturation
temperature is greater than the ambient or any other heat sink. Hence when the high pressure,
high temperature refrigerant flows through the condenser, condensation of the vapour into
liquid takes place by heat rejection to the heat sink. To complete the cycle, the high pressure
liquid is made to flow through an expansion valve. In the expansion valve the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant decrease. This low pressure and low temperature refrigerant
vapour evaporates in the evaporator taking heat from the cold region. It should be observed
that the system operates on a closed cycle. The system requires input in the form of
mechanical work. It extracts heat from a cold space and rejects heat to a high temperature
heat sink.
Q. In a domestic icebox type refrigerator, the ice block is kept at the top because:
43. It is convenient to the user
44. Disposal of water is easier
45. Cold air can flow down due to buoyancy effect
46. None of the
above Ans. c)
John Leslie in 1810 kept H2SO4 and water in two separate jars connected together.
H2SO4 has very high affinity for water. It absorbs water vapour and this becomes the principle
of removing the evaporated water vapour requiring no compressor or pump. H 2SO4 is an
absorbent in this system that has to be recycled by heating to get rid of the absorbed water
vapour, for continuous operation. Windhausen in 1878 used this principle for absorption
refrigeration system, which worked on H 2SO4. Ferdinand Carre invented aqua-ammonia
absorption system in 1860. Water is a strong absorbent of NH 3. If NH3 is kept in a vessel that
is exposed to another vessel containing water, the strong absorption potential of water will
cause evaporation of NH3 requiring no compressor to drive the vapours. A liquid pump is
used to increase the pressure of strong solution. The strong solution is then heated in a
generator and passed through a rectification column to separate the water from ammonia. The
ammonia vapour is then condensed and recycled. The pump power is negligible hence; the
system runs virtually on low- grade energy used for heating the strong solution to separate the
water from ammonia. These systems were initially run on steam. Later on oil and natural gas
based systems were introduced. Figure 1.4 shows the essential components of a vapour
absorption refrigeration system. In 1922, Balzar von Platen and Carl Munters, two students at
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm invented a three fluid system that did not require a
pump. A heating based bubble pump was used for circulation of strong and weak solutions
and hydrogen was used as a non-condensable gas to reduce the partial pressure of NH 3 in the
evaporator. Geppert in 1899 gave this original idea but he was not successful since he was
using air as non-condensable gas. The Platen-Munters refrigeration systems are still widely
used in certain niche applications such as hotel rooms etc. Figure 1.5 shows the schematic of
the triple fluid vapour absorption refrigeration system.
Attempts have been made to run vapour absorption systems by solar energy with
concentrating and flat plate solar collectors. Several small solar absorption refrigeration
systems have been made around 1950s in several countries. Professor G.O.G. L f of
America is one of the pioneers in the area of solar refrigeration using flat plate collectors. A
solar refrigeration system that could produce 250 kg of ice per day was installed in Tashkent,
USSR in 1953. This system used a parabolic mirror of 10 m 2 area for concentrating the solar
radiation. F. Trombe installed an absorption machine with a cylindro-parabolic mirror of 20
at Montlouis, France, which produced 100 kg of ice per day.
m
Serious consideration to solar refrigeration systems was given since 1965, due to the
scarcity of fossil fuel based energy sources. LiBr-water based systems have been developed
for air conditioning purposes. The first solar air conditioning system was installed in an
experimental solar house in University of Queensland, Australia in 1966. After this several
systems based on solar energy were built in many parts of the world including India. In 1976,
there were about 500 solar absorption systems in USA alone. Almost all these were based on
LiBr-water as these systems do not require very high heating temperatures. These systems
were mainly used for space air conditioning.
Intermittent absorption systems based on solar energy have also been built and
operated successfully. In these systems, the cooling effect is obtained during the nighttime,
while the system gets “charged” during the day using solar energy. Though the efficiency of
these systems is rather poor requiring solar collector area, they may find applications in
If air at high pressure expands and does work (say moves a piston or rotates a
turbine), its temperature will decrease. This fact is known to man as early as the 18 th century.
Dalton and Gay Lusaac studied this in 1807. Sadi Carnot mentioned this as a well-known
phenomenon in 1824. However, Dr. John Gorrie a physician in Florida developed one such
machine in 1844 to produce ice for the relief of his patients suffering from fever. This
machine used compressed air at 2 atm. pressure and produced brine at a temperature of -7oC,
which was then used to produce ice. Alexander Carnegie Kirk in 1862 made an air cycle
cooling machine. This system used steam engine to run its compressor. Using a compression
ratio of 6 to 8, Kirk could produce temperatures as low as 40oC. Paul Gifford in 1875
perfected the open type of machine. This machine was further improved by T B Lightfoot, A
Haslam, Henry Bell and James Coleman. This was the main method of marine refrigeration
for quite some time. Frank Allen in New York developed a closed cycle machine employing
high pressures to reduce the volume flow rates. This was named dense air machine. These
days air cycle refrigeration is used only in aircrafts whose turbo compressor can handle large
volume flow rates. Figure 1.6 shows the schematic of an open type air cycle refrigeration
system. The basic system shown here consists of a compressor, an expander and a heat
exchanger. Air from the cold room is compressed in the compressor. The hot and high
pressure air rejects heat to the heat sink (cooling water) in the heat exchanger. The warm but
high pressure air expands in the expander. The cold air after expansion is sent to the cold
room for providing cooling. The work of expansion partly compensates the work of
compression; hence both the expander and the compressor are mounted on a common shaft.
| Cooling water
Expander
w////////AW//^^^^^
Coldroorn
Schematic diagram of the cold air system Fig.1.6.
Schematic of a basic, open type air cycle refrigeration system
If water is sprayed into a chamber where a low pressure is maintained, a part of the
water will evaporate. The enthalpy of evaporation will cool the remaining water to its
saturation temperature at the pressure in the chamber. Obviously lower temperature will
require lower pressure. Water freezes at 0 oC hence temperature lower than 4 oC cannot be
obtained with water. In this system, high velocity steam is used to entrain the evaporating
water vapour. High-pressure motive steam passes through either convergent or convergent-
divergent nozzle where it acquires either sonic or supersonic velocity and low pressure of the
order of 0.009 kPa corresponding to an evaporator temperature of 4 oC. The high momentum
of motive steam entrains or carries along with it the water vapour evaporating from the flash
chamber. Because of its high velocity it moves the vapours against the pressure gradient up to
the condenser where the pressure is 5.6-7.4 kPa corresponding to condenser temperature of
35-45oC. The motive vapour and the evaporated vapour both are condensed and recycled.
This system is known as steam jet refrigeration system. Figure 1.7 shows a schematic of the
system. It can be seen that this system requires a good vacuum to be maintained. Sometimes,
booster ejector is used for this purpose. This system is driven by low- grade energy that is
process steam in chemical plants or a boiler.
Makeup
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Chilled water return
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In 1821 the German physicist T.J. Seebeck reported that when two junctions of
dissimilar metals are kept at two different temperatures, an electro motive force (emf) is
developed, resulting in flow of electric current. The emf produced is found to be proportional
to temperature difference. In 1834, a Frenchmen, J. Peltier observed the reverse effect, i.e.,
cooling and heating of two junctions of dissimilar materials when direct current is passed
through them, the heat transfer rate being proportional to the current. In 1838, H.F.E. Lenz
froze a drop of water by the Peltier effect using antimony and bismuth (it was later found that
Lenz could freeze water as the materials used were not pure metals but had some impurities
in them). In 1857, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) proved by thermodynamic analysis that
Seebeck effect and Peltier effect are related and he discovered another effect called Thomson
effect after his name. According to this when current flows through a conductor of a
thermocouple that has an initial temperature gradient in it, then heat transfer rate per unit
length is proportional to the product of current and the temperature. As the current flow
through thermoelectric material it gets heated due to its electrical resistance. This is called the
Joulean effect, further, conduction heat transfer from the hot junction to the cold junction
transfers heat. Both these heat transfer rates have to be compensated by the Peltier Effect for
some useful cooling to be produced. For a long time, thermoelectric cooling based on the
Peltier effect remained a laboratory curiosity as the temperature difference that could be
obtained using pure metals was too small to be of any practical use. Insulating materials give
poor thermoelectric performance because of their small electrical conductivity while metals
are not good because of their large thermal conductivity. However, with the discovery of
semiconductor materials in 1949-50, the available temperature drop could be increased
considerably, giving rise to commercialization of thermoelectric refrigeration systems. Figure
1.8 shows the schematic of the thermoelectric refrigeration system based on semiconductor
materials. The Russian scientist, A. F. Ioffe is one of the pioneers in the area of thermoelectric
refrigeration systems using semiconductors. Several domestic refrigerators based on
thermoelectric effect were made in USSR as early as 1949. However, since 1960s these
systems are used mainly used for storing medicines, vaccines etc and in electronic cooling.
Development also took place in many other countries. In USA domestic refrigerators, air
conditioners, water coolers, air conditioned diving suits etc. were made
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Q. The required input to the steam jet refrigeration systems is in the form of:
83. To convert the high pressure motive steam into high velocity steam
84. To reduce energy consumption
85. To improve safety aspects
86. All of the above
Ans. a)
Questions:
Q. Explain why ice making using nocturnal cooling is difficult on nights when the sky is
cloudy?
Ans. In order to make ice from water, water has to be first sensibly cooled from its initial
temperature to its freezing point (0oC) and then latent heat has to be transferred at 0oC. This
requires a heat sink that is at a temperature lower than 0oC. Ice making using nocturnal
cooling relies on radiative heat transfer from the water to the sky (which is at about 55oC)
that acts as a heat sink. When the sky is cloudy, the clouds reflect most of the radiation back
to earth and the effective surface temperature of clouds is also much higher. As a result,
radiative heat transfer from the water becomes very small, making the ice formation difficult.
Q. When you add sufficient amount of glucose to a glass of water, the water becomes cold. Is
it an example of refrigeration, if it is, can this method be used for devising a refrigeration
system?
Ans. Yes, this is an example of refrigeration as the temperature of glucose solution is lower
than the surroundings. However, this method is not viable, as the production of refrigeration
continuously requires an infinite amount of water and glucose or continuous recovery of
glucose from water.
Q. To what do you attribute the rapid growth of refrigeration technology over the last
century?
Ans. The rapid growth of refrigeration technology over the last century can be attributed to
several reasons, some of them are:
i. Growing global population leading to growing demand for food, hence, demand for better
food processing and food preservation methods. Refrigeration is required for both food
processing and food preservation (Food Chain)
ii. Growing demand for refrigeration in almost all industries
iii. Growing demand for comfortable conditions (air conditioned) at residences, workplaces
etc.
iv. Rapid growth of technologies required for manufacturing various refrigeration
components
v. Availability of electricity, and
vi. Growing living standards
2.1. Introduction:
The development of refrigeration and air conditioning industry depended to a large
extent on the development of refrigerants to suit various applications and the development of
various system components. At present the industry is dominated by the vapour compression
refrigeration systems, even though the vapour absorption systems have also been developed
commercially. The success of vapour compression refrigeration systems owes a lot to the
development of suitable refrigerants and compressors. The theoretical thermodynamic
efficiency of a vapour compression system depends mainly on the operating temperatures.
However, important practical issues such as the system design, size, initial and operating
costs, safety, reliability, and serviceability etc. depend very much on the type of refrigerant
and compressor selected for a given application. This lesson presents a brief history of
refrigerants and compressors. The emphasis here is mainly on vapour compression
refrigeration systems, as these are the most commonly used systems, and also refrigerants and
compressors play a critical role here. The other popular type of refrigeration system, namely
the vapour absorption type has seen fewer changes in terms of refrigerant development, and
relatively less number of problems exist in these systems as far as the refrigerants are
concerned.
Water is one of the earliest substances to be used as a refrigerant, albeit not in a closed
system. Production of cold by evaporation of water dates back to 3000 B.C. Archaeological
findings show pictures of Egyptian slaves waving fans in front of earthenware jars to
accelerate the evaporation of water from the porous surfaces of the pots, thereby producing
cold water. Of course, the use of “punkahs” for body cooling in hot summer is very well
known in countries like India. Production of ice by nocturnal cooling is also well known.
People also had some knowledge of producing sub-zero temperatures by the use of
“refrigerant mixtures”. It is believed that as early as 4 th Century AD people in India were
using mixtures of salts (sodium nitrate, sodium chloride etc) and water to produce
temperatures as low as –20oC. However, these natural refrigeration systems working with
water have many limitations and hence were confined to a small number of applications.
In addition to the above, other fluids such as methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, iso-
butane, propane, ethyl alcohol, methyl and ethyl amines, carbon tetra chloride, methylene
chloride, gasoline etc. were tried but discarded due to one reason or other.
Almost all the refrigerants used in the early stages of refrigeration suffered from one
problem or other. Most of these problems were linked to safety issues such as toxicity,
flammability, high operating pressures etc. As a result large-scale commercialization of
refrigeration systems was hampered. Hence it was felt that “refrigeration industry needs a
new refrigerant if they expect to get anywhere”. The task of finding a “safe” refrigerant was
taken up by the American Thomas Midgley, Jr., in 1928. Midgley was already famous for the
invention of tetra ethyl lead, an important anti-knock agent for petrol engines. Midgley along
with his associates Albert L. Henne and Robert R. McNary at the Frigidaire Laboratories
(Dayton, Ohio, USA) began a systematic study of the periodic table. From the periodic table
they quickly eliminated all those substances yielding insufficient volatility. They then
eliminated those elements resulting in unstable and toxic gases as well as the inert gases,
based on their very low boiling points. They were finally left with eight elements: carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine and bromine. These eight elements
clustered at an intersecting row and column of the periodic table, with fluorine at the
intersection. Midgley and his colleagues then made three interesting observations:
A look at the refrigerants discussed above shows that all of them are made up of seven out
of the eight elements identified by Midgley (fluorine was not used till then). Other researchers
have repeated Midgley’s search with more modern search methods and databases, but arrived
at the same conclusions (almost all the currently used refrigerants are made up of Midgley
elements, only exception is Iodine, studies are being carried out on refrigerants containing
iodine in addition to some of the Midgley elements). Based on their study, Midgely and his
colleagues have developed a whole range of new refrigerants, which are obtained by partial
replacement of hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons by fluorine and chlorine. They have shown
how fluorination and chlorination of hydrocarbons can be varied to obtain desired boiling
points (volatility) and also how properties such as toxicity, flammability are influenced by the
composition. The first commercial refrigerant to come out of Midgley’s study is Freon-12 in
1931. Freon-12 with a chemical formula CCl2F2, is obtained by replacing the four atoms of
hydrogen in methane (CH4) by two atoms of chlorine and two atoms of
fluorine. Freon-12 has a normal boiling point of 29.8oC, and is one of the most famous and
popular synthetic refrigerants. It was exclusively used in small domestic refrigerators, air
conditioners, water coolers etc for almost sixty years. Freon-11 (CCl 3F) used in large
centrifugal air conditioning systems was introduced in 1932. This is followed by Freon-22
(CHClF2) and a whole series of synthetic refrigerants to suit a wide variety of applications.
The introduction of CFCs and related compounds has revolutionized the field of
refrigeration and air conditioning. Most of the problems associated with early refrigerants
such as toxicity, flammability, and material incompatibility were eliminated completely. Also,
Freons are highly stable compounds. In addition, by cleverly manipulating the composition a
whole range of refrigerants best suited for a particular application could be obtained. In
addition to all this, a vigorous promotion of these refrigerants as “wonder gases” and “ideal
refrigerants” saw rapid growth of Freons and equally rapid exit of conventional refrigerants
such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide etc. Only ammonia among the older refrigerants
survived the Freon magic. The Freons enjoyed complete domination for about fifty years,
until the Ozone Layer Depletion issue was raised by Rowland and Molina in 1974. Rowland
and Molina in their now famous theory argued that the highly stable chlorofluorocarbons
cause the depletion of stratospheric ozone layer. Subsequent studies and observations
confirmed Rowland and Molina theory on stratospheric ozone depletion by chlorine
containing CFCs. In view of the seriousness of the problem on global scale, several countries
have agreed to ban the harmful Ozone Depleting Substances, ODS (CFCs and others) in a
phase-wise manner under Montreal Protocol. Subsequently almost all countries of the world
have agreed to the plan of CFC phase-out. In addition to the ozone layer depletion, the CFCs
and related substances were also found to contribute significantly to the problem of “global
warming”. This once again brought the scientists back to the search for “safe” refrigerants.
The “safety” now refers to not only the immediate personal safety issues such as
flammability, toxicity etc., but also the long-term environmental issues such as ozone layer
depletion and global warming.
The most important requirement for refrigerants in the aftermath of ozone layer
depletion is that it should be a non-Ozone Depleting Substance (non-ODS). Out of this
requirement two alternatives have emerged. The first one is to look for zero ODP synthetic
refrigerants and the second one is to look for “natural” substances. Introduction of
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and their mixtures belong to the first route, while the re-
introduction of carbon dioxide (in a supercritical cycle), water and various hydrocarbons and
their mixtures belong to the second route. The increased use of ammonia and use of other
refrigeration cycles such as air cycle refrigeration systems and absorption systems also come
under the second route. Both these routes have found their proponents and opponents. HFC-
134a (synthetic substance) and hydrocarbons (natural substances) have emerged as
alternatives to Freon-12. No clear pure fluid alternative has been found as yet for the other
popular refrigerant HCFC-22. However several mixtures consisting of synthetic and natural
refrigerants are being used and suggested for future use. Table 2.1 shows the list of
refrigerants being replaced and their alternatives. Mention must be made here about the other
Charles Tellier used a horizontal single cylinder methyl ether compressor in 1863.
These compressors were initially installed in a chocolate factory near Paris and in a brewery
in USA in 1868. In 1876 the ship “Le Frigorifique” was equipped with three of Tellier’s
methyl ether compressors and successfully transported chilled meat from Rouen in France to
Buenos Ayres in Argentina (a distance of 12000 km).
T.S.C. Lowe (1832-1913) started making carbon dioxide compressors in 1865, and
began to use them in the manufacture of ice from 1868. However, the credit for perfecting the
design of carbon dioxide compressor goes to Franz Windhausen of Germany in 1886. The
British firm J&E Hall began the commercial production of carbon dioxide compressors in
1887. They started manufacturing two-stage carbon dioxide compressors since 1889. Soon
the carbon dioxide systems replaced air cycle refrigeration systems in ships. Several firms
started manufacturing these compressors on a large scale. This trend continued upto the
Second World War.
Raoul Pictet invented the sulphur dioxide compressor in 1874. The machine was
initially built in Geneva, then in Paris and afterwards in some other countries. The
compressor developed by Pictet was horizontal and was not lubricated as sulphur dioxide acts
In 1878, methyl chloride system was introduced by Vincent in France. The French
company Crespin & Marteau started manufacturing methyl chloride compressors from 1884.
This continued upto the first world war. Escher Wyss of USA started making these
compressors from 1913 onwards, right upto the Second World War.
At the beginning of 20th century, practically all the compressors in USA, Great Britain
and Germany used either ammonia or carbon dioxide. In France, in addition to these two,
sulphur dioxide and methyl chloride were also used. Compressor capacity comparison tests
have been conducted on different types of compressors as early as 1887 in Munich, Germany.
Stetefeld in 1904 concluded that there was no marked difference in the performance of
ammonia, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide compressors.
Due to many similarities, the early compressors resembled steam engines in many
ways. Like early steam engines, they were double acting (compression takes place on both
sides of the piston). Both vertical and horizontal arrangements were used, the former being
popular in Europe while the later was popular in USA. A stuffing box arrangement with oil in
the gap was used to reduce refrigerant leakage. The crosshead, connecting rod, crank and
flywheel were in the open. Initially poppet valves were used, which were later changed to
ring-plate type. The cylinder diameters were very large by the present day standards, typically
around 500 mm with stroke lengths of the order of 1200 mm. The rotational speeds were low
(~ 50 rpm), hence the clearances were small, often less than 0.5 % of the swept volume. Due
to generous valve areas and low speed the early compressors were able to compress mixture
of vapour as well as liquid. Slowly, the speed of compressors have been increased, for
example for a 300 kW cooling capacity system, the mean speed was 40 rpm in 1890, 60 in
1900, 80 in 1910, 150 to 160 in 1915, and went upto 220 in 1916. The term “high speed” was
introduced in 1915 for compressors with speeds greater than 150 rpm. However, none of the
compressors of this period exceeded speeds of 500 rpm. However, compressors of very large
capacities (upto 7 MW cooling capacity) were successfully built and operated by this time. In
1905 the American engineer G.T. Voorhees introduced a dual effect compressor, which has a
supplementary suction orifice opened during compression so that refrigerant can be taken in
at two different pressures. As mentioned, the first two-stage carbon dioxide compressor was
made in 1889 by J&E Hall of England. Sulzer Company developed the first two-stage
ammonia compressor in 1889. York Company of USA made a two-stage ammonia
compressor in 1892.
As mentioned, the earliest compressors were hand operated. Later they were driven by
steam engines. However, the steam engines gradually gave way to electric motors. Diesel and
petrol engine driven compressors were developed much later. In USA, 90% of the motive
power was provided by the steam engine in 1914, 71% in 1919, 43% in 1922 and 32% in
1924. This trend continued and slowly the steam engine driven compressors have become
almost obsolete. Between 1914 and 1920, the electric motor was considered to be the first
choice for refrigerant compressors.
About 1920, high-speed compressors (with speeds greater than 500 rpm) began to
appear in the market. The horizontal, double acting compressors were gradually replaced by
multi-cylinder, vertical, uni-flow compressors in V- and W- arrangement, the design being
adopted from automobile engine design. In 1937, an American compressor (Airtemp)
comprised two groups of 7 cylinders arranged radially at both ends of 1750 rpm electric
motor. These changes resulted in a reduction of size and weight of compressor, for example, a
York 300 000 kcal/h compressor had the following characteristics:
Year Refrigerant No. of cylinders Speed (rpm) Cooling capacity per unit weight
1910 NH3 2 cylinders 70 6.5 kcal/h per kg
1940 NH3 4 cylinders 400 42 kcal/h per kg
1975 R22 16 cylinders in W- 1750 200 kcal/h per kg
arrangement
All the compressors developed in the early stages are of “open” type. In the open type
compressors the compressor and motor are mounted separately. The driving shaft of the
motor and the crankshaft of the compressor are connected either by a belt drive or a gear
drive. With the open type compressors there is always a possibility of refrigerant leakage
from an open type compressor, even though the rotating mechanical seals developed reduced
the leakage rate considerably. Since leakage cannot be eliminated completely, systems
working with open type compressors require periodic servicing and maintenance. Since it is
difficult to provide continuous maintenance on small systems (e.g. domestic refrigerators),
serious thought was given to tackle this problem. A hermetic or sealed compressor was the
outcome of this.
Several types of rotary air compressors existed before the First World War, and this
idea has soon been extended to refrigerants. However, they became popular with the
introduction of Freons in 1930s. The first positive displacement, rotary vane compressor
using methyl chloride was installed on an American ship “Carnegie”. However, a practical
A model of the rolling piston type compressor was made in 1919 in France. This
compressor was improved significantly by W.S.F. Rolaff of USA in 1920 and M. Guttner of
Germany in 1922. Rolaff’s design was first tried on a sulphur dioxide based domestic
refrigerator. Guttner’s compressors were used with ammonia and methyl chloride in large
commercial installations. Hermetic, rolling piston type compressors were made in USA by
Frigidaire for refrigerant R114, by General Electric for ethyl formate and by Bosch in
Germany for sulphur dioxide. In 1931, Vilter of USA made large rotary compressors (200000
kcal/h) first for ammonia and then for R12.
Q. State briefly the impact of Freons (CFCs) on refrigeration and air conditioning
Ans.: Freons have contributed significantly to the widespread use of refrigeration and air
condition systems as the systems using these refrigerants were thought to be safe, reliable and
rugged. The rapid growth of domestic refrigerators and air conditioners all over the world can
be attributed at least partly to the non-toxic, non-flammable and chemically stable nature of
Freons. Of course, Freons are also responsible for the monopoly of few companies in
refrigeration technology. Of late, the biggest impact of Freons could be their contribution to
global environmental hazards such as ozone layer depletion and global warming.
Ans. Almost all the natural refrigerants are non-ozone depleting substances and they also
have comparatively low global warming potential. Natural refrigerants generally offer good
thermodynamic and thermophysical properties leading to energy efficient systems. They are
also relatively inexpensive, and cannot be monopolized by few companies in the developed
world. However, unlike synthetic refrigerants the natural refrigerants suffer from some
specific problems related to toxicity, flammability, limited operating temperature range etc.
Q. What are the motivations for developing hermetic compressors? Why they are not used for
large capacity systems?
Ans. Hermetic compressors were developed to take care of the problem of refrigerant leakage
associated with the open type of compressors. By eliminating refrigerant leakage, the
hermetic compressor based systems were made relatively maintenance free, which is one of
the main requirement of small systems such as domestic refrigerators, air conditioners etc.
Hermetic compressors are not used in large capacity systems, as they are not completely
serviceable, they offer lower energy efficiency and compressor and motor cooling is difficult.
3.1. Introduction
As mentioned in Lesson 1, refrigeration deals with cooling of bodies or fluids to
temperatures lower than those of surroundings. This involves absorption of heat at a
lower temperature and rejection to higher temperature of the surroundings. In olden days,
The major applications of refrigeration can be grouped into following four major
equally important areas.
Table 3.1. Effect of storage temperature on useful storage life of food products
Fig.3.2. Ammonia based refrigeration plant for a large cold storage
4 Version
In case 1 ME,and
of fruits IIT Kharagpur
vegetables, the use of refrigeration starts right after
harvesting to remove the post-harvest heat, transport in refrigerated transport to the cold
storage or the processing plant. A part of it may be stored in cold storage to maintain its
sensory qualities and a part may be distributed to retail shops, where again refrigeration is
used for short time storage. Depending upon the size, the required capacity of
refrigeration plants for cold storages can be very high. Ammonia is one of the common
refrigerants used in cold storages. Figure 3.2 shows the photograph of ammonia based
refrigerant plant for a cold storage. Figure 3.3 shows the photograph of a typical cold
storage. Household refrigerator is the user end of cold chain for short time storage.
Fig.3.3. Photograph of a typical cold storage
The cold chain has proved to be very effective in reducing spoilage of food and in
food preservation. It is estimated that in India, the post-harvest loss due to inadequate
cold storage facilities is high as 30 percent of the total output. The quality of remaining
70 percent is also affected by inadequate cold chain facilities. This shows the importance
of proper refrigeration facilities in view of the growing food needs of the ever-growing
population. Refrigeration helps in retaining the sensory, nutritional and eating qualities of
the food. The excess crop of fruits and vegetables can be stored for use during peak
demands and off-season; and transported to remote locations by refrigerated transport. In
India, storage of potatoes and apples in large scale and some other fruits and vegetables
in small scale and frozen storage of peas, beans, cabbage, carrots etc. has improved the
standard of living. In general, the shelf life of most of the fruits and vegetables increases
by storage at temperatures between 0 to 10 oC. Table 3.2 shows the typical storage
conditions for some fruits and vegetables as recommended by ASHRAE. Nuts, dried
fruits and pulses that are prone to bacterial deterioration can also be stored for long
periods by this method. The above mentioned fruits, vegetables etc, can be stored in raw
state. Some highly perishable items require initial processing before storage. The fast and
busy modern day life demands ready-to-eat frozen or refrigerated food packages to
eliminate the preparation and cooking time. These items are becoming very popular and
these require refrigeration plants.
3.2.2. Fish: Icing of fish according to ASHRAE Handbook on Applications, started way
back in 1938. In India, iced fish is still transported by rail and road, and retail stores store
it for short periods by this method. Freezing of fish aboard the ship right after catch
results in better quality than freezing it after the ship docks. In some ships, it is frozen
along with seawater since it takes months before the ships return to dock. Long-term
preservation of fish requires cleaning, processing and freezing.
171. Meat and poultry: These items also require refrigeration right after slaughter
during processing, packaging. Short-term storage is done at 0 oC. Long-term storage
requires freezing and storage at -25oC.
172. Dairy Products: The important dairy products are milk, butter, buttermilk and ice
cream. To maintain good quality, the milk is cooled in bulk milk coolers immediately
after being taken from cow. Bulk milk cooler is a large refrigerated tank that cools it
between 10 to 15oC. Then it is transported to dairy farms, where it is pasteurized.
Pasteurization involves heating it to 73oC and holding it at this temperature for 20
seconds. Thereafter, it is cooled to 3 to 4 oC. The dairies have to have a very large
cooling capacity, since a large quantity of milk has to be immediately cooled after
arrival. During the lean period, the refrigeration plants of dairies are used to produce
ice that is used during peak periods to provide cooling by melting. This reduces the
required peak capacity of the refrigeration plant.
3.2.5. Beverages: Production of beer, wine and concentrated fruit juices require
refrigeration. The taste of many drinks can be improved by serving them cold or by
adding ice to them. This has been one of the favourite past time of aristocracy in all the
countries. Natural or man-made ice for this purpose has been made available since a very
long time. Fruit juice concentrates have been very popular because of low cost, good
taste and nutritional qualities. Juices can be preserved for a longer period of time than the
fruits. Also, fruit juice concentrates when frozen can be more easily shipped and
transported by road. Orange and other citrus juices, apple juice, grape juice and pineapple
juice are very popular. To preserve the taste and flavor of juice, the water is driven out of
it by boiling it at low temperature under reduced pressure. The concentrate is frozen and
transported at –20oC.
173. Candy: Use of chocolate in candy or its coating with chocolate requires setting at
5-10oC otherwise it becomes sticky. Further, it is recommended that it be stored at low
temperature for best taste.
174. Processing and distribution of frozen food: Many vegetables, meat, fish and
poultry are frozen to sustain the taste, which nearly duplicates that of the fresh product.
Freezing retains the sensory qualities of colour, texture and taste apart from nutritional
qualities. The refrigeration systems for frozen food applications are very liberally
designed, since the food items are frozen in shortest period of time. The sharp freezing
with temperature often below –30oC, is done so that the ice crystals formed during
freezing do not get sufficient time to grow and remain small and do not pierce the cell
boundaries and damage them. Ready-to-eat frozen foods, packed dinners and bakery
items are also frozen by this method and stored at temperatures of –25 to -20 oC for
distribution to retail stores during peak demands or off-season demands.
Vegetables in this list are beans, corn, peas, carrots, cauliflower and many others.
Most of these are blanched before freezing. There are various processes of freezing. Blast
freezers give a blast of high velocity air at – 30oC on the food container. In contact
freezing, the food is placed between metal plates and metal surfaces that are cooled to
-30oC or lower. Immersion freezing involves immersion of food in low temperature brine.
Individual quick freezing (IQF) is done by chilled air at very high velocities like 5-10 m/s
that keeps the small vegetable particles or shrimp pieces floating in air without clumping,
so that maximum area is available for heat transfer to individual particles. The
204. Condensation of Gases: some gases that are produced synthetically, are condensed
to liquid state by cooling, so that these can be easily stored and transported in liquid state.
For example, in synthetic ammonia plant, ammonia is condensed at –10 to 10oC before
filling in the cylinders, storage and shipment. This low temperature requires refrigeration.
207. Storage as liquid at low pressure: Liquid occupies less space than gases. Most of
the refrigerants are stored at high pressure. This pressure is usually their saturation
pressure at atmospheric temperature. For some gases, saturation pressure at room
temperature is very high hence these are stored at relatively low pressure and low
temperature. For example natural gas is stored at 0.7 bar gauge pressure and –130oC.
Heat gain by the cylinder walls leads to boiling of some gas, which is compressed, cooled
and expanded back to 0.7 bar gauge.
208. Removal of Heat of Reaction: In many chemical reactions, efficiency is better if the
reaction occurs below room temperature. This requires refrigeration. If these reactions are
exothermic in nature, then more refrigeration capacities are required. Production of
viscose rayon, cellular acetate and synthetic rubber are some of the examples.
Fermentation is also one of the examples of this.
210. Recovery of Solvents: In many chemical processes solvents are used, which usually
evaporate after reaction. These can be recovered by condensation at low temperature by
refrigeration system. Some of the examples are acetone in film manufacture and carbon
tetrachloride in textile production.
211. Cold Treatment of Metals: The dimensions of precision parts and gauge blocks can
be stabilized by soaking the product at temperature around – 90oC. The hardness and
wear resistance of carburized steel can be increased by this process. Keeping the cutting
tool at –100oC for 15 minutes can also increase the life of cutting tool. In deep drawing
process the ductility of metal increases at low temperature. Mercury patterns frozen by
refrigeration can be used for precision casting.
212. Medical: Blood plasma and antibiotics are manufactured by freeze-drying process
where water is made to sublime at low pressure and low temperature. This does not affect
the tissues of blood. Centrifuges refrigerated at –10oC, are used in the manufacture of
drugs. Localized refrigeration by liquid nitrogen can be used as anesthesia also.
213. Ice Skating Rinks: Due to the advent of artificial refrigeration, sports like ice
hockey and skating do not have to depend upon freezing weather. These can be played in
indoor stadium where water is frozen into ice on the floor. Refrigerant or brine carrying
pipes are embedded below the floor, which cools and freezes the water to ice over the
floor.
215. Desalination of Water: In some countries fresh water is scarce and seawater is
desalinated to obtain fresh water. Solar energy is used in some cases for desalination. An
alternative is to freeze the seawater. The ice thus formed will be relatively free of salt.
The ice can be separated and thawed to obtain fresh water.
216. Ice Manufacture: This was the classical application of refrigeration. Ice was
manufactured in plants by dipping water containers in chilled brine and it used to take
about 36 hours to freeze all the water in cans into ice. The ice thus formed was stored in
Printing: Some colour printing presses have one press for each colour. The paper passes
from one press to another press. The ink of one colour must get dried before it reaches the
second press, so that the colours do not smudge. And the paper should not shrink, so that
the picture does not get distorted. This requires control over temperature as well
humidity. Improper humidity may cause static electricity, curling and buckling of paper.
Manufacture of Precision Parts: If the metal parts are maintained at uniform temperature
during manufacturing process, these will neither expand nor shrink, maintaining close
tolerances. A lower relative humidity will prevent rust formation also. A speck of dust in
a switch or relay can cause total or partial malfunction in spacecraft. The manufacture of
VLSI chips, microprocessors, computers, aircraft parts, Micro-Electro Mechanical
Systems (MEMS), nanomaterial fabrication and many areas of modern progress require a
very clean atmosphere and proper control over humidity. Any impurity in the atmosphere
will spoil the VLSI chips. The concept of Clean rooms has been introduced for such
industries. In fact, all precision industries that use microprocessors require these clean
rooms.
Photographic Material: The raw material used for filmmaking has to be maintained at low
temperature, since it deteriorates at high temperature and humidity. The film also has to
be stored at low temperature. The room where film is developed requires 100%
replacement by fresh air of the air polluted by chemicals.
Farm Animals: The yield of Jersey cows decreases drastically during summer months.
Low temperature results in more efficient digestion of food and increase in weight of cow
and the milk yield. Animal barns have to be ventilated in any case since their number
density is usually very large. In many countries evaporative cooling is used for creating
comfort conditions in animal houses.
Computer Rooms: These require control of temperature, humidity and cleanliness. The
temperature of around 25 oC and relative humidity of 50% is maintained in these rooms.
The dust spoils the CD drives and printers etc.; hence the rooms have to be kept clean
also by using micro filters in the air-conditioning system.
Power Plants: Most of the modern power plants are microprocessor controlled. In the
earlier designs, the control rooms were very large and were provided with natural
ventilation. These days the control rooms are very compact, hence these require air-
conditioning for persons and the microprocessors.
Vehicular Air-conditioning: Bus, tram, truck, car, recreational vehicle, crane cabin,
aircraft and ships all require air-conditioning. In bus, tram, aircraft and ship, the
occupancy density is very high and the metabolic heat and water vapour generated by
persons has to be rejected. The cooling load in these is very high and rapidly changes that
provides a challenge for their design.
3.5.2. Comfort Air-Conditioning: Energy of food is converted into chemical energy for
functioning of brain, lungs, heart and other organs and this energy is ultimately rejected
to the surroundings. Also the internal organs require a temperature close to 35 oC for their
efficient operation, and regulatory mechanisms of human body maintain this temperature
by rejecting appropriate amount of heat. Human beings do not feel comfortable if some
extra effort is required by the body to reject this energy. The air temperature, humidity
and velocity at which human body does not have to take any extra action, is called
comfort condition. Comfort condition is also sometimes called as neutral condition.
Hospitals require sterile atmosphere so that bacteria emitted by one patient does
not affect the other persons. This is specially so for the operation theatres and intensive
care units. In these places no part of the room air is re-circulated after conditioning by
A/C system. In other places up to 90% of the cold room air is re-circulated and 10%
outdoor fresh air is taken to meet the ventilation requirement of persons. In hospitals all
the room air is thrown out and 100% fresh air is taken into the A/C system. Since,
outdoor air may be at 45oC compared to 25oC of the room air, the air-conditioning load
becomes very large. The humidity load also increases on this account. Operation theaters
require special attention in prevention of spores, viruses, bacteria and contaminants given
Large commercial buildings are a world of their own; they have their own
shopping center, recreation center, gymnasium swimming pool etc. Offices have very
high density of persons during office hours and no occupancy during off time. These
buildings require integrated concept with optimum utilization of resources and services.
These have security aspects, fire protection, emergency services, optimum utilization of
energy all built-in. Modern buildings of this type are called intelligent buildings where
air-conditioning requires large amount of energy and hence is the major focus.
Since persons have to spend a major part of their time within the building, without
much exposure to outdoors, the concept of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) has become very
important. There are a large number of pollutants that are emitted by the materials used in
the construction of buildings and brought into the buildings. IAQ addresses to these
issues and gives recommendation for their reduction to safe limits. Sick building
syndrome is very common in poorly designed air conditioned buildings due to inadequate
ventilation and use of improper materials. The sick building syndrome is characterized by
the feeling of nausea, headache, eye and throat irritation and the general feeling of being
uncomfortable with the indoor environment. In developed countries this is leading to
litigation also.
In the earlier systems little attention was paid to energy conservation, since fuels
were abundant and inexpensive. The energy crisis in early seventies, lead to a review of
basic principles and increased interest in energy optimization. The concept of low initial
cost with no regard to operating cost has become obsolete now. Approaches, concepts and
thermodynamic cycles, which were considered impractical at one time, are receiving
The scope of refrigeration is very wide and applications are very diverse and
literally thousands of scientists and engineers have contributed towards its development.
The accomplishments of these unnamed persons are summarized in the ASHRAE
Handbooks. The principles presented in this text follow the information provided in these
handbooks.
Ans.: Proper food preservation requires the maintenance of a cold chain beginning from
the place of harvest and ending at the place of consumption. A typical cold chain consists
of facilities for pre-treatment at the place of harvest, refrigeration/freezing at food
processing plant, refrigeration during transit, storage in refrigerated warehouses (cold
storages), refrigerated displays at the market, and finally storage in the domestic
freezer/refrigerator. It is very important that suitable conditions be provided for the
perishable products through out the chain.
Ans.: Preservation of perishable products using cold storages equalizes the prices
throughout the year and makes these products available round the year. Without them, the
prices would be very low at the time of harvest and very high during the off-season. With
storage facilities, it would also be possible to make the products available in areas where
they are not grown.
Q. What are the important issues to be considered in the design of refrigeration systems?
Ans.: Refrigeration systems are used in a wide variety of applications. Each application
has specific requirements of temperature, moisture content, capacity, operating duration,
availability of resources etc. Hence, refrigeration system design must be done for each
application based on the specific requirements. Since refrigeration systems are cost and
energy intensive, it is important to design the systems to achieve low initial and running
costs. Reliability of the systems is also very important as the failure of the refrigeration
systems to perform may lead huge financial losses. Of late, issues related to environment
have attracted great attention, hence the refrigeration systems should be as far as possible
environment friendly.
Ans. Air conditioning involves control of temperature and moisture content. One of the
most common requirement of air conditioning systems is cooling and dehumidification of
air. Refrigeration systems are required for cooling and dehumidification. Refrigeration
systems can also be used for heating of air by utilizing the heat rejected at the condenser,
i.e., by running them as heat pumps.
Ans.: IAQ stands for Indoor Air Quality and it refers to the ways and means of reducing
and maintaining the pollutants inside the occupied space within tolerable levels. IAQ
involves specifying suitable levels of fresh air supply (ventilation), suitable air filters, use
of proper materials of construction, furniture, carpets, draperies etc.
Lesson
4
Review of fundamental
principles –
Thermodynamics : Part I
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 1
2
The main objective of this lesson and the subsequent lesson is to review
fundamental principles of thermodynamics pertinent to refrigeration and
air conditioning. The specific objectives of this part are to:
263. Introduce and define important thermodynamic concepts such as thermodynamic
system, path and point functions, thermodynamic process, cycle, heat, work etc.
(Sections 4.2 and 4.3)
264. State the four fundamental laws of thermodynamics (Section 4.4)
265. Apply first law of thermodynamics to closed and open systems and develop
relevant equations (Section 4.4)
266. Introduce and define thermodynamic properties such as internal energy and
enthalpy (Section 4.4)
267. Discuss the importance of second law of thermodynamics and state Carnot
theorems (Section 4.4)
268. Define and distinguish the differences between heat engine, refrigerator and heat
pump (Section 4.4)
269. Obtain expressions for Carnot efficiency of heat engine, refrigerator and heat
pump (Section 4.4)
270. State Clausius inequality and introduce the property ‘entropy’ (Section 4.4)
4.1. Introduction
Refrigeration and air conditioning involves various processes such as compression,
expansion, cooling, heating, humidification, de-humidification, air purification, air distribution
etc. In all these processes, there is an exchange of mass, momentum and energy. All these
exchanges are subject to certain fundamental laws. Hence to understand and analyse
refrigeration and air conditioning systems, a basic knowledge of the laws of thermodynamics,
fluid mechanics and heat transfer that govern these processes is essential. It is assumed that the
reader has studied courses in engineering thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat transfer.
This chapter reviews some of the fundamental concepts of thermodynamics pertinent to
refrigeration and air-conditioning.
A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter of fixed mass and identity upon
which attention is focused for study. In simple terms, a system is whatever we want to study. A
system could be as simple as a gas in a cylinder or as complex as a nuclear power plant.
Everything external to the system is the surroundings. The system is separated from the
surroundings by the system boundaries. Thermodynamic systems can be further classified into
closed systems, open systems and isolated systems.
A control volume, which may be considered as an open system, is defined as a specified region
in space upon which attention is focused. The control volume is separated from the surroundings
by a control surface. Both mass and energy can enter or leave the control volume.
The first and an extremely important step in the study of thermodynamics is to choose and
identify the system properly and show the system boundaries clearly.
A process is defined as the path of thermodynamic states which the system passes through as it
goes from an initial state to a final state. In refrigeration and air conditioning one encounters a
wide variety of processes. Understanding the nature of the process path is very important as heat
and work depend on the path.
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if beginning with an initial state it goes through
different processes and finally arrives at the initial state.
Heat is energy transferred between a system and its surroundings by virtue of a temperature
difference only. The different modes of heat transfer are: conduction, convection and radiation.
Heat is a way of changing the energy of a system by virtue of a temperature difference only. Any
other means for changing the energy of a system is called work. We can have push-pull work
(e.g. in a piston-cylinder, lifting a weight), electric and magnetic work (e.g. an electric motor),
chemical work, surface tension work, elastic work, etc.
Mechanical modes of work: In mechanics work is said to be done when a force ‘F’ moves
through a distance ‘dx’. When this force is a mechanical force, we call the work done as a
mechanical mode of work. The classical examples of mechanical mode of work are:
where ‘p’ is the pressure acting on the system boundary and ‘dV’ is the differential volume. It is
assumed that the process is carried out very slowly so that at each instant of time the system is in
equilibrium. Typically such a process is called a quasi-equilibrium process.
For rigid containers, volume is constant, hence moving boundary work is zero in this case. For
other systems, in order to find the work done one needs to know the relation between pressure p
and volume V during the process.
Sign convention for work and heat transfer: Most thermodynamics books consider the work
done by the system to be positive and the work done on the system to be negative. The heat
transfer to the system is considered to be positive and heat rejected by the system is considered
to be negative. The same convention is followed throughout this course.
There are two types of functions defined in thermodynamics, path function and point function.
Fig. 4.1. Difference between point and path Vfuenrcstiions1 ME, IIT Kharagpur
Path function depends on history of the system (or path by which system arrived at a given
state). Examples for path functions are work and heat. Point function does not depend on the
history (or path) of the system. It only depends on the state of the system. Examples of point
functions are: temperature, pressure, density, mass, volume, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy
etc. Path functions are not properties of the system, while point functions are properties of the
system. Change in point function can be obtained by from the initial and final values of the
function, whereas path has to defined in order to evaluate path functions. Figure 4.1 shows the
difference between point and path functions. Processes A and B have same initial and final
states, hence, the change in volume (DV A and DVB) for both these processes is same (3 m 3), as
volume is a point function, whereas the work transferred (W A and WB) for the processes is
different since work is a path function. It should also be noted that the cyclic integrals of all
point functions is zero, while the cyclic integrals of path functions may be or may not be zero.
5
4.3. Thermodynamic properties
A system is specified and analyzed in terms of its properties. A property is any characteristic or
attribute of matter, which can be evaluated quantitatively. The amount of energy transferred in a
given process, work done, energy stored etc. are all evaluated in terms of the changes of the
system properties.
A thermodynamic property depends only on the state of the system and is independent of the
path by which the system arrived at the given state. Hence all thermodynamic properties are
point functions. Thermodynamic properties can be either intensive (independent of size/mass,
e.g. temperature, pressure, density) or extensive (dependent on size/mass, e.g. mass, volume)
Some of the properties, with which we are already familiar, are: temperature, pressure, density,
specific volume, specific heat etc. Thermodynamics introduces certain new properties such as
internal energy, enthalpy, entropy etc. These properties will be described in due course.
This postulate states that the number of independent intensive thermodynamic properties
required to specify the state of a closed system that is:
is (n+m). For a pure substance (m = 1) subjected to only one work mode (n = 1) two
independent intensive properties are required to fix the state of the system completely (n + m =
2). Such a system is called a simple system. A pure gas or vapour under compression or
expansion is an example of a simple system. Here the work mode is moving system boundary
work.
Conservation of mass is a fundamental concept, which states that mass is neither created nor
destroyed.
The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems are in thermal equilibrium with
a third system, then they in turn are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This implies that
∫(δQ-δW) = 0 (4.3)
This implies that (δQ-δW) must be a point function or property of the system. This property is
termed as internal energy, U. Mathematically, internal energy can be written as:
dU = δQ-δW (4.4)
The internal energy of a system represents a sum total of all forms of energy viz. thermal,
molecular, lattice, nuclear, rotational, vibrational etc.
Let the internal energy of a closed system at an equilibrium state 1 be U1. If 1Q2 amount of heat
is transferred across its boundary and 1W2 is the amount of work done by the system and the
system is allowed to come to an equilibrium state 2. Then integration of Eqn. (4.4) yields,
If m is the mass of the system and u denotes the specific internal energy of the system then,
where, 1q2 and 1w2 are heat transfer and work done per unit mass of the system.
Flow Work:
In an open system some matter, usually fluid enters and leaves the system. It requires flow work
for the fluid to enter the system against the system pressure and at the same time flow work is
required to expel the fluid from the system. It can be shown that the specific flow work is given
by the product of pressure, p and specific volume, v, i.e., flow work = pv.
In the analysis of open systems, it is convenient to combine the specific flow work ‘pv’ with
internal energy ‘u’ as both of them increase the energy of the system. The sum of specific
internal energy and specific flow work is an intensive property of the system and is called
specific enthalpy, h. Thus specific enthalpy, h is given by:
h = u + pv (4.8)
For an open system shown in Figure 4.2, m1 and m2 are the mass flow rates at inlet and outlet, h1
and h2 are the specific enthalpies at inlet and outlet, V1 and V2 are the inlet and outlet velocities
and z1 and z2 are the heights at inlet and outlet with reference to a datum; q and w are the rate of
heat and work transfer to the system and E is the total energy of the system.
m1
V1 7 S\ ^ m2
z1 \^ I h2
V/ *------------- V2
ts' —-^ z2
w
Fig. 4.2. First law of thermodynamics for an open system
Then the first law for this open system is given by:
dE V22 V2
— = m2(h2 +^ + gz2)-m1(h1 + 1 + gz1) + W-Q (4.9)
where (dE/dt) is the rate at which the total energy of the system changes and ‘g’ is the
acceleration due to gravity.
In steady state process, the time rate of change of all the quantities is zero, and mass is also
conserved. As a result, the mass and total energy of the system do not change with time, hence,
(dE/dt) is zero and from conservation of mass, m1 = m2 = m. Then the first law becomes:
The second law of thermodynamics is a limit law. It gives the upper limit of efficiency of a
system. The second law also acknowledges that processes follow in a certain direction but not in
the opposite direction. It also defines the important property called entropy.
It is common sense that heat will not flow spontaneously from a body at lower temperature to a
body at higher temperature. In order to transfer heat from lower temperature to higher
temperature continuously (that is, to maintain the low temperature) a refrigeration system is
needed which requires work input from external source. This is one of the principles of second
law of thermodynamics, which is known as Clausius statement of the second law.
It is impossible to transfer heat in a cyclic process from low temperature to high temperature
without work from external source.
It is also a fact that all the energy supplied to a system as work can be dissipated as heat transfer.
On the other hand, all the energy supplied as heat transfer cannot be continuously converted into
work giving a thermal efficiency of 100 percent. Only a part of heat transfer at high temperature
in a cyclic process can be converted into work, the remaining part has to be rejected to
surroundings at lower temperature. If it were possible to obtain work continuously by heat
transfer with a single heat source, then automobile will run by deriving energy from atmosphere
at no cost. A hypothetical machine that can achieve it is called Perpetual Motion Machine of
second kind. This fact is embedded in Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second law.
It is impossible to construct a device (engine) operating in a cycle that will produce no effect
other than extraction of heat from a single reservoir and convert all of it into work.
A process is reversible with respect to the system and surroundings if the system and the
surroundings can be restored to their respective initial states by reversing the direction of the
process, that is, by reversing the heat transfer and work transfer. The process is irreversible if it
cannot fulfill this criterion.
If work is done in presence of friction, say by movement of piston in a cylinder then a part of the
work is dissipated as heat and it cannot be fully recovered if the direction of process is reversed.
Similarly, if heat is transferred through a temperature difference from higher temperature to a
lower temperature, its direction cannot be reversed since heat transfer from lower temperature to
higher temperature would require external work input. These are two examples of irreversible
processes.
Reversible process is a hypothetical process in which work is done in absence of friction and
heat transfer occurs isothermally. Irreversibility leads to loss in work output and loss in
availability and useful work.
A heat engine may be defined as a device that operates in a thermodynamic cycle and does a
certain amount of net positive work through the transfer of heat from a high temperature body to
a low temperature body. A steam power plant is an example of a heat engine.
A refrigerator may be defined as a device that operates in a thermodynamic cycle and transfers a
certain amount of heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature by
consuming certain amount of external work. Domestic refrigerators and room air conditioners
are the examples. In a refrigerator, the required output is the heat extracted from the low
temperature body.
A heat pump is similar to a refrigerator, however, here the required output is the heat rejected to
the high temperature body.
Theorem 1: It is impossible to construct a heat engine that operates between two thermal
reservoirs and is more efficient than a reversible engine operating between the same two
reservoirs.
Theorem 2: All reversible heat engines operating between the same two thermal reservoirs have
the same thermal efficiency.
The two theorems can be proved by carrying out a thought experiment and with the help of
second law. Carnot’s theorems can also be formed for refrigerators in a manner similar to heat
engines.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur
Carnot efficiency: The Carnot efficiencies are the efficiencies of completely reversible cycles
operating between two thermal reservoirs. According to Carnot’s theorems, for any given two
thermal reservoirs, the Carnot efficiency represents the maximum possible efficiency.
Thermal efficiency for a heat engine, T|HE is defined as:
W cycle QC
r|HE =— = 1-^ (4.12)
QH QH
where Wcycle is the net work output, QC and QH and are the heat rejected to the low temperature
reservoir and heat added (heat input) from the high temperature reservoir, respectively.
It follows from Carnot s theorems that for a reversible cycle ( QC ) is a function of temperatures
QH
QC ,,
of the two reservoirs only. i.e. = <f)(TC TH ) .
QH
The efficiency of refrigerator and heat pump is called as Coefficient of Performance (COP).
Similarly to heat engines, Carnot coefficient of performance for heat pump and refrigerators
COPHP and COPR can be written as
QCH QCH= Wc H = QTTHH_QC = TH—TC
COPCarnot,HP (4.15)
QC _ QC _ QC _
CarnotR " "~
Wcycle QH-QC TH ~ TC
where
Wcycle = work input to the reversible heat pump and refrigerator
QH = heat transferred between the system and the hot reservoir
QC = heat transferred between the system and cold reservoir
TH = temperature of the hot reservoir
TC = temperature of the cold reservoir
Clausius inequality:
The Clausius inequality is a mathematical form of second law of thermodynamics for a closed
system undergoing a cyclic process. It is given by:
r( SQ^\
4> -^H <0 (4.16)
\T J b
In the above equation (4.16), ^represents the heat transfer at a part of the system boundary
during a portion of the cycle, and T is the absolute temperature at that part of the boundary. The
subscript “b” serves as a reminder that the integrand is evaluated at the boundary of the system
executing the cycle. The equality applies when there are no internal irreversibilities as the
system executes the cycle, and inequality applies when there are internal irreversibilities are
present.
Entropy:
implies that the quantity — must be a point function, hence a property of the system. This
V T /b,rev
property is named as ‘entropy’ by Clausius. The entropy change between any two equilibrium
states 1 and 2 of a system is given by:
(2sQ)
1 T S 2 - S 1 = f— (4.17)
int
rev
Where S2 , S1 are the entropies at states 1 and 2. The subscript “int rev” is added as a reminder
that the integration is carried out for any internally reversible process between the two states.
In general, for any process 1-2, the entropy change can be written as:
2
S2-S1 > T (4.18)
The equality applies when there are no internal irreversibilities as the system executes the cycle,
and inequality applies when there are internal irreversibilities are present.
(2 \
S2-S1= \ +<j (4.19)
1T
V Jb
The above equation may be considered as an entropy balance equation for a closed system. If the
end states are fixed, the entropy change on the left side of Eqn. (4.19) can be evaluated
independently of the details of the process. The two terms on the right side depend explicitly on
the nature of the process and cannot be determines solely from the knowledge of end states. The
first term on the right side of the equation is interpreted as entropy transfer. The direction of
entropy transfer is same as that of heat transfer. The entropy change of a system is not accounted
solely by the entropy transfer. We have to include another term for entropy generation due to
internal irreversibililies in the system. The second term in Eqn. (4.19) accounts for this, and is
interpreted as entropy production. The value of entropy production cannot be negative. It can
S2 ~S1 >0
=0 (4.20)
<0
AEisol = 0 (4.21)
because no energy transfers takes place across its boundary. Thus the energy of the isolated
system remains constant.
(2sQ)
ASisol = \ +o-isol (4.22)
1 )b
Since there are there are no energy transfers in an isolated system, the first term in the above
equation is zero, hence the above equation reduces to:
where oisol is the total amount of entropy produced within the isolated system, since this cannot
be negative, it implies that the entropy of an isolated system can only increase. If we consider a
combined system that includes the system and its surroundings, then the combined system
becomes an isolated system. Then one can write:
since entropy is produced in all actual processes, only processes that can occur are those for
which the entropy of the isolated system increases. Energy of an isolated system is conserved
whereas entropy of an isolated system increases. This is called the principle of increase of
entropy.
This law gives the definition of absolute value of entropy and also states that absolute zero
cannot be achieved. Another version of this law is that “the entropy of perfect crystals is zero at
absolute zero”. This statement is attributed to Plank. This is in line with the concept that entropy
is a measure of disorder of the system. If ‘o' is the probability of achieving a particular state out
of a large number of states; then entropy of the system is equal to ln(o). The transitional
movement of molecules ceases at absolute zero and position of atoms can be uniquely specified.
In addition, if we have a perfect crystal, then all of its atoms are alike and their positions can be
interchanged without changing the state. The probability of this state is unity, that is ω = 1 and
ln (ω) = ln (1) = 0
For imperfect crystals however there is some entropy associated with configuration of molecules
and atoms even when all motions cease, hence the entropy in this case does not tend to zero as T
→ 0, but it tends to a constant called the entropy of configuration.
The third law allows absolute entropy to be determined with zero entropy at absolute zero as the
reference state. In refrigeration systems we deal with entropy changes only, the absolute entropy
is not of much use. Therefore entropy may be taken to be zero or a constant at any suitably
chosen reference state.
Another consequence of third law is that absolute zero cannot be achieved. One tries to approach
absolute zero by magnetization to align the molecules. This is followed by cooling and then
demagnetization, which extracts energy from the substance and reduces its temperature. It can
be shown that this process will require infinite number of cycles to achieve absolute zero. In a
later chapter it will be shown that infinitely large amount of work is required to maintain
absolute zero if at all it can be achieved.
Questions:
2. Divide the following in to a) point function and path function and b) extensive property and
intensive property.
Pressure, enthalpy, volume, temperature, specific volume, internal energy, work, heat,
entropy, pressure, density, mass, and specific heat. (Solution)
287. Gases enter the adiabatic converging nozzle of an aircraft with velocity V1 from
combustion chamber. Find out the expression for the change in enthalpy between inlet and outlet
of the nozzle, where inlet area A1 and outlet area A2 (A2 < A1) are given and the nozzle is
assumed to be horizontal. (Solution)
288. 10 kW of electrical power input is given to a mechanical pump, which is pumping water
from a well of depth 10 m. Pump is heated up because of frictional losses in the pump. In steady
state, pump temperature is TM = 40oC and the surroundings is at TS = 20oC. The convective heat
transfer between the motor surface area AM (= 0.8 m2) and the surroundings air is governed by
Q = hAM(TM -TS)
2
Where h = 0.15 kW/m -K, is a convective heat transfer coefficient between the motor surface
and the surrounding air. Find out the maximum mass flow rate of the water that mechanical
pump can pump? (Solution)
5. A refrigerator manufactured by one manufacturing company works between 40oC and -5oC.
The manufacturer claims that coefficient of performance of that refrigerator is 7.0. Do you agree
with his statement? Justify your answer. (Solution)
289. Change in the entropy of a closed system is the same for every process between
two given states. (Answer)
293. A process which violates second law of thermodynamics also violates the first
law of thermodynamics. (Answer)
294. When a net amount of work is done on a closed system undergoing an internally
reversible process, a net heat transfer from the system has to occur. (Answer)
g) A closed system can experience an increase in entropy only when irreversibilities are
present within the system during the process. (Answer)
h) In an adiabatic and internally reversible process of a closed system, the entropy remains
constant. (Answer)
i) No process is allowed in which the entropies of both the system and the surroundings
increase. (Answer)
j) During a process the entropy of the system might decrease while the entropy of
surroundings increase and conversely. (Answer)
k) The value of coefficient of performance of heat pump is one greater than that of
refrigerator. (Answer)
Lesson
5
Review of fundamental
principles –
Thermodynamics : Part II
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 1
2
303. Evaluate thermodynamic properties using equations of state, tables and charts
304. Identify various regimes on T-s and P-h charts
305. Estimate heat and work transferred in various thermodynamic processes
Two more fundamental thermodynamic relations can be obtained by defining two new properties
called Gibbs and Helmholtz functions.
An equation of state (EOS) is a fundamental equation, which expresses the relationship between
pressure, specific volume and temperature. The simplest equation of state is that for an
incompressible substance (e.g. solids and liquids), which states that the specific volume is
constant. The next simplest EOS is that for an ideal gas.
Ideal (perfect) gas equation is a special equation of state, which is applicable to ideal gases. The
molecular forces of attraction between gas molecules are small compared to those in liquids. In
the limit when these forces are zero, a gas is called a perfect gas. In addition the volume of the
molecules should be negligible compared to total volume for a perfect gas. The perfect or ideal
gas equation of state is given by:
Pv = RT (5.2)
R = Ru /M (5.3)
The ideal gas equation is satisfactory for low molecular mass, real gases at relatively high
temperatures and low pressures. Ideal gas equation can be used for evaluating properties of
moist air used in air conditioning applications without significant error.
For ideal gases, the change in internal energy and enthalpy are sole functions of temperature.
Assuming constant specific heats (cp ,cv ) in the temperature range T1 to T2, for ideal gases one
can write the change in internal energy (u), enthalpy (h) and entropy (s) as:
2R
+R
(T2-T
ln
v11
T ln T) u2 -u1 = h2 -h1 =
ln
T22
P s2 -s1 =c
T11
P (5.4)
s2 -s1 = cp ln cp -cv =R
(P + —)(v - b) = RT (5.5)
v 2 where a and b are constants that account for the
intermolecular forces and volume of the gas molecules respectively.
Redlich-Kwong equation:
RT a
P=-------------1=---------- (5.6)
v-b VT v(v + b)
where A,B,C,… are all empirically determined functions of temperature and are called as virial
coefficients.
A pure substance is one whose chemical composition does not change during thermodynamic
processes. Water and refrigerants are examples of pure substances. These days emphasis is on
the use mixture of refrigerants. The properties of mixtures also require understanding of the
properties of pure substances.
If a liquid (pure substance) is heated at constant pressure, the temperature at which it boils is
called saturation temperature. This temperature will remain constant during heating until all the
Similarly, when a solid is heated at constant, it melts at a definite temperature called melting
point. Similarly cooling of a liquid causes freezing at the freezing point. The melting point and
freezing point are same at same pressure for a pure substance and the solid and liquid are in
equilibrium at this temperature.
For all pure substances there is a temperature at which all the three phases exist in equilibrium.
This is called triple point.
Fig. 5.1. 1P-h
Version ME, IIT Kharagpur
diagram for a pure substance
The liquid-vapour phase diagram of pure substance is conveniently shown in temperature-
entropy diagram or pressure-enthalpy diagram or p-v diagram. Sometimes, three dimensional p-
v-t diagrams are also drawn to show the phase transformation. In most of the refrigeration
applications except dry ice manufacture, we encounter liquid and vapour phases only.
Thermodynamic properties of various pure substances are available in the form of charts and
tables. Thermodynamic property charts such as Temperature-entropy (T-s) charts, pressure-
enthalpy (P-h) charts are very useful in evaluating properties of substances and also for
representing the thermodynamic processes and cycles. Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show the P-h and T-s
diagrams for pure substances.
6
Critical point :
Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show the critical point. The temperature, pressure and specific volume at
critical point are denoted by Tc, Pc and vc, respectively. A liquid below the critical pressure when
heated first becomes a mixture of liquid and vapour and then becomes saturated vapour and
finally a superheated vapour. At critical point there is no distinction between liquid state and
vapour state; these two merge together. At constant pressure greater than critical pressure, P C
when liquid is heated in supercritical region, there is no distinction between liquid and vapour;
as a result if heating is done in a transparent tube, the meniscus of liquid and vapour does not
appear as transformation from liquid to vapour takes place. At pressures below critical pressure,
when a liquid is heated there is a clear-cut meniscus between liquid and vapour, until all the
liquid evaporates.
These are of great importance in refrigeration cycle calculations. Figure 5.3 and 5.4 show typical
T-s diagram and p-h (Mollier) diagrams, respectively for a pure refrigerant. The T-s diagram
Tds = du (5.8)
For liquids, the internal energy may be assumed to be function of temperature alone, that is,
The specific volume v is small for liquids hence v dp is also negligible, therefore ha = ha’, That
is, the enthalpy of sub-cooled liquid is equal to the enthalpy of saturated liquid at liquid
temperature. For all practical purposes the constant pressure lines are assumed to be coincident
with saturated liquid line in the sub-cooled region. This is a very useful concept.
T-s diagram gives a lot of information about the refrigeration cycle. It was observed in Chapter 4
that for a reversible process, the heat transfer is related to the change in entropy given by:
I 2 XQ^ 12 \
S2-S1= f— , this implies that 1Q 2 = fT.ds (5.9)
u
T >
The above equation implies that the heat transferred in a reversible process 1-2 is equal to area
under the line 1-2 on the T-s diagram.
Also, from Eq. (5.1b), T ds=dh - vdP , hence for a constant pressure process (dP = 0), therefore,
for a constant pressure process Tds = dh, which means that for an isobaric process the area
under the curve is equal to change in enthalpy on T-s diagram.
Properties at Saturation
The properties of refrigerants and water for saturated states are available in the form of Tables.
The properties along the saturated liquid line are indicated by subscript ‘f’ for example vf, uf, hf
and sf indicate specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of saturated liquid
respectively. The corresponding saturated vapour states are indicated by subscript ‘g’ for
example vg, ug, hg and sg respectively. All properties with subscript ‘fg’ are the difference
between saturated vapour and saturated liquid states. For example, hfg = hg - hf , the latent heat of
vaporization.
The specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of the mixture in two-phase region
may be found in terms of quality, ‘x’ of the mixture. The quality of the mixture denotes the mass
Therefore the properties of the liquid-vapour mixture can be obtained by using the following
equations:
The table of properties at saturation is usually temperature based. For each temperature it lists
the values of saturation pressure (Psat), vf, vg, hf, hg, sf and sg. Two reference states or datum or used
in these tables. In ASHRAE reference hf = 0.0 kJ/kg and sf = 1.0 kJ/kg.K at - 40oC. In IIR
reference hf = 200.00 kJ/kg and sf = 1.0 kJ/kg-K at 0oC.
The properties in the superheated region are given in separate tables. The values of v, h and s are
tabulated along constant pressure lines (that is, at saturation pressures corresponding to, say 0oC,
1oC, 2oC etc.) at various values of degree of superheat.
Clapeyron Equation
dP sf hf
=—g =-----------------g------- (5.11)
dT vfg (vg - vf)T
Some useful relations can be derived using Clapeyron equation. The specific volume of liquid is
very small compared to that of vapour, hence it may be neglected and then perfect gas relation
pvg= RT may be used to yield:
dPsat h fg h fg P sat .h fg
2 2
dT (vg -vf)T vgT RT
p
dPsat hfg TdT Psat hfgf 1 1
f=f or ln =------------------------------ (5.13)
p1 Psat R T1T2 P1 R ^T1 T)
If P1 is chosen as standard atmospheric pressure of say 1 atm. (ln (P1) = ln (1) = 0), and P is
measured in atmospheres, then T1= Tnb is the normal boiling point of the substance, then from
Eq. (5.13), we obtain:
hfg f 1 1
ln(P ) = _-------------- (5.14)
R ^Tnb T)
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 9
10
Therefore if ln (P) is plotted against 1/T, the saturated vapour line will be a straight line. Also, it
has been observed that for a set of similar substances the product of Mhfg/Tnb called Trouton
number is constant. Here M is the molecular weight of the substance (kg/kmole). If we denote
the Trouton number by Ntrouton , then
N trouton =Mhfg
= h NN
trouton fg
Tnb = trouton = trouton , or (5.15)
RTnb MR R
h fg N trouton
lnp= +
RT R
For most of the substances, the Trouton number value is found to be about 85 kJ/kmol.K
h1 —► SXQ
v1 77 S\ \ m
z1 ! E ! h2
>\ / '
\ \^ —^--------^ v2
• /^^ ---- / z2
W ^"-------''
Fig. 5.5. Steady flow energy balance on a control volume
In many cases, compared to other terms, the changes in kinetic and potential energy terms, i.e.,
(v12-v22)/2 and (gz1-gz2) are negligible.
Heating and cooling: During these processes normally there will be no work done either on the
system or by the system, i.e., W= 0. Hence, the energy equation for cooling/heating becomes:
Constant volume (isochoric) process: An example of this process is the heating or cooling of a
gas stored in a rigid cylinder. Since the volume of the gas does not change, no external work is
done, and work transferred AW is zero. Therefore from 1st law of thermodynamics for a constant
volume process:
1W2=0
2
1Q2 =JdU=U2 -U1 =mcvavg(T2 -T1) (5.18)
1
ln ^T2^
1v,avg
v 1J
T S2 -S1 =mc
The above equation implies that for a constant volume process in a closed system, the heat
transferred is equal to the change in internal energy of the system. If ‘m’ is the mass of the gas,
Cv is its specific heat at constant volume which remains almost constant in the temperature range
AT, and AT is the temperature change during the process, then:
AQ = AU = m.Cv.AT (5.19)
Constant pressure (isobaric) process: If the temperature of a gas is increased by the addition of
heat while the gas is allowed to expand so that its pressure is kept constant, the volume of the
gas will increase in accordance with Charles law. Since the volume of the gas increases during
the process, work is done by the gas at the same time that its internal energy also changes.
Therefore for constant pressure process, assuming constant specific heats and ideal gas
behaviour,
Constant temperature (isothermal) process: According to Boyle’s law, when a gas is compressed
or expanded at constant temperature, the pressure will vary inversely with the volume. Since the
gas does work as it expands, if the temperature is to remain constant, energy to do the work
must be supplied from an external source. When a gas is compressed, work is done on the gas
and if the gas is not cooled during the process the internal energy of the gas will increase by an
amount equal to the work of compression. Therefore if the temperature of the gas is to remain
constant during the process gas must reject heat to the surroundings. Since there is no
temperature increase in the system change in internal energy becomes zero. And the amount of
work done will be the amount of heat supplied. So for isothermal process
If the
workin
g fluid
behave
s as an
ideal
gas and
there
are no
phase
change
s, then,
the
work
done,
heat
transfe
rred
and
entrop
y
change
during
the
isother
mal
process
are
given
by:
V1 v12y
P
v2y 1QQ2
1
v1
= mRTln 1
= mRln S
vv1y
P2 P2
v
5 5. 4
k1W2 = 2 P.dV
Adiabatic process: Applying first law of k(
An adiabatic
process is one in I
which no heat
transfer takes place S1 =S2
to or from the
system during the The
process. For a fluid followi
undergoing an ng P-
adiabatic process, V-T
the pressure and relatio
volume satisfy the
nships
following relation:
can be
P ( derive
d for a
where k is the compr
coefficient of essible
adiabatic compression fluid
or expansion. For an underg
ideal gas, it can be oing
shown that: an
adiabat
■y
( ic
P c proces
V s:
k-1 (k-1)/k k
(k
KP1J
(5.27)
vV2y
If the
adiabat
ic
process
is
reversi
ble,
then
from
the
definiti
on of
entropy
, the
process
becom
es an
isentro
pic
proces
s or the
entrop
y of
the
system
does
not
change
during a reversible
adiabatic process.
Hence all reversible,
adiabatic processes
are isentropic
processes, however,
the converse is not
true, i.e., all
isentropic processes
need not be
reversible, adiabatic
processes.
The value of n can vary from -∞ to +∞, depending upon the process. For example:
For a polytropic process, expressions for work done, heat transferred can be derived in the same
way as that of a adiabatic process discussed above, i.e.,
Throttling (Isenthalpic) process: A throttling process occurs when a fluid flowing through a
passage suddenly encounters a restriction in the passage. The restriction could be due to the
presence of an almost completely closed valve or due to sudden and large reduction in flow area
etc. The result of this restriction is a sudden drop in the pressure of the fluid as it is forced to
flow through the restriction. This is a highly irreversible process and is used to reduce the
pressure and temperature of the refrigerant in a refrigeration system. Since generally throttling
occurs in a small area, it may be considered as an adiabatic process (as area available for heat
transfer is negligibly small) also since no external work is done, we can write the 1 st law of
thermodynamics for this process as:
Q=W=0
h + V12 = h + V22 (5.30)
1 2 2 2
where V1 and V2 are the inlet and exit velocities of the fluid respectively. The areas of inlet and
outlet of a throttling device are designed in such a way that velocities at inlet and outlet become
almost equal. Then the above equation becomes
h1 = h2 (5.31)
312. An interesting feature of the process of cooling the human body by evaporation is that
the heat extracted by the evaporation of a gram of perspiration from the human skin at body
temperature (37°C) is quoted in physiology books as 580 calories/gm rather than the nominal
540 calories/gm at the normal boiling point. Why is it larger at body temperature? (Solution)
313. Find the saturation temperature, the changes in specific volume and entropy during
evaporation, and the latent heat of vaporization of steam at 0.1 MPa ? (Solution)
314. Under what conditions of pressure and temperature does saturated steam have a entropy
of 6.4448 kJ/kg K? State the specific volume and entropy under such conditions. (Solution)
315. Find the enthalpy of steam when the pressure is 2 MPa and the specific volume is 0.09
m3/kg. (Solution)
316. A gas of mass 4 kg is adiabatically expanded in a cylinder from 0.2 m 3 to 0.5 m3 Initial
pressure of the gas is 2 bar, and the gas follows the following pressure-volume relationship
PV1.4 = K (K= constant) Find the decrease in the temperature
of the gas? (CV for the gas = 0.84 kJ/kg-K) (Solution)
1. Sketch1these
Version ME, two
IIT Kharagpur
processes on14P-V and T-V diagrams
2. What is the temperature of the air inside the cylinder when the piston reaches the stops?
7. Air is contained in a vertical cylinder that is fitted with a frictionless piston. A set of stops is
provided 0.5 m below the initial position of the piston. The piston cross-sectional area is 0.5 m 2
and the air inside is initially at 100 kPa and 400 K. The air is slowly cooled as a result of heat
transfer to the surroundings.
15
317. After the piston hits the stops, the cooling is continued until the temperature reaches 100
K. What is the pressure at this state?
318. How much work is done by the system in the first cooling process?
319. How much work is done by the system in the second cooling process?
Assume air to be a thermally perfect gas and the first cooling is a quasi-static process. (Solution)
8. Consider a thermodynamic system containing air at V1=1 m3/kg, P1=100 kPa. The system is
compressed to 0.5 m3/kg via anyone of three quasi-static processes: isobaric, isothermal, or
adiabatic. Assume that cv = 0.7165 kJ/kg-K, and R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K.
329. Write the general equation of mass transfer and be able to reduce it for
incompressible and steady flows
330. Write the general equation of momentum transfer and reduce it
to incompressible, steady flows
331. Apply equations of conservation of mass and momentum to simple
problems
332. Write Bernoulli equation and define static, velocity and datum
pressures and heads
333. Write modified Bernoulli equation to account for frictional losses and
presence of fan/pump
334. Apply Bernoulli and modified Bernoulli equations to simple fluid flow
problems relevant to refrigeration and air conditioning
335. Estimate friction pressure drops and minor losses
As the name implies, this law states that mass is a conserved parameter, i.e., it can
neither be generated nor destroyed; it can only be transferred. Mathematically, the
equation of conservation of mass for a control volume is given by:
— \pd\/ + \pV»dA = 0 (6.1)
dt J *
CV CS
The first term on the left represents the rate of change of mass within the control
volume, while the second term represents the net rate of mass flux through the control
surface. The above equation is also known as continuity equation.
In most of the refrigeration and air conditioning systems, the fluid flow is usually
steady, i.e., the mass of the control volume does not change with time. For such a
steady flow process, Eq. (6.1) becomes:
JpV*dA = 0 (6.2)
CS
If we apply the above steady flow equation to a duct shown in Fig. 6.1, we obtain:
1 Control Volume 2
where m is the mass flow rate of fluid through the control volume, p, A and V are the
density, cross sectional area and velocity of the fluid respectively.
If we assume that the flow is incompressible (p1 = p2 = p), then the above equation
reduces to:
A1V1 = A2V2 (6.4)
The above equation implies that when A1 > A2, then V1 < V2, that is velocity increases in
the direction of flow. Such a section is called a nozzle. On the other hand, if A1 <
The momentum equation is mathematical expression for the Newton’s second law
applied to a control volume. Newton’s second law for fluid flow relative to an inertial
coordinate system (control volume) is given as:
dt1 =f JCVvPdV+JCSvpV•dA=F)o
^ control volume JCV
P
JCS
P = Fon control volume
F ) on control volume 1^F S + Z^F B JCV vP JCS vP • and (6.5)
dt I
dP
In the above equation, is the rate of change of linear momentum of the
dt
/control volume
control volume, F)on controlvolume is the summation of all the forces acting on the
control volume, X;FS and X;FB are the net surface and body forces acting on the
control volume, Vis the velocity vector with reference to the control volume and v is
the velocity (momentum per unit mass) with reference to an inertial (non-
accelerating) reference frame. When the control volume is not accelerating (i.e., when
it is stationary or moving with a constant velocity), then V and v refer to the same
reference plane.
The above equation states that the sum of all forces (surface and body) acting on a non
accelerating control volume is equal to the sum of the rate of change of momentum
inside the control volume and the net rate of flux of momentum out through the
control surface. For steady state the linear momentum equation reduces to:
F = FS +FB = f VpV •dA for steady state (6.6)
JCS
The surface forces consist of all the forces transmitted across the control surface and
may include pressure forces, force exerted by the physical boundary on the control
surface etc. The most common body force encountered in most of the fluid flow
problems is the gravity force acting on the mass inside the control volume.
The linear momentum equation discussed above is very useful in the solution of many
fluid flow problems. Some of the applications of this equation are: force exerted by
the fluid flow on nozzles, bends in a pipe, motion of rockets, water hammers etc.
Example shows the application of linear momentum equation.
The Bernoulli’s equation is one of the most useful equations that is applied in a wide
variety of fluid flow related problems. This equation can be derived in different ways,
e.g. by integrating Euler’s equation along a streamline, by applying first and second
laws of thermodynamics to steady, irrotational, inviscid and incompressible flows etc.
In simple form the Bernoulli’s equation relates the pressure, velocity and elevation
between any two points in the flow field. It is a scalar equation and is given by:
+ +z =H = constant
↓g 2g
pressure velocity static total
head head head head
Each term in the above equation has dimensions of length (i.e., meters in SI units)
hence these terms are called as pressure head, velocity head, static head and total
heads respectively. Bernoulli’s equation can also be written in terms of pressures (i.e.,
Pascals in SI units) as:
p V 2 +ρ 2 ↓ + ρgz =pT
velocity
↓ pressure ↓ pressure ↓
static due to datum total
pressure pressure
(6.8)
Bernoulli’s equation is valid between any two points in the flow field when the flow is
steady, irrotational, inviscid and incompressible. The equation is valid along a
streamline for rotational, steady and incompressible flows. Between any two points 1
and 2 in the flow field for irrotational flows, the Bernoulli’s equation is written as:
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ +z1 = + +z2 (6.9)
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Bernoulli’s equation can also be considered to be an alternate statement of
conservation of energy (1st law of thermodynamics). The equation also implies the
possibility of conversion of one form of pressure into other. For example, neglecting
the pressure changes due to datum, it can be concluded from Bernoulli’s equation that
the static pressure rises in the direction of flow in a diffuser while it drops in the
direction of flow in case of nozzle due to conversion of velocity pressure into static
pressure and vice versa. Figure 6.2 shows the variation of total, static and velocity
pressure for steady, incompressible and inviscid, fluid flow through a pipe of uniform
cross-section.
Since all real fluids have finite viscosity, i.e. in all actual fluid flows, some energy will
be lost in overcoming friction. This is referred to as head loss, i.e. if the fluid
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur
were to rise in a vertical pipe it will rise to a lower height than predicted by
Bernoulli’s equation. The head loss will cause the pressure to decrease in the flow
direction. If the head loss is denoted by Hl, then Bernoulli’s equation can be modified
to:
p1 V12 p2 V22
(6.10) + +z 1 = + +z2 +Hl
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Figure 6.2 shows the variation of total, static and velocity pressure for steady,
incompressible fluid flow through a pipe of uniform cross-section without viscous
effects (solid line) and with viscous effects (dashed lines).
_______==___ total___________
Pstatic
P
Pvelocity
(0,0) x
Since the total pressure reduces in the direction of flow, sometimes it becomes
necessary to use a pump or a fan to maintain the fluid flow as shown in Fig. 6.3.
Fan
Energy is added to the fluid when fan or pump is used in the fluid flow conduit (Fig.
6.3), then the modified Bernoulli equation is written as:
where Hp is the gain in head due to fan or pump and Hl is the loss in head due to
friction. When fan or pump is used, the power required (W) to drive the fan/pump is
given by:
where m is the mass flow rate of the fluid and r|fan is the energy efficiency of the
fan/pump. Some of the terms in the above equation can be negligibly small, for
example, for air flow the potential energy term g(z1-z2) is quite small compared to the
other terms. For liquids, the kinetic energy term (v22-v12)/2 is relatively small. If there is
no fan or pump then W is zero.
Normally pressure drop due to fluid friction is called as major loss or frictional
pressure drop Apf and pressure drop due to change in flow area and direction is called
as minor loss Apm. The total pressure drop is the summation of frictional pressure drop
and minor loss. In most of the situations, the temperature of the fluid does not change
appreciably along the flow direction due to pressure drop. This is due to the fact that
the temperature tends to rise due to energy dissipation by fluid friction and turbulence,
at the same time temperature tends to drop due to pressure drop. These two opposing
effects more or less cancel each other and hence the temperature remains almost
constant (assuming no heat transfer to or from the surroundings).
When a fluid flows through a pipe or a duct, the relative velocity of the fluid at the
wall of the pipe/duct will be zero, and this condition is known as a no-slip condition.
The no-slip condition is met in most of the common fluid flow problems (however,
there are special circumstances under which the no-slip condition is not satisfied). As
a result of this a velocity gradient develops inside the pipe/duct beginning with zero at
the wall to a maximum, normally at the axis of the conduit. The velocity profile at any
cross section depends on several factors such as the type of fluid flow (i.e. laminar or
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is one of the most commonly used equations for
estimating frictional pressure drops in internal flows. This equation is given by:
Apf =f pV L 2
(6.13)
Dl 2
where f is the dimensionless friction factor, L is the length of the pipe/duct and D is the
diameter in case of a circular duct and hydraulic diameter in case of a noncircular
duct. The friction factor is a function of Reynolds number, ReD =------------- and the
relative surface of the pipe or duct surface in contact with the fluid.
For steady, fully developed, laminar, incompressible flows, the Darcy friction factor f
(which is independent of surface roughness) is given by:
64
ReD (6.14)
For turbulent flow, the friction factor can be evaluated using the empirical correlation
suggested by Colebrook and White is used, the correlation is given by:
10
+
k1s D)Vf
2.51
(6.15)
(Re
3.7D
= -2log
Vf
Where ks is the average roughness of inner pipe wall expressed in same units as the
diameter D. Evaluation of f from the above equation requires iteration since f occurs on
both the sides of it.
f D ks / 1.11
1 6.9 Re
1/ 2 ;«-1.8log 10 + 3.7 (6.18)
The process of converting static pressure into kinetic energy is quite efficient.
However, the process of converting kinetic energy into pressure head involves losses.
These losses, which occur in ducts because of bends, elbows, joints, valves etc. are
called minor losses. This term could be a misnomer, since in many cases these are
more significant than the losses due to friction. For almost all the cases, the minor
losses are determined from experimental data. In turbulent flows, the loss is
proportional to square of velocity. Hence these are expressed as:
Δpm = K
(6.19) ρV2 m =
K
2
Experimental values for the constant K are available for various valves, elbows,
diffusers and nozzles and other fittings. These aspects will be discussed in a later
chapter on distribution of air.
Questions:
340. Derive the expression of fully developed laminar flow velocity profile through
a circular pipe using control volume approach. (Answer)
341. A Static-pitot (Fig. Q3) is used to measure the flow of an inviscid fluid having
a density of 1000 kg/m3 in a 100 mm diameter pipe. What is the flow rate through the
duct assuming the flow to be steady and incompressible and mercury as the
manometer fluid? (Solution)
2} 1 ^
a-
r^ X h
C3 (4 )
h0 = 50 mm
V--
343. A fluid flows from point 1 to 2 of a horizontal pipe having a diameter of 150
mm. The distance between the points is 100 m. The pressure at point 1 is 1 MPa and
at point 2 is 0.9 MPa. What is the flow rate? (Solution) (Density and kinematic
viscosity of fluid are 900 kg/m3 and 400 X 10-6 m2/s respectively)
344. Three pipes of 0.5 m, 0.3 m and 0.4 m diameters and having lengths of 100 m,
60 m and 80 m respectively are connected in series between two tanks whose
difference in water levels is 10 m as shown in Fig. Q7. If the friction factor for all the
pipes is equal to 0.05, calculate the flow rate through the pipes. (Solution)
10m
2
D = 0.5m
0.4m
r0.3m
Q
T
Fig. Q7. Figure of problem 7
3m
1 £
patm
D1 = 10 cm
2) D2 = 5 cm
£
CV
Fig. Q9. Figure of problem 9
354. Write basic equations for heat conduction and derive equations for
simpler cases
355. Write basic equations for radiation heat transfer, estimate radiative
exchange between surfaces
356. Write convection heat transfer equations, indicate typical convective
heat transfer coefficients. Use correlations for estimating heat transfer in
forced convection, free convection and phase change
357. Express conductive, convective and radiative heat transfer rates in
terms of potential and resistance.
358. Write Fick’s law and convective mass transfer equation
359. State analogy between heat, momentum and mass transfer
360. Evaluate heat transfer during multi-mode heat transfer, through multi-
layered walls etc. using heat transfer networks and the concept of overall heat
transfer coefficient
361. Perform basic calculation on heat exchangers
7.1. Introduction
Heat transfer is defined as energy-in-transit due to temperature difference. Heat
transfer takes place whenever there is a temperature gradient within a system or
whenever two systems at different temperatures are brought into thermal contact.
Heat, which is energy-in-transit cannot be measured or observed directly, but the
effects produced by it can be observed and measured. Since heat transfer involves
transfer and/or conversion of energy, all heat transfer processes must obey the first
and second laws of thermodynamics. However unlike thermodynamics, heat transfer
Generally heat transfer takes place in three different modes: conduction, convection
and radiation. In most of the engineering problems heat transfer takes place by more
than one mode simultaneously, i.e., these heat transfer problems are of multi-mode
type.
The fundamental law that governs conduction heat transfer is called Fourier’s law of
heat conduction, it is an empirical statement based on experimental observations and
is given by:
dT
Qx =- k.A. (7.1)
dx
k
In the above equation, a = is a property of the media and is called as
thermal
pcp
diffusivity, qg is the rate of heat generation per unit volume inside the control volume
and T is the time.
The general heat conduction equation given above can be written in a compact form
using the Laplacian operator, V2 as:
If the heat transfer is steady and temperature does not vary with time, then the
equation becomes:
V2T =0 (7.5)
The above equation is known as Laplace equation.
The solution of heat conduction equation along with suitable initial and boundary
conditions gives temperature as a function of space and time, from which the
temperature gradient and heat transfer rate can be obtained. For example for a simple
case of one-dimensional, steady heat conduction with no heat generation (Fig. 7.1),
the governing equation is given by:
qx -► qx
Tx=0 = T1 Tx=L = T2
d2T dx2
=0 (7.6)
The solution to the above equation with the specified boundary conditions is given by:
^ ,^ ^ . x T
= T1 +(T2 -T1) — (7.7)
cond
AT and the heat transfer rate, Qx is given by:
T1 -T2
Qx =-kA — = kA dx (7.8)
L J lR
dT , (T -T 2 ) f AT |
Q =-kA — = 2 % k L 1 = ---------------- (7.10)
dr ln(r2/r1) I R cyl I
where r1, r2 and L are the inner and outer radii and length of the cylinder and
ln(r2 /r1).......................................................................................
Rcyl = is the heat transfer resistance for the cylindrical wall.
27rLK
From the above discussion it is clear that the steady heat transfer rate by conduction
can be expressed in terms of a potential for heat transfer (AT) and a resistance for heat
transfer R, analogous to Ohm’s law for an electrical circuit. This analogy with
electrical circuits is useful in dealing with heat transfer problems involving
multiplayer heat conduction and multimode heat transfer.
Temperature distribution and heat transfer rates by conduction for complicated, multi-
dimensional and transient cases can be obtained by solving the relevant heat
conduction equation either by analytical methods or numerical methods.
E = hv (7.12)
Where, h is Plank’s constant, h = 6.625 x 10-34 Js. The radiation energy is converted
into heat when it strikes a body.
The emissivity is a property of the radiating surface and is defined as the emissive power (energy
radiated by the body per unit area per unit time over all the wavelengths) of the surface to that of an
ideal radiating surface. The ideal radiator is called as a “black body”, whose emissivity is 1. A black
body is a hypothetical body that absorbs all the incident (all wave lengths) radiation. The term
‘black’ has nothing to do with black colour. A white coloured body can also absorb infrared radiation
as much as a black coloured surface. A hollow enclosure with a small hole is an approximation to
black body. Any radiation that enters through the hole is absorbed by multiple reflections within the
cavity. The hole being small very small quantity of it escapes through the hole.
The radiation heat exchange between any two surfaces 1 and 2 at different temperatures T1 and T 2 is
given by:
Q1-2=a.A.FsFA(T14-T4) (7.14)
Calculation of radiation heat transfer with known surface temperatures involves evaluation of
factors Fε and FA.
Analogous to Ohm’s law for conduction, one can introduce the concept of thermal resistance in
radiation heat transfer problem by linearizing the above equation:
(T, -T2)
Q1-2 = — (7.15)
Rrad
where the radiative heat transfer resistance Rrad is given by:
T1-T2
(7.16)
σAFεFA (T14 -T24 ) ⎠ R rad
Convection heat transfer takes place between a surface and a moving fluid, when they are at
different temperatures. In a strict sense, convection is not a basic mode of heat transfer as the heat
transfer from the surface to the fluid consists of two mechanisms operating simultaneously. The first
one is energy transfer due to molecular motion (conduction) through a fluid layer adjacent to the
surface, which remains stationary with respect to the solid surface due to no-slip condition.
Superimposed upon this conductive mode is energy transfer by the macroscopic motion of fluid
particles by virtue of an external force, which could be generated by a pump or fan (forced
convection) or generated due to buoyancy, caused by density gradients.
In the thermal boundary layer region, the conduction terms are of same order of
magnitude as the convection terms.
The momentum transfer is related to kinematic viscosity v while the diffusion of heat
is related to thermal diffusivity a hence the ratio of thermal boundary layer to viscous
boundary layer is related to the ratio v/a, Prandtl number. From the expressions for
boundary layer thickness it can be seen that the ratio of thermal boundary layer
thickness to the viscous boundary layer thickness depends upon Prandtl number. For
large Prandtl numbers 5t < 5 and for small Prandtl numbers, 8t > 5. It can also be seen
that as the Reynolds number increases, the boundary layers become narrow, the
temperature gradient becomes large and the heat transfer rate increases.
The above equation defines the convective heat transfer coefficient h c. This equation
Q = hcA(Tw -T∞)is also referred to as Newton’s law of cooling. From the above
equation it can be seen that the convective heat transfer coefficient hc is given by:
-kf ⎛dT⎞
dy
y=0
hc = (7.2
0)
(Tw - T∞ )
The above equation suggests that the convective heat transfer coefficient (hence heat
near
⎛ the
transfer by convection) depends on the temperature gradient
dT⎞ y=0
surface
dy in addition to the thermal conductivity of the fluid and the temperature
difference. The temperature gradient near the wall depends on the rate at which the
fluid near the wall can transport energy into the mainstream. Thus the temperature
gradient depends on the flow field, with higher velocities able to pressure sharper
temperature gradients and hence higher heat transfer rates. Thus determination of
convection heat transfer requires the application of laws of fluid mechanics in
addition to the laws of heat transfer.
Table 7.2 Typical order-of magnitude values of convective heat transfer coefficients
Traditionally, from the manner in which the convection heat transfer rate is defined,
evaluating the convective heat transfer coefficient has become the main objective of
Similar to conduction and radiation, convective heat transfer rate can be written in
terms of a potential and resistance, i.e.,
(Tw - T^ )
Q = hcA(Tw-T00) =-------------- (7.21)
Rconv
where the convective heat transfer resistance, Rconv = 1/(hcA)
When a fluid flows through a conduit such as a tube, the fluid flow and heat transfer
characteristics at the entrance region will be different from the rest of the tube. Flow
in the entrance region is called as developing flow as the boundary layers form and
develop in this region. The length of the entrance region depends upon the type of
flow, type of surface, type of fluid etc. The region beyond this entrance region is
known as fully developed region as the boundary layers fill the entire conduit and the
velocity and temperature profiles remains essentially unchanged. In general, the
entrance effects are important only in short tubes and ducts. Correlations are available
in literature for both entrance as well as fully developed regions. In most of the
practical applications the flow will be generally fully developed as the lengths used
are large. The following are some important correlations applicable to fully developed
flows:
— kf
Version
1 ME,
IIT
Kharag
pur
Thc
_Pr
k hhecxaverage
Nusselt number is obtained by integrating local Nusselt number from 0
L
to L and dividing by L
v fy
d) Turbulent flow over horizontal, flat plate (Rex > 5 X 105):
In the above free convection equations, the fluid properties have to be evaluated at a
mean temperature defined as Tm = Tw-0.25(Tw-T∞).
hr =CΔT2to3 (7.35)
where ΔT is the temperature difference between surface and boiling fluid and C is a
constant that depends on the nature of refrigerant etc.
This law deals with transfer of mass within a medium due to difference in
concentration between various parts of it. This is very similar to Fourier’s law of heat
conduction as the mass transport is also by molecular diffusion processes. According
to this law, rate of diffusion of component A m A(kg/s) is proportional to the
concentration gradient and the area of mass transfer, i.e.
mA = -DABA A (7.36)
dx
where, DAB is called diffusion coefficient for component A through component B, and it
has the units of m2/s just like those of thermal diffusivity a and the kinematic viscosity
of fluid v for momentum transfer.
Mass transfer due to convection involves transfer of mass between a moving fluid and
a surface or between two relatively immiscible moving fluids. Similar to convective
heat transfer, this mode of mass transfer depends on the transport properties as well as
the dynamic characteristics of the flow field. Similar to Newton’s law for convective
heat transfer, he convective mass transfer equation can be written as:
m= hmAAcA (7.37)
where hm is the convective mass transfer coefficient and Ac A is the difference between
the boundary surface concentration and the average concentration of fluid stream of
the diffusing species A.
where hm is the convective mass transfer coefficient, D is the diffusivity and v is the
kinematic viscosity.
The general convective mass transfer correlations relate the Sherwood number to
Reynolds and Schmidt number.
The boundary layer equations for momentum for a flat plate are exactly same as those
for energy equation if Prandtl number, Pr = 1, pressure gradient is zero and viscous
dissipation is negligible, there are no heat sources and for similar boundary
conditions. Hence, the solution for non-dimensional velocity and temperature are also
same. It can be shown that for such a case,
Re.Pr
2
f Nu 1 f= hc
Stanton number, St = -------- — 1 = f- (7.40)
PVcpy
where f is the friction factor and St is Stanton Number. The above equation, which
relates heat and momentum transfers is known as Reynolds analogy.
To account for the variation in Prandtl number in the range of 0.6 to 50, the Reynolds
analogy is modified resulting in Colburn analogy, which is stated as follows.
St.Pr2/3 = — (7.41)
2
The role that thermal diffusivity plays in the energy equation is played by diffusivity
D in the mass transfer equation. Therefore, the analogy between momentum and mass
transfer for a flat plate will yield:
Sh f h L V v VD^I (hm} ff^\
-------= m ----- — = = — (7.42)
Re.Sc ^ D )\VLj\v) \ V J ^2)
Comparing the equations relating heat and momentum transfer with heat and mass
transfer, it can be shown that,
Pcphm (7.44) D
This analogy is followed in most of the chemical engineering literature and ot/D is
referred to as Lewis number. In air-conditioning calculations, for convenience Lewis
number is defined as:
The above analogies are very useful as by applying them it is possible to find heat
transfer coefficient if friction factor is known and mass transfer coefficient can be
calculated from the knowledge of heat transfer coefficient.
Q1-2 R (7.46a)
total
(R R i R conv,1R rad,1
R total = conV''+ "d,2 +(R w,3 +R w,2 +R w,1 ) +
v R conv,2 R rad,2 j (7.46b)
R conv,1 R rad,1 J
R total = ( R2 ) + ( Rw ) + ( R1 ) (7.46c)
Q1-2=UA(T1-T2) (7.46d)
R R
rW rW
T W
R
w
Q---------
s/WV----
e----------
v\A
W\------
W\A
A--------
e
T2
R
2
Rw
R1
T1
Fig.
7.3.
Sch
ema
tic
of a
mult
imo
de
heat
tran
sfer
buil
ding
wall
Comp
osite
cylinde
rs:
The
conc
ept
of
resist
ance
netw
orks
is
also
useful in solving problems involving composite cylinders.
A common example of this is steady state heat transfer
through an insulated pipe with a fluid flowing inside.
Since it is not possible to perfectly insulate the pipe, heat
transfer takes place between the surroundings and the
inner fluid when they are at different temperatures. For
such cases the heat transfer rate is given by:
Versi
on 1
ME,
IIT
Khar
agpu
r
where Ao is the outer surface area of the composite cylinder and Uo is the overall heat
transfer coefficient with respect to the outer area given by:
1 1 ln(r2/r1) ln(r3/r2) 1
(7.48) =+ + +
UoAo hiAi 2πLkm 2πLkin hoAo
In the above equation, hi and ho are the inner and outer convective heat transfer
coefficients, Ai and Ao are the inner and outer surface areas of the composite cylinder, km
and kin are the thermal conductivity of tube wall and insulation, L is the length of the
cylinder, r1, r2 and r3 are the inner and outer radii of the tube and outer radius of the
insulation respectively. Additional heat transfer resistance has to be added if there is
any scale formation on the tube wall surface due to fouling.
Fluid in
Insulation
Fluid
To, ho out
'Tube wall
Fig. 7.4. Composite cylindrical tube
where ΔT1 and ΔT2 are the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluid
streams at two inlet and outlet of the heat exchangers.
the above equation is valid for both parallel flow (both the fluids flow in the same
direction) or counterflow (fluids flow in opposite directions) type heat exchangers.
For other types such as cross-flow, the equation is modified by including a
multiplying factor. The design aspects of heat exchangers used in refrigeration and air
conditioning will be discussed in later chapters.
Questions:
362. Obtain an analytical expression for temperature distribution for a plane wall
having uniform surface temperatures of T1 and T2 at x1 and x2 respectively. It may be
mentioned that the thermal conductivity k = k 0 (1+bT), where b is a constant.
(Solution)
363. A cold storage room has walls made of 0.3 m of brick on outside followed by
0.1 m of plastic foam and a final layer of 5 cm of wood. The thermal conductivities of
brick, foam and wood are 1, 0.02 and 0.2 W/mK respectively. The internal and
external heat transfer coefficients are 40 and 20 W/m2K. The outside and inside
temperatures are 400C and -100C. Determine the rate of cooling required to maintain
the temperature of the room at -100C and the temperature of the inside surface of the
brick given that the total wall area is 100 m2. (Solution)
364. A steel pipe of negligible thickness and having a diameter of 20 cm has hot air
at 1000C flowing through it. The pipe is covered with two layers of insulating materials
each having a thickness of 10 cm and having thermal conductivities of 0.2 W/mK and
0.4 W/mK. The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are 100 and 50 W/m 2K
respectively. The atmosphere is at 350C. Calculate the rate of heat loss from a 100 m
long pipe. (Solution)
365. Water flows inside a pipe having a diameter of 10 cm with a velocity of 1 m/s.
the pipe is 5 m long. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient if the mean water
temperature is at 400C and the wall is isothermal at 800C. (Solution)
6. Air flows over a flat plate of length 0.3 m at a constant temperature. The velocity of
air at a distance far off from the surface of the plate is 50 m/s. Calculate the average
heat transfer coefficient from the surface considering separate laminar and turbulent
sections and compare it with the result obtained by assuming fully turbulent flow.
(Solution)
Note: The local Nusselt number for laminar and turbulent flows is given by:
laminar : Nux = 0.331Rex1/2Pr1/3
turbulent: Nux = 0.0288Rex0.8Pr1/3 Transition occurs at
Rex.trans = 2 X 105 . The forced convection boundary layer flow begins as laminar and
then becomes turbulent. Take the properties of air to beρ = 1.1 kg/m3 , μ = 1.7 X 10-5
kg/m s , k = 0.03 W/mK and Pr = 0.7.
Note: Properties of saturated steam at 2 bar: Tsat = 120.20C , hfg = 2202 kJ/kgK , ρ =
1.129 kg/m3 ; For liquid phase at 100 0C: ρL = 958 kg/m3 , cp = 4129 J/kgK , μL =
0.279X10-3 kg/m s and Pr = 1.73.
367. Air at 300 K and at atmospheric pressure flows at a mean velocity of 50 m/s
over a flat plate 1 m long. Assuming the concentration of vapour in air to be
negligible, calculate the mass transfer coefficient of water vapour from the plate into
the air. The diffusion of water vapour into air is 0.5 X 10 -4 m2/s. The Colburn j-factor
for heat transfer coefficient is given by jH=0.0296 Re -0.2. (Solution)
368. An oil cooler has to cool oil flowing at 20 kg/min from 100 0C to 500C. The
specific heat of the oil is 2000 J/kg K. Water with similar flow rate at an ambient
temperature of 350C is used to cool the oil. Should we use a parallel flow or a counter
flow heat exchanger? Calculate the surface area of the heat exchanger if the external
heat transfer coefficient is 100 W/m2K. (Solution)
8.1. Introduction
Refrigeration is defined as “the process of cooling of bodies or fluids to temperatures lower
than those available in the surroundings at a particular time and place”. It should be kept in
mind that refrigeration is not same as “cooling”, even though both the terms imply a decrease
in temperature. In general, cooling is a heat transfer process down a temperature gradient, it
can be a natural, spontaneous process or an artificial process. However, refrigeration is not a
spontaneous process, as it requires expenditure of exergy (or availability). Thus cooling of a
hot cup of coffee is a spontaneous cooling process (not a refrigeration process), while
converting a glass of water from room temperature to say, a block of ice, is a refrigeration
process (non-spontaneous). “All refrigeration processes involve cooling, but all cooling
processes need not involve refrigeration”.
Refrigeration is a much more difficult process than heating, this is in accordance with the
second laws of thermodynamics. This also explains the fact that people knew ‘how to heat’,
much earlier than they learned ‘how to refrigerate’. All practical refrigeration processes
involve reducing the temperature of a system from its initial value to the required temperature
that is lower than the surroundings, and then maintaining the system at the required low
temperature. The second part is necessary due to the reason that once the temperature of a
system is reduced, a potential for heat transfer is created between the system and
surroundings, and in the absence of a “perfect insulation” heat transfer from the surroundings
to the system takes place resulting in increase in system temperature. In addition, the system
itself may generate heat (e.g. due to human beings, appliances etc.), which needs to be
extracted continuously. Thus in practice refrigeration systems have to first reduce the system
temperature and then extract heat from the system at such a rate that the temperature of the
system remains low. Theoretically refrigeration can be achieved by several methods. All these
methods involve producing temperatures low enough for heat transfer to take place from the
system being refrigerated to the system that is producing refrigeration.
Where m is the mass of the substance providing cooling, c p is its specific heat and ΔT is the
temperature rise undergone by the substance. Since the temperature of the cold substance
increases during the process, to provide continuous refrigeration, a continuous supply of the
cold substance should be maintained, which may call for an external refrigeration cycle.
This is one of the oldest methods known to mankind. It is very well-known that low
temperatures can be obtained when certain salts are dissolved in water. This is due to the fact
that dissolving of these salts in water is an endothermic process, i.e., heat is absorbed from
the solution leading to its cooling. For example, when salts such as sodium nitrate, sodium
chloride, calcium chloride added to water, its temperature falls. By dissolving sodium
chloride in water, it is possible to achieve temperatures as low as –210C, while with calcium
chloride a temperature of –510C could be obtained. However, producing low temperature by
endothermic mixing has several practical limitations. These are: the refrigeration effect
obtained is very small (the refrigeration effect depends on the heat of solution of the
dissolved substance, which is typically small for most of the commonly used salts), and
recovery of the dissolved salt is often uneconomical as this calls for evaporation of water
from the solution.
For all phase change processes, the amount of refrigeration produced is given by:
Q = m(Δhph )
(8.2)
where Q is the refrigeration produced (heat transferred), m is the mass of the phase change
substance and Δhph is the latent heat of phase change. If the process is one of evaporation,
Asfg =
Δhfg Tb
= 85 to 110 J/mol.K (8.3)
where Δsfg is the molar entropy of vaporization (J/mol.K), Δhfg is the molar enthalpy of
vaporization (J/mol) and Tb is the normal boiling point in K. The above equation shows that
higher the NBP, higher will be the molar enthalpy of vaporization. It can also be inferred
from the above equation that low molecular weight fluids have higher specific enthalpy of
vaporization and vice versa.
The fluids used in a refrigeration system should preferably have a low NBP such that they
vaporize at sufficiently low temperatures to produce refrigeration, however, if the NBP is too
low then the operating pressures will be very high. The Clausius-Clayperon equation relates
the vapour pressures with temperature, and is given by:
(8.4)
dlnp Δhfg =
2
dT
sat
RT
The Clausius-Clapeyron equation is based on the assumptions that the specific volume of liquid
is negligible in comparison with the specific volume of the vapour and the vapour obeys ideal gas
law. Clausius-Clapeyron equation is useful in estimating the latent heat of vaporization (or
sublimation) from the saturated pressure-temperature data.
Porous plug
2 Fig.8.1(a). Expansion
............................... / ......................
through a turbine 1 •'//////////////////A
►2’
v//////////////////m$,
Fig.8.1(b). Isenthalpic
Expansion through a
porous plug
When a high pressure liquid flows through a turbine delivering a net work output (Fig.8.1(a)),
its pressure and enthalpy fall. In an ideal case, the expansion process can be isentropic, so
that its entropy remains constant and the drop in enthalpy will be equal to the specific work
output (neglecting kinetic and potential energy changes). When a high pressure liquid is
forced to flow through a restriction such as a porous plug (Fig.8.1 (b)), its pressure decreases
due to frictional effects. No net work output is obtained, and if the process is adiabatic and
change in potential and kinetic energies are negligible, then from steady flow energy
equation, it can be easily shown that the enthalpy of the liquid remains constant. However,
since the process is highly irreversible, entropy of liquid increases during the process. This
process is called as a throttling process. Whether or not the temperature of the liquid drops
significantly during the isentropic and isenthalpic expansion processes depends on the inlet
condition of the liquid. If the inlet is a saturated liquid (state 1 in Fig. 8.2(a)), then the outlet
condition lies in the two-phase region, i.e., at the outlet there will be some amount of vapour
in addition to the liquid for both isentropic expansion through the turbine as well as
isenthalpic process through the porous plug. These processes 1-2 and 1-2’, respectively are
shown on a T-s diagram in Fig. 8.2 (a). Obviously, from energy balance it can be shown that
in isentropic expansion through a turbine with a net work output, the enthalpy at state 2 will
be less than enthalpy at state 1, and in case of isenthalpic expansion through porous plug
(with no work output), the entropy at state 2’ will be greater than the entropy at state 1. For
both the cases the exit temperature will be same, which is equal to the saturation temperature
corresponding to the outlet pressure p2. It can be seen that this temperature is much lower
than the inlet temperature (saturation temperature corresponding to the inlet pressure p1). This
large temperature drop is a result of vapour generation during expansion requiring enthalpy of
vaporization, which in the absence of external heat transfer (adiabatic) has to be supplied by
the fluid itself.
a) By throttling:
Similar to liquids, gases can also be expanded from high pressure to low pressure either by
using a turbine (isentropic expansion) or a throttling device (isenthalpic process). Similar to
throttling of liquids, the throttling of gases is also an isenthalpic process. Since the enthalpy
of an ideal gas is a function of temperature only, during an isenthalpic process, the
temperature of the ideal gas remains constant. In case of real gases, whether the temperature
decreases or increases during the isenthalpic throttling process depends on a property of the
gas called Joule-Thomson coefficient, \iJT, given by:
H cT^
JT (8.5)
dp
h
from thermodynamic relations it can be shown that the Joule-Thomson coefficient, [iJT, is equal
to:
^= dv
TIJ -PT J p
p
c (8.6)
where ‘v’ is the specific volume and cp is the specific heat at constant pressure. From the above
expression, it can be easily shown that \iJT is zero for ideal gases (pv = RT). Thus the magnitude
of [iJT is a measure of deviation of real gases from ideal behaviour. From the definition of |JJT,
the temperature of a real gas falls during isenthalpic expansion if [iJT is positive, and it increases
when \iJT is negative. Figure 8.3 shows the process of isenthalpic expansion on temperature-
pressure coordinates.
As shown in Fig. 8.3, along a constant enthalpy line (isenthalpic process), beginning with an
initial state ‘i’ the temperature of the gas increases initially with reduction in pressure upto
dT*]
point f3, and|j, is negative from point i to point f3. However, further reduction in
JT dp
pressure from point f3 to f5, results in a reduction of temperature from f3 to f5. Thus point f3
f4
f5
i
h=constant
Heating zone
P Fig.8.4. Isenthalpic lines on
T T-P coordinates
b)
Expan
sion of
gases
throug
ha
Since wnet is positive, the outlet enthalpy h2 is less than inlet enthalpy h1; hence the outlet
temperature T2 will also be less than inlet temperature T1. Unlike isenthalpic expansion, an
approximately reversible adiabatic expansion with a net work output always produces a
decrease in temperature irrespective of the initial temperature. However, one disadvantage
with adiabatic expansion through a turbine/expansion engine is that the temperature drop
decreases as the temperature decreases. Hence in practice a combination of adiabatic
expansion followed by isenthalpic expansion is used to liquefy gases. The adiabatic
expansion is used to pre-cool the gas to a temperature lower than the inversion temperature
and then throttling is used to produce liquid. This method was first used by Kapitza to liquefy
helium (maximum inversion temperature: 43 K). In practical systems efficient heat
exchangers are used to cool the incoming gas by the outgoing gas.
where α is the thermoelectroic power or Seebeck coefficient. For a constant cold junction
temperature (T2),
dE
α= (8.9)
dT
T1 > T2 T1 > T2
T2 T1G
Ql
>Qh -E-
B B
A
Seebeck effect Peltier effect
Fig.8.6. Illustration of Seebeck and Peltier effects
If a closed circuit is formed by the conductors, then an electrical current, I flows due to the
emf and this would result in irreversible generation of heat (q ir=I2R) due to the finite
resistance R of the conductors. This effect is known as Joulean Effect.
When a battery is added in between the two conductors A and B whose junctions are initially
at same temperature, and a current is made to flow through the circuit, the junction
temperatures will change, one junction becoming hot (T1) and the other becoming cold (T 2).
This effect is known as Peltier effect. Refrigeration effect is obtained at the cold junction and
heat is rejected to the surroundings at the hot junction. This is the basis for thermoelectric
refrigeration systems. The position of hot and cold junctions can be reversed by reversing the
direction of current flow. The heat transfer rate at each junction is given by:
Q = (j)I (8.10)
When current is passed through a conductor in which there is an initial uniform temperature
gradient, then it is observed that the temperature distribution gets distorted as heat transfer
takes place. This effect is known as Thomson effect. The heat transfer rate per unit length
(W/cm) due to Thomson effect is given by:
T dT
QX=TI (8.11)
dx
where x is the Thomson coefficient (volts per K), I is the current (amperes) and (dT/dx) is the
temperature gradient in the conductor (K/cm).
It has been shown from thermodynamic analysis that the Seebeck, Peltier and Thomson
coefficients are related by the equations:
-xB = d(aA -
T dT
where (|)A, aA and xA are the Peltier, Seebeck and Thomson coefficients for material A and (|)B, aB
and xB are the Peltier, Seebeck and Thomson coefficients for material B, respectively. The
Thomson coefficient becomes zero if the thermoelectric power CXAB remains constant. From
the above equations it is seen that the heat transfer rate due to Peltier effect is;
Q = (j)ABI = aABIT (8.13)
The above equation shows that in order to have high heat transfer rates at low temperatures,
either aAB should be high and/or high currents should be used. However, high currents lead to
high heat generation due to the Joulean effect.
Since the coefficients are properties of conducting materials, selection of suitable material is
very important in the design of efficient thermoelectric refrigeration systems. Ideal
thermoelectric materials should have high electrical conductivity and low thermal
10 Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur
conductivity. Pure metals are not good due to their high thermal conductivity, while
insulating materials are not good due to their low electrical conductivity. Thermoelectric
refrigeration systems became commercial with the development of semiconductor materials,
which typically have reasonably high electrical conductivity and low thermal conductivity.
Thermoelectric refrigeration systems based on semiconductors consist of p-type and n-type
materials. The p-type materials have positive thermoelectric power αp, while the n-type
materials have negative thermoelectric power, αn. By carrying out a simple thermodynamic
analysis it was shown that the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions (T2-T1),
rate of refrigeration Ql and COP of a thermoelectric refrigeration system are given by:
(αp -αn)T1I-Ql- I 2 R
(T2 - T1) =
where Ql is the rate of refrigeration (W) obtained at temperature T1, W is the power input by
the battery (W) and U is the effective thermal conductance between the two junctions. From
the above expression it can be easily shown that in the absence of the two irreversible effects,
i.e., conduction effect and Joulean effect, the COP of an ideal thermoelectric refrigeration
system is same as that of a Carnot refrigerator. The temperature difference between the
junctions will be maximum when the refrigeration effect is zero.
(α -αn)(T2 -T1)
I opt = /-----=----------
R( 1 + ZTm -1)
(8.15a)
( T1 /--------- T2
-----)(1 + ZT------------)
T2 -T1 T
COPmax =-----------1
(^] + ZTm +1)
where Z is a property parameter called figure of merit and Tm is the mean of T 2 and T1. The
figure of merit Z is given by:
(α -αn)2
Z=--------------- (8.15b)
UR
Questions:
371. What is refrigeration? How does it differ from cooling? (Answer)
hfg =
assuming ideal gas equation of state for vapour. (Hint: Start from the fundamental derivation
of Clausius- Clapeyron equation) (Solution)
3. The boiling point of a substance at 1 atm is 400K. Estimate the approximate value of the
vapour pressure of the substance at 315 K. Assume:
h fg = 88 kJ/kg-mol K (Solution)
TB
∂v T ∂T
= μ
JT
CP
from basic laws of thermodynamics. Here v is the specific volume and CP is the specific heat at
constant pressure.
Also show that these will be no change in temperature when ideal gas is made to undergo a
throttling process. (Solution)
(Answer)
376. Higher the normal boiling point higher is the molar enthalpy of vaporization.
(Answer)
377. In a phase change system a substance of higher latent heat of phase change
should be selected for compact systems. (Answer)
378. Sudden expansion of liquids and gases is isenthalpic if a turbine is used and
isentropic if its done with a throttling device. (Answer)
379. The Joule Thompson coefficient (μJT) is the measure of deviation of real gas
from ideal behaviour. (Answer)
382. See beck effect illustrates that if an EMF is connected in between two
dissimilar conductors then one of the junction becomes hot while the other becomes
cold. (Answer)
9.1. Introduction
Air cycle refrigeration systems belong to the general class of gas cycle refrigeration
systems, in which a gas is used as the working fluid. The gas does not undergo any
phase change during the cycle, consequently, all the internal heat transfer processes
are sensible heat transfer processes. Gas cycle refrigeration systems find applications
in air craft cabin cooling and also in the liquefaction of various gases. In the present
chapter gas cycle refrigeration systems based on air are discussed.
i. The working fluid is a fixed mass of air that behaves as an ideal gas
ii. The cycle is assumed to be a closed loop cycle with all inlet and exhaust
processes of open loop cycles being replaced by heat transfer processes to
or from the environment iii. All the processes within the cycle are
reversible, i.e., the cycle is internally
reversible iv. The specific heat of air remains constant
throughout the cycle
An analysis with the above assumptions is called as cold Air Standard Cycle (ASC)
analysis. This analysis yields reasonably accurate results for most of the cycles and
processes encountered in air cycle refrigeration systems. However, the analysis fails
when one considers a cycle consisting of a throttling process, as the temperature drop
during throttling is zero for an ideal gas, whereas the actual cycles depend exclusively
on the real gas behavior to produce refrigeration during throttling.
where m is the mass of the gas, u 1 and u2 are the initial and final internal energies of
the gas, T1 and T2 are the initial and final temperatures and c v is the specific heat at
constant volume. If the expansion is reversible and adiabatic, by using the ideal gas
equation Pv=RTand the equation for isentropic process P1v1y=P2v2y the final
temperature (T2) is related to the initial temperature (T1) and initial and final pressures
(P1 and P2) by the equation:
yT
P22=T1 2 (9.2)
y-1
y (9.3)
Vvy
Isentropic expansion of the gas can also be carried out in a steady flow in a turbine
which gives a net work output. Neglecting potential and kinetic energy changes, the
work output of the turbine is given by:
W = m(h1-h2) = mcp(T1-T2) (9.4)
The final temperature is related to the initial temperature and initial and final
pressures by Eq. (9.2).
w net
^=F
4v
.1 •w,
Fig. 9.1(a). Schematic of a reverse Carnot
refrigeration system
3
q2-3 = ∫ Fig. 9.1(b). Reverse Carnot refrigeration system
(9.7)
-
s
)
q4-1 ∫
4
4
s and s hence s - s
s -s
Applying first law of thermodynamics to the closed cycle,
4 Version
1 ME, IIT
Kharagpur
the work of isentropic expansion, w3-4 exactly matches the work of isentropic
compression w1-2.
the COP of the Carnot system is given by:
COPCarnot = wnet ( Tl ^
(9.8)
Thus the COP of the Carnot system depends only on the refrigeration (T l) and heat
rejection (Th) temperatures only.
Carnot cycle is an idealization and it suffers from several practical limitations. One of
the main difficulties with Carnot cycle employing a gas is the difficulty of achieving
isothermal heat transfer during processes 2-3 and 4-1. For a gas to have heat transfer
isothermally, it is essential to carry out work transfer from or to the system when heat
is transferred to the system (process 4-1) or from the system (process 2-3). This is
difficult to achieve in practice. In addition, the volumetric refrigeration capacity of the
Carnot system is very small leading to large compressor displacement, which gives
rise to large frictional effects. All actual processes are irreversible, hence completely
reversible cycles are idealizations only.
AAAA/WAAAA ^
vWWWWV
t
03-.
t
HTHX w,
A LTHX V
Process 1-2: Gas at low pressure is compressed isentropically from state 1 to state 2.
Applying steady flow energy equation and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential
energy, we can write:
1-2
(T
m(h
mc 2 -T1)
-h ) W
2 1
s2= s1 (9.9)
y-1
P y-1
and T2 = T1 2 = T1 rp v P1 ) where rp = (P2/P1) = pressure
ratio
Process 2-3: Hot and high pressure gas flows through a heat exchanger and rejects heat
sensibly and isobarically to a heat sink. The enthalpy and temperature of the gas drop
during the process due to heat exchange, no work transfer takes place and the entropy
of the gas decreases. Again applying steady flow energy equation and second T ds
equation:
Q2-3=m(h2-h3) = mcp(T2-T3)
T2
s2- s3=cpln — T3 (9.10)
3
P2=P
Process 4-1: Cold and low pressure gas from turbine flows through the low temperature
heat exchanger and extracts heat sensibly and isobarically from a heat source, providing
a useful refrigeration effect. The enthalpy and temperature of the gas rise during the
process due to heat exchange, no work transfer takes place and the entropy of the gas
increases. Again applying steady flow energy equation and second T ds equation:
Q4-1
mc -T4)
(T1 T4 m(h1-h4)
s4- s1=cpln —
(9.12)
P4=P1 From
v4y
T T2^ fT3
1
1T V 1 J (9.13)
4
using the relation between temperatures and pressures, the COP can also be written as:
T3 2ly-1
(T -T
-T
-T1)-(T
44)-1
y-1
3 -T4)
(r
(T
T4 p1V-1)
-T 4)(rpV
(9.16)
-1)
COP =
From the above expression for COP, the following observations can be made:
A
-&-
Fig. 9.3. Comparison of reverse Carnot and reverse Brayton cycle in T-s plane
The actual reverse Brayton cycle differs from the ideal cycle due to:
Fig.
9.4.
Comp
arison
of
ideal
and
actual
Brayto
n
cycles
T-s
plane
Figure 9.4
shows the ideal
and actual
cycles on T-s
diagram. Due
to these
irreversibilities,
the compressor
work input
increases and
turbine work
output reduces.
The actual
work transfer
rates of
compressor
and turbine are
then given by:
=
1-2,isen
W1
1-
W1
2, (
act
η
where ηc,isen and
ηt,isen are the
isentropic
efficiencies of
compressor and
turbine,
respectively. In
the absence of
pressure drops,
these are defined
as:
η= h
t
,
i(
h
2
-
h
1
)
(
T
2
-
T
1
)
(
(
9.
9.
)
Th
e
ac
tu
al
ne
t
w
or
k
in
pu
t,
wn
et,ac
t is
gi
ve
n
by
:
Wn
et,a
ct
=
W1
-
2,ac
t
-W
3-
4,ac
t
22 )
In practice,
reverse
Brayton cycles
can be open or
closed. In open
systems, cold
air at the exit
of the turbine
flows into a
room or cabin
(cold space),
and air to the
9
Version 1 ME, IIT
Kharagpur
compressor is taken from the cold space. In such a case, the low side pressure will be
atmospheric. In closed systems, the same gas (air) flows through the cycle in a closed
manner. In such cases it is possible to have low side pressures greater than
atmospheric. These systems are known as dense air systems. Dense air systems are
advantageous as it is possible to reduce the volume of air handled by the compressor
and turbine at high pressures. Efficiency will also be high due to smaller pressure
ratios. It is also possible to use gases other than air (e.g. helium) in closed systems.
For low speed aircraft flying at low altitudes, cooling system may not be required,
however, for high speed aircraft flying at high altitudes, a cooling system is a
must.
Even though the COP of air cycle refrigeration is very low compared to vapour
compression refrigeration systems, it is still found to be most suitable for aircraft
refrigeration systems as: i. Air is cheap, safe, non-toxic and non-flammable.
Leakage of air is not a
problem ii. Cold air can directly be used for cooling thus eliminating
the low
temperature heat exchanger (open systems) leading to lower weight iii.
The aircraft engine already consists of a high speed turbo-compressor,
hence separate compressor for cooling system is not required. This reduces
the weight per kW cooling considerably. Typically, less than 50% of an
equivalent vapour compression system iv. Design of the complete
system is much simpler due to low pressures.
Maintenance required is also less.
Figure 9.5 shows the schematic of a simple aircraft refrigeration system and the
operating cycle on T-s diagram. This is an open system. As shown in the T-s diagram,
the outside low pressure and low temperature air (state 1) is compressed due to ram
effect to ram pressure (state 2). During this process its temperature increases from 1 to
2. This air is compressed in the main compressor to state 3, and is cooled to state 4 in
the air cooler. Its pressure is reduced to cabin pressure in the turbine (state 5), as a
result its temperature drops from 4 to 5. The cold air at state 5 is supplied to the cabin.
It picks up heat as it flows through the cabin providing useful cooling effect. The
power output of the turbine is used to drive the fan, which maintains the required air
flow over the air cooler. This simple system is good for ground cooling (when the
aircraft is not moving) as fan can continue to maintain airflow over the air cooler.
By applying steady flow energy equation to the ramming process, the temperature rise
at the end of the ram effect can be shown to be:
C C
M=—= (9.24)
a -^/yRT1
Due to irreversibilities, the actual pressure at the end of ramming will be less than the
pressure resulting from isentropic compression. The ratio of actual pressure rise to the
isentropic pressure rise is called as ram efficiency, r|Ram, i.e.,
9.6.2.
Bootst
rap
system
:
Figur
e 9.6
show
s the
sche
matic
of a
boots
trap
syste
m,
whic
h is a
modif
icatio
n of the coole
simple r. The
system. As heat
shown in the reject
figure, this ed in
system the
consists of air
two heat coole
exchangers r is
(air cooler and absor
aftercooler), bed
in stead of one by
air cooler of the
the simple ram
system. It also air at
incorporates a state
secondary 2.
compressor, The
which is air
driven by the from
turbine of the the
cooling air
system. This coole
system is r is
suitable for furthe
high speed r
aircraft, where comp
in the velocity resse
of the aircraft d
provides the from
necessary state
airflow for the 4 to
heat state
exchangers, as 5 in
a result a the
separate fan is secon
not required. dary
As shown in comp
the cycle ressor
diagram, . It is
ambient air then
state 1 is coole
pressurized to d to
state 2 due to state
the ram effect. 6 in
This air is the
further after
compressed to coole
state 3 in the r,
main expan
compressor. ded
The air is then to
cooled to state cabin
4 in the air press
ure in the lower
cooling temp
turbine and is eratur
supplied to the es are
cabin at a low obtai
temperature ned
T7. Since the at the
system does exit
not consist of of the
a separate fan cooli
for driving the ng
air through the turbin
heat e,
exchangers, it howe
is not suitable ver,
for ground this is
cooling. at the
However, in expen
general se of
ground additi
cooling is onal
normally done weig
by an external ht
air and
conditioning desig
system as it is n
not efficient to comp
run the lexity
aircraft engine . The
just to provide cooli
cooling when ng
it is grounded. turbin
e
Other drive
modifications s a
over the fan
simple system simil
are: ar to
regenerative the
system and simpl
reduced e
ambient syste
system. In a m.
regenerative The
system, a part regen
of the cold air erativ
from the e
cooling syste
turbine is used m is
for precooling good
the air for
entering the both
turbine. As a groun
result much d
cooling as
well as high
speed
aircrafts. The
reduced
ambient
system is
well-suited for
supersonic
aircrafts and
rockets.
l l AC2
3 AC1
R M
C
a
m
a
7
Fig. 9.6. Schematic of a bootstrap system
The concept of Dry Air Rated Temperature is used to compare different aircraft
refrigeration cycles. Dry Air Rated Temperature is defined as the temperature of the
air at the exit of the cooling turbine in the absence of moisture condensation. For
condensation not to occur during expansion in turbine, the dew point temperature and
hence moisture content of the air should be very low, i.e., the air should be very dry.
The aircraft refrigeration systems are rated based on the mass flow rate of air at the
design DART. The cooling capacity is then given by:
..
Q=mcp (Ti - TDART) (9.27)
.
where m is the mass flow rate of air, T DART and Ti are the dry air rated temperature and
cabin temperature, respectively.
i. DART increases monotonically with Mach number for all the systems
except the reduced ambient system ii. The simple system is adequate at
low Mach numbers iii. At high Mach numbers either bootstrap system or
regenerative system
should be used iv. Reduced ambient temperature system is best suited
for very high Mach
number, supersonic aircrafts
395. An air refrigerator working on the principle of Bell-Coleman cycle. The air
into the compressor is at 1 atm at -10ºC. It is compressed to 10 atm and cooled to
40ºC at the same pressure. It is then expanded to 1 atm and discharged to take cooling
load. The air circulation is 1 kg/s.
The isentropic efficiency of the compressor = 80%
The isentropic efficiency of the expander = 90%
The cabin pressure is 1.02 atm and temperature of air leaving the cabin should be
greater than 25°C. Assume ramming action to be isentropic. (Solution)
6. A simple air cooled system is used for an aeroplane to take a load of 10 tons.
Atmospheric temperature and pressure is 25°C and 0.9 atm respectively. Due to
ramming the pressure of air is increased from 0.9 atm, to 1 atm. The pressure of air
leaving the main compressor is 3.5 atm and its 50% heat is removed in the air-cooled
heat exchanger and then it is passed through a evaporator for future cooling. The
temperature of air is reduced by 10°C in the evaporator. Lastly the air is passed
through cooling turbine and is supplied to the cooling cabin where the pressure is 1.03
atm. Assuming isentropic efficiency of the compressor and turbine are 75% and 70%,
find
The temperature of air leaving the cabin should not exceed 25°C. (Solution)
404. COP of a Carnot system depends only on the refrigeration and heat
rejection temperatures only. (Answer)
405. As heat transfer from a gas can be done isothermally, Carnot cycle is
easy to implement practically. (Answer)
406. For a fixed heat rejection and refrigeration temperature, the COP of a
brayton cycle is lower than COP of reverse Carnot cycle. (Answer)
407. Efficiency of dense air systems are low as operating pressures are
higher (Answer)
408. DART is the temperature of the air at the exit of the cooling turbine.
(Answer)
3
Fig.10.1(a): Schematic of a Carnot refrigeration system
Pc
Pe
qc T
^V
3
2
w„C y
, <^w„
4 1
Tc Te
gram 1
Version Fig. 10.1(b): Carnot refrigeration
ME, IIT Kharagpur cycle on T-s diagram
now for the reversible, isothermal heat transfer processes 2-3 and 4-1, we can write:
3
qc =-q2-3 = -∫T.ds = Tc(s2-s 3 ) (10.2)
qe=q4-1=∫T.ds = T
(10.3) (s1 -s4 )
4
where Te and Tc are the evaporator and condenser temperatures, respectively, and,
=
Tqee(s1 -s4 )
(10.5)
T
we refrigeration
effect COP = Carnot
Tc (s2 -s3 )-Te (s1 -s4 ) ⎝Tc -T
net net work input
thus the COP of Carnot refrigeration cycle is a function of evaporator and condenser
temperatures only and is independent of the nature of the working substance. This is the
reason why exactly the same expression was obtained for air cycle refrigeration systems
operating on Carnot cycle (Lesson 9). The Carnot COP sets an upper limit for
refrigeration systems operating between two constant temperature thermal reservoirs
(heat source and sink). From Carnot’s theorems, for the same heat source and sink
temperatures, no irreversible cycle can have COP higher than that of Carnot COP.
T b a s
Fig.10.2. Carnot refrigeration cycle represented in T-s plane
It is difficult to build and operate a Carnot refrigeration system due to the following
practical difficulties:
i. During process 1-2, a mixture consisting of liquid and vapour have to be compressed
isentropically in the compressor. Such a compression is known as wet compression due to
the presence of liquid. In practice, wet compression is very difficult especially with
reciprocating compressors. This problem is particularly severe in case of high speed
reciprocating compressors, which get damaged due to the presence of liquid droplets in
the vapour. Even though some types of compressors can tolerate the presence of liquid in
ii. The second practical difficulty with Carnot cycle is that using a turbine and extracting
work from the system during the isentropic expansion of liquid refrigerant is not
economically feasible, particularly in case of small capacity systems. This is due to the
fact that the specific work output (per kilogram of refrigerant) from the turbine is given
by:
Pc
w3_4 = Jv.dP (10.6)
since the specific volume of liquid is much smaller compared to the specific volume of a
vapour/gas, the work output from the turbine in case of the liquid will be small. In
addition, if one considers the inefficiencies of the turbine, then the net output will be
further reduced. As a result using a turbine for extracting the work from the high pressure
liquid is not economically justified in most of the cases1.
One way of achieving dry compression in Carnot refrigeration cycle is to have two
compressors – one isentropic and one isothermal as shown in Fig.10.4.
w2-3
\qc
Condenser
Evaporator 4
q
^
Pc
Pi
"I
Pc > Pi > Pe
Pe
3 qc
t
Condenser
4
t Evaporator qe
*1
wc
Exp.
Device
3/ \2' P/
T
2 Pe
Tc Te
By comparing with Carnot cycle, it can be seen that the standard vapour compression
refrigeration cycle introduces two irreversibilities: 1) Irreversibility due to non-isothermal
heat rejection (process 2-3) and 2) Irreversibility due to isenthalpic throttling (process 3-
4). As a result, one would expect the theoretical COP of standard cycle to be smaller than
that of a Carnot system for the same heat source and sink temperatures. Due to these
irreversibilities, the cooling effect reduces and work input increases, thus reducing the
system COP. This can be explained easily with the help of the cycle diagrams on T s
charts. Figure 10.6(a) shows comparison between Carnot and standard VCRS in terms of
refrigeration effect.
Tc
Te
c d e S
The heat extraction (evaporation) process is reversible for both the Carnot cycle and
VCRS cycle. Hence the refrigeration effect is given by:
thus there is a reduction in refrigeration effect when the isentropic expansion process of
Carnot cycle is replaced by isenthalpic throttling process of VCRS cycle, this reduction is
equal to the area d-4-4’-c-d (area A2) and is known as throttling loss. The throttling loss is
equal to the enthalpy difference between state points 3 and 4’, i.e,
It is easy to show that the loss in refrigeration effect increases as the evaporator
temperature decreases and/or condenser temperature increases. A practical consequence of
this is a requirement of higher refrigerant mass flow rate.
The heat rejection in case of VCRS cycle also increases when compared to Carnot cycle. A
ec d T
S
Fig.10.6(b). Comparative evaluation of heat rejection rate of VCRS and Carnot cycle
As shown in Fig.10.6(b), the heat rejection in case of Carnot cycle (1-2’’-3-4’) is given by:
3
(10.10) qcCarnot =-q2''-3 =- ∫T.ds = Tc(s2'' -s 3 ) = area e-2''-3-c-
2''
In case of VCRS cycle, the heat rejection rate is given by:
q c,VCRS =-q T.ds area e-2-3-c-e (10.11)
= -∫
2-3
Hence the increase in heat rejection rate of VCRS compared to Carnot cycle is equal to the
area 2’’-2-2’ (area A1). This region is known as superheat horn, and is due to the
Since the heat rejection increases and refrigeration effect reduces when the Carnot cycle
is modified to standard VCRS cycle, the net work input to the VCRS increases compared
to Carnot cycle. The net work input in case of Carnot and VCRS cycles are given by:
As shown in Fig.10.6(c), the increase in net work input in VCRS cycle is given by:
wnet,VCRS - wnet,Carnot = area 2''-2- 2'+ area c - 4'-4-d -c=area A1 + area A2 (10.14)
T
c d e S'
Fig.10.6(c). Figure illustrating the increase in net work input in VCRS cycle
(10.15) To summarize the refrigeration effect and net work input of VCRS cycle are given
by:
(10.16)
q e,VCRS = q e,Carnot - area A 2 w net,VCRS
( areaA1 +areaA2 |
V^ w net,Carnot J
The cycle efficiency (also called as second law efficiency) is a good indication of the
deviation of the standard VCRS cycle from Carnot cycle. Unlike Carnot COP, the cycle
efficiency depends very much on the shape of T s diagram, which in turn depends on the
nature of the working fluid.
If we assume that the potential and kinetic energy changes during isentropic compression
process 1-2 are negligible, then the work input w1-2 is given by:
w1-2,VCRS =(h2 _h1) = (h2 -hf )-(h1 -hf) (10.19)
Fig.10.7. Figure showing saturated liquid line 3-f coinciding with the constant pressure
line
Now as shown in Fig.10.7, if we further assume that the saturated liquid line 3-f coincides
with the constant pressure line Pc in the subcooled region (which is a reasonably good
assumption), then from the 2nd Tds relation;
(10.20)
Tds =dh - v dP = dh; when P is constant .\
As mentioned before, the losses due to superheat (area A1) and throttling (area A2 ≈ A3)
depend very much on the shape of the vapor dome (saturation liquid and vapour curves)
on T s diagram. The shape of the saturation curves depends on the nature of refrigerant.
Figure 10.8 shows T s diagrams for three different types of refrigerants.
T
s *~
where h2 and h1 are the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg) at the exit and inlet to the compressor,
respectively. (h2 - h1) is known as specific work of compression or simply work of
compression, which is equal to the work input to the compressor per kilogram of
refrigerant.
.
Condenser: Heat transfer rate at condenser, Qc is given by:
Expansion device: For the isenthalpic expansion process, the kinetic energy change
across the expansion device could be considerable, however, if we take the control
volume, well downstream of the expansion device, then the kinetic energy gets dissipated
due to viscous effects, and
h3 = h4 (10.27)
The exit condition of the expansion device lies in the two-phase region, hence applying
the definition of quality (or dryness fraction), we can write:
where x4 is the quality of refrigerant at point 4, h f,e, hg,e, hfg are the saturated liquid
enthalpy, saturated vapour enthalpy and latent heat of vaporization at evaporator pressure,
respectively.
eV cJ (h .
At any point in the cycle, the mass flow rate of refrigerant m r can be written in terms of
volumetric flow rate and specific volume at that point, i.e.,
The COP of the system is given by: mr (h1 - h4 ) (10.29)
Q . mr (h2 - h1)
(h1 - h4 )
.
-h1 )
COP =
mr = V (10.30)
m= 1
(10.31)
r
v1
.
where V1 is the volumetric flow rate at compressor inlet and v1 is the specific volume at
.
compressor inlet. At a given compressor speed, V1 is an indication of the size of the
compressor. We can also write, the refrigeration capacity in terms of volumetric flow rate
as:
Genera
lly, the
type of
refrige
rant,
require
d
refrige
ration
capacit
y,
evapor
ator
temper
ature
and
conden
ser
temper
ature
are
known
. Then
from
the
evapor
ator
and
conden
ser
temper
ature one can find the volum
evaporator and ( etric
condenser pressures The flow
and enthalpies at the quality rate at
exit of evaporator of compr
and condenser refrige essor
(saturated vapour rant at inlet,
enthalpy at the COP,
evaporator pressure inlet to cycle
and saturated liquid the efficie
enthalpy at evapor ncy
condenser pressure). ator etc.
Since the exit (x4) Use of
condition of the could Pressu
compressor is in the be re-
superheated region, obtain enthal
two independent ed py (P-
properties are from h)
required to fix the the charts:
known
Pc
values
h3 = h4
of h3,
P hf,e and h1
hg,e. h2 h
Pe Once Fig.10
state of refrigerant at all the .9.
this point. One of state Standa
these independent points rd
properties could be are vapour
the condenser known compr
pressure, which is , then ession
already known. Since from refrige
the compression the ration
process is isentropic, require cycle
the entropy at the exit d on a
to the compressor is refrige P-h
same as the entropy ration chart
at the inlet, s1 which capacit
is the saturated y and
vapour entropy at various 1 V
evaporator pressure enthalp e
(known). Thus from ies one rs
the known pressure can io
and entropy the exit obtain n
state of the the 1
compressor could be require M
fixed, i.e., d E
refrige ,
h rant II
2 mass T
= flow K
h rate,
h aragpur
Since the various performance parameters are expressed in terms of enthalpies, it is very
convenient to use a pressure – enthalpy chart for property evaluation and performance
analysis. The use of these charts was first suggested by Richard Mollier. Figure 10.9
shows the standard vapour compression refrigeration cycle on a P-h chart. As discussed
before, in a typical P-h chart, enthalpy is on the x-axis and pressure is on y-axis. The
isotherms are almost vertical in the subcooled region, horizontal in the two-phase region
(for pure refrigerants) and slightly curved in the superheated region at high pressures, and
again become almost vertical at low pressures. A typical P-h chart also shows constant
specific volume lines (isochors) and constant entropy lines (isentropes) in the superheated
region. Using P-h charts one can easily find various performance parameters from known
values of evaporator and condenser pressures.
In addition to the P-h and T-s charts one can also use thermodynamic property tables
from solving problems related to various refrigeration cycles.
Questions:
417. A Carnot refrigerator using R12 as working fluid operates between 40ºC and
-30ºC. Determine the work of compression and cooling effect produced by the cycle.
(Solution)
418. An ideal refrigeration cycle operates with R134a as the working fluid. The
temperature of refrigerant in the condenser and evaporator are 40ºC and -20ºC
respectively. The mass flow rate of refrigerant is 0.1 kg/s. Determine the cooling capacity
and COP of the plant. (Solution)
419. A R-12 plant has to produce 10 tons of refrigeration. The condenser and
evaporator temperatures are 40ºC and -10ºC respectively. Determine
426. A NH3 refrigerator produces 100 tons of ice from water at 0ºC in a day. The cycle
operates between 25ºC and -15ºC . The vapor is dry saturated at the end of compression.
If the COP is 50% of theoretical COP, calculate the power required to drive the
compressor. (Solution)
427. In a refrigerator the power rating impressed on the compressor is 1.2 kW. The
circulating wire in evaporator is 5 kW and the cooling water took away 10 kW from
condenser coil. The operating temperatures range is 18ºC and 0ºC and their
corresponding latent heats are 170 kJ/kg and 230 kJ/kg and the difference between the
6. A water cooler using R12 refrigerant works between 30ºC to 9ºC. Assuming the
volumetric and mechanical efficiency of the compressor to be 80 and 90% respectively,
and the mechanical efficiency of motor to be 90% , and 20% of useful cooling is lost into
water cooler, find:
436. Show and discuss qualitatively the effects of evaporator and condensing
temperatures on specific and volumic refrigeration effects, on specific and
volumic work of compression and on system COP
437. Discuss and evaluate the performance of single stage VCRS with
subcooling and superheating from given inputs and known refrigerant property
data
438. Evaluate the performance of the system with a LSHX
439. Establish the existence of optimum superheat condition using Ewings-
Gosney criteria
440. Evaluate the COP of actual VCRS from condensing and evaporator
temperatures, efficiency of motor and compressor
441. Draw an actual VCRS cycle on T-s and P-h diagrams and discuss the
effects of various irreversibilities due to pressure drops, heat transfer and non-
ideal compression
442. Describe briefly a complete vapour compression refrigeration system
Version
1 ME, IIT
Kharagp
ur 3
The above results show that at very low evaporator temperatures, the COP
becomes very low and also the size of the compressor becomes large (due to small
volumic refrigeration effect). It can also be shown that the compressor discharge
temperatures also increase as the evaporator temperature decreases. Hence, single stage
vapour compression refrigeration systems are not viable for very low evaporator
temperatures. One has to use multistage or cascade systems for these applications. These
systems will be discussed in the next lecture. One can also observe the similarities in
performance trends between SSS cycle and Carnot cycle, which is to be expected as the
VCRS cycle is obtained by modifying the SSS cycle.
In actual refrigeration cycles, the temperature of the heat sink will be several
degrees lower than the condensing temperature to facilitate heat transfer. Hence it is
possible to cool the refrigerant liquid in the condenser to a few degrees lower than the
condensing temperature by adding extra area for heat transfer. In such a case, the exit
condition of the condenser will be in the subcooled liquid region. Hence this process is
known as subcooling. Similarly, the temperature of heat source will be a few degrees
higher than the evaporator temperature, hence the vapour at the exit of the evaporator can
be superheated by a few degrees. If the superheating of refrigerant takes place due to heat
transfer with the refrigerated space (low temperature heat source) then it is called as
useful superheating as it increases the refrigeration effect. On the other hand, it is
possible for the refrigerant vapour to become superheated by exchanging heat with the
surroundings as it flows through the connecting pipelines. Such a superheating is called
as useless superheating as it does not increase refrigeration effect.
T (b)
AT sub 3’ S
a b c
Fig.11.4: Comparison between a VCRS cycle without and with subcooling (a)
on P-h diagram (b) on T-s diagram
Useful superheating increases both the refrigeration effect as well as the work of
compression. Hence the COP (ratio of refrigeration effect and work of compression) may
or may not increase with superheat, depending mainly upon the nature of the working
fluid. Even though useful superheating may or may not increase the COP of the system, a
minimum amount of superheat is desirable as it prevents the entry of liquid droplets into
the compressor. Figure 11.5 shows the VCRS cycle with superheating on P-h and T-s
coordinates. As shown in the figure, with useful superheating, the refrigeration effect,
specific volume at the inlet to the compressor and work of compression increase.
Whether the volumic refrigeration effect (ratio of refrigeration effect by specific volume
at compressor inlet) and COP increase or not depends upon the relative increase in
refrigeration effect and work of compression, which in turn depends upon the nature of
(a)
2'
Increase in work S
of compression
Increase in specific
refrigeration effect
Required degree of subcooling and superheating may not be possible, if one were
to rely only on heat transfer between the refrigerant and external heat source and sink.
Also, if the temperature of refrigerant at the exit of the evaporator is not sufficiently
superheated, then it may get superheated by exchanging heat with the surroundings as it
flows through the connecting pipelines (useless superheating), which is detrimental to
system performance. One way of achieving the required amount of subcooling and
superheating is by the use of a liquid-suction heat exchanger (LSHX). A LSHX is a
counterflow heat exchanger in which the warm refrigerant liquid from the condenser
exchanges heat with the cool refrigerant vapour from the evaporator. Figure 11.6 shows
the schematic of a single stage VCRS with a liquid-suction heat exchanger. Figure 11.7
shows the modified cycle on T-s and P-h diagrams. As shown in the T-s diagram, since
the temperature of the refrigerant liquid at the exit of condenser is considerably higher
than the temperature of refrigerant vapour at the exit of the evaporator, it is possible to
subcool the refrigerant liquid and superheat the refrigerant vapour by exchanging heat
between them.
Qc
3
Condenser
2
Compressor 1
\-----1 Wc
Liquid Suction HX
4 Exp.
device/
5 Evaporator 6
|__| Qe
Fig.11.6: A single stage VCRS system with Liquid-to-Suction Heat Exchanger (LSHX)
P
(b
)
T
2
Fig.1
1.7:
Singl
e
stage
VCR
S
cycle
with
LSH
X (a)
on T-
s
diagr
am;
(b)
on P-
h
diagr
am
I
f we
assume Khara
that gpur
there is 9
no heat
exchan
ge
betwee
n the
surrou
ndings
and the
LSHX
and
negligi
ble
kinetic
and
potenti
al
energy
change
s
across
the
LSHX,
then,
the
heat
transfe
rred
betwee
n the
refrige
rant
liquid
and
vapour
in the
LSHX,
QLSHX
is
given
by:
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
QLSHX =mr(h3 -h4) = mr(h1 -h6)
(11.1)
⇒(h3 -h4) = (h1 -h6)
if we take average values of specific heats for the vapour and liquid, then we can write
the above equation as;
since the specific heat of liquid (cp,l) is larger than that of vapour (cp,v), i.e., cp,l > cp,l, we can
write:
This means that, the degree of subcooling (T 3-T4) will always be less than the
degree of superheating, (T1-T6). If we define the effectiveness of the LSHX, εLSHX as the
ratio of actual heat transfer rate in the LSHX to maximum possible heat transfer rate,
then:
Qact m cp,v (T1 -T6 ) (T1 -T6 ) r
= = = (11.4)
LSHX Qmax .
(T3 -T6)
m r cp,v (T3 -T6 )
The maximum possible heat transfer rate is equal to Qmax =mr cpv(T3 -T6),
because the vapour has a lower thermal capacity, hence only it can attain the maximum
possible temperature difference, which is equal to (T3 - T6). If we have a perfect LSHX
with 100 percent effectiveness (εLSHX = 1.0), then from the above discussion it is clear
that the temperature of the refrigerant vapour at the exit of LSHX will be equal to the
condensing temperature, Tc, i.e., (T1 =T3 = Tc). This gives rise to the possibility of an
interesting cycle called as Grindley cycle, wherein the isentropic compression process
can be replaced by an isothermal compression leading to improved COP. The Grindley
cycle on T-s diagram is shown in Fig.11.8. Though theoretically the Grindley cycle offers
higher COP, achieving isothermal compression with modern high-speed reciprocating
and centrifugal compressors is difficult in practice. However, this may be possible with
screw compressor where the lubricating oil provides large heat transfer rates.
P=Pc
S Fig.11.8:
Grindley cycle on T-s coordinates (1-2 is isothermal compression)
COPsat > Te
(11.5)
T2,sat -Te
where COPsat is the COP of the system with saturated suction condition, Te is the
evaporator temperature and T2,sat is the compressor discharge temperature when the
vapour at suction condition is saturated (see Fig.11.9). For example, at an evaporator
temperature of –15oC (258 K) and a condenser temperature of 30 oC (303 K), the Table
11.1 shows that for refrigerants such as R11, R22, ammonia the maximum COP occurs
inside the two-phase region and superheating reduces the COP and also volumic
refrigeration effect, whereas for refrigerants such as R12, carbon dioxide and R502, no
maxima exists and the COP and volumic refrigeration effect increase with superheat.
It should be noted that the above discussion holds under the assumption that the
superheat is a useful superheat. Even though superheat appears to be not desirable for
refrigerants such as ammonia, still a minimum amount of superheat is provided even for
these refrigerants to prevent the entry of refrigerant liquid into the compressor. Also it is
observed experimentally that some amount of superheat is good for the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor, hence in practice almost all the systems operate with some
superheat.
Heat transfer in the suction line is detrimental as it reduces the density of refrigerant
vapour and increases the discharge temperature of the compressor. Hence, the suction
lines are normally insulated to minimize heat transfer.
In actual systems the compression process involves frictional effects and heat transfer.
As a result, it cannot be reversible, adiabatic (eventhough it can be isentropic). In many
cases cooling of the compressor is provided deliberately to maintain the maximum
compressor temperature within safe limits. This is particularly true in case of refrigerants
such as ammonia. Pressure drops across the valves of the compressor increase the work
of compression and reduce the volumetric efficiency of the compressor. Hence they
should be as small as possible.
Compared to the vapour lines, the system is less sensitive to pressure drop in the
condenser and liquid lines. However, this also should be kept as low as possible. Heat
transfer in the condenser connecting pipes is not detrimental in case of refrigeration
systems. However, heat transfer in the subcooled liquid lines may affect the performance.
In addition to the above, actual systems are also different from the theoretical cycles
due to the presence of foreign matter such as lubricating oil, water, air, particulate matter
inside the system. The presence of lubricating oil cannot be avoided, however, the system
design must ensure that the lubricating oil is carried over properly to the compressor. This
depends on the miscibility of refrigerant-lubricating oil. Presence of other foreign
materials such as air (non-condensing gas), moisture, particulate matter is detrimental to
system performance. Hence systems are designed and operated such that the
concentration of these materials is as low as possible.
2«2a
2b
S
Fig.11.10: Actual VCRS cycle on P-h and T-s diagrams
Process State
Pressure drop in evaporator 4-1d
Superheat of vapour in evaporator 1d-1c
Useless superheat in suction line 1c-1b
Suction line pressure drop 1b-1a
Pressure drop across suction valve 1a-1
Non-isentropic compression 1-2
Pressure drop across discharge valve 2-2a
Pressure drop in the delivery line 2a-2b
Desuperheating of vapour in delivery pipe 2b-2c
Pressure drop in the condenser 2b-3
Subcooling of liquid refrigerant 3-3a
Heat gain in liquid line 3a-3b
( Tc - Te ^
^cyc = 1------------ without subcooling (11.7)
( Tc -T V A T ^
^cyc = 1- e 1+ sub with subcooling (11.8)
265 )\ 250
The isentropic efficiency of the compressor (r|is) depends on several factors such
as the compression ratio, design of the compressor, nature of the working fluid etc.
However, in practice its value generally lies between 0.5 to 0.8. The motor efficiency
(lmotor) depends on the size and motor load. Generally the motor efficiency is maximum
at full load. At full load its value lies around 0.7 for small motors and about 0.95 for large
motors.
447. Volumic refrigeration effect is high, hence the size of the compressor is large
448. Volumic refrigeration effect is small, hence the size of the compressor is large
449. Specific refrigeration effect is high, hence size of evaporator is large
450. All the above
Ans.: b)
4. Superheating:
Throttling loss (additional work input due to throttling in place of isentropic expansion)
assuming the isobar at condenser pressure to coincide with saturated liquid line.
2’ 50.0 13.18
4’ -25.0 1.064
-25oC
482.
COP
= (h1-
h4)/
(h2-
h1) =
s 2.117
4
483.
Work
Using input
refrig to
erant comp
R134 ressor
a , Wc =
prope (h2-
rty h1) =
data, 52.8
requir kJ/kg
ed
prope
rties Versio
at n1
vario ME,
us IIT
state Khara
points gpur
are: 18
State
Point (
1 -25.0
2 60.7
3 50.0
4 -25.0
c) Superheat horn area, area A1:
Area A1 = Area under 2-2’ - Area under 2”-2’
Comment on the use of LSHX by comparing the performance of the system with a SSS
cycle operating between the same evaporator and condensing temperatures.
Ans.:
Given: Refrigerant R 22
Te = 7.2oC
Tc = 54.4oC
Effectiveness of LSHX,sX = 0.65
4
Condenser
3
Compressor
LSHX
Wc
5
Exp. device 2
6 1
H
Evaporator
Qe
P
3
With LSHX:
489. Refrigeration effect = (h1-h6) = 161.2 kJ/kg
490. Volumic refrigeration effect = (h1-h6)/v2 = 3676.2 kJ/m3
491. Work of compression = (h3-h2) = 36.1 kJ/kg
492. COP = (h1-h6)/ (h3-h2) = 4.465
493. Temperature at compressor exit (from Pc and s3=s2) = 104.9oC
Without LSHX:
494. Refrigeration effect = (h1-h6’) = 138.1 kJ/kg
495. Volumic refrigeration effect = (h1-h6’)/v1 = 3660.2 kJ/m3
496. Work of compression = (h3’-h1) = 31.0 kJ/kg
497. COP = (h1-h6’)/ (h3’-h1) = 4.455
498. Temperature at compressor exit (from Pc and s1=s3’) = 74.23oC
Comments:
499. There is no appreciable change in COP with the addition of LSHX
500. Quality of refrigerant at evaporator inlet is significantly lower with LSHX
501. Discharge temperature is significantly high with LSHX
502. For refrigerant R-22, use of LSHX does not improve the performance of the
system significantly, however, the evaporator with LSHX performs better due to
the lower vapour fraction at its inlet
12.1. Introduction
A single stage vapour compression refrigeration system has one low side pressure
(evaporator pressure) and one high side pressure (condenser pressure). The performance of
single stage systems shows that these systems are adequate as long as the temperature
difference between evaporator and condenser (temperature lift) is small. However, there are
many applications where the temperature lift can be quite high. The temperature lift can
become large either due to the requirement of very low evaporator temperatures and/or due to
the requirement of very high condensing temperatures. For example, in frozen food industries
the required evaporator can be as low as –40oC, while in chemical industries temperatures as
low as –150oC may be required for liquefaction of gases. On the high temperature side the
required condensing temperatures can be very high if the refrigeration system is used as a
heat pump for heating applications such as process heating, drying etc. However, as the
temperature lift increases the single stage systems become inefficient and impractical. For
example, Fig. 12.1 shows the effect of decreasing evaporator temperatures on T s and P h
diagrams. It can be seen from the T s diagrams that for a given condenser temperature, as
evaporator temperature decreases:
As a result of this, the refrigeration effect decreases and work of compression increases as
shown in the P h diagram. The volumic refrigeration effect also decreases rapidly as the
specific volume increases with decreasing evaporator temperature. Similar effects will occur,
though not in the same proportion when the condenser temperature increases for a given
evaporator temperature. Due to these drawbacks, single stage systems are not recommended
when the evaporator temperature becomes very low and/or when the condenser temperature
becomes high. In such cases multi-stage systems are used in practice. Generally, for
fluorocarbon and ammonia based refrigeration systems a single stage system is used upto an
evaporator temperature of –30oC. A two-stage system is used upto –60 oC and a three-stage
system is used for temperatures below –60oC.
Apart from high temperature lift applications, multi-stage systems are also used in
applications requiring refrigeration at different temperatures. For example, in a dairy plant
refrigeration may be required at –30oC for making ice cream and at 2 oC for chilling milk. In
such cases it may be advantageous to use a multi-evaporator system with the low temperature
evaporator operating at –30oC and the high temperature evaporator operating at 2oC
Fig.12.
1(a):
Effect
of
evapor
ator
temper
ature
on
cycle
perfor
mance
(T-s
diagra
m)
P
2’
2’
h
. Fi
g.
12
.1(
b)
:
Ef
fe
ct
of
ev
ap
or
at
or
te
m
pe
ra
tu
re
on
c Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 4
A multi-stage system is a refrigeration system with two or more low-side pressures. Multi-
stage systems can be classified into:
Two concepts which are normally integral to multi-pressure systems are, i) flash gas
removal, and ii) intercooling. Hence these concepts will be discussed first.
8
_9_ To
evaporat
or
Expansion valve
Fig.12.2(a):
Working
principle of a
flash tank
3
P Pi
Fig.
12.
3:
Exp
ansi
on
process
using a
on P-h
diagram
12.3.
Inter
cooli
ng
in
mult
i-
stag
e
com
pres
sion
he
specifi
c work
input,
w in
reversi
ble,
polytr
opic
compr
ession
of
refrige
rant
vapour
is
given
by:
2
w n'
where P1 and P2 are the inlet and exit pressures of the compressor, v 1 is the specific volume of
the refrigerant vapour at the inlet to the compressor and n is the polytropic exponent. From the
above expression, it can be seen that specific work input reduces as specific volume, v 1 is
reduced. At a given pressure, the specific volume can be reduced by reducing the
temperature. This is the principle behind intercooling in multi-stage compression. Figures
12.4 (a) and (b) show the process of intercooling in two-stage compression on Pressure-
specific volume (P-v) and P-h diagrams.
P
Savings in
sp. work
2’
4 2’ 1
v h
As shown in the figures, in stead of compressing the vapour in a single stage from state 1 to
state 2’, if the refrigerant is compressed from state 1 to an intermediate pressure, state 2,
intercooled from 2 to 3 and then compressed to the required pressure (state 4), reduction in
work input results. If the processes are reversible, then the savings in specific work is given
by the shaded area 2-3-4-2’ on P-v diagram. The savings in work input can also be verified
from the P-h diagram. On P-h diagram, lines 1-2-2’ and 3-4 represent isentropes. Since the
slope of isentropes on P-h diagram reduces (lines become flatter) as they move away from the
saturated vapour line,
Refrigerant
liquid from
condenser 3 2 High-stage
compressor
Low-stage
compressor
Water out 4
Water in
Water-cooled heat
>2 exchanger
3
High-stage
Compressor
1
Low-stage Compressor
Intercooling using liquid refrigerant from condenser in the flash tank may or may not
reduce the power input to the system, as it depends upon the nature of the refrigerant. This is
due to the fact that the heat rejected by the refrigerant during intercooling generates
additional vapour in the flash tank, which has to be compressed by the high stage compressor.
Thus the mass flow rate of refrigerant through the high stage compressor will be more than
that of the low stage compressor. Whether total power input to the system decreases or not
depends on whether the increased power consumption due to higher mass flow rate is
where Plow and Phigh are the inlet pressure to the low-stage compressor and exit pressure from
the high-stage compressor, respectively. The above relation is found to hold good for ideal
gases. For refrigerants, correction factors to the above equation are suggested, for example
one such relation for refrigerants is given by:
Tc Pi,opt =
Pe .Pc (12.4) where Pe and Pc are
Te the evaporator and
condenser pressures,
and Tc and Te are condenser and evaporator temperatures (in K).
Several combinations of multi-stage systems are used in practice. Some of them are
discussed below.
6 Condenser
5 -4
Compressor - II
^v
7 3 WII
Flash chamber
Water intercooler
Qi
2
9 -8
1 Compressor - I
^V
t
Evaporator
WI
Qe
Fig.126(a): Two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system with flash gas removal using a
flash tank and intercooling
5Pc
P
Pi
Pe
h Fig.126(b): Two-stage
vapour compression refrigeration system with flash gas removal using a
flash tank and intercooling - P-h diagram
where QI is the heat transferred by the refrigerant to the cooling water in the intercooler.
.
Thus the vapour generated mgen will be zero, if the refrigerant vapour is completely de-
superheated in the water-cooled intercooler itself. However, this may not be possible in
practice.
.
Qe mI (h1 - h9 )
522. Quality of refrigerant entering the evaporator reduces thus giving rise to
higher refrigerating effect, lower pressure drop and better heat transfer in the
evaporator
523. Throttling losses are reduced as vapour generated during throttling from Pc to
Pi is separated in the flash tank and recompressed by Compressor-II.
524. Volumetric efficiency of compressors will be high due to reduced pressure
ratios
525. Compressor discharge temperature is reduced considerably.
However, one disadvantage of the above system is that since refrigerant liquid in the flash
tank is saturated, there is a possibility of liquid flashing ahead of the expansion valve due to
pressure drop or heat transfer in the pipelines connecting the flash tank to the expansion
device. Sometimes this problem is tackled by using a system with a liquid subcooler. As
shown in Fig.12.7, in a liquid subcooler the refrigerant liquid from the condenser is subcooled
by exchanging heat with the refrigerant liquid in the flash tank. As a result, a small amount of
refrigerant vapour is generated in the flash tank, which needs to be compressed in the high-
stage compressor. Compared to the earlier system, the temperature of refrigerant liquid from
the subcooler will be higher than the saturated refrigerant temperature in the flash tank due to
indirect contact heat transfer. However, since the refrigerant at the inlet to the expansion
valve is at high pressure and is subcooled, there is less chance of flashing of liquid ahead of
expansion valve.
--------
1 •—^-
6
L
i
q
u
i
d
s
u
b
c
o
o
l
e
r
8 T
o
Expansion
evaporator
v
a
l
v
e
F
i
g
.
1
2
.
7
:
R
e in
efrigeration refrigerants such as R
systems 134a is shown in Fig.
system
using with 12.8 (a). Figure 12.8
refrigeran
liquid (b) shows the
ts such as corresponding P-h
subcooler
R 12 or R diagram.
134a due
to their
low
12.5. discharge
Use temperatu
of res. In
flash these
systems,
tank in stead of
for passing
flash the refrigeran
gas t vapour
remo from the
low-stage
val compress
or
Int
through
ercooli
the flash
ng of Version 1 ME, IIT
tank,
refrige Kharagpur 13
vapour
rant
from the
vapour
flash tank
using
is mixed
water-
with the
cooled
vapour
heat
coming
exchan
from the
gers is
low-stage
possibl
compress
e in
or. As a
ammo
result, the
nia
inlet
system
condition
s due
to the
to high
high-stage
dischar
compress
ge
or will be
temper
slightly
ature
superheat
of
ed. A two-
ammo
stage
nia.
compressi
Howev
on system
er, this
with flash
is
tank for
general
flash gas
ly not
removal
possibl
for
3 Condense
r 5
6
7
-4 Compressor -
II
8 1 C
Flash
chambe
r
2
om y a ooling system where
9 s l o of the the flash tank
t n refrige is used for
E e o rant intercooling
v m n P vapou only.
a l - r
p w y h betwe
o i en the Version 1
r t ( d low ME, IIT
a h a i and Kharagpur
t ) a high- 14
o f g stage
r l S r compr
a y a essors.
s s m It is
h t not
P used
e
for
5
h
12.6. flash
t^ m gas
a Use remov
Fig.12.8: A two- n s of al.
s k c flash Figure
t h s 12.9
f e tank (a)
a
g o m for and
e r a inter (b)
f t show
l i cooli the
c
o a c ng syste
m s ; only m
h schem
p
( atic
r
e g b ometi and P-
s a ) mes h
s the diagra
s
i r C flash m of a
o e y tank istwo-
n m c used stage
o l for compr
s v e interc ession
Condenser
5 4-
3 Compressor - II
6
F
l
a
s
h
c
h
a
m
b
e
r
1 C
o
m
pr
es
so
r-
I
7
E
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
P
2' IIT
Kharagp
h ur 15
Fig.12.9: A two-stage
compr
ession
system
with
the
flash
tank
used
for
interco
oling
only
(a)
System
schem
atic
(b)
Cycle
on P-h
diagra
m
Versio
n1
ME,
Questions:
1. When the temperature lift of a single stage vapour compression refrigeration system
increases:
Ans.: b)
Ans.: a) and c)
534. Flash gas formed during expansion can be removed at an intermediate pressure
535. Quality of refrigerant at the evaporator inlet can be increased
536. Temperature of refrigerant vapour at the inlet to higher stage compressor can be
reduced
537. Pressure drop in evaporator can be reduced
Ans.: a) , c) and d)
Ans.: b)
Ans.: a) and b)
546. 10 bar
547. 8 bar
548. 6 bar
549. 12 bar
Ans.: b)
Ans. b)
554. Refrigerant mass flow rates in both low and high stage compressors are equal
555. Refrigerant mass flow rates in high stage compressors is greater than that in low stage
compressor
556. Refrigerant mass flow rates in high stage compressors is smaller than that in low stage
compressor
557. Mass flow rates in low and high stage compressors are equal if the pressure ratios are
equal
Ans.: b)
Ans.: b) and c)
600 kPa
fern
intercooler
■Wa-
-18oC
evaporator (100 kW)
Ans.:
From refrigerant property data, the following values are obtained for R 22:
P 3
4
h
h
Required refrigerant mass flow rate through evaporator and 1 st stage compressor
(mr,1) is same as that of single stage system, i.e.,
mr,1 = 0.693 kg/s
T2’ = 28.94oC
T2’” = 53.55oC
Comments:
It is observed from the above example that for the given input data, though
the use of a two-stage system with intercooling in place of a single stage system
does not increase the COP significantly (≈ 1.2 %), there is a significant reduction in
the maximum compressor discharge temperature (≈ 24oC). The results would be
different if the operating conditions and/or the refrigerant used is different.
13.1. Introduction
As mentioned in Chapter 12, there are many applications where refrigeration
is required at different temperatures. For example, in a typical food processing plant,
cold air may be required at –30oC for freezing and at +7oC for cooling of food
products or space cooling. One simple alternative is to use different refrigeration
systems to cater to these different loads. However, this may not be economically
viable due to the high total initial cost. Another alternative is to use a single
refrigeration system with one compressor and two evaporators both operating at
-30oC. The schematic of such a system and corresponding operating cycle on P-h
diagram are shown in Figs. 13.1(a) and (b). As shown in the figure the system consists
of a single compressor and a single condenser but two evaporators. Both evaporators-I
and II operate at same evaporator temperature (-30oC) one evaporator (say
Evaporator-I) caters to freezing while the other (Evaporator-II) caters to product
cooling/space conditioning at 7oC. It can be seen that operating the evaporator at –
30oC when refrigeration is required at +7oC is thermodynamically inefficient as the
system irreversibilities increase with increasing temperature difference for heat
transfer.
In addition to this there will also be other difficulties such as: evaporator
catering to space cooling (7oC) may collect frost leading to blockage of air-flow
passages, if a liquid is to chilled then it may freeze on the evaporator and the moisture
content of air may become too low leading to water losses in the food products. In
such cases multi-stage systems with multiple evaporators can be used. Several multi-
evaporator combinations are possible in practice. Some of the most common ones are
discussed below.
Figures 13.2 (a) and (b) show system schematic and P-h diagram of a multi-
evaporator system that uses two evaporators at two different temperatures and a single
compressor. This system also uses individual expansion valves and a pressure
regulating valve (PRV) for reducing the pressure from that corresponding to the high
temperature evaporator to the compressor suction pressure. The PRV also maintains
the required pressure in high temperature evaporator (Evaporator-II). Compared to the
earlier system, this system offers the advantage of higher refrigeration effect at the
high temperature evaporator [(h6-h4) against (h7-h5)]. However, this advantage is
counterbalanced by higher specific work input due to the operation of compressor in
3
2
!
<="
l 1
Evaporator-I 1.
4
(-30oC) Compressor
Refrigeration
at -30oC
4
O Evaporator-II at -30oC 1
-•----->-
Refrigeration
at +7oC
>
7/1 8 2
-30 o C
h ^
Fig.13.2(a) & (b): Multi-evaporator system with single compressor and individual
expansion valves
..
where m I and m II are the refrigerant mass flow rates through evaporator I and II
respectively. They are given by:
. Q
mI= e,I
(13.3)
m. Q
m II = e,II
(13.4)
(h6 - h4 )
(h7 - h5 )
Enthalpy at point 2 (inlet to compressor) is obtained by applying mass and
energy balance to the mixing of two refrigerant streams, i.e.,
..
m h2 =I m h7 +m IIh8 (13.5)
I +m II
If the expansion across PRV is isenthalpic, then specific enthalpy h8 will be
equal to h6.
Figures 13.3 (a) and (b) show system schematic and P-h diagram of a multi-
evaporator with a single compressor and multiple expansion valves. It can be seen
from the P-h diagram that the advantage of this system compared to the system with
individual expansion valves is that the refrigeration effect of the low temperature
evaporator increases as saturated liquid enters the low stage expansion valve. Since
the flash gas is removed at state 4, the low temperature evaporator operates more
efficiently.
. Q
m II = e,II
(13.8)
(h7 - h4 )
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 7
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 8
Condenser
-2
4
9
Evaporator - II |_7
1
-5 Compressor - I
PRV
6
8
Eva
por
ator
-I
h
Fig.13.3(a)
& (b):
Multi-
evaporator
system with
single
compressor
and
multiple
expansion valves
Enthalpy at
point 2 (inlet to
compressor) is
obtaine ediate pressure is first
d by
Version 1 ME, IIT
applyin
Kharagpur 9
g mass
and
energy
balanc
e to the
mixing
of two
refriger
ant
stream
s, i.e.,
h2 =
(13.9) mI
I
f the
expans
ion
across
PRV is
isentha
lpic,
then
specifi
c
enthalp
y h7
will be
equal
to h9.
C
OP
obtaine
d using
the
above
multi-
evapor
ator
system
s is not
much
higher
compa
red to
single
stage
system
as
refrige
rant
vapour
at
interm
throttled then compressed, and compressor inlet is in superheated region. Performance
can be improved significantly if multiple compressors are used in place of a single
compressor.
mass balance:
.. . . . . . .
m5 +m2 =m7 +m3; m5 = mII =m3 & m2 =mI =m7 (13.13)
energy balance:
fro
m
kno
wn
oper
atin
g
tem
pera
ture
s
and
eva
pora
tor
load
s
(Qe,I
and
Qe,II)
one
can
get
the
mas
s
flow
rate
thro
ugh
the
high
stag
e
com
pres
sor
and
syst
em
CO
P
fro
m
the
abo
ve
equ
atio
ns.
Compressor - III
Evaporator - I
Qe,I
Version 1
ME, IIT
Kharagpur
11
13.4. Multi-evaporator system with individual compressors and
multiple expansion valves
Figures 13.5(a) and (b) show the schematic and P-h diagram of a multi-
evaporator system which employs individual compressors and multiple expansion
valves.
..
Q e,IQ e,I m
I== (13.16) where m I and
(h3 - h9 ) m II are the
refrigerant
mass flow rates through evaporator I and II respectively. They are
given by:
. Q
m II = e,II
(13.17)
(h1 - h7 )
The inlet to the condenser (state 5) is obtained by applying mass and energy
balance to the process of mixing of refrigerant vapours from Compressors I and II.
579. Since only one refrigerant is used throughout the system, the refrigerant used
should have high critical temperature and low freezing point.
580. The operating pressures with a single refrigerant may become too high or too
low. Generally only R12, R22 and NH3 systems have been used in multi-stage
systems as other conventional working fluids may operate in vacuum at very low
evaporator temperatures. Operation in vacuum leads to leakages into the system and
large compressor displacement due to high specific volume.
W
c
,
I
I
E J
4
8 C
Compressor - I
9
E
W
c
,I
Qe,I
2 5 4
P
h
Fig.13.5(a)
& (b):
Multi-
evaporator
system with
individual
compressor
s and
multiple
expans
ion
valves
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
13
13.6. Cascade Systems
In a cascade system a series of refrigerants with progressively lower boiling
points are used in a series of single stage units. The condenser of lower stage system is
coupled to the evaporator of the next higher stage system and so on. The component
where heat of condensation of lower stage refrigerant is supplied for vaporization of
next level refrigerant is called as cascade condenser. Figures 13.6(a) and (b) show the
schematic and P-h diagrams of a two-stage cascade refrigeration system. As shown,
this system employs two different refrigerants operating in two individual cycles.
They are thermally coupled in the cascade condenser. The refrigerants selected should
have suitable pressure-temperature characteristics. An example of refrigerant
combination is the use of carbon dioxide (NBP = -78.4oC, Tcr = 31.06oC) in low
temperature cascade and ammonia (NBP = -33.33oC, Tcr = 132.25oC) in high
temperature cascade. It is possible to use more than two cascade stages, and it is also
possible to combine multi-stage systems with cascade systems.
Tcc,opt=VTe.Tc (13.18)
where Te and Tc are the evaporator temperature of low temperature cascade and
condenser temperature of high temperature cascade, respectively.
t High temperature
(X) cascade
4’
f~
2’
1
Cascade condenser High temp.
compressor
2
Low temperature
E
34 cascade
Low temp
compressor
■2’
Tcc,opt
(13.19) b1 +b2 b2
b1
V Tc Te J
b b
T
where b1 and b2 are the constants in Clausius-Clayperon equation: ln P =a - for low
and high temperature refrigerants, respectively.
13.7. Auto-cascade systems
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 15
An auto-cascade system may be considered as a variation of cascade system,
in which a single compressor is used. The concept of auto-cascade system was first
proposed by Ruhemann in 1946. Figure 13.7(a) shows the schematic of a two-stage
auto-cascade cycle and Fig.137(b) shows the vapour pressure curves of the two
Qc,out
Compressor
.Partial condenser
T
i
Condenser
t
L Evaporator
Qe,in
T e,h T c,l
Te Pdischarge Tc T
Low temp. refrigerant
P High temp. refrigerant
Questions:
1. Multi-evaporator systems are:
Ans.: a) and b)
586. Yield very high COPs compared to multi-evaporator, single stage systems
587. Yield lower compressor discharge temperature compared to single stage
systems
588. Yield slightly higher refrigeration effect in the low temperature evaporator
compared to single stage systems
589. Yield slightly higher refrigeration effect in the high temperature evaporator
compared to single stage systems
Ans.: d)
Ans.: a) and d)
Ans.: a) and b)
5. In multi-stage systems:
598. The refrigerant used should have high critical temperature and high freezing
point
599. The refrigerant used should have high critical temperature and low freezing
point
600. There is a possibility of migration of lubricating oil from one compressor to
other
601. Operating pressures can be too high or too low
6. In cascade systems:
Ans.: b)
8. For a two-stage cascade system working on Carnot cycle and between low and high
temperatures of –90oC and 50oC, the optimum cascade temperature at which the COP
will be maximum is given by:
610. –20oC
611. –30oC
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 18
612. –67oC
613. 0oC
Ans.: b)
Ans.: c)
A -6.7oC J 5 TR
1
-34.4oC
c
A
1
J 10 TR
The required mass flow rate through the low temperature evaporator (mr,l) is given by:
The required mass flow rate through the high temperature evaporator (m r,h) is given
by:
Assuming the refrigerant vapour to behave as an ideal gas, and assuming the variation
in specific heat of the vapour to be negligible, the temperature of the refrigerant after
mixing, i.e., at point 1 is given by:
Assuming isentropic compression and ideal gas behaviour, the power input to the
compressor,Wc is given by:
-1
where mr is the refrigerant flow rate through the compressor (mr = mr,l + mr,h), R is the
gas constant (0.4882 kJ/kg.K), Pc and Pe are the discharge and suction pressures and k
is the isentropic index of compression ( = 1.29).
Substituting these values, the power input to the compressor is found to be:
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 21
Wc = 18.67 kW (Ans.)
Since
the
refriger
ant
vapour
is
assume
d to
behave
as an
ideal
gas
with
consta
nt
specifi
c heat,
and the
compre
ssion
process
is
assume
d to be
isentro
pic, the
dischar
ge
temper
ature
T2 can
be
obtaine
d using
the
equatio
n:
Wc =
mr.Cp(
T2 –
T1) =
18.67
kW
Substit
uting
the
values
of mr,
Cp
(=2.17
16 kJ/kg.K) and
T1, the
discharge
temperature is b
found to be:
)
T
n
=
d
i
4
v
2
i
7
d
.
u
6
a
7
l
K
c
o
=
m
p
1
r
5
e
3
s
.
s
5
o
o
r
C
22
s
The P-h
diagram with
individual
compressors is
shown below:
2 5 4
P
The mass flow
rates through
evaporators
will be same as
before.
The power
input to low
temperature
compressor
(process 3 to 4),
Wc,l is given by:
k-1
P
k k -1
VPey
Vk-1y Wc l =
mr
l.R.T
substituting the
values, we
obtain:
Wc,l = 12.13
kW
Similarly, for
the high
temperature
compressor
(process 1-2),
the power input
Wc,h is given
by:
Version 1 ME,
IIT Kharagpur
r k-1 k
k
Wc,h = -1 = 2.75
- k -1 Pe,h
mr,h.R. kW
Therefor
e total
power
input is
given
by:
Wc =
Wc,l
+
Wc,h
=
12.13
+
2.75
=
14.88
kW
(Ans
.)
The
compres
sor
discharg
e
temperat
ures for
the low
temperat
ure and
high
temperat
ure
compres
sor are
found to
be:
T4 = 411.16 K =
138.0oC T2 = 347.27
K = 74.10oC
Comme
nts:
624. U
sing
individu
al
compressors regul encie refrig both syste
in place of a ating s. erated CO2 m
valve space and (COP
single
compressor, and a4. A at o –NH3 act)
the power singl cascad36 C, cycles can
e when and be
input to the e
refrigethe find a)estim
comp
system could ration ambie Total ated
resso syste nt power using
be reduced
r. m tempe input
considerably How shown rature to the
(≈ 20.3%). ever, in the(heat syste
625. In in figure sink) m; b)
addition, the actua given is o atPower
maximum below 43 C. input
compressor l
discharge syste uses A if the
tempe casca
temperature ms CO2
rature de
also could be these as differe syste
refrige
reduced by benef rant nce ofm is
about 15oC. its for 7 K isreplac
626. In will the requir ed
CO2 evaporator -
Te,CO2 = -36 -7 =
-43oC = 230 K
Tc,NH3 = 43 + 7 =
50oC = 323 K
In the
cascad
e
conden
ser,
Tc,CO2 =
Te,NH3 +
7
S
i
n
c
e
t
h
e
temperature lifts of CO2 and and COPNH3 = 3.77
NH3 cycles are same, (Tc,CO2 -
The
Te,CO2) = (Tc,NH3 - Te,NH3)
power
From the above 4 equations, we obtain: input
to CO2
T compre
c ssor is
, given
C by,
O
Wc,CO2
2
=
= Qe,CO2/C
OPCO2
2 = 10 X
8 3.517 /
0 3.17 =
11.1
K kW
Since
T the
e
heat
, rejecte
N d by
H the
3 conden
ser of
= CO2
system
2 is the
7 refrige
3 ration
load
K for the
evapor
Substituting the values of temperatures in the ator of
expression for actual COP, we obtain: NH3
system
C , the
O require
P d
C
refrige
O ration
2 capacit
y of
= NH3
system
3 is
. given
1 by:
7
, Qe,NH3
= Qc,CO2 = Qe,CO2 + Wc,CO2 = 46.27 kW
given by:
Comments:
627. Using a cascade system the power consumption could be reduced by about 9.5
%.
628. More importantly, in actual systems, the compared to the single stage system,
the compressors of cascade systems will be operating at much smaller pressure ratios,
yielding high volumetric and isentropic efficiencies and lower discharge temperatures.
Thus cascade systems are obviously beneficial compared to single stage systems for
large temperature lift applications.
3. The performance of the cascade system can be improved by reducing the
temperature difference for heat transfer in the evaporator, condenser and cascade
condenser, compared to larger compressors.
14.1. Introduction
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems (VARS) belong to the class of
vapour cycles similar to vapour compression refrigeration systems. However, unlike
vapour compression refrigeration systems, the required input to absorption systems is
in the form of heat. Hence these systems are also called as heat operated or thermal
energy driven systems. Since conventional absorption systems use liquids for
absorption of refrigerant, these are also sometimes called as wet absorption systems.
Similar to vapour compression refrigeration systems, vapour absorption refrigeration
systems have also been commercialized and are widely used in various refrigeration
and air conditioning applications. Since these systems run on low-grade thermal
energy, they are preferred when low-grade energy such as waste heat or solar energy
is available. Since conventional absorption systems use natural refrigerants such as
water or ammonia they are environment friendly.
Valve closed
A
Water vapour
o
30 C Valve open
b) Refrigeration
30oC
c) Regeneration
Valve open
o
4.24 kPa 4.24 kPa
Water at 30oC Weak LiBr soln. at Tg
Qg
Qc
Tg > To > Te
Now for the above process to continue, there should always be pure water in
vessel A, and vessel B must be maintained always at 50 percent concentration and
30oC. This is not possible in a closed system such as the one shown in Fig.14.1. In a
closed system with finite sized reservoirs, gradually the amount of water in A
decreases and the solution in B becomes diluted with water. As a result, the system
pressure and temperature of water in A increase with time. Hence the refrigeration
effect at A reduces gradually due to the reduced temperature difference between the
surroundings and water. Thus refrigeration produced by systems using only two
vessels is intermittent in nature. In these systems, after a period, the refrigeration
process has to be stopped and both the vessels A and B have to be brought back to
their original condition. This requires removal of water absorbed in B and adding it
back to vessel A in liquid form, i.e., a process of regeneration as shown in Fig.14.1(c).
Assume that before regeneration is carried out, the valve between A and B is
closed and both A and B are brought in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings
(30oC), then during the regeneration process, heat at high temperature T g is supplied to
the dilute LiBr solution in B, as a result water vapour is generated in B. The vapour
generated in B is condensed into pure water in A by rejecting heat of condensation to
the surroundings. This process has to be continued till all the water absorbed during
the refrigeration process (14.1(b)) is transferred back to A. Then to bring the system
back to its original condition, the valve has to be closed and solution in vessel B has
to be cooled to 30oC. If we assume a steady-flow process of regeneration and neglect
temperature difference for heat transfer, then the temperature of water in A will be
30oC and pressure inside the system will be 4.24 kPa. Then the temperature in vessel
B, Tg depends on the concentration of solution in B. The amount of heat transferred
during refrigeration and regeneration depends on the properties of solution and the
operating conditions. It can be seen that the output from this system is the
refrigeration obtained Qe and the input is heat supplied to vessel B during vapour
regeneration process, Qg.
H,
e
solution absorbs the refrigerant and
becomes strong in refrigerant. The
Exp.dev heat of absorption is rejected to the
ice Pe external heat sink at To. The
Pum
(
solution that is now rich in
p/ '
*
refrigerant is pumped to high
/Exp.de pressure using a solution pump and
vice/ fed to the generator. In the
generator heat at high temperature
Tg is supplied, as a result
»p refrigerant vapour is generated at
Ev high pressure. This high pressure
ap vapour is then condensed in the
ora condenser by rejecting heat of
tor condensation to the external heat
^^ sink at To. The condensed
Ab refrigerant liquid is then throttled in
sor the expansion device and is then
ber fed to the evaporator to complete
Qa at To Ther the refrigerant cycle. On the
mal
comp solution side, the hot, high-pressure
ressio solution that is weak in refrigerant
n is throttled to the absorber pressure
in the solution expansion valve and
a fed to the absorber where it comes
in contact with the refrigerant
vapour from evaporator. Thus
Figs.14.2: a) Vapour continuous refrigeration is
compressi produced at evaporator, while heat
on at high temperature is continuously
refrigerati supplied to the generator. Heat
on system rejection to the external heat sink
(VCRS) b) takes place at absorber and
Vapour condenser. A small amount of
Absorptio mechanical energy is required to
n run the solution pump. If we
Refrigerat neglect pressure drops, then the
ion System absorption system operates
(VARS) between the condenser and
e h s Fig.14.2, that as far as the
v e a condenser, expansion valve and
a m evaporators are concerned both
p p e compression and absorption
o r systems are identical. However, the
r e a difference lies in the way the
a s s refrigerant is compressed to
t s condenser pressure. In vapour
o u t compression refrigeration systems
r r h the vapour is compressed
e e mechanically using the compressor,
p where as in absorption system the
r i p vapour is first
e n r
s e
s e s Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 6
u v s
r a u
e p r
s o e
. r
a i
P t n
r o
e r c
s o
s a n
u n d
r d e
e n
p s
i r e
n e r
s .
a s
b u I
s r t
o e
r c
b i a
e n n
r
g b
i e e
s n
e s
s r e
a a e
m t n
e o
r f
a r
s i o
s m
t
converted into a liquid and then the liquid is pumped to condenser pressure using the
solution pump. Since for the same pressure difference, work input required to pump a
liquid (solution) is much less than the work required for compressing a vapour due to
Pc
very small specific volume of liquid (w = - ∫v.dP ), the mechanical energy required to
Pe
operate vapour absorption refrigeration system is much less than that required to
operate a compression system. However, the absorption system requires a relatively
large amount of low-grade thermal energy at generator temperature to generate
refrigerant vapour from the solution in generator. Thus while the energy input is in the
form of mechanical energy in vapour compression refrigeration systems, it is mainly
in the form of thermal energy in case of absorption systems. The solution pump work
is often negligible compared to the generator heat input. Thus the COPs for
compression and absorption systems are given by:
Qe
COPVCRS =— (14.1)
Wc
Qe Qe
COPVARS =--------------≈^ (14.2)
Qg+Wp Qg
Te
COPCarnot=--------- (14.3)
Tc -Te
If we assume that heat rejection at the absorber and condenser takes place at
same external heat sink temperature To, then a vapour absorption refrigeration system
operates between three temperature levels, Tg, To and Te. The maximum possible COP of
a refrigeration system operating between three temperature levels can be obtained by
applying first and second laws of thermodynamics to the system. Figure 14.3 shows
the various energy transfers and the corresponding temperatures in an absorption
refrigeration system.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 7
Fig.14.3: Various energy transfers in a vapour absorption refrigeration system
Qe+Qg-Qc+a+Wp=0 (14.4)
where Qe is the heat transferred to the absorption system at evaporator temperature Te,
Qg is the heat transferred to the generator of the absorption system at temperature Tg,
Qa+c is the heat transferred from the absorber and condenser of the absorption system at
temperature To and Wp is the work input to the solution pump.
where ΔStotal is the total entropy change which is equal to the sum of entropy change
of the system ΔSsys and entropy change of the surroundings ΔS surr. Since the
refrigeration system operates in a closed cycle, the entropy change of the working
fluid of the system undergoing the cycle is zero, i.e., ΔSsys =0 . The entropy change
of the surroundings is given by:
ΔSsurr=- Q - Qg + Q 0 (14.6)
Te Tg To Substituting the expression for first law of
thermodynamics in the above equation
Qg To -Te Te
≥Qe Wp (14.7)
Tg
Neglecting solution pump work, Wp; the COP of VARS is given by:
COPVARS = e ≤Q
Te To -Te Tg -To Tg
(14.8)
Hence combining first and second laws and neglecting pump work, the maximum
possible COP of an ideal VARS system is given by:
Qe f Te YTg-To
Tg
(14.10) COPideal VARS = e =
e To -T
Thus the ideal COP is only a function of operating temperatures similar to Carnot
system. It can be seen from the above expression that the ideal COP of VARS system
is equal to the product of efficiency of a Carnot heat engine operating between T g and
To and COP of a Carnot refrigeration system operating between To and Te, i.e.,
COPideal
Qe Te To -Te Tg -T o
COPCarnot.r| Carnot (14.11)
VARS =— = Tg
Qc
Q
e
WE L
ξ1 = ; ξ2= (14.12)
m1+m2 m1+m2
n1 n2
x1 = ; x2 = (14.13)
n1 +n2 n1 +n2
The mole fraction of components 1 and 2 in a binary mixture are given by:
n1 n
1 +n2 ; 2 n1 +
where n1 and n2 are the number of moles of components 1 and 2, respectively
Condition 1: The volume of the mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes of its
constituents, i.e., upon mixing there is neither contraction nor expansion. Thus the
specific volume of the mixture, v is given by:
v = ξ1.v1+ξ2.v2 (14.14)
where ξ1 and ξ2 are the mass fractions of components 1 and 2. For a binary mixture,
ξ1 and ξ2 are related by:
ξ1+ξ2=1 ⇒ξ2=1-ξ1 (14.15)
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 10
Condition 2: Neither heat is generated nor absorbed upon mixing, i.e., the heat of
solution is zero. Then the specific enthalpy of the mixture, h is given by:
Condition 3: The mixture obeys Raoult’s law in liquid phase, i.e., the vapour pressure
exerted by components 1 and 2 (Pv,1 and Pv,2) at a temperature T are given by:
where x1 and x2 are the mole fractions of components 1 and 2 in solution, and P1,sat
and P2, sat are the saturation pressures of pure components 1 and 2 at temperature T.
The mole fractions x1 and x2 are related by:
Condition 4: The mixture obeys Dalton’s law in vapour phase; i.e., the vapour
pressure exerted by components 1 and 2 (Pv,1 and Pv,2) in vapour phase at a
temperature T are given by:
where y1 and y2 are the vapour phase mole fractions of components 1 and 2 and P total
is the total pressure exerted at temperature T. The vapour phase mole fractions y1 and
y2 are related by:
h= ξ 1.h1+(1-ξ1)h2+Δhmix (14.26)
where Δhmix is the heat of mixing, which is taken as negative when heat is evolved and
positive when heat is absorbed.
The above two differences between ideal and real mixtures can be attributed to
the deviation of real mixtures from Raoult’s law. Real mixtures approach ideal
mixtures as the mole fraction of the component contributing to vapour pressure
approaches unity, i.e., for very dilute solutions. Figure 14.5 shows the equilibrium
pressure variation with liquid phase mole fraction (x) of ideal and real binary mixtures
with positive (+ve) and negative deviations (-ve) from Raoult’s law at a constant
temperature. It can be seen that when the deviation from Raoult’s law is positive
(+ve), the equilibrium vapour pressure will be higher than that predicted by Raoult’s
law, consequently at a given pressure and composition, the equilibrium temperature of
solution will be lower than that predicted by Raoult’s law. The converse is true for
solutions with -ve deviation from Raoult’s law, i.e., the equilibrium temperature at a
given pressure and composition will be higher than that predicted by Raoult’s law for
solution with negative deviation. This behaviour can also be shown on specific
enthalpy-composition diagram as shown in Fig. 14.6 for a solution with negative
deviation from Raoult’s law. Refrigerant-absorbent mixtures used in vapour
absorption refrigeration systems exhibit a negative deviation from Raoult’s law, i.e.,
the process of absorption is exothermic with a negative heat of mixing.
T = Constant
-ve
P1,sat
P
P2,sat
0 1
x2"
h1
h Constant Ideal
I solution
h2
0 1
Fig.1
4.6:
Entha
lpy-
conce
ntrati
on
behav
iour
of an
ideal
mixtu
re and
a real
mixtu
re
with
negat
ive
deviat
ion
from
Raoul
t’s
law
14.
5.
Ba
sic
Va
po
ur
Ab
sor
pti
on
Re
frig refri ped to the condenses in Versi
gera generator the condenser on 1
era nt pressure by rejecting ME,
tio vapo (Pg) by heat of IIT
n ur the condensation to Khar
from solution the external agpur
Sys evap pump heat sink (Qc at 13
te orat (state 3). T∞) and leaves
m or at The the condenser
state pressurize as a high
1 d solution pressure liquid
igur ente gets (state 9). This
e rs heated up high pressure
14.7 the sensibly refrigerant
sho abso as it flows liquid is
ws a rber through throttled in the
basi and the expansion
c is solution device to
vapo abso heat evaporator
ur rbed exchanger pressure Pe
abso by by (state 10) from
rptio solut extracting where it enters
n ion heat from the evaporator,
refri wea hot extracts heat
gera k in solution from low
tion refri coming temperature
syst gera from heat source (Qe
em nt generator at Te) and
with (stat (state 4). leaves the
a e 8). Heat is evaporator as
solut The supplied vapour at state
ion heat to this 1, completing a
heat of solution cycle. The hot
exch abso from an solution that is
ange rptio external weak in
r on n heat refrigerant
a (Qa) source in (state 6) leaves
pres is the the generator at
sure rejec generator high
vs ted (Qg at Tg), temperature
tem to as a result and is cooled
pera an refrigeran sensibly by
ture exte t vapour rejecting heat
diag rnal is to the solution
ram. heat generated going to the
As sink (absorben generator in
sho at t may also the solution
wn T∞. boil to heat exchanger
in The give off (state 7). Then
the solut vapour in it is throttled to
figur ion, case of the evaporator
e, rich ammonia- pressure in the
low in water throttle valve
tem refri systems) (state 8), from
pera gera at state 5. where it enters
ture nt This the absorber to
and (stat high- complete the
low e 2) pressure cycle. It can be
pres is refrigeran seen that
sure pum t vapour though not an
result of this heat exchange, less heat input is required in the generator and less heat is
rejected in the absorber, thus improving the system performance significantly.
Solution pump
P
Pg
Too Tg T
Fig.14.7: Basic vapour absorption refrigeration system with a solution heat exchanger on a
pressure vs temperature diagram
i. The refrigerant should exhibit high solubility with solution in the absorber. This
is to say that it should exhibit negative deviation from Raoult’s law at
absorber.
ii. There should be large difference in the boiling points of refrigerant and
absorbent (greater than 200oC), so that only refrigerant is boiled-off in the
generator. This ensures that only pure refrigerant circulates through
refrigerant circuit (condenser-expansion valve-evaporator) leading to
isothermal heat transfer in evaporator and condenser.
Questions:
1. Compared to compression systems, absorption systems offer the benefits of:
Ans.: c)
Ans. b)
Ans. b) and c)
4. The conventional, continuously operating single stage vapour absorption
refrigeration system:
Ans. b) and d)
Ans. a) and d)
Ans. a) and d)
Ans. a) and d)
676. Find the COP of the system and the total heat rejection rate from the system.
677. An inventor claims that by improving the design of all the components of the
system he could reduce the heat input to the system to 80 kW while keeping the
refrigeration capacity and operating temperatures same as before. Examine the
validity of the claim.
Ans.:
Total heat rejection rate = Qa+Qc = Qe+Qg = 100 + 160 = 260 kW (Ans.)
273 COPmax = Tg - To ^| f Tg
Te To 273 50 363
= 0.94
-Te 313-
678. What is the temperature of the coil at which steam starts condensing in
A?
679. Does the System pressure remain constant during condensation? If not,
how to maintain the pressure constant at 9.0 kPa? What happens to the
temperature of solution in B?
680. As water vapour condenses in A there will be transfer of water vapour
from B to A resulting in change of mass fraction of solution (Δx) in B. Find a
relation between Δx and/ where/is the ratio of initial mass of solution in B to
the mass of water vapour transferred from B to A.
681. What is the amount of solution required initially in B so that a mass of 1
kg of water is transferred from B to A with a corresponding change of mass
fraction(Δx) by 0.05?
682. Neglecting the contribution of temperature changes, what is the amount
of heat transferred at A and B during the transfer of 1 kg of water from B to A?
Is energy balanced?
683. What is required to reverse the process so that initial conditions are
restored?
684. Show the forward and reverse process on D ring plot.
l 3985o
n(9) = 16.54-----------⇒ T = 316.84K = 43.7 C (Ans.)
T-39
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 18
b) System pressure falls as condensation of water vapour takes place in A. To keep
the system pressure constant, vapour has to be generated in B by supplying heat to
solution in B. Since the solution in B becomes richer in LiBr (i.e., concentration
increases), at the same pressure of 9.0 kPa, the solution temperature in B increases.
(Ans.)
r
-M
,f)LMW,i)
(M
W
+ ,i-MW ( ML + W,i).( ML + W,i) Ax = xf -xi =
ML ML + MWf
Amount of water transferred from B to A = (MW,i - MW,f) The factor f is defined as:
f ML+MW,i
Substituting the above in the expression for Ax and using the definition of
concentration, we find that:
i Ax = xf -xi = ^xf ^
(Ans.)
fJ
d) Mass of water transferred is 1.0 kg and change in concentration is 0.05. Hence the
final concentration is:
e) From energy balance of vessel B, the amount of energy transferred to B is given by:
QB,in=(MB,f.hf-MB,i.hi) + (MW,i-MW,f)hW
Substituting the values of enthalpies and initial and final mass of solution (13 kg and
12 kg, respectively), we find that the heat transferred to B is:
(Ans.)
x = 0> T
P Forward process
---------►
Reverse process
692. Draw the schematic of the water-lithium bromide system and explain its
working principle
693. Evaluate the properties of water-lithium bromide solution using p-T-ξ and h-T-
ξ charts
694. Evaluate the steady-state performance of a single stage water-lithium bromide
system using the input data and fluid properties
695. Describe commercial water-lithium bromide systems and list practical
problems in these systems
696. List typical operating temperatures and performance aspects of water-lithium
bromide systems
697. Compare various capacity control methods in water-lithium bromide systems
15.1. Introduction
Vapour absorption refrigeration systems using water-lithium bromide pair are
extensively used in large capacity air conditioning systems. In these systems water is
used as refrigerant and a solution of lithium bromide in water is used as absorbent.
Since water is used as refrigerant, using these systems it is not possible to provide
refrigeration at sub-zero temperatures. Hence it is used only in applications requiring
refrigeration at temperatures above 0oC. Hence these systems are used for air
conditioning applications. The analysis of this system is relatively easy as the vapour
generated in the generator is almost pure refrigerant (water), unlike ammonia-water
systems where both ammonia and water vapour are generated in the generator.
ξ= (15.1)
mL +mW
where mL and mW are the mass of anhydrous lithium bromide and water in solution,
respectively.
x= nL nL (15.2)
+n W
where nL and nW are the number of moles of anhydrous lithium bromide and water in
solution, respectively. The number moles of lithium bromide and water can easily be
obtained from their respective masses in solution and molecular weights, thus;
mL mW mL mW
; and nW = nL = ; and nW = (15.3)
ML MW where ML (= 86.8 kg/kmol) and MW (= 18.0 kg/kmol) are the
molecular weights of anhydrous lithium bromide and water
respectively.
For example, at 50 percent mass fraction of lithium bromide and 25oC, Raoult’s law
predicts a vapour pressure of 26.2 mbar, whereas actual measurements show that it is
only 8.5 mbar.
The ratio of actual vapour pressure to that predicted by Raoult’s law is known as
activity coefficient. For the above example, the activity coefficient is 0.324.
P (mbar)
«.
V. t
k -----------------------
Tsat (oC)
Solution Temperature, oC
The enthalpy of pure water vapour and liquid at different temperatures and
pressures can be obtained from pure water property data. For all practical purposes,
liquid water enthalpy, hW,liquid at any temperature T can be obtained from the equation:
15.2.5. Crystallization
It should be noted from the property charts that the entire water-lithium
bromide system operates under vacuum.
---------
2 1 9 10
Qc
ER
Fig.1
Qe 5.5:
3 Sche
matic
of a
H2O-
LiBr
syste
m
A:
Absor
ber;
C:
Cond
enser
; E:
Evap
orato
r; G:
Gene
rator;
P:
Soluti
on
Pump
SHX:
Soluti
on
HX;
ER:
Refri
geran
t
Expa
nsion
valve;
ES:
Soluti
on
Expa
nsion
valve
The
circula
tion
ratio
(λ) is
define
d as
the
ratio
of
strong
solutio
n flow
rate 15 Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur
to m ss =λm
refrig this
erant The
flow anal
rate. ysis
It is is
given carri
by: ed
out
λm by
= appl
m
ying
mass
and
ener
gy
bala
nce
acros
s
each
com
pone
nt.
C
o.
.m
1.
P
Expansion valve (refrigerant):
m m2 =m3 h2 (15.12)
=h3 Evaporator: (15.13)
m3 =m4 =m
(15.14)
Qe=m(h4-h3) Pe =
Psat (Te) (15.15)
(15.16)
where Te is the evaporator temperature
Absorber:
mss
mws
m+ = (1-ξws)
ξ ws
(1-ξss) (15.18)
⇒λ=
ws ξss-ξ
5m
hQ +λm
4a
mh10 -(1 + λ)mh (15.19)
The first term in the above equation m(h4 -h5) represents the enthalpy change of
water as changes its state from vapour at state 4 to liquid at state 5. The second term
mλ(h10 -h5) represents the sensible heat transferred as solution at state 10 is cooled to
solution at state 5.
Solution pump:
m5 = m6 = mws
(15.21)
WP =mws(h6 -h5) = (1 + λ)m(h6 -h5)
(15.22)
however, if we assume the solution to be incompressible, then:
where vsol is the specific volume of the solution which can be taken to be
approximately equal to 0.00055 m3/kg. Even though the solution pump work is small
it is still required in the selection of suitable pump.
m6 = m 7 = m ws (15.24)
m8=m9=mss
heat transfer rate in the solution heat exchanger, QHX is given by:
QHX = (1 + λ)m(h7 -h6) = λm(h8 -h9) (15.25)
Generator:
in the above equation the 1st term on the RHS m(h1 - h7) represents energy required to
generate water vapour at state 1 from solution at state 7 and the 2nd term
mλ(h8 - h7) represents the sensible heat required to heat the solution from state 7 to
state 8.
m9=m10=mws (15.29)
h9 =h10 (15.30)
COP = ≈ e (15.31)
Qg+WP Q
In order to find the steady-state performance of the system from the above set
of equations, one needs to know the operating temperatures, weak and strong solution
concentrations, effectiveness of solution heat exchanger and the refrigeration capacity.
It is generally assumed that the solution at the exit of absorber and generator is at
equilibrium so that the equilibrium P-T-E, and h-T-E, charts can be used for evaluating
solution property data. The effectiveness of solution heat exchanger, sHX is given by:
(T7 - T )
S
HX = 6 (15.33)
(T8 - T6 )
From the above equation the temperature of the weak solution entering the
generator (T7) can be obtained since T6 is almost equal to T5 and T8 is equal to the
generator temperature Tg. The temperature of superheated water vapour at state 1 may
be assumed to be equal to the strong solution temperature T8.
698. Crystallization
699. Air leakage, and
700. Pressure drops
Since evaporator and absorber operate at the same pressure they can be housed in
a single vessel, similarly generator and condenser can be placed in another vessel as
these two components operate under a single pressure. Thus a twin drum system
consists of two vessels operating at high and low pressures. Figure 15.6 shows a
commercial, single stage, twin drum system.
Heal
Chille
S'.eam R&frigerarit p^mp
exchanger
d
water
Solulicr
rump
tfaurout
Kah-ctag*
Solution Heal Eaehiftflor
Solution Hoot Excbng «r
Refrigerant liquid
AbsoriMflt sotiriton
Ph,g Qg,in
Pc=Pl,g
Pe=Pa
Te Tc = Ta Tl,g Th,g
The above values are simulated values, which were validated on actual
commercial systems with very efficient heat and mass transfer design. If the heat and
mass transfer is not very efficient, then the actual required heat source temperatures
will be higher than the reported values. For a given cooling water temperature, if the
heat source temperature drops below the minimum temperature given above, then the
COP drops significantly. For a given cooling water temperature, if the heat source
temperature drops below a certain temperature (minimum generation temperature),
then the system will not function. Minimum generation temperature is typically 10 to
15oC lower than the minimum heat source temperature. If air cooled condensers and
absorbers are used, then the required minimum heat source temperatures will be much
higher (≈ 150oC). The COP of the system can be increased significantly by multi-
effect (or mult-stage) systems. However, addition of each stage increases the required
heat source temperature by approximately 50oC.
Method 1 does not affect the COP significantly as the required heat input reduces
with reduction in weak solution flow rate, however, since this may lead to the problem
of crystallization, many a time a combination of the above three methods are used in
commercial systems to control the capacity.
Questions:
1. Vapour absorption refrigeration systems using water-lithium bromide:
Ans. a) and c)
2. For a required refrigeration capacity, the solution heat exchanger used in water-
lithium bromide systems:
Ans. a) and b)
Ans. a) and d)
Ans. a) and d)
727. The required heat source temperature should be higher than minimum heat
generation temperature
728. The required heat source temperature decreases as cooling water temperature
increases
729. The required heat source temperature is higher for air cooled condensers,
compared to water cooled condensers
730. All of the above
Ans. a) and c)
Ans. a) and c)
8. A single stage vapour absorption refrigeration system based on H 2O-LiBr has a
refrigeration capacity of 300 kW. The system operates at an evaporator temperature of
5oC (Psat=8.72 mbar) and a condensing temperature of 50 oC (Psat=123.3 mbar). The
exit temperatures of absorber and generator are 40oC and 110oC respectively. The
concentration of solution at the exit of absorber and generator are 0.578 and 0.66,
respectively. Assume 100 percent effectiveness for the solution heat exchanger, exit
condition of refrigerant at evaporator and condenser to be saturated and the condition
of the solution at the exit of absorber and generator to be at equilibrium. Enthalpy of
strong solution at the inlet to the absorber may be obtained from the equilibrium
solution data.
Find:
735. The mass flow rates of refrigerant, weak and strong solutions
736. Heat transfer rates at the absorber, evaporator, condenser, generator and
solution heat exchanger
737. System COP and second law efficiency, and
Given:
Referring to Fig.15.5;
Assuming the refrigerant vapour at the exit of generator to be in equilibrium with the
strong solution leaving the generator
=> T9 = T6 = 40oC
From the above equation, the following property data at various points are obtained
using refrigerant property charts and water - LiBr solution property charts
2 50 123.3 - 209
3 5 8.72 - 209
4 5 8.72 - 2510
The enthalpy of superheated water vapour (hv) may be obtained by using the equation:
Enthalpy of weak solution at the exit of solution HX is obtained from the energy
balance equation:mWS(h7-h6) = mSS(h8-h9) => h7 = h6+mSS(h8-h9)/mWS = -37.5 kJ/kg
.-. mass flow rate of strong solution, mSS = Xm = 0.9193 kg/s (Ans.)
mass flow rate of weak solution, mWS = (A,+1)m = 1.05 kg/s (Ans.)
16.1. Introduction
In vapour absorption refrigeration systems based on ammonia-water pair,
ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorbent. These systems are more versatile
than systems based on water-lithium bromide as they can be used for both sub-zero
(refrigeration) as well above 0oC (air conditioning) applications. However, these systems
are more complex in design and operation due to the smaller boiling point temperature
difference between the refrigerant and absorbent (about 133oC). Due to the smaller
boiling point temperature difference the vapour generated in the generator consists of
both ammonia as well as water. If water is allowed to circulate with ammonia in the
refrigerant circuit, then:
Since all the above effects are detrimental to the performance of the system, it is
necessary to minimize the concentration of water vapour in ammonia at the inlet to the
condenser. This requires additional components, namely a rectification column and a
dephlegmator between generator and absorber, which increases the design complexity
and cost and also reduces the system COP compared to water-lithium bromide system.
ξ=
mA (16.1)
mA +mW
where mA and mW are the mass of ammonia and water in solution, respectively. Similarly,
x= nA
(16.2)
nA +nW
where nA and nW are the number of moles of ammonia and water in solution, respectively.
The number of moles of ammonia and water can easily be obtained from their respective
masses in solution and molecular weights, thus;
mA mW
nA = ;and nW = (16.3)
MA MW
where MA (= 17.0 kg/kmol) and MW (= 18.0 kg/kmol) are the molecular weights of
ammonia and water respectively.
Liquid ammonia and water are completely miscible in all proportions, hence can
form solutions of all concentrations from 0 to 1, at normal temperatures. The effect of
ammonia in water is to lower the vapour pressure of water, similarly the effect of water in
ammonia is to lower ammonia’s vapour pressure. Thus the total pressure over ammonia-
water solutions is made up of partial pressure of ammonia and partial pressure of water
vapour, and is always in between the saturation pressures of pure ammonia and water.
For example, at a mass fraction of 0.4 and temperature of 40 oC, Raoult’s law
predicts a vapour pressure of 6.47 bar, whereas the measured vapour pressure is 3.029
bar.
The vapour pressure data of ammonia-water solutions is also available in the form
of Dühring and other P-T-ξ plots.
Since the vapour above ammonia-water liquid consists of both ammonia and
water vapour, it is essential to distinguish between the composition in liquid phase and
composition in vapour phase. The superscripts L and V will be used to distinguish
between liquid and vapour phase compositions. Thus ξL stands for liquid phase mass
fraction and ξV stands for vapour phase mass fraction. Though the vapour phase
composition, can be obtained by assuming ideal solution behaviour, it is observed that the
actual vapour composition deviates from that predicted by ideal mixture equations. Based
on experimental measurements, charts have been developed for obtaining composition of
ammonia-water mixture in vapour phase in equilibrium with a solution of ammonia and
water at different temperatures. Figure 16.1 shows the construction of such a chart using
which one can obtain the composition of mixture in vapour phase from known values of
liquid phase mass fraction (ξL) and saturated temperature of pure ammonia or pressure.
Mass
fraction
of
ammoni
a in
vapour,
^V
P ----------------
►
Fig.
16.1.
Vapo
ur-
liqui
d
equil
ibriu
m
char
t for
amm
onia
-
wate
r
solut
ion
16.2.4.
Bubble
point
and
dew
point
for
ammon
ia-
water
mixtu water
res mixture.
Now
F heat is
igure supplie
16.2 d to the
shows system
a and the
cylinde tempera
r ture of
contain the
ing solution
mixtur is
e of increase
ammon d
ia and steadily,
water. the
The mass
pressur fraction
e on of the
the solution
mixtur remains
e is constant
maintai at £1
ned initially.
consta At a
nt with certain
the tempera
help of ture the
a free- first
floatin vapour
g bubble
piston appears.
with The
fixed tempera
weight ture at
s. which
Initiall the first
y bubble
(State appears
1) the is called
cylinde as
r bubble
consist point
s of (=Tbubbl
subcoo e) of the
led solution
solutio at that
n of concentr
ammon ation
ia- and
pressure. Further heating results
in increase in temperature and
formation of more vapour as
shown in the figure (State 2). If
heating is continued further, then
the temperature
1P
1P
JP
V
L L
Heat
Heat
Heat
(1) (2) (3)
Fig.16.2: A simple experiment illustrating the principle of bubble and dew points
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 6
P=
3
Subcooled
Dew Point line
Superheated liquid
T W,Sat
vapour
Bubble Point line
Tdew
T bubble
Constant
t~
0LL VI
1
£ V
Fig.1
6.3:
Equili
brium
tempe
rature
-
conce
ntrati
on
curve
for
NH3-
H2O
at a
consta
nt
pressu
re
T
0 I
1 (p
ur
e
H
2
O
)
(pure
NH3)
Fig.16.4: Bubble
point and dew
point curves at
two different
pressures
where m2 L and m2 V are the mass of liquid and vapour at state 2, respectively.
m2L f£2V-£1
L or (16.7)
1-^2 V
m 2 U1-S
The above equation is called as the mixing rule or lever rule for the binary
mixtures such as ammonia and water. It implies that the fraction of liquid and vapour in
the two-phase mixture is inversely proportional to the distance between the mixture
condition 2 and the saturated liquid and vapour states 2Land 2V, respectively.
Liquid phase:
hL = ^.LhAL+(1-^L)hWL+Ahmix (16.9)
Using the above equation one can calculate the specific enthalpy of ammonia-
water solutions at any concentration and temperature provided the heat of mixing is
known from measurements. Thus enthalpy charts for solution are plotted as a field of
isotherms against mass fraction by taking suitable reference values for enthalpy of
ammonia and water. Since pressure does not have a significant effect on liquid enthalpy
(except at critical point), normally pressure lines are not shown on typical solution
enthalpy charts Also enthalpy of subcooled liquid is generally assumed to be equal to
the saturated enthalpy at that temperature without loss of much accuracy
Vapour phase:
where ξ.Vis the vapour phase mass fraction of ammonia and hAV and hWVare the
specific enthalpies of ammonia vapour and water vapour respectively at the temperature
of the mixture. However, since vapour enthalpies depend on temperature as well as
pressure, one has to evaluate the vapour enthalpy at suitable pressure, which is not equal
to the total pressure. An approximate, but practically useful method is to evaluate the
vapour enthalpies of ammonia and water at pressures, PA and PW given by:
PA=yPtotal
(16.11) PW
= (1 - y)Ptotal
where y is the vapour phase mole fraction of ammonia and Ptotal is the total pressure. It
should be noted that PA and PW are equal to the partial pressures of ammonia and water
only if they behave as ideal gases. However since ammonia and water vapour may not
approach the ideal gas behaviour at all temperatures and pressures, in general PA and PW
are not equal to the partial pressures. Using this method enthalpies of ammonia-water
mixtures in vapour phase have been obtained as functions of temperature and mass
fraction.
hb =(1-ψb)hL+ψbhV (16.12)
where ψb is the quality or dryness fraction of the two-phase mixture at b. Since points a,
a’ and b are co-linear, the dryness fraction ψb is given by:
L
ψ b = ξb -ξ
b ξV-ξL (16.13)
It is important to note that it is not possible to fix the state of the mixture
(subcooled, saturated, two-phase or superheated) just from temperature and mass fraction
alone, though one can calculate enthalpy of the mixture from temperature and mass
fraction. This is due to the reason that at a given mass fraction and temperature,
depending upon the pressure the point can be subcooled or saturated or superheated.
For example, a liquid mixture with a mass fraction of 0.4 and temperature of 80 oC has an
enthalpy of 210 kJ/kg, and it will be in subcooled condition if the pressure is 4.29 bar and
saturated if the pressure is 8.75 bar.
F
ig.16.6:
Enthalp
y-
composi
tion
diagram
of NH3-
H2O at
a
constant
pressure
P
Determi
nation
of
temper
ature of
mixture
in two-
phase
region:
A
trial-
and-
error
method
has to be
used to
determi
ne the in the
temperatu figure
re of a by
point in drawing
two- a
phase vertical
region if line
its from
enthalpy, point x
liquid upto the
phase auxiliar
mass y line
fraction and then
and drawing
pressure a
are horizont
known. al line
The trial- from the
and-error intersect
method ion
can be point a”
graphical upto the
or dew
numerical point
. Figure line, the
16.7 intersect
shows a ion of
graphical which
method gives a’.
for Then a
finding straight
the line a’-
temperatu x-a is
re of drawn
point x in as
the two- shown.
phase Next
region point b’
which is is
at a obtained
known by
pressure drawing
Px, liquid a
phase vertical
mass line
fraction upto the
ξx and auxiliar
enthalpy y line
hx. To and then
start with, drawing
point a’ is a
obtained horizont
as shown al line
from b”
h upto the
dew point
line to get
b’. Then
line b’-x-
b is
drawn
passing
through
x. This
procedure
is
repeated
until
converge
nce is
obtained.
N
umericall
y the
temperatu
re can be
obtained
from the
equation,
which
needs to
be
satisfied
for each
end of the
isotherm
passing
through
x, i.e.,
L
ξ
x
To start
with
guess
values of
hL and ξL
are
assumed
by taking
some
point on
the
bubble
point line.
Then
saturated
vapour
properties
hV and ξV
are
obtained
from the
enthalpy-
compositi
on charts
using the
guess
values of
hL and ξL.
Then
using the
above
equation,
Version 1 ME,
IIT Kharagpur
12
new values of hL and ξL are obtained. Then these new values are used to obtain next set of
hV and ξV. This procedure is repeated till the values converge. Once the converged values
of hL and ξL are obtained then the temperature is read from the enthalpy-composition
chart.
Px = Constant
0 1
ξx ξ
h
hx
From the above equations, the mass fraction and enthalpy of the mixture at 3 are given
by:
(16.19)
0ξ 2
1 so
me
vap
ori
Fig.16.8: zati
Adiabatic on
mixing of two has
solution occ
streams urr
F ed
igure dur
16.9 ing
show adi
s the aba
adiab tic
atic mi
mixin xin
g g
proce of
ss the
with two
the inle
mixtu t
re stre
state am
3 s 1
lying and
in 2.
two- Th
phase e
regio ent
n on hal
the py
enthal and
py- co
comp mp
ositio osit
n ion
diagr of
am. the
The two
mixtu -
re pha
state se
in mi
two- xtu
phase re
regio at 3
n can
impli be
es obt
that ain
ed by rul
using es.
the Th
equati e
ons fra
given ctio
above n
. of
Howe the
ver, vap
since our
this is in
in the
two- mi
phase xtu
regio re
n, the at 3
mixtu is
re the
consi n
sts of giv
satura en
ted by:
liquid
m3 and V
=
3
ξ33L
L
=
m
vapou
r. The
dryne
ss
fracti
on
and
tempe
rature
of the
mixtu
re
(T3)
have
to be
obtai
ned
by
trial-
and-
error
meth
od by
apply
ing
mixin
g
b) r
Mixin (sta
g of te
two 1)
strea wit
ms h
with sat
heat ura
transf ted
er: sol
The uti
proce on
ss of of
mixin refr
g of ige
two ran
strea t-
ms abs
with orb
heat ent
transf (sta
er te
takes 2)
place in
in the
absor abs
ber orb
and er.
gener Th
ator e
of res
absor ulti
ption ng
refrig mi
eratio xtu
n re
syste is a
ms. sol
For uti
exam on
ple, that
Fig.1 is
6.10 ric
show h in
s the refr
mixin ige
g of ran
satura t
ted (sta
refrig te
erant 3).
vapou Sin
Version 1 ME,
IIT Kharagpur
14
h 0 5: ξ1
ξ
h
2
5
h
3
h
1
1
F
i
g
.
1
6
.
9
:
A
d
i
a
b
a
t
i
c
m
i
x
i
n
g
o
f
t
w
o
s 15
t
r
e
a
m
s
o
n
h
-
T
-
ξ
d
i
a
g
r
a
m
Versi
on 1
ME,
IIT
Khar
agpur
m1 +m2 =m3 (16.21)
m1 ξ1 +m2ξ2 =m3ξ3 (16.22)
m1h1 +m2h2 =m3h3 +Q (16.23)
From
the
above
equati
ons,
the
enthal
py of
the
mixtur
e at 3
is
given
by:
h3=h1+2( h 2 -
h1)-—
(16.24)
T
hus
with
heat
transfe
r from
the
mixing
chamb
er, the
exit
state
lies at
a
vertica
l
distanc
e of
(Q/m3)
below
the
state
which
would
result
withou
t heat
transfe
r (point
3’). The exit point would
lie above the state
without heat transfer if
heat is transferred to the
mixing chamber.
c) Throttling process:
Throttling or isenthalpic
expansion of ammonia-
water solution takes place
in the solution expansion
valve of the absorption
refrigeration system.
Figure 16.11 shows the
throttling process on
enthalpy-composition
diagram. Since both mass
and energy are conserved
during this process, and
there is neither work nor
heat transfer, we obtain:
ξ1 =ξ2
(16.25) (16.26)
h1=h2
£1 =4: 4
Fig.16.11: Throttling of ammonia-water solution
d) Heating and cooling process – concept of rectification: Figure 16.12 shows an
arrangement wherein an initially subcooled solution (state 1) is heated in a heat
exchanger A (HX A) in such a way that the exit condition 2 lies in the two-phase region.
This two-phase mixture then flows into an adiabatic separator (SEP A) where the
saturated liquid (state 3) and saturated vapour (state 4) are separated. The saturated
vapour at state 4 is then cooled to state 5 in another heat exchanger B (HX B) by rejecting
heat 4Q5. The resulting two-phase mixture is then fed to another adiabatic separator B
(SEP B), where again the saturated liquid (state 6) and saturated vapour (state 7) are
separated. It is assumed that the entire process takes place at a constant pressure and is a
steady-flow process.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 17
1Q2/m1 Vapour, 7 HX (B)
V
5
<5 4Q5
L
SEP (B)
4 4Q5/m4
Saturated liquid,
6
Fig.
12:
V Hea
HX (A) 2 g an
1 ^ cool
1Q2 ■|SEP (A) of
NH3
Saturated liquid, H2O
solu
3 n–
conc
t of
recti
ation
Now mass
Heat excha
Mass balan
m1
=ξ2 Energy
balance:
1Q2
Separator
Mass balan
m2 =
m2ξ
Energy bal
V
e
rsion 1
ME, IIT
Kharagp
ur 18
m2h2 =m3h3 +m4h4 (16.32)
from the above equations:
Similar equations can be obtained for heat exchanger B and separator B. The entire
process is also shown on enthalpy-composition diagram in Fig.16.12.
It may be noted that from the above arrangement consisting of heating, cooling
and separation, one finally obtains a vapour at state 7 that is rich in ammonia. That is the
combination of heat exchangers with separators is equivalent to the process of
rectification. Heat exchanger A plays the role of generator, while heat exchanger B plays
the role of dephlegmator. To improve the process of rectification in actual vapour
absorption refrigeration systems, a rectifying column is introduced between the generator
and dephlegmator. In the rectifying column, the vapour from the separator A comes in
contact with the saturated liquid coming from separator B. As a result, there will be heat
and mass transfer between the vapour and liquid and finally the vapour comes out at a
much higher concentration of ammonia.
3. Which of the following statements regarding the definition of concentration are TRUE:
Ans. b) and c)
757. The bubble point temperature is always higher than dew point temperature
758. The bubble point temperature is always lower than dew point temperature
759. At a given pressure, the bubble point and dew point temperatures are higher than
the saturation temperature of NH3 but lower than the saturation temperature of H2O
760. At a given pressure, the bubble point and dew point temperatures are lower than
the saturation temperature of NH3 but higher than the saturation temperature of H2O
Ans.: b) and c)
5. For NH3-H2O solution at equilibrium, which of the following statements are FALSE:
761. The concentration of liquid phase is lower than the concentration of vapour phase
762. The enthalpy of subcooled solution is a function of temperature and pressure
763. The enthalpy of superheated vapour is a function of temperature only
764. The state of the mixture can be uniquely determined by temperature and
concentration
Ans.: b) and d)
Ans.: b) and d)
7. A binary mixture of NH3 - H2O is at a temperature of 40oC and a liquid phase mole
fraction x of 0.5. Find the vapour pressure of the solution, if the activity coefficient of the
solution is 0.65. The saturation pressures of ammonia and water at 40oC are 1557 kPa and
7.375 kPa, respectively.
Using the definition of activity coefficient, a; the actual vapour pressure Pv is given by:
8. A binary vapour mixture consisting of ammonia and water is at a mole fraction of 0.9
and 10oC. If the partial pressures of ammonia and water vapour in the mixture are 616.25
kPa and 1.227 kPa, respectively; and the specific vapour enthalpies of ammonia and
water are 1471.57 kJ/kg and 2519.9 kJ/kg, respectively, find a) the vapour pressure of the
mixture, and b) the specific enthalpy of the mixture.
Ans.:
a) Assume the vapour mixture to behave as a mixture of ideal gases, then the total
pressure of the mixture Pv is given by:
Substituting this in the expression for mass fraction, we find that ξ V = 0.895
Again assuming the vapour mixture to behave as a mixture of ideal gases; the enthalpy of
the mixture is given by:
9. Find the dryness fraction (quality) and specific enthalpy of the two-phase (liquid &
vapour) of ammonia-water mixture using the following data:
9. Two solution streams are mixed in a steady flow device. A heat transfer rate of 24 kW
takes place from the device. Find the exit concentration and enthalpy using the data given
below:
Ans.:
From mass balance of solution and ammonia, the exit concentration is given by ^3 :
From energy balance of solution and ammonia, the exit concentration is given by h3:
17.1. Introduction
Vapour absorption refrigeration system based on ammonia-water is one of the
oldest refrigeration systems. As mentioned earlier, in this system ammonia is used
as refrigerant and water is used as absorbent. Since the boiling point temperature
difference between ammonia and water is not very high, both ammonia and water
are generated from the solution in the generator. Since presence of large amount of
water in refrigerant circuit is detrimental to system performance, rectification of the
generated vapour is carried out using a rectification column and a dephlegmator.
Since ammonia is used as the refrigerant, these systems can be used for both
refrigeration and air conditioning applications. They are available in very small (as
pumpless systems) to large refrigeration capacities in applications ranging from
domestic refrigerators to large cold storages. Since ammonia is not compatible with
materials such as copper or brass, normally the entire system is fabricated out of
steel. Another important difference between this system and water-lithium bromide
systems is in the operating pressures. While water-lithium bromide systems operate
under very low (high vacuum) pressures, the ammonia-water system is operated at
pressures much higher than atmospheric. As a result, problem of air leakage into the
system is eliminated. Also this system does not suffer from the problem of
crystallization encountered in water-lithium bromide systems. However, unlike water,
ammonia is both toxic and flammable. Hence, these systems need safety
precautions.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 2
Dephlegmator
Qd
„Qg
10
—6
Rectification column
Condenser
11
Qc
1 -7 -8
"14
13-
3Absorber
— Evaporator
Qe 2
\f Qa
Solution pump
Wp
Fig.17.1: Schematic of NH3-H2O based vapour absorption refrigeration system
As far as various energy flows out of the system are concerned, heat is
supplied to the system at generator and evaporator, heat rejection takes place at
absorber, condenser and dephlegmator and a small amount of work is supplied to
the solution pump.
Strong solution
Dephlegmator
Generator igure
from Heating
absorber
____ medium
F
Cooling water
I"
"il
-,w
IB W
7
?
Weak solution
i i
to absorber
Enrichment of vapour
~Fig.17.2: Schematic of the rectification column used in NH3-H2 O systems
0 W1 &
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 5
Fig.17.3: Rectification process in the generator
17.3 shows the schematic of the generator with lower portion of the rectification
column and the process that takes place in this column on temperature-composition
diagram. As shown, in this column the ascending vapour generated in the generator
and initially at a mass fraction of ξWV is enriched in ammonia to ξ SV as it exchanges
heat and mass with the descending rich solution, which had an initial concentration
of ξSL. During this process the solution becomes weak as ammonia is transferred
from liquid to vapour and water is transferred from vapour to liquid. In the limit with
infinite residence time, the vapour leaves at mass fraction ξ SV that is in equilibrium
with the strong solution. It can also be seen that during this process, due to heat
transfer from the hot vapour to the liquid, the solution entering the generator section
is preheated. This is beneficial as it reduces the required heat input in the generator.
By applying mass balance across the absorber and assuming the amount of
water vapour in the refrigerant vapour at the exit of evaporator as negligible, the
circulation ratio can be shown to be:
1-ξS
where ξS and ξ W are the mass fractions of the strong and weak solutions leaving the
absorber and entering the absorber, respectively.
Mass and energy balance equations for all the components are same as
those of water-lithium bromide system, however, the thermal energy input to the
generator will be different due to the heat transfer at the dephlegmator. Taking a
control volume that includes entire rectifying column (generator + rectification column
+ dephlegmator) as shown in Fig.17.5, we can write the energy equation as:
writing the mass flow rates of strong (point 4) and weak (point 6) solutions in terms of
refrigerant flow rate and mass fractions, we can write the above equation as:
—6
Q,
Fig.17.5: Control volume for calculating heat input to the
system
Qd +
h iV - h
V
](hiV-
i
= (hi -h10) +
V 10 1-£
UiV-u heL)
L
HL(17.5)
my
N
iH
(1-£
17.6)
L = V
^iV-4eL
The above equation is applicable at any section across the
upper rectification column. If the process is plotted on enthalpy-
composition diagram as shown in Fig.17.6, it can be easily seen that
the ordinate of point R (called as Pole of the
).h i V - h e is equal to
(rectifier)
h10 as HL is equal to HL
V my ^-C
It should be noted that the line joining points L and V on
enthalpy-composition diagram need not be an isotherm. In other
words, points V and L need not be in equilibrium with each other, but
they have to satisfy the mass and energy balance across the control
volume.
The rectifier efficiency depends on the design of contact surface used for the
rectification column.
Sometimes, in the absence of required data, the COP is calculated by
assuming that the dephlegmator heat is a certain percentage of generator heat
(usually 10 to 20 percent).
Due to the above advantages the pumpless systems find applications such as
refrigerators for remote and rural areas, portable refrigerators, refrigerators for luxury
hotel rooms etc.
For example: if the total pressure of the system is 15 bar, then the condenser
temperature will be 38.7oC (saturation temperature at 15 bar). If contribution of
hydrogen to total pressure in the evaporator is 14 bar, then the partial pressure of
ammonia in evaporator is 1 bar, hence ammonia can evaporate at –33oC (saturation
temperature at 1 bar), thus providing refrigeration effect at very low temperatures.
The liquid ammonia in the evaporator cannot boil in the evaporator as its
partial pressure is lower than the total pressure (no vapour bubbles form). The
ammonia simply evaporates into the hydrogen gas (just as liquid water evaporates
into the atmosphere) as long as hydrogen gas is not saturated with ammonia. The
ammonia vapour generated is carried away by the process of diffusion, hence
Platen-Munters systems are also called as diffusion-absorption systems.
Evaporator
t
Qe
Qa
Ammonia Vapor
I Hvdroqen
Absorber
Water
Dissolved ammonia
Generator
Qg
Solar energy driven adsorption systems that use a solid adsorbent in place of
a liquid absorbent offer certain advantages. The solid sorption systems also known
as dry absorption systems do not have a solution circuit as the vapour/gas is directly
absorbed and desorbed by a solid. Notable among the dry absorption types are the
systems based on water-zeolites/silica gel, methanol-activated carbon,
ammonia-calcium chloride, sulphur dioxide-sulphites, carbon dioxide-
carbonates and hydrogen-metal hydrides. However, some practical design
problems such as: smaller specific power outputs, poor heat and mass transfer
characteristics of the solid absorbents, unwanted side reactions, undesired
decomposition of reacting materials, swelling of solid material and corrosion of the
structural materials due to the nature of the reacting materials/reactions hamper the
development of solid sorption systems on commercial scale. Several successful
attempts have been made to build refrigeration systems that run on solar energy
only. However, several practical problems related to their cost, performance and
reliability hamper the wide-spread use of solar energy driven refrigeration systems.
Ans.: c)
2. In a reflux condenser:
Ans.: a)
Ans.: c)
Ans.: a) and b)
Ans.: b) and c)
Ans.:
⎝h14 m Qe Qe 3.517X100
1 -h13 ⎠ -h12 0.313 kg/ s (Ans.)
1442.3 - 318.7
=
efore
mas
flow
rate
of
weak
soluti
on,
mws
= m1
X X,
1.67
kg/s
(Ans
.)
mas
flow
rate
of
stron ss mss(h (Ans.
(Ans
g Heat 4 - h3) ) .)
(1+X) h12) = at
(Ans.
= 1.43 ) abso
= (h1
kJ/kg c) rber,
1.986 - h14)
(Ans. Qa =
kg/s => h1
) From m1h
(Ans. = h14
Sinc energ 1+m
) + (h11
e y 8h8-
b) - h12)
expa balan m2h2
=
nsion ce: ) =
State 1467.
throu Heat 577.
point 9
gh transf 4 kW
s 1, kJ/kg
expa er (Ans
7,8 (Ans.
nsion rate at .)
and )
valve conde Heat
13: From
ener s is nser, trans
From gy
balan isent Qc = fer
ener ce
acros halpi m10(h rate
gy s
soluti c, 10 - at
bala on
heat hh11) = gene
nce exch
ange =365.5
1.43 rator,
acro r:
kJ/kg
kW Qg =
Ans.)
m10 p . b
Co
h10+ u 7 y mm
ent
m6h m 8 :
s:
6+Q p CQ 35
d- , k Pg 7
]
OQ 1.
7
810.
It
8 c
6 a
m4h4 W =+7
) =W
6 = n
b
W. e
p5
676.5 p S s
(+ e
e
kW y
n
2 th
(Ans. = s
. at
) t c
o
(Ans.) m
e
p
m a
P m r
e
o 2
d
C to
w ( h
O e
e h at
P in
r 3
p
ut
to
i th
i – e
s s
n y
st
p h e
g m
u 2
at
i th
t ) e
v g
e
e n
t = e
n r
o at
or
2 ,
th d g ver
e u m , it
w c at is
or e or po
k d . ssi
in a H ble
p s o to
ut th w an
to e e aly
th re v ze
e q er th
s ui , e
y re th re
st d is ctif
e h c ica
m e a tio
is at n n
al in n pr
m p ot oc
o ut b es
st to e s
n th a to
e e v mi
gl g oi ni
ig e d mi
ib n e ze
le er d th
(l at a e
e or s he
s in re at
s cr ct rej
th e ifi ect
a a c ion
n s at at
0. e io th
5 s n e
p d of de
er u th phl
c e e eg
e to v m
nt h a at
) e p or
811. at o
The re ur
s je is
y ct re
st io q Versio
e n ui n1
m at re ME,
C d d. IIT
O e H Khara
P p o gpur
is hl w 16
re e e
Lesson
18
Refrigeration System
Components:
Compressors
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 1
The objectives of this lesson are to:
812. Discuss basic components of a vapour compression refrigeration
system (Section 18.1)
813. Present classification of refrigerant compressors based on working
principle and based on the arrangement of compressor motor or external
drive (Section 18.2.1)
814. Describe the working principle of reciprocating compressors
(Section 18.3)
815. Discuss the performance aspects of ideal reciprocating compressors
with and without clearance (Section 18.3.1)
18.1. Introduction
A typical refrigeration system consists of several basic components such
as compressors, condensers, expansion devices, evaporators, in addition to
several accessories such as controls, filters, driers, oil separators etc. For
efficient operation of the refrigeration system, it is essential that there be a proper
matching between various components. Before analyzing the balanced
performance of the complete system, it is essential to study the design and
performance characteristics of individual components. Except in special
applications, the refrigeration system components are standard components
manufactured by industries specializing in individual components. Generally for
large systems, depending upon the design specifications, components are
selected from the manufacturers’ catalogs and are assembled at site. Even
though most of the components are standard off-the-shelf items, sometimes
components such as evaporator may be made to order. Small capacity
refrigeration systems such as refrigerators, room and package air conditioners,
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 2
water coolers are available as complete systems. In this case the manufacturer
himself designs or selects the system components, assembles them at the
factory, tests them for performance and then sells the complete system as a unit.
18.2. Compressors
A compressor is the most important and often the costliest component
(typically 30 to 40 percent of total cost) of any vapour compression refrigeration
system (VCRS). The function of a compressor in a VCRS is to continuously draw
the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator, so that a low pressure and low
temperature can be maintained in the evaporator at which the refrigerant can boil
extracting heat from the refrigerated space. The compressor then has to raise the
pressure of the refrigerant to a level at which it can condense by rejecting heat to
the cooling medium in the condenser.
i. Reciprocating type
ii. Rotary type with sliding vanes (rolling piston type or multiple vane type)
iii. Rotary screw type (single screw or twin-screw type)
iv. Orbital compressors, and
v. Acoustic compressors
i. Open type
ii. Hermetic (or sealed) type
iii. Semi-hermetic (or semi-sealed) type
In some (usually larger) hermetic units, the cylinder head is usually removable
so that the valves and the piston can be serviced. This type of unit is called a
semi-hermetic (or semi-sealed) compressor.
The valves used are of reed or plate type, which are either floating or
clamped. Usually, backstops are provided to limit the valve displacement and
springs may be provided for smooth return after opening or closing. The piston
speed is decided by valve type. Too high a speed will give excessive vapor
velocities that will decrease the volumetric efficiency and the throttling loss will
decrease the compression efficiency.
825. The mass flow rate (m) of the compressor for a given displacement rate
826. Power consumption of the compressor (Wc)
827. Temperature of the refrigerant at compressor exit, Td, and
828. Performance under part load conditions
For a given evaporator and condenser temperatures, one can also use the
volumetric refrigeration capacity (kW/m 3) to indicate the volumetric efficiency of
the compressor. The actual volumetric efficiency (or volumetric capacity) of the
compressor depends on the operating conditions and the design of the
compressor.
The power consumption (kW) or alternately the power input per unit
refrigeration capacity (kW/kW) depends on the compressor efficiency (r|C),
efficiency of the mechanical drive (r|mech) and the motor efficiency (r|motor). For a
refrigerant compressor, the power input (W c) is given by:
i. The clearance volume is zero, i.e., at the end of discharge process, the
volume of refrigerant inside the cylinder is zero. ii. No pressure
drops during suction and compression iii. Suction, compression and
discharge are reversible and adiabatic
(0,0)
IDC ODC
Since the clearance volume is zero for an ideal compressor, no gas is left
in the compressor at the end of the discharge stroke, as a result the suction
process D-A starts as soon as the piston starts moving again towards ODC. The
volumetric flow rate of refrigerant at suction conditions is equal to the compressor
displacement rate hence, the volumetric efficiency of the ideal compressor is 100
percent. The mass flow rate of refrigerant of an ideal compressor is given by:
m= ve
SW (18.3)
V
7rD2
VSW=nN------L (18.4)
where n = Number of cylinders
N = Rotational speed of compressor, revolutions per second
D = Bore of the cylinder, m L = Stroke length, m
The total work input to the compressor in one cycle is given by:
W id W D-A W A-B WB-C ( 1 8.5)
Where,
WD-A = Work done by the refrigerant on the piston during process D-A
= Area under line D-A on P-V diagram = -PeVA WA-B = Work
done by the piston on refrigerant during compression A-B
V = Area
B
WB-C = Work done by the piston on the refrigerant during discharge B-C =
Area under line B-C = Pc.VB
VB Pc
.-. Wid = -PeVA + JP.dV + PcVB = Area A-B-C-D on P-V diagram = j V.dP
VA Pe
Thus the work input to the ideal compressor per cycle is equal to the area
of the cycle on P-V diagram.
The specific work input, wid (kJ/kg) to the ideal compressor is given by:
where Mr is the mass of refrigerant compressed in one cycle and v is the specific
volume of the refrigerant.
Thus the power input to the compressor and its mean effective pressure
can be obtained from the above equation if the relation between v and P during
the compression process A-B is known. The above equation is valid for both
isentropic and non-isentropic compression processes, however, the compression
process must be reversible, as the path of the process should be known for the
integration to be performed.
For the isentropic process, Pvk = constant, hence the specific work of
compression wid can be obtained by integration, and it can be shown to be equal
to:
k-1
wid = Pc v.dP = k
P ev k v1y
(18.9)
Pe v Pey
The work of compression for the ideal compressor can also be obtained by
applying energy balance across the compressor, Fig.18.3. Since the process is
assumed to be reversible and adiabatic and if we assume changes in potential
and kinetic energy to be negligible, then from energy balance across the
compressor:
wid=c=(hc-hj (18.10)
m
The above expression can also be obtained from the thermodynamic relation: Tds
E
n
e
r
g
y
b
a
l
a
n
c
e
a
c
r
o
s
s
s
t
e
a
d
y
f
l
o
w
c
o
m
p
r rule,
e the
s cleara
s nce C
o in
r millim
etres
b) is
Ideal given
compr by:
essor
(
with
cleara This
nce: space
along
I with
n all
actual other
compr space
essors s
, a betwe
small
en the
cleara
closed
nce is
valves
left
and
betwe
the
en the
piston
cylind
at the
er
inner
head
dead
and
center
piston
(IDC)
to
is
accom
called
modat
as
e the
Cleara
valves
nce
and to
volum
take
care e, Vc.
of The
therm ratio
al of the
expan cleara
sion nce
and volum
machi e to
ning the
tolera swept
nces. volum
As a e is
thumb called
as
Cleara howev
nce er, it
ratio, can
ε, i.e., be
(18.13)
V higher
V for
c
higher
ε piston
=
S speed
W s.
T D
he ue to
cleara the
nce prese
ratio s nce of
depen the
ds on cleara
the nce
arrang volum
ement e, at
of the the
valves end of
in the the
cylind discha
er and rge
the stroke,
mean some
piston amou
velocit nt of
y. refrige
rant at
Norm
the
ally s
discha
is less
rge
than 5
pressu
perce re Pc
nt for will be
well left in
desig the
ned cleara
compr nce
essor volum
s with e. As
moder a
ate result,
piston suctio
velocit n does
ies (« not
3 begin
m/s), as
soon cleara
as the nce.
piston This
starts implie
movin s that
g even
away thoug
from h the
the compr
IDC, essor
since swept
the volum
press e,
ure VSW =
inside VA-VC,
the the
cylind actual
er is volum
higher e of
than the
the refrige
suctio rant
n that
press entere
ure d the
(Pc > cylind
Pe). As er
shown during
in Fig. suctio
18.4, n
suctio stroke
n is VA-
starts VD. As
only a
when result,
the the
press volum
ure etric
inside efficie
the ncy of
cylind the
er falls compr
to the essor
suctio with
n cleara
press nce,
ure in rjV,cl is
an less
ideal than
compr 100
essor perce
with nt, i.e.,
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
11
VA - VC Actual volume of refrigerant compressed f VA - VD
IV,cl (18.14
Swept volume of the compressor )
C B
<
t
Fig.18.4.
Ideal
reciprocating
compressor
with
clearance
Fr
o
m
Fi
g.
18
.4,
th
e
cl
ea
ra
nc
e
vo
lu
m
etr
ic
eff
ici
en
cy
ca
n
be
wr
itt
en
as
:
lc
Vl -V (
,
+ (
( 1 5 18.16)
Dv
VC j V C j
(18.18)
vC
Hence, the clearance volumetric efficiency is given
by:
The above expression holds good for any reversible compression process
with clearance. If the process is not reversible, adiabatic (i.e., non-isentropic) but
a reversible polytropic process with an index of compression and expansion
equal to n, then k in the above equation has to be replaced by n, i.e., in general
for any reversible compression process;
Pc llVcl= 1 + 1/ n 22)
S- 1/ n
= 1- -1 (18.
V e
The above expression shows that r| V,cl ^ as rpt and st as shown in Fig.18.5. It can
also be seen that for a given compressor with fixed clearance ratio s, there is a
limiting pressure ratio at which the clearance volumetric efficiency becomes zero.
This limiting pressure ratio is obtained from the equation:
S
[rp1 n _1j= 0
V,cl _s
ilVcl= 1 [rp (18.23)
1+6
p,max
L B J
The specific work with and without clearance will be given by the same
expression:
Pr n-1
Pv
Pee e
n
wid = c v.dP n
n- Vn1 -1 (18.2
= P ev Pey
v 5)
y
However, since the mass of refrigerant compressed during one cycle is different
with and without clearance, the power input to the compressor will be different
with and without clearance. The power input to the compressor and mean
effective pressure (mep) with clearance are given by:
Wc mw VS w (18.
id id
W 26)
Tl
V,cl ~e
I
f the
proces
s is
reversi
ble
and
adiaba
tic
(i.e., n
= k),
then
the
power
input
to the
compr
essor
with
cleara
nce is
given
by:
V
SW J SW
(h -hA) = V
V
r| B
W = V,cl
r) ve \
c
= B A
. . \ V,cl
v (1
V 8. Rotary type
A
J hc 2
8) vane compr
s
compr essor:
where
Ahc,s is a.
essor
the
isentrop b.
ic work
of Rotary
screw Offers
compre
ssion type
compr higher
(kJ/kg)
essor
c. efficie
Quest
Centrif ncy
ions ugal b.
compr
and essor Offers
d. lower
answ noise
Acous c.
ers: tic
compr Offers
1. essor better
compr
Ans.: essor
coolin
Which c) g
d.
of the 2.
Offers
followin servic
eability
g is not Comp and
flexibili
positive ared ty
displace to a Ans.:
3.
compre compr
ssor? essor,
an Herme
a.
open tic
Versio
compre n1
ME,
ssors IIT
Khara
are gpur
16
used
mainly
in
smaller
systems
as they:
a. Yield
higher
COP
b. Do
not
require
frequen
t
servicin
g
c. Offer
the
flexibilit
y of
using
any
refriger
ant
d. Can
be used
under
different
load
conditio
ns
efficient
ly
Ans.:
b)
4. In reciprocating compressors, clearance is provided:
Ans.: b) and c)
Ans.: d)
Ans.: Given:
When all other parameters are same except the capacity, then:
where Qe is the refrigeration capacity, mr is the refrigerant mass flow rate and r|v is
the clearance volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
substituting the values of pressure ratio, index of compression and the clearance
factor of 2.5 kW compressor in the above expression, we obtain:
Ans.: Given:
c
-1
Y 1 Td = c VPey y-1
U-
RT
wc = y-1
= 343.45 kJ/kg
c) COP:
COP = e = 6.86
wc
d) Volumic refrigeration effect, qv:
qv = = 15.4 kJ/m
^v
Ans.: Given:
Wc = mr.wc
r
Qe ^________
mr =--------- =0.328 kg /s
^h1 -h4 J
Substitutin
g these
values, we
find that
the power
input to the
compresso
r is given
by:
Wc =
134.35 kW
b) COP
and
second
law
efficiency
Qe
COP = —
= 2.618
Wc
Second
law
efficiency,
rm:
Tl =----------------------- CO T
II COP 0
Carnot P
c)
Dis
cha
rge
tem
per
atur
e,
Td:
. 2 = The
o V actu me
0 al
T y-1 n s
. volu Vsw,
d P 6 metri
c =s w c we
= 4 8
v 8 flow
P 3, rate obtai
2. 5
e of
y 7 i refrig n:
K erant
L s at
d com
pres
) sor
a g inlet,
Ve is
n i give
C n by:
d v
o RT
e 3
m =mr.— = 0.4293m /s
D n P
p
Subs
r
S b tituti
e
w y ng
s Versi
e : thes on 1
s ME,
e IIT
= D L.N.np = 4D . Khar
o
0.N. agpu
t n= valu
r e
r 20
4
T(v es in
v The the
d volu
o metri expr
i c
l effici essi
m ency
u riv is on
e give
m n by: for
n
e P swe
s r c-
(
, V1 pt
v
i P
e volu
= y
Lesson
19
Performance Of
Reciprocating
Compressors
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 1
The specific objectives of this lecture are to:
1. Discuss the performance aspects of ideal reciprocating compressors with
clearance, specifically:
2. Discuss the effects of heat transfer, pressure drops and refrigerant leakage
on performance of actual compressors
3 2” 2’ 2
P
Pc
Pe,1 1’ 1”
Pe,2 Pe,3
V4’
VC V4 V4” VA V
Fig.19.1. P-V diagram for different evaporator pressures and a fixed
condenser pressure
V,cl
Te---------►
Qe =m.qe (19.3)
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 4
2”
P &s-
h
Fig.19.3(a): Effect of evaporator temperature on refrigeration effect on
P-h diagram
Qe
qe Te
Wc = m.Δh c (19.4)
Tc = Constant Te Wc
Δhc Te=Te,lim
Te=Tc
TlVcl.VSW
,
ve
V= =— (19.6)
Qe qe
i. \
COP \V
V (m3/kW.s)
COP
Te *
Fig.19.5: Effect of evaporator temperature on COP and volume flow rate per
unit capacity (V)
^^-^^ \
^-\ \
^\ ^N.
\ \
I
V,cl
\
\
\
\
m N. \
\ \
\ \
\ \
Tc
Qe
I
qe
Tc
Fig.19.7. Effect of condenser temperature on refrigeration effect and
refrigeration capacity
I
Te =
W c Constant
Δh
J
Tc
----------►
Tc
COP
1
Fig.19.9: Effect of condensing temperature on COP and volume flow rate
per unit capacity (V)
The above discussion shows that the performance of the system
degrades as the evaporator temperature decreases and condensing
temperature increases, i.e., the temperature lift increases. This is in line with
the effect of these temperatures on reverse Carnot refrigeration system. It is
seen that compared to the condensing temperature, the effect of evaporator
temperature is quiet significant. When the heat sink temperature does not
vary too much then the effect of condensing temperature may not be
significant.
/ /
/
NH3
/ /
R 22 R 12
Td
(Pc/Pe)
Heat transfer from the cylinder walls and piston to the refrigerant vapour
takes place during the suction stroke and heat transfer from the refrigerant to
the surroundings takes place at the end of the compression. In hermetic
compressors additional heat transfer from the motor winding to refrigerant
takes place. The effect of this heat transfer is to increase the temperature of
refrigerant, thereby increasing the specific volume. This in general results in
reduced volumetric efficiency and hence reduced refrigerant mass flow rate
and refrigeration capacity. The extent of reduction in mass flow rate and
refrigeration capacity depends on the pressure ratio, compressor speed and
compressor design. As seen before, the discharge temperature and hence the
temperature of the cylinder and piston walls increase with pressure ratio. As
the compressor speed increases the heat transfer rate from the compressor to
the surroundings reduces, which may result in higher refrigerant temperature.
Finally, the type of external cooling provided and compressor design also
affects the performance as it influences the temperature of the compressor.
Even though the pressure drop across the discharge valve is not as
critical as the pressure drop across suction valve, it still affects the
compressor performance in a negative manner.
The net effect of pressure drops across the valves is to reduce the
refrigeration capacity of the system and increase power input. The pressure
drops also affect the discharge temperature and compressor cooling in an
adverse manner.
Ps
V *
Fig.19.11: Effects of suction and discharge side pressure drops on P-V
diagram of a reciprocating compressor
In general,
ηV,act=ηV,th Ts -ξL (1910) T sc
where ηv,th = Theoretical volumetric efficiency obtained from P-V diagram
Ts = Temperature of vapour at suction flange, K
Tsc = Temperature of vapour at the beginning of compression, K
ξL = Leakage loss (fraction or percentage)
where A, B and C are empirical constants to be obtained from actual test data
and rp is the pressure ratio.
Since heat transfer rate and leakage losses reduce and pressure drops
increase with increase in refrigerant velocity, the actual volumetric efficiency
reaches a maximum at a certain optimum speed. An approximate relation for
optimum speed as suggested by Prof. Gustav Lorentzen is:
where Vopt is the optimum velocity of the refrigerant through the valve port in
m/s and M is the molecular weight of the refrigerant in kg/kmol. This relation
suggests that higher the molecular weight of the refrigerant lower is the
optimum refrigerant velocity.
Compressor
V"—~<-
Evaporator
Exp. device
In addition to the above, the nature of the refrigerant used, type and
design of the compressor, evaporator and compressor discharge
temperatures have to be considered while selecting suitable lubricating oils.
The oil should not undergo any chemical changes for many years of
operation. This aspect is especially critical in hermetic compressor where, oil
is not supposed to be changed for ten years or more. Since the discharge
temperature is normally high in these compressors, the oil should not
decompose even under very high temperatures. The chemical stability of the
oil is inversely proportional to the number of unsaturated hydrocarbons
present in the oil. For refrigerant compressors, oils with low percentage of
unsaturated hydrocarbons are desirable.
The pour point of the oil may be defined as the lowest temperature at
which the oil can flow or pour, when tested under specific conditions. The pour
point is important for systems working at low evaporator temperatures. The
pour point depends upon the wax content, higher the wax content, higher will
be the pour point. Hence, for low temperature applications oils with low wax
content should be used, otherwise the oil may solidify inside the evaporator
tubes affecting the system performance and life of the compressor. The
temperature at which the wax in the oil begins to precipitate is called as the
cloud point. The floc point of the oil is the temperature at which wax will start
to precipitate from a mixture of 90% R 12 and 10% oil by volume. In case of
refrigerants such as R 12, viscosity of oil is reduced, as the refrigerant is
soluble in oil. The floc point of the oil is a measure of the tendency of the oil to
separate wax when mixed with an oil-soluble refrigerant. Hence it is an
important parameter to be considered while selecting lubricating oils for these
refrigerants. Since the tendency for wax to separate increases with amount of
oil in refrigerant, the concentration of oil in refrigerant should normally be kept
below 10 percent with these refrigerants. Floc point is not important in case of
refrigerants that are not soluble in oil (e.g. ammonia).
Both mineral oils as well as synthetic oils have been used as lubricating
oils in refrigeration. The mineral oils have to be refined to improve their
chemical stability and reduce their pour and/or floc points. Synthetic oils have
been developed to provide high chemical stability, good lubricity, good
refrigerant solubility, lower pour/floc points and required viscosity.
Lubrication can be either splash type or force feed type. Normally small
compressors (upto 10 kW input) are splash lubricated. Larger compressors
use forced feed type lubrication. In splash type lubrication, the compressor
crankcase which acts as an oil sump is filled with oil to a certain level. As the
crankshaft rotates, the connecting rod and crankshaft dip into the oil sump
causing the oil to be splashed on the rubbing surfaces. In some compressors,
small scoops or dippers are attached to the connecting rod, which pick the oil
and throws it onto the rubbing surfaces. In small, high-speed compressors,
flooded type splash lubrication is used. In these modified type, slinger rings
are screws are used for lifting the oil above crankshaft or main bearings, from
where the oil floods over the rubbing surfaces. This prevents excessive oil
carryover due to violent splashing in high-speed compressors.
Ans. b)
858. The initial refrigerant mass flow rate is high and work of
compression is low
859. The initial refrigerant mass flow rate is low and work of
compression is high
860. Both the mass flow rate and work of compression are high in the
initial period
861. None of the above
Ans. a)
refrigerants
863. The boiling point of ammonia is high
864. The critical temperature of ammonia is high
865. The index of compression of ammonia is high
Ans. d)
Ans. e)
Ans. a) and c)
Ans. b) and c)
Ans. a) and c)
Ans. a) and c)
b) COP
Ans:
Ts ,. (273.15 + 32)
V,act =TlV,th T sc
r|V act =r|V th—£L =0.85
--------------------0.04 = 0.77
(273.15 + 32 + 15)
-4
m3/s
Required compressor displacement rate, VSW = Vr/riV,act =
1.7693 X 10-4/0.77
=
2.29
8X
10
VSW=n *D2L =n
f
N^
4 V60y 4 V60,
b) COP:
0.12 kW
892. Explain with schematics the working principles of rotary fixed and
multiple vane type compressors, single- and twin-screw type compressors
and scroll compressors.
893. Explain the performance characteristics, advantages and applications
of rotary, positive displacement type compressors.
Fixed vane
suction
Cylinder
block
Roller
F
i
g
.2
0.
1:
W
o
rk
in
g
p
ri
n
ci
pl
e
of
a
r
ol
li
n
g
pi
st
o
n
ty
p
e
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
o
r
As
shown in
Fig.20.1,
this type
of
compres
sor does
not
require a
suction
valve but
requires
a
discharg
e valve.
The
sealing
between
the high
and low
pressure
sides has
to be
provided:
- Al
ong
the
line of
conta
ct
betwe
en
roller
and
cylind
er
block
- Al
ong
the
line of
conta
ct
betwe
en
vane
and
roller,
and
- be
tween
the
roller
and
end-
pates
The
leakage
is
controlle
d
through
hydrodyn
amic
sealing
and
matching
between
the
mating
compone
nts. The
effective
ness of
the
sealing
depends
on the
clearanc
e,
compres
sor
speed,
surface
finish
and oil
viscosity.
Close
tolerance
s and
good
surface
finishing
is
required
to
minimize
internal
leakage.
U
nlike in
reciproca
ting
compres
sors, the
small
clearanc
e volume
filled with
high-
pressure
refrigera
nt does
not
expand,
but
simply
mixes
with the
suction
refrigera
nt in the
suction
space.
As a
result,
the
volumetri
c
efficiency
does not
reduce
drasticall
y with
increasin
g
pressure
ratio,
indicatin
g small
re-
expansio
n losses.
The
compres
sor runs
smoothly
and is
relatively
quiet as
the
refrigera
nt flow is
continuo
us.
Version 1
ME, IIT
Kharagpur
3
The mass flow rate of refrigerant through the compressor is given by:
7t__V m=TiV
N VSW ve
(A -B )L (20.1)
Vve j
V60y
Since no centrifugal force is present when the compressor is off, the multiple
vanes will not be pressed against the cylinder walls during the off-period. As a result,
Sliding vanes
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 5 Fig.20.2: Working
As shown in Fig.20.5, the flow is mainly in the axial direction. Suction and
compression take place as the rotors unmesh and mesh. When one lobe-gully
combination begins to unmesh the opposite lobe-gully combination begins to mesh.
With 4 male lobes rotating at 3600 RPM, 4 interlobe volumes are per revolution, thus
giving 4 X 3600 = 14400 discharges per minute.
rp = d =Vb (20.3)
Where Pd and Ps are the discharge and suction pressures, Vb is the built-in
volume ratio and k is the index of compression.
If the built-in pressure at the end of compression is less than the condensing
pressure, high pressure refrigerant from discharge manifold flows back into the
interlobe space when the discharge port is uncovered. This is called as under-
compression. On the other hand, if the built-in pressure at the end of compression is
higher than the condensing pressure, then the compressed refrigerant rushes out in
an unrestrained expansion as soon as the port is uncovered (over-compression).
Both under-compression and over-compression are undesirable as they lead to loss
in efficiency.
The capacity of the screw compressor is normally controlled with the help of a
slide valve. As the slide valve is opened, some amount of suction refrigerant escapes
to the suction side without being compressed. This yields a smooth capacity control
from 100 percent down to 10 percent of full load. It is observed that the power input is
approximately proportional to refrigeration capacity upto about 30 percent, however,
the efficiency decreases rapidly, there after.
As the rotor normally rotates at high speeds, screw compressors can handle
fairly large amounts of refrigerant flow rates compared to other positive displacement
type compressors. Screw compressors are available in the capacity range of 70 to
4600 kW. They generally compete with high capacity reciprocating compressors and
low capacity centrifugal compressors. They are available for a wide variety of
refrigerants and applications. Compared to reciprocating compressors, screw
compressors are balanced and hence do not suffer from vibration problems.
(Pd/Ps) »
Twin-screw compressors are rugged and are shown to be more reliable than
reciprocating compressors; they are shown to run for 30000 - 40000 hours between
major overhauls. They are compact compared to reciprocating compressors in the
high capacity range.
The single screw is normally driven by an electric motor. The gate rotors are
normally made of plastic materials. Very small power is required to rotate the gate
rotors as the frictional losses between the metallic screw and the plastic gate rotors
is very small. It is also possible to design the compressors with a single gate rotor.
Similar to twin-screw, lubrication, sealing and compressor cooling is achieved by
injecting lubricating oil into the compressor. An oil separator, oil cooler and pump are
required to circulate the lubricating oil. It is also possible to achieve this by injecting
liquid refrigerant, in which case there is no need for an oil separator.
W
o
r
k
i
n
g
p
r
i
n
c
i
p
l
e
o
f
s
i
n
g
l
e
-
s
c
r
e
w
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
o
r
20.5. compressor
s. As shown
Scroll in Fig.20.8,
comp the
resso compressio
n process
rs: involves
three orbits
S
of the
croll
orbiting
compre
scroll. In the
ssors
first orbit,
are
the scrolls
orbital
ingest and
motion,
trap two
positive
pockets of
displac
suction gas.
ement
During the
type
second
compre
orbit, the
ssors,
two pockets
in
of gas are
which
compressed
suction
to an
and
intermediate
compre
pressure. In
ssion is
the final
obtaine
orbit, the
d by
two pockets
using
reach
two
discharge
mating,
pressure
spiral
and are
shaped,
simultaneou
scroll
sly opened
membe
to the
rs, one
discharge
fixed
port. This
and the
simultaneou
other
s process of
orbiting.
suction,
Figure
intermediate
20.8
compressio
shows
n, and
the
discharge
working
leads to the
principl
smooth
e of
continuous
scroll
compressio
compre
n process of
ssors.
the scroll
Figures
compressor.
20.9
One part
and
that is not
20.10
shown in
show
this diagram
the
but is
constru
essential to
ctional
the
details
operation of
of scroll
the by a base
scroll is plate at the
the other end.
anti- They are
rotation fitted to form
couplin pockets of
g. This refrigerant
device between
maintai their
ns a respective
fixed base plates
angular and various
relation lines of
of 180 contacts
degree between the
s scroll walls.
betwee Compressor
n the capacity is
fixed normally
and controlled
orbiting by variable
scrolls. speed
This inverter
fixed drives.
angular
relation,
coupled
with the
movem Version 1
ent of ME, IIT
the Kharagpur
orbiting 10
scroll,
is the
basis
for the
formati
on of
gas
compre
ssion
pockets
.
A
s
shown
in
Figs.20.
9 and
20.10,
each
scroll
membe
r is
open at
one
end
and
bound
Fig.20.8: Working principle of a scroll compressor
894. Large suction and discharge ports reduce pressure losses during
suction and discharge
896. Volumetric efficiency is also high due to very low re-expansion losses
and continuous flow over a wide range of operating conditions
900. These compressors are used in small capacity systems (less than 2 kW)
901. They require suction valve, but do not require discharge valve
902. Refrigerant leakage is minimized by hydrodynamic lubrication
d) Compared to reciprocating compressors, the re-expansion losses are high in
rotary vane compressor
Ans.: a) and c)
903. Compared to fixed vane compressors, the leakage losses are less in multiple
vane compressors
904. Multiple vane compressors do not require suction and discharge valves
905. A non-return, check valve is used on suction side of the compressor to
minimize cycling losses
906. All of the above
Ans.: d)
Ans.: c)
4. For a twin-screw type compressors with 5 male lobes and a rotational speed of
3000 RPM, the number of discharges per minute are:
911. 600
912. 15000
913. 1200
914. 3000
Ans.: b)
Ans.: b)
Ans.: a)
923. The capacity of a screw compressor can be varied over a large range by using
the slide valve
924. Compared to reciprocating compressors, screw compressors are compact for
small capacities and bulky for large capacities
925. An oil separator and an oil cooler are required in a screw compressor
irrespective of the type of refrigerant used
926. Vibration is one of the practical problems in operating screw compressors
Ans.: a) and c)
Ans.: c)
Ans.: e)
21.1. Introduction:
Centrifugal compressors; also known as turbo-compressors belong to the
roto-dynamic type of compressors. In these compressors the required pressure
rise takes place due to the continuous conversion of angular momentum
imparted to the refrigerant vapour by a high-speed impeller into static pressure.
Unlike reciprocating compressors, centrifugal compressors are steady-flow
devices hence they are subjected to less vibration and noise.
The gain in momentum is due to the transfer of momentum from the high-
speed impeller blades to the refrigerant confined between the blade passages.
The increase in static pressure is due to the self-compression caused by the
centrifugal action. This is analogous to the gravitational effect, which causes the
fluid at a higher level to press the fluid below it due to gravity (or its weight). The
static pressure produced in the impeller is equal to the static head, which would
be produced by an equivalent gravitational column. If we assume the impeller
blades to be radial and the inlet diameter of the impeller to be small, then the
static head, h developed in the impeller passage for a single stage is given by:
h=V (21.1)
g
Hence increase in total pressure, AP as the refrigerant flows through the passage
is given by:
AP = pgh = pV (21.2)
Thus it can be seen that for a given refrigerant with a fixed density, the
pressure rise depends only on the peripheral velocity or tip speed of the blade.
The tip speed of the blade is proportional to the rotational speed (RPM) of the
impeller and the impeller diameter. The maximum permissible tip speed is limited
by the strength of the structural materials of the blade (usually made of high
speed chrome-nickel steel) and the sonic velocity of the refrigerant. Under these
limitations, the maximum achievable pressure rise (hence maximum achievable
temperature lift) of single stage centrifugal compressor is limited for a given
refrigerant. Hence, multistage centrifugal compressors are used for large
temperature lift applications. In multistage centrifugal compressors, the discharge
of the lower stage compressor is fed to the inlet of the next stage compressor
and so on. In multistage centrifugal compressors, the impeller diameter of all
stages remains same, but the width of the impeller becomes progressively
narrower in the direction of flow as refrigerant density increases progressively.
Neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energy, the above equation becomes:
Pe
wc,isen = (he - hi )isen = ∫ vdp| isen (21.7)
Thus the expression for reversible, isentropic work of compression is same for
both reciprocating as well as centrifugal compressors. However, the basic
difference between actual reciprocating compressors and actual centrifugal
compressors lies in the source of irreversibility.
Q
Wc
where wpol and wact are the polytropic and actual works of compression,
respectively.
n Pe v n-1y n-1 n _1
Pivi wpol = J vdP = f rPe
Pi (21.9)
^ Pi
7 ^Ipol vn-1y
V J (21.10)
Though refrigerant vapours do not strictly behave as ideal gases, the above
simple equation is often used to obtain the polytropic efficiency of the centrifugal
compressors by replacing y by isentropic index of compression, k, i.e., for actual
refrigerants the polytropic efficiency is estimated from the equation:
k-1 Tlpol —
n ^n-1y
(21.11)
When the refrigerant velocities are high, then the change in kinetic energy
across the compressor can be considerable. In such cases, these terms have to
be included in the steady flow energy equation. If the heat transfer rate is
negligible and change in kinetic energy is considerable, then the rate of work
input to the compressor is given by:
where ht,e and ht,i are the total or stagnation enthalpies at the exit and inlet to the
compressor, respectively. The stagnation enthalpy of the refrigerant h t is given
by:
V2
ht =h+ (21.13)
2
where h is the specific enthalpy of the refrigerant and V is its velocity. Similar to
stagnation enthalpy, one can also define stagnation temperature and stagnation
pressure. The stagnation pressure Pt is defined as the pressure developed as the
refrigerant is decelerated reversibly and adiabatically from velocity V to rest.
Then from energy balance,
V2 Pt
2 ∫vdp isen =ht-h = (21.14)
P
1 V
Pt=P +-------- (21.18)
2 v
Figure 21.3 shows the velocity diagram at the outlet of the impeller. The
torque required to rotate the impeller is equal to the rate of change of the angular
momentum of the refrigerant. Assuming the refrigerant to enter the impeller blade
passage radially with no tangential component at inlet, the torque τ is given by:
τ = mr2Vt,2 (21.19)
where u2 is the tip speed of the impeller blade = ω.r2. ω is the rotational speed in
radians/s and r2 is the impeller blade radius.
1
cotpn,2 2
cotp=u
u 2
Vt,2 = u2 Vn,2 (21.21)
Hence the power input to the impeller, W is given by:
1 2
n,2
mu
cotp
u
(21.22)
2 2 W = mu2Vt 2 =
Thus the power input to the compressor depends on the blade angle p.
The blade angle will be less than 90o for backward curved blade, equal to 90o
for radial blades and greater than 90o for forward curved blade. Thus for a given
impeller tip speed, the power input increases with the blade angle p.
If the blades are radial, then the power input is given by:
If the compression process is reversible and adiabatic, then power input can also
cotp
be written as:
W= mu2 1 n,2 mu2 ; for p = 90o (21.23)
u2
k-1
k e^
P Pe
ik
=
V
Psen
Piy
j"vdP|
k-1
ivi = (cor2)2
(21.26)
Thus from the above equation, the pressure ratio, rp = (Pe/Pi) can be written as:
For example, for a single stage saturated cycle operating between an evaporator
temperature of 0oC and a condensing temperature of 32oC, the required tip
speed [Vt,2 = (he-hi)isen1/2) will be 145.6 m/s in case of R134a and 386 m/s in
case of ammonia. If the impeller rotates at 50 rps, then the required impeller
radius would be 0.4635m in case of R 134a and 1.229m in case of ammonia. In
general smaller tip speeds and impeller size could be obtained with higher
normal boiling point refrigerants. This is the reason behind the wide spread use
of R 11 (NBP = 23.7oC) in centrifugal compressors prior to its ban.
Similar type of analyses can be carried out for other types of blades (i.e.,
forward or backward) and also with a pre-rotation at impeller inlet (i.e., Vt,1 ^ 0).
However, the actual analyses can be quite complicated if one includes the pre-
rotation guide vanes, slip between the refrigerant and impeller blades etc.
In actual compressors, the angle at which fluid leaves the impeller P’ will
be different from the blade angle p. This is attributed to the internal circulation of
refrigerant in the flow passages between the impeller blades. As the refrigerant
flows outwards along a rotating radius, a pressure gradient is developed across
the flow passage due to the Coriolis component of acceleration. Due to this
pressure difference, eddies form in the flow channels as shown in Fig.21.4. As
shown, these eddies rotate in a direction opposite to that of the impeller, as a
result the actual angle P’ at which the refrigerant leaves the impeller will be less
than the blade angle p. Due to this, the tangential component of velocity Vt,2
reduces, which in turn reduces the pressure rise and also the volumetric flow rate
of refrigerant. The ratio of actual tangential velocity component (Vt, act) to the
tangential component without eddy formation (V t,2) is known as slip factor. The
slip factor can be increased by increasing the number of blades (i.e., by
decreasing the area of individual flow passages), however, after a certain number
of blades, the efficiency drops due increased frictional losses. Hence, the number
of blades are normally optimized considering the slip factor and frictional losses.
Fig.
21.4
:
For
mati
on
of
eddi
es
in a
bac
kwa
rd
curv
ed
cent
rifug
al
com
pres
sor
21.4.
Refri
gera
nt
capa
city
of
centr
ifuga
l
com
pres
sors:
T
he
refrige
rant
capaci
ty of a
centrif
ugal
compr
essor
depen
ds
primari
ly on
the tip
speed
and
width
of the
impell
er. For
a
given
set of
conde
nser
and
evapor
ator
tempe
rature
s the
requir
ed
pressu
re rise
across
the
compr
essor
remain
s
same
for all
capaci
ties,
large
and
small.
Since
the
pressu
re rise
depen
ds on
the
impell
er
diamet
er,
numbe
r of
impell
ers
and
rotatio
nal
speed
of the
impell
er,
these
param
eters
must
remain
same
for all
compr
essors
of all
capaci
ties
operati
ng
betwe
en the
same
conde
nser
and
evapor
ator
tempe
rature
s.
The mass flow rate through a centrifugal compressor can be written as:
(21.28)
Vn,2Af,p m=
v2
where
V
n
,
2
N
o
r
m
a
l
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
o
f
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
a
t
t
h
e
e
x
i
t
A
f
,
p
F
l
o
w
a
r
e
a
a
t
t
h
e
p
e
r
i
p
h
e
r
y
v
2
S
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
v
o
l
u
m
e
o
f
t
h
e
r
e
f
r
i
g
e
r
a
n
t
a
t
t
h
e
p
e
r
i
p
h
e
r
y
F
or a
given
blade
diamet
er, the
flow
area
at the
periph
ery
depen
ds on
the
numbe
r of
blades
and
the
width
of the
blade.
If the
numbe
r of
blades
is
fixed,
then
the
flow
area
depen
ds
only
on the
width
of the
impell
er.
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
13
Hence, one way to design the compressors for different refrigerant
capacities is by controlling the width of the impeller (Fig.21.5). To design the
compressor for smaller refrigerant capacity, one has to reduce the width of the
impeller. However, as the width of the impeller is reduced frictional losses
between the refrigerant and impeller blades increase leading to lower efficiency.
Of course another alternative is to reduce both diameter and width of the impeller
simultaneously, thereby the frictional losses can be reduced. However, since this
reduces the pressure rise across a single impeller, one has to increase the
number of stages, which leads to higher manufacturing costs. This puts a lower
limit on the refrigerant capacity of centrifugal compressors. In practice, the lower
volumetric flow rate is limited to about 0.7 m 3/s and the minimum refrigeration
capacities are around 300 kW for air conditioning applications. Since the
compressor works more efficiently at higher volumetric flow rates, refrigerants
having lower densities (i.e., higher normal boiling points) such as R 11, water are
ideal refrigerants for centrifugal compressors. However, centrifugal compressors
in larger capacities are available for a wide range of refrigerants, both synthetic
and natural.
90o
(open)
Flow rate
Fig.21.6: Effect of angle of pre-rotation vanes on capacity of a centrifugal
compressor
In addition to the inlet guide vanes, the capacity control is also possible by
adjusting the width of a vaneless diffuser or by adjusting the guide vanes of
vaned diffusers. Using a combination of the inlet guide vanes and diffuser, the
capacities can be varied from 10 percent to 100 percent of full load capacity.
Performance
''without losses
Design
Eddy losses
point Net performa curve
frictional losses
"shock losses at
inlet
Pressure
Volume *
Figures 21.8(a) and (b) show the effect of condensing and evaporating
temperatures on the performance of centrifugal compressors and reciprocating
compressors. It can be seen from these figures that beyond a certain condenser
pressure and below a certain evaporator pressure, the refrigerant capacity of
centrifugal compressor decreases rapidly unlike reciprocating compressors
where the capacity drop under these conditions is more gradual. However, one
advantage with centrifugal compressor is that when operated away from the
surge point, the reduction in evaporator temperature with refrigeration load is
smaller compared to the reciprocating compressor. This implies that the
evaporator temperature of the refrigeration system using a centrifugal
compressor remains almost constant over wide variation of refrigeration loads.
Centrifugal
Reciprocating
Reciprocating
Reciprocating
Compressor power
Condensing Temperature
Reciprocating Centrifugal
Centrifugal
% Qe % Wc
% speed % speed
Fi
g.
21.
11:
Pe
rfo
rm
an
ce
ch
ara
cte
rist
ics
of
a
ce
ntri
fug
al
co
mp
res
sor
wit
h
ba
ck
wa
rd
cur
ve
d
bla
de
s
Discharge
Eye
Wearof the Shaft
Impeller
impeller
rings
Gland
Diffuser plates
Casing
Volute
Fig.2
1.12:
Secti
onal
view
of a
com
merci
al,
singl
e-
stage
centri
fugal
comp
resso
r
21.7: Commercial refrigeration systems with centrifugal
compressors:
Commercially centrifugal compressors are available for a wide variety of
refrigeration and air conditioning applications with a wide variety of refrigerants.
These machines are available for the following ranges:
Evaporator temperatures Evaporator -100oC to +10oC 14 kPa to 700
pressures Discharge pressure kPa upto 2000 kPa 1800 to
Rotational speeds Refrigeration 90,000 RPM 300 kW to 30000
capacity kW
As mentioned before, on the lower side the capacity is limited by the
impeller width and tip speeds and on the higher side the capacity is limited by the
physical size (currently the maximum impeller diameter is around 2 m).
951. Centrifugal compressors are subjected to less vibration and noise as they
rotate at very high speeds
952. Pressure rise in centrifugal compressor is due to the continuous
conversion of angular momentum into static pressure
953. The stagnation enthalpy of refrigerant vapour remains constant
everywhere, except across the impeller blades
954. Conversion of dynamic pressure into static pressure takes place in the
volute casing due to its convergent shape
Ans.: b) and c)
Ans.: b)
959. 1.206
960. 0.829
961. 0.854
962. 1.141
Ans.: a)
Ans.: b) and d)
967. Due to slip, the actual pressure rise and volumetric flow rate of a
centrifugal compressor is less than that of an ideal compressor
968. For a given impeller diameter, the slip factor decreases as the number of
blades increases
969. For a given impeller diameter, the slip factor decreases as the number of
blades decreases
970. For a given flow rate, the frictional losses decrease as the number of
blades increase
Ans.: a) and c)
Ans.: a) and d)
975. When operated away from the surge point, the reduction in evaporator
temperature with refrigeration load is smaller for centrifugal compressors
compared to the reciprocating compressors
976. When operated away from the surge point, the reduction in evaporator
temperature with refrigeration load is much larger compared to the reciprocating
compressor
977. The problem of compressor motor overloading due to high condenser
temperature does not take place in a centrifugal compressor
978. Compared to reciprocating compressor, the performance of centrifugal
compressor is less sensitive to speed
Ans.: a) and c)
8. Saturated R134a vapour is compressed isentropically from –18oC (Psat=144.6
kPa) to a pressure of 433.8 kPa in a single stage centrifugal compressor.
Calculate the speed of the compressor at the tip of the impeller assuming that the
vapour enters the impeller radially.
Ans.:
From the refrigerant property data, the enthalpy and entropy of ammonia
vapour at the inlet to the impeller are 387.8 kJ/kg and 1.740 kJ/kg.K, respectively.
For radial entry, the velocity of ammonia vapour at the tip of the impeller
(u2) is given by:
Ans.:
Since the blades are radial with no tangential velocity component at inlet, the
enthalpy rise across each stage,
=> enthalpy rise across the compressor, (he-hi) = Ah1+Ah2 = 2Ahstage =>
.•. r2 = .'. u2/© = 0.3279 m => impeller diameter = 2r2 = 0.6558 m (Ans.)
Refrigerant : R134a
Diameter of impeller = 0.6 m
Blade angle, β = 60o
Peripheral flow area,Af,p = 0.002 m2
Flow coefficient (Vn,2/u2) = 0.5
Impeller speed = 9000 RPM
Exit pressure = 7.702 bar
Exit temperature = 40oC
When the tangential component of velocity at the impeller inlet is negligible and
the slip factor is unity, then the power input to the compressor is given by:
mu Vn,2
cotβ W=mu2Vt,2
1-
u2
The tip speed, u2 is obtained from the RPM (N) and the impeller diameter (d) as:
u2 =2π(N/60)(d/2)=2π(9000/60)(0.6/2)=282.74m/s
Since the flow coefficient is given as 0.5, the normal component of velocity
at the exit of the impeller, Vn,2 is given by:
The mass flow rate of refrigerant is obtained from the normal component
at the tip (Vn,2), peripheral area (Af,p) and the specific volume of refrigerant at the
exit (v2; obtained from exit pressure and temperature) as:
Vn,2Af,p 141.37X0.002
m= = =1.532kg/s
v2 0.1846
Substituting the values of mass flow rate, tip velocity, normal component of
velocity at the impeller exit and the blade angle in the expression for power input,
we obtain:
986. Classify and describe refrigerant condensers based on the external fluid
used, based on the external fluid flow and based on constructional aspects
987. Compare air-cooled condensers with water-cooled condensers
988. Perform condenser design calculations using various correlations
presented for estimating heat transfer coefficients on external fluid and
refrigerant side and estimate the required condenser area for a given
refrigeration system
4. Explain the effect of presence of non-condensible gases on condenser
performance
5. Explain the concept of optimum condenser pressure
22.1. Introduction:
Condensers and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in which the
refrigerant undergoes a phase change. Next to compressors, proper design and
selection of condensers and evaporators is very important for satisfactory
performance of any refrigeration system. Since both condensers and evaporators
are essentially heat exchangers, they have many things in common as far as the
design of these components is concerned. However, differences exists as far as
the heat transfer phenomena is concerned. In condensers the refrigerant vapour
condenses by rejecting heat to an external fluid, which acts as a heat sink.
Normally, the external fluid does not undergo any phase change, except in some
special cases such as in cascade condensers, where the external fluid (another
refrigerant) evaporates. In evaporators, the liquid refrigerant evaporates by
extracting heat from an external fluid (low temperature heat source). The external
fluid may not undergo phase change, for example if the system is used for
sensibly cooling water, air or some other fluid. There are many refrigeration and
22.2. Condensers:
As already mentioned, condenser is an important component of any
refrigeration system. In a typical refrigerant condenser, the refrigerant enters the
condenser in a superheated state. It is first de-superheated and then condensed
by rejecting heat to an external medium. The refrigerant may leave the
condenser as a saturated or a sub-cooled liquid, depending upon the
temperature of the external medium and design of the condenser. Figure 22.1
shows the variation of refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram. In the figure, the heat
rejection process is represented by 2-3’-3-4. The temperature profile of the
external fluid, which is assumed to undergo only sensible heat transfer, is shown
by dashed line. It can be seen that process 2-3’ is a de-superheating process,
during which the refrigerant is cooled sensibly from a temperature T 2 to the
saturation temperature corresponding condensing pressure, T 3’. Process 3’-3 is
the condensation process, during which the temperature of the refrigerant
remains constant as it undergoes a phase change process. In actual refrigeration
systems with a finite pressure drop in the condenser or in a system using a
zeotropic refrigerant mixture, the temperature of the refrigerant changes during
the condensation process also. However, at present for simplicity, it is assumed
that the refrigerant used is a pure refrigerant (or an azeotropic mixture) and the
condenser pressure remains constant during the condensation process. Process
3-4 is a sensible, sub cooling process, during which the refrigerant temperature
drops from T3 to T4.
Fig.22.1:
Refrigerat
ion cycle
on T-s
diagram
22.3.
Clas
sific
ation
of
cond
ense
rs:
B
h
e
s
e
:
989
Air
co
ole
co
nd
en
ser
s
990
.
Wa
ter
co
ole
d
co
nd
en
ser
s,
an
d
991
.
Ev
ap
ora
tiv
e
co
nd
en
ser
s
22.3.1
. Air-
coole
d
conde
nsers
:
As
the
name
implie
s, in
air-
cooled
conde
nsers
air is
the
extern
al
fluid,
i.e.,
the
refrige
rant
rejects
heat
to air
flowin
g over
the
conde
nser.
Air-
cooled
conde
nsers
can
be
further
classif
ied
into
natura
l
conve
ction
type
or
forced
conve
ction
type.
Natur
al
conve
ction
type:
I
n
natura
l
conve
ction
type,
heat
transf
er
from
the
conde
nser is
by
buoya
ncy
induce
d
natura
l
conve
ction
and
radiati
on.
Since
the
flow
rate of
air is
small
and
the
radiati
on
heat
transf
er is
also
not
very
high,
the
combi
ned
heat
transf
er
coeffic
ient in
these
conde
nsers
is
small.
As a
result
a
relativ
ely
large
conde
nsing
surfac
e is
requir
ed to
reject
a
given
amou
nt of
heat.
Hence
these
conde
nsers
are
used
for
small
capaci
ty
refrige
ration
syste
ms
like
house
hold
refrige
rators
and
freeze
rs.
The
natura
l
conve
ction
type
conde
nsers
are
either
plate
surfac
e type
or
finned
tube
type.
In
plate
surfac
e type
conde
nsers
used
in
small
refrige
rators
and
freeze
rs, the
refrige
rant
carryi
ng
tubes
are
attach
ed to
the
outer
walls
of the
refrige
rator.
The
whole
body
of the
refrige
rator
(exce
pt the
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
4
door) acts like a fin. Insulation is provided between the outer cover that acts like
fin and the inner plastic cover of the refrigerator. It is for this reason that outer
body of the refrigerator is always warm. Since the surface is warm, the problem
of moisture condensation on the walls of the refrigerator does not arise in these
systems. These condensers are sometimes called as flat back condensers.
The finned type condensers are mounted either below the refrigerator at
an angle or on the backside of the refrigerator. In case, it is mounted below, then
the warm air rises up and to assist it an air envelope is formed by providing a
jacket on backside of the refrigerator. The fin spacing is kept large to minimize
the effect of fouling by dust and to allow air to flow freely with little resistance.
In the older designs, the condenser tube (in serpentine form) was attached to
a plate and the plate was mounted on the backside of the refrigerator. The plate
acted like a fin and warm air rose up along it. In another common design, thin
wires are welded to the serpentine tube coil. The wires act like fins for increased
heat transfer area. Figure 22.2 shows the schematic of a wire-and-tube type
condenser commonly used in domestic refrigerators. Regardless of the type,
refrigerators employing natural convection condenser should be located in such a
way that air can flow freely over the condenser surface.
Refrigerant
out
Refrigeran
t in
g
Fig.22.2: Schematic of a wire-and-tube type condenser used in small
refrigeration systems
Refrigerant out
/^Z-
(C
v__
/^~~
(C
Refrigerant in v^__
Plate fins^ X
The area of the condenser seen from outside in the airflow direction is
called face area. The velocity at the face is called face velocity. This is given by
the volume flow rate divided by the face area. The face velocity is usually around
2m/s to 3.5 m/s to limit the pressure drop due to frictional resistance. The coils of
the tube in the flow direction are called rows. A condenser may have two to eight
In water cooled condensers water is the external fluid. Depending upon the
construction, water cooled condensers can be further classified into:
Shell-and-coil type:
condenser
Refrigerant in
Coolant in
Coolant out
Refrigerant out
Fig.22.5: Shell-and-coil type condenser
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 8
Shell-and-tube type:
Coolant tubes
Refrigerant in Refrigerant out Outer shell
Coolant in
In evaporative condensers, both air and water are used to extract heat
from the condensing refrigerant. Figure 22.7 shows the schematic of an
evaporative condenser. Evaporative condensers combine the features of a
cooling tower and water-cooled condenser in a single unit. In these condensers,
Refrigeran
Drift Air out Air out
eliminator
t
t
Refrigeran
t
Make-up
water
Water pump
The Salient features of air cooled and water cooled condensers are shown
below in Table 22.1. The advantages and disadvantages of each type are
discussed below.
Table 22.1: Comparison between air cooled and water cooled condensers
The air-cooled condensers cost two to three times more than water-cooled
condensers. The water-cooled condenser requires cooling tower since water is
scarce in municipality areas and has to be recycled. Water from lakes and rivers
cannot be thrown back in warm state since it affects the marine life adversely.
Increased first cost and maintenance cost of cooling tower offsets the cost
advantage of water-cooled condenser. Fouling of heat exchange surface is a big
problem in use of water.
From Fig.22.1, the total heat rejected in the condenser, Qc is given by:
Qc=U.A.ATm (22.2)
The heat rejection ratio (HRR) is the ratio of heat rejected to the heat
absorbed (refrigeration capacity), that is,
Qc Qe +Wc 1
(22.3) HRR= = =1+
Qe Qe COP
T
Refrigerant - /
External fluid
3 <---------------- 3’
^-^ 7.7-r — " ~~~
it/ 4
T ext,i
Length
Fig.22.9: Variation of refrigerant and external fluid temperature in a condenser
1
UA = UiAi =UoAo =
(22.5)
i=1
given by:
1 1 1 Ax 1
R"f,o R"f,i
= = + +
+ +
UiAi UoAo [h(Af r(f + Ab )]o kwAm [h(AfT|f + Ab)]i
Ao
Ai
(22.6)
In the above expression Ao is the total external area (Af+Ab), hi and ho are
the inner and outer convective heat transfer coefficients, respectively and r i, ro are
the inner and outer radii of the tube, respectively.
For water-cooled condensers without fins, the expression for overall heat
transfer coefficient simplifies to:
Uo =-----------"------------------------------------------- (22.8)
Ao R f,i Ao Ao ri ln(do/di ) 1
hi Ai Ai Ai kw ho
The condensation heat transfer coefficient is of the order of 7000 W/m 2-K
for ammonia. However it is of the order of 1700 W/m 2-K for synthetic refrigerants
such as R 12 and R 22, whereas the waterside heat transfer coefficient is high in
both the cases for turbulent flow. Hence it is advisable to add fins on the side
where the heat transfer coefficient is low. In case of R 12 and R 22 condensers
the tubes have integral external fins to augment the heat transfer rate. This is
easily seen if the overall heat transfer coefficient is written in terms of inside area
as follows.
1 1 r= ln(do /di) 1 Ai "
— =— + ----------- +--------+ R f i (22.9)
Ui hi kw ho Ao
It can be observed that by increasing the area ratio Ao/A ,that is the
outside surface area the overall heat transfer coefficient can be increased.
Fin efficiency:
In finned tube condensers, the fin efficiency depends on the type and
material of the fin and on fluid flow characteristics. Expressions for fin efficiency
can be derived analytically for simple geometries, however, for complex
geometries, the fin efficiency has to be obtained from actual measurements and
manufacturers’ catalogs. The most commonly used fin configuration is the plate-
fin type as shown in Fig. 22.3. The plate-fin is often approximated with an
equivalent annular fin as shown in Fig.22.10. This is done as analytical
expressions and charts for the efficiency of annular fin have been obtained.
Figure 22.11 shows a typical efficiency chart for annular fins. In the figure, r o and
ri are the outer and inner radii of the annular fin, h o is the external heat transfer
coefficient, k is the thermal conductivity of fin material and t is the thickness of the
fin.
1.0 / ^ N
▲ % ro
Tlf
vN.
V \ \ / ro/ri
^—
0,0 (ro-ri)(ho/kt)1/2 5
Fig.22.11: Fin efficiency curves for an annular fin
■D B ±
T
o
—1.^-
1 » ~-If X
KJ
o oo
{ X J
n
X^J \J LJ
o o xJ
Fig.22.12: A portion of a plate fin-and-tube type condenser and its side view
The heat transfer takes place from the fins and the exposed part of the tube.
Hence heat transfer occurs from following areas
ii.
1. Bare tube area between the consecutive fins, Ab b)
Area of the fins,Af
These areas are expressed in terms per m 2 of face area and per row. Face
area Aface is the area of condenser seen from outside, the actual flow area is less
than the face area since fins have finite thickness. Further, as air flows through it,
it has to pass between the narrow passage between the tubes. The flow area is
minimum at these locations. This will be denoted by Ac. To find these areas we
consider condenser of 1.0 m height and 1.0 m width as shown in Fig.22.12, so
that the face area is 1 m2. All the dimensions are in mm. Following nomenclature
is used.
No. of tubes per m height = (1000/B) (tubes per m2 face area per row) No. of fin
passages per m width = (1000/D) (no. of passages per m2 face area) No. of fins
per m2 face area = 1 + 1000/D « 1000/D Width of each passage = (D - t) /1000
(in meters)
D-t
Ab =----------7ido m2 per m2 face area per row (22.11)
DB
Fin Area, Af = (number of fins) (two sides of fins){width of fin per row - number of
tubes x area of cross section of each tube)} = (1000/D)(2){1 x C/1000 - (1000/B)
7r(do/1000)2/4]
2 C- *d2o
Af = — 4B m2 per m2 face area per row (22.12)
D
Minimum flow area, Ac = (number of fin passages) x (width of each passage) x
(height – number of tubes per row x diameter of tube) = (1000/D){(D – t)/1000}{1
– (1000/B)(do/1000)}
2
(22.13)
m per
2 D-tT
m face area per row do
Ac =-------- 1-
D [ B
P = Ao/(C/1000) (22.15)
Inside
heat
transf
er
area,
A=
(TTd
i/1000
)x
(Num
ber of
tubes
)=
nd/B
A
i
=
r
c
d
i
/
B
(
2
2
.
1 co fa
7
) effi ce
22.4.5 cie s:
. nts A
s
Estim in discu
ssed
ation air befor
e, in
of these
co
conde
nsers,
heat ole the
refrig
transf d erant
flows
er co throu
gh the
coeffi nd tubes,
while
cients en air
flows
: ser over
the
1. finned
s:
tubes.
The
□. 1. forced
conve
Ai □. ction
heat
r Flo transf
er
si w coeffi
cient
de ov for
the
he er air-
side
at depen
fin
ds
upon,
tra ne the
type
ns d of
fins,
fer sur fin
spaci
ng, finof er
thickn Colbur define
ess n j- d
tube factor earlie
diame (St.Pr2/ r in
ters 3) vs. Eqn.
etc. ItReynol (22.1
can ds 6).
be numbe
evalu r (Re) A
ated for nothe
experi various r
menta geome simpl
lly fortries. e
partic On the expre
ular averag ssion
fin e, has
and followi been
tube ng propo
arrang correla sed
ement tion is Air
. Kaysa good condit
and fit to ioning
Londo their and
n data Refrig
(1955) for eratio
have various n
carrie geome Institu
d outtries. te,
exten Arling
sive Nu = ton
meas 0.117 Va.
ureme Re065 (1972
nts on Pr1/3 ) ,
differe (22.17 which
nt ) is as
types follow
of fin T s
and he
tube Nussel ho = 38
arrang t
ement numbe Vf 0.5
s. r and
They Reynol (22.18)
have ds
prese numbe
Wher
nted rs are
the based e, Vf
data upon
in the hydrau
is the
forms lic
of plot diamet
pressu
face re drop
plots. A
velocit correla
tion
y in fitted to
his
m/s data is
given
and ho in
Table
is in 22.2
for
W/m2. various
fin
K spacin
g for
b) pressu
re drop
Corre in Pa
per
lation row.
The
s for velocit
y is the
Press face
velocit
ure y in
m/s
drop
ich
(1974) Versio
has n1
carrie ME, IIT
d out Kharag
exten pur 20
sive
meas
ureme
nts
over
the
fin-
tube
heat
excha
ngers
and
has
given
315 Number
Δp
394 472 531
of
fins/m 8.5V1.56 9.63 V1.56 11 V1.56
1.56
(Pa per row) 7.15 V
T
o
rrelations for xJ n e
ma
Versio
n1
xim ME, IIT
various fin um Kharag
spacings r\ vel
ocit
pur 21
y
(Rich,1974) occ
W
r\ urs
ii. Flow over tube xJ bet
we
banks:
{ j
\J en
the
a) Heat transfer tub
es
Grimson has T sin
given correlations for ce
average heat transfer
Fig.22.13: the
coefficient for forced Sch tub
convection from tube em es
banks in cross flow blo
atic
for staggered as well ck
dia
as in-line a
gra
arrangement of tubes part
m
as shown in Fig. of
of
22.13. As mentioned the
plat
earlier, face area Af flo
e
of the heat w
find
exchanger is the pas
-
area seen from the sag
flow direction and Qf and
- e. If
is the volume flow B is
rate of flow then face tub
e the
velocity Vf is given spa
by: con
cin
den
g
V ser
bet
wit
we
h
en
Tub
tub
es-
es
in-
in
line the
and fac
tub e
es and
sta C is
gge the
red tub
e
T spa
A h cin
Vmax = Vf B/(B – do) (22.20)
The Reynolds and Nusselt number are defined as follows for this case:
P Vma d h do
Re = x o and Nu = — (22.21)
\i k k
The Grimson’s correlation is as follows
n
Nu = C Re Pr 1/3
(22.22)
b) Pressure drop
O.L. Pierson and E.C. Huge have given the correlation for pressure
drop for flow over tube banks as follows:
Ap = fNV 2/2 (22.23)
Where, f is the friction factor and N is the number of rows. The friction
factor is given by
-0.15
Re+ 043+1.13/b
f = (a-1)
0.176 0.32b-------1
--------------- for tubes
0,47 (a- in-line
1.0 +and b
108
f1)= Re-016
= for staggered tubes
where, a = (22.24)
B/d
C/d o and b C/do iii. Free
In the above equation, GrL is the average Grashoff number given by:
In water cooled condensers, the water flows through the tubes. The water
flow is normally turbulent, hence one can use Dittus-Boelter equation given by:
If the viscosity variation is considerable, then one can use Seider-Tate equation given by:
If the Reynolds number on water side is less than 2300, then the flow will be
laminar, hence one has to use the correlations for laminar flow. For example, if
the flow is laminar and not fully developed, then one can use Hausen’s
correlation given by:
— 0.0668(Di /L)Pe________________
Nud =3.66 +-------------------------- (22.29)
2/
1 + 0.04[(Di /L)Pe ] 3
This expression is exactly valid for still vapour. In this expression subscript
f refers to the properties of saturated liquid, which are evaluated at mean film
temperature of (two + tr )/2. D0 is the outer diameter of the tube and N is the
average number of tubes per column.
For laminar flow the average heat transfer coefficient by Nusselt’s Correlation for
condensation over a vertical tube is as follows
3 025
kfPf(Pf ~Pg)ghfg
h0
1.13 where L is the tube length (22.32)
Lpif At
/Hf This may be used in laminar flow up to Ref = 1800, where Ref = 4m/(Ti\if D) Kirkbride
3 has rearranged this in terms of condensation number Co, which is defined as follows:
0 3fP2=gh
Co
(22.33)
k = 1.514Ref = 1.514 Ref 1 / 3
For turbulent flow : Ref > 1800 , the Kirkbride Correlation is as follows:
Co= h0 3
Hf = 0.0077 Ref04 (22.34)
kf3pf2g
Chaddock and Chato suggested that condensation heat transfer coefficient inside
tubes is 0.77 times that of Nusselt’s heat transfer coefficient outside the tubes
particularly if the vapour Reynolds number Reg = 4m/(Tz/ug Di) < 35000. This gives the
average value of heat transfer coefficient over the length of the tube.
HTP = 0.77 h0 (22.35)
025
3 I
hTP =0.555 kfPf(Pf -Pg)ghfg
DiUfAt
J (22.36)
Prf Re0.9
Nu =
-------- tt : for 0.15 <Ftt <15 (22.38)
1. □. Shah’s Correlation
This correlation takes into account the pressure of the refrigerant also in
addition to the quality of the mixture. This can also be used to find the local
condensation heat transfer coefficient. The heat transfer coefficient is a product
Akers, Dean and Crosser have proposed following correlation when the rate
of condensation or the length is very large. This is very similar to Dittus-Boelter
correlation for turbulent heat transfer in tubes, except the constant is different.
11 4
Fouling Factor
The condenser tubes are clean when it is assembled with new tubes.
However with usage some scale formation takes place in all the tubes and the
value of overall heat transfer coefficient decreases. It is a standard practice to
control the hardness of water used in the condenser. Even then it is good
maintenance practice to de-scale the condenser once a year with 2% HCl or
muric acid solution. Stoecker suggests the following values of deposit
coefficients.
R’’f. = 0.00009 m2.K/W for R12 and R-22 with copper tubes
R’’f. = 0.000178 m2.K/W for steel tubes with ammonia
Condens
ing
pressure-----------------------------------
►
Fig.22.14: Variation
of total running cost
of a refrigeration
system with
condensing pressure
Questions &
answers:
1. Which of the following
statements are TRUE?
Ans.: a) and b)
o
f
t
h
e
a
b
o
v
e
A
n
s
.
:
d
)
Version 1 ME, IIT
Kharagpur 29
3. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
Ans.: b) and c)
1008. The heat transfer coefficient in de-superheating zone is larger than that in
condensing zone
1009. The heat transfer coefficient in de-superheating zone is smaller than that
in condensing zone
1010. The temperature difference between refrigerant and external fluid in de-
superheating zone is large compared to condensing zone
1011. The temperature difference between refrigerant and external fluid in de-
superheating zone is small compared to condensing zone
Ans.: b) and c)
Ans.: b) and d)
Ans.: From Nusselt’s correlation for condensation heat transfer coefficient on the
outside of a horizontal tube, we find that when everything else remains constant:
Ml1/4
ho oc 1 where N is the number of tubes in a vertical row.
From the above equation, the ratio of condensing heat transfer coefficient with 1
tube and 2 tubes is given by:
1/4
1 = 0.8409
ho,1
=> ho,2 = ho,1 x 0.8409 = 3363.6 W/m2.K (Ans.)
Ans.:
Tw,e = Tw,i + Qc/(mwxcp) = 34.93oC From the expression for LMTD; LMTD =
40.86oC (Ans.)
Water R 22
juw = 7.73 x 10-4 kg/m-s juf = 1.8 x 10-4 kg/m-s
kw = 0.617 W/m-K kf = 0.0779 W/m-K
pw = 995.0 kg/m3 pf = 1118.9 kg/m3
Cpw = 4.19 kJ/kg-K hfg = 160.9 kJ/kg
Prw = 5.25
The fouling resistance on water side and thermal conductivity of copper are:
Qc = mwCp,w(Tw,o-Tw,i) mw=Qc/Cp,w(Tw,o-Tw,i) =
Since it is a 2-pass condenser with 52 tubes, water flow through each tube is
given by:
ho = 2175/Δ T0.25
For water-cooled condensers without fins; the overall heat transfer coefficient is
given by:
1
Uo =-----------"-------------------------------------------
Ao R f,i Ao Ao ri ln(do/di ) 1
hi Ai Ai Ai kw ho
1 1
----= 0.0005781 + —
Uo ho
Therefore, Ao = 4.6 m2
Since the calculated value is not equal to the assumed value, we have to repeat
the calculation with ΔT = 7 K (Second trial)
Since, this value is sufficiently close to the 2nd guess value of 7K, it is not
necessary to repeat the calculations.
Ao = 4.82 m2
Now, Ao = 56πdoL
2 C nd2o
Af = — 4B = 22.087
D
D-tr dol
Ac =--------- 1- =0.6487
D [ B
Ao = Ab+Af = 22.94
Ai = 7idi/B = 0.82266
4CAc 4(38)0.6487 -3
Dh =--------- =--------------------= 4.2984X10 m
1000 Ao 1000(22.9393)
Area ratios:
Ao /Ai =27.885
Ab/Af =0.03859
We find:
Prandtl number, Prf = 3.264
Reynolds number of vapour, Reg = 1385X103
Reynolds number of liquid, Ref = 74.8X103
To find condensation heat transfer coefficient inside tubes, we use Dean, Ackers
and Crosser’s correlation, which assumes complete condensation and uses a
modified Reynolds number Rem
hi = 8206.7 W/m2.K
(2.5973x1.005) = 8.11 oC
=>Tair,out = 35.11oC
Since the guess value (35oC) is close to the calculated value (35.11oC),
we may stop here. For better accuracy, calculations may be repeated with 2nd
guess value of 5.1oC (say). The values obtained will be slightly different if other
correlations are used for hi.
Introduction:
An evaporator, like condenser is also a heat exchanger. In an evaporator,
the refrigerant boils or evaporates and in doing so absorbs heat from the
substance being refrigerated. The name evaporator refers to the evaporation
process occurring in the heat exchanger.
23.1. Classification
There are several ways of classifying the evaporators depending upon the
heat transfer process or refrigerant flow or condition of heat transfer surface.
The heat transfer phenomenon during boiling inside and outside tubes is
very different; hence, evaporators are classified as those with flow inside and
outside tubes.
The third classification is flooded type and dry type. Evaporator is said to
be flooded type if liquid refrigerant covers the entire heat transfer surface. This
type of evaporator uses a float type of expansion valve. An evaporator is called
dry type when a portion of the evaporator is used for superheating the refrigerant
vapour after its evaporation.
The advantages of such natural convection coils are that the coil takes no
floor space and it also requires low maintenance cost. It can operate for long
Figure 23.2 shows a flooded type of shell and tube type liquid chiller
where the liquid (usually brine or water) to be chilled flows through the tubes in
double pass just like that in shell and tube condenser. The refrigerant is fed
through a float valve, which maintains a constant level of liquid refrigerant in the
shell. The shell is not filled entirely with tubes as shown in the end view of Fig.
27.2. This is done to maintain liquid refrigerant level below the top of the shell so
that liquid droplets settle down due to gravity and are not carried by the vapour
leaving the shell. If the shell is completely filled with tubes, then a surge drum is
provided after the evaporator to collect the liquid refrigerant.
I
Refrigerant in
/////////////////////////T7
VIE
M2^
///////////////////
Water Lxv
Fig.23.2: Schematic
Shell-and-Tube
Evaporator
Baffles
Water "C^
outlet \
outlet
norcinf
fcrdni h
inlet
/^Z-
<:
v__
x"~~~
(C
V^__
Refrigerant A
outlet
The fin spacing is kept large for larger tubes and small for smaller tubes. 50 to
500 fins per meter length of the tube are used in heat exchangers. In
evaporators, the atmospheric water vapour condenses on the fins and tubes
when the metal temperature is lower than dew point temperature. On the other
hand frost may form on the tubes if the surface temperature is less than 0 oC.
Hence for low temperature coils a wide spacing with about 80 to 200 fins per m is
used to avoid restriction of flow passage due to frost formation. In air-conditioning
applications a typical fin spacing of 1.8 mm is used. Addition of fins beyond a
certain value will not increase the capacity of evaporator by restricting the airflow.
The frost layer has a poor thermal conductivity hence it decreases the overall
heat transfer coefficient apart from restricting the flow. Therefore, for applications
in freezers below 0oC, frequent defrosting of the evaporator is required.
<-------------------- )\
Refrigerant out
i |A )
f A
----------------------►—
)l
Refrigerant in
/^^^w
Section A A
t-
A A
\|:
Refrigerant in Refrigerant out
Kim^mimm^mKim^mmim^mmmKimi
Section A-A \
Version 1 E M u E t e , cI t IiT c Kharagpur 12
solution
Fig.23.8: Schematic of an embedded tube, plate surface evaporator
23.10. Plate type evaporators:
Fig.23.9:1 Schematic
Version ME, IIT Kharagpur
of a plate13
type evaporator
Plate type evaporators are used when a close temperature approach (0.5
K or less) between the boiling refrigerant and the fluid being chilled is required.
These evaporators are widely used in dairy plants for chilling milk, in breweries
for chilling beer. These evaporators consist of a series of plates (normally made
of stainless steel) between which alternately the milk or beer to be cooled and
refrigerant flow in counterflow direction. The overall heat transfer coefficient of
these plate type evaporators is very high (as high as 4500 W/m 2K in case of
ammonia/water and 3000 W/m2.K in case of R 22/water). In addition they also
require very less refrigerant inventory for the same capacity (about 10 percent or
even less than that of shell-and-tube type evaporators). Another important
advantage when used in dairy plants and breweries is that, it is very easy to
clean the evaporator and assemble it back as and when required. The capacity
can be increased or decreased very easily by adding or removing plates. Hence
these evaporators are finding widespread use in a variety of applications. Figure
23.9 shows the schematic of a plate type evaporator.
23.11. Thermal design of evaporators:
Compared to the design of refrigerant condensers, the design of
refrigerant evaporators is more complex. The complexity arises due to the
following factors:
1033. On the refrigerant side, the heat transfer coefficient varies widely
when evaporation takes place in tubes due to changing flow regimes.
Accurate estimation of heat transfer coefficient is thus difficult
1034. On the external fluid side, if the external fluid is air (as in air
conditioning and cold storage applications), in addition to sensible heat
transfer, latent heat transfer also takes place as moisture in air may
condense or even freeze on the evaporator surface. The evaporator
surface may be partly dry and partly wet, depending upon the operating
conditions. Hence, mass transfer has to be considered in the design. If
frost formation due to freezing of moisture takes place, then heat transfer
resistance varies continuously with time.
1035. The lubricating oil gets separated in the evaporator tubes due to
low miscibility of oil at evaporator temperature and pressure. The
separation of oil affects both heat transfer and pressure drop
characteristics. A minimum refrigerant velocity must be provided for oil
carry over in direct expansion type evaporators.
1036. Compared to condenser, refrigerant pressure drop in evaporator is
more critical as it has significant influence on the performance of the
refrigeration system. Hence, multiple circuits may have to be used in large
systems to reduce pressure drops. Refrigerant velocity has to be
optimized taking pressure drop and oil return characteristics into account.
1037. Under part-load applications, there is a possibility of evaporator
flooding and compressor slugging. This aspect has to be considered at the
time of evaporator design.
For plate fin type evaporators, the expressions of various heat transfer
areas are similar to those given for the air-cooled condensers. The expression for
overall heat transfer coefficient is also similar to that of condenser as long as no
phase change (e.g. moisture condensation or freezing) takes place. However, as
mentioned in air-cooled evaporators the possibility of moisture
condensing/freezing on the evaporator surface must be considered unlike in
condensers where the heat transfer on airside is only sensible. This requires
simultaneous solution of heat and mass transfer equations on the airside to
arrive at expressions for overall heat transfer coefficient and mean temperature
difference. The efficiency of the fins will also be affected by the presence of
condensed layer of water or a frozen layer of ice. Expressions have been derived
for overall heat transfer coefficient, mean temperature difference and fin
efficiency of fin-and-tube type evaporators in which air undergoes cooling and
When liquids such as water, brine, milk etc. flow through tubes without
undergoing any phase changes, the correlations presented earlier for
condensers (e.g. Dittus-Boelter, Sieder-Tate) can be used for evaporator also.
The pressure drop of liquid flowing through the shell is also difficult to
predict analytically. Normally the pressure drop on shell side is obtained from
experimental measurements and is provided in the form of tables and charts for a
particular type of shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
Critical q
heat flux
the value of C depends upon type of the surface etc. The exponent can be as
high as 25 on specially treated surfaces for enhancement of boiling.
Heat flux due to nucleate pool boiling (q nb) is calculated by using nucleate
pool boiling correlations and heat flux due to forced convection (qf c) can be
calculated by using standard forced convection correlations, such as Dittus-
Boelter correlation.
Some of the other correlations suggested for flow boiling are given below:
In the above equations, Ref and Nuf are liquid Reynolds and Nusselt
numbers, respectively. Kf is the load factor, defined as:
Kf =
(23.9) Axhfg
L
where L is the length of the tube.
where
hL is
the
single
phase
(liquid)
heat
transfe
r
coeffici
ent as
predict
ed by
Dittus-
Boelte
r
equati
on,
and hsa
is
given
by:
0.5 0.7 13 (
45
hsa = 207
kN 0
bd
1 .
—= 2 —.
bdl,k
2 9
T.
0 +
2a
-
bd
0 1
=
. /
0.0
1 X
14
X t
6 -
t t
B-------------------------------
0
t )
[g(Pf-Pg)
B
N1 o
= F
40 1
48 =
Xt1t 2
- .
22
B3
o1. 7
f 0.581
: for increa
Pr 0.533 ses
Uf
Xtt <1 : initially
with oil
for 1 <
:p = 35o conce
Xtt < 5 (23. ntratio
12) n upto
a
In nucleate boiling, the heat value
transfer coefficient is mainly of
dependent on the heat flux and is a about
very weak function of mass flux. 4
However, in flow boiling the heat percen
transfer coefficient depends mainly on t and
mass flux and is a weak function of then
heat flux. Studies show that for boiling decrea
inside tubes, initially when the vapour ses.
fraction (quality) is low, then nucleate The
boiling is dominant and the heat initial
transfer coefficient depends on heat increa
flux. However, as the fluid flows se is
through the tubes, the vapour fraction attribut
increases progressively due to heat ed to
transfer and when it exceeds a critical the
vapour fraction, convective boiling greate
becomes dominant. As mentioned, in r
this region, the heat transfer wettin
coefficient depends mainly on the g of
mass flux and is almost independent the
of heat flux. As a whole, the heat tube
transfer coefficient due to boiling surfac
increases initially reaches a peak and e due
then drops towards the end of the to the
tube. Thus accurate modeling of presen
evaporators requires estimation of ce of
heat transfer coefficient along the oil.
length taking into account the complex The
physics. subse
quent
Horizontal vs Vertical tubes: As reducti
mentioned before, boiling heat transfer on is
coefficients in vertical columns will be due to
different from that in a horizontal tube. the
In a vertical tube, due to hydrostatic rapid
head, the evaporation temperature increa
increases, which in turn reduces the se in
driving temperature difference, and viscosi
hence, the heat transfer rate. ty of
the
Effect of oil in evaporator: Studies on refriger
R 12 evaporators show that the boiling ant-oil
heat transfer coefficient inside tubes mixtur
e as oil is more viscous than
refrigerant. For the estimation of heat
transfer
From measured temperatures, LMTD is calculated. From the heat transfer rate
Q, area of the heat exchanger (A o) and LMTD, the overall heat transfer coefficient
for a given flow rate is calculated using Eqn.(23.13).
1 Ao Ao ri ln(do /di) 1
=+ + (23.14)
Uo hi Ai Ai kw ho
If the water temperature does not vary very significantly during these tests,
then properties of water remain nearly constant. Since during these tests no
changes are made on the refrigerant side, it can be assumed that the heat
transfer resistance offered by the wall separating the two fluids and the heat
transfer coefficient on refrigerant side (ho) remains constant for all values of water
flow rates. Hence, the above equation can be written as:
1 C 2
=C1 + (23.15)
Uo hi
where C1 and C2 are empirical constants that depend on the specifications of the
heat exchangers and operating conditions, and the expressions for these can be
obtained by equating Eqns.(23.14) and (23.15).
If flow on water side is turbulent and the variation in thermal properties are
negligible, then the waterside heat transfer coefficient can be written as:
hi = C3.V0.8 (23.16)
1/V0.8
Fig.
23.1
1:
Con
cept
of
Wils
on’s
plot
Que
stion
s
and
ans
wers
:
1.
Which
of the
followi
ng
state
ments
are
TRUE
?
1038.
In
conve
ntional
refrige
rators,
the
evapo
rators
are
kept
at the
top as
these
are
natura
l
conve
ction
type
1039.
Natur
al
conve
ction
type
coils
are
useful
when
the
latent
loads
are
very
high
1040.
Defros
ting of
evapo
rators
has to
be
done
more
freque
ntly in
natura
l
conve
ction
type
coils
comp
ared
to
forced
conve
ction
evapo
rator
coils
1041.
Provis
ion of
suffici
ent
free
space
is very
import
ant in
natura
l
conve
ction
type
evapo
rator
coils
Ans.:
a) and
d)
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
23
2. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
1042. Flooded type evaporators are very efficient as the heat transfer coefficient
on refrigerant side is very large
1043. In flooded type evaporators, the refrigerant evaporation rate is equal to the
refrigerant mass flow rate
1044. An oil separator is always required in flooded evaporators as refrigerant
tends to get collected in the evaporator
1045. All of the above
Ans.: a) and c)
Ans.: a) and c)
Ans.: b) and d)
Ans.: d)
1058. In evaporators using air as an external fluid, fins are frequently required on
the refrigerant side
1059. In evaporators using water as an external fluid, fins may be required on
the refrigerant side to enhance heat transfer
1060. Flooded type evaporators yield higher heat transfer coefficients compared
to direct expansion type evaporators
1061. In general heat transfer enhancement techniques yield more compact heat
exchangers, but may also increase pressure drop
Ans.: Neglecting fouling and resistance of the tube wall, the value of ‘UA’ of
evaporator is given by:
1 = 1 1
+
UA [h(Afηf +Ab)]o hiAi
Substituting the values of airside and refrigerant heat transfer coefficients (h o and
hi), bare tube (Ab), finned surface (Af) and refrigerant side areas and fin efficiency
(ηf = 0.75) in the above expression, we obtain:
UA = 4483 W/K
From the values of airside and evaporator temperatures, the LMTD of the
evaporator is given by:
(17-11) o
LMTD =------------ = 6.55 C
-ln 17 - 7
Water flowed inside the tubes while refrigerant condensed outside the tubes. The
tubes were 51 mm OD and 46 mm ID and had a conductivity of 60 W/m.K. Using
the concept of Wilson’s plot, determine the condensing heat transfer coefficient.
What is the value of overall heat transfer coefficient when the velocity of water is
0.244 m/s?
Ans.:
From the data given in the table, the following straight line equation can be
obtained:
1 C 4
=C1 + 0.8
Uo V
The values of C1 and C4 for the given data are found to be:
C1 = 1.605 x 10-4 m2.K/W and C4 = 3.223 x 10-4 m1.2.K/W
ro ln(ro /ri ) 1 -4
C1 = + =1.605x10
kw ho
Substituting the values of internal and external radii (r i and ro) and the value of
thermal conductivity of the tube kW, we obtain the value of external heat transfer
coefficient (condensation heat transfer coefficient, h o) as:
The value of overall heat transfer coefficient Uo when the velocity of water is
0.244 m/s is given by:
1 C4 -4 3.223x10-4 -4
=C1 + 0.8
=1.605x10 + 0.8
Uo V 0.244
3.223x10 -3
= C1 +C4 = 1.605x10 + = 1.1567x10
24.1. Introduction
An expansion device is another basic component of a refrigeration
system. The basic functions of an expansion device used in refrigeration systems
are to:
Under ideal conditions, the mass flow rate of refrigerant in the system should
be proportional to the cooling load. Sometimes, the product to be cooled is such
Of the above seven types, Capillary tube and orifice belong to the fixed
opening type, while the rest belong to the variable opening type. Of the above
seven types, the hand operated expansion valve is not used when an automatic
control is required. The orifice type expansion is used only in some special
applications. Hence these two are not discussed here.
The pressure reduction in a capillary tube occurs due to the following two
factors:
Several combinations of length and bore are available for the same mass flow
rate and pressure drop. However, once a capillary tube of some diameter and
length has been installed in a refrigeration system, the mass flow rate through it
will vary in such a manner that the total pressure drop through it matches with the
pressure difference between condenser and the evaporator. Its mass flow rate is
totally dependent upon the pressure difference across it; it cannot adjust itself to
variation of load effectively.
The compressor and the capillary tube, under steady state must arrive at
some suction and discharge pressures, which allows the same mass flow rate
through the compressor and the capillary tube. This state is called the balance
point. Condenser and evaporator pressures are saturation pressures at
corresponding condenser and evaporator temperatures. Figure 24.1 shows the
variation of mass flow rate with evaporator pressure through the compressor and
the capillary tube for three values of condenser temperatures namely, 30, 40 and
50oC.
The mass flow rate through the compressor decreases if the pressure ratio
increases since the volumetric efficiency of the compressor decreases with the
increase of pressure ratio. The pressure ratio increases when either the
evaporator pressure decreases or the condenser pressure increases. Hence, the
mass flow rate through the compressor decreases with increase in condenser
pressure and/or with decrease in evaporator pressure.
Tc=40oC
Tc=40oC
Tc=30oC Tc=50oC
Fig.24.
1:
Va
riat
ion
of
ref
rig
er
ant
ma
ss
flo
w
rat
mr e
thr
ou
gh
co
mp
res
sor
an
d
ca
pill
ary
tub
e
wit
h
ev
ap
or
ato
r
an
d
co
nd
en
ser
te
m a flow e
p p thro s
er il ugh
at l it, a
ur a hen n
e r ce d
s y mas /
(A s o
,B t flow r
& u rate t
C b thro h
ar e ugh e
e the
th i capil e
e s lary v
b tube a
al t incr p
a h eas o
n e es r
c with a
e d incr t
p r eas o
oi i e in r
nt v pres p
s) i sure r
n diffe e
g renc s
e s
f acro u
h o ss it. r
e r Thu e
p c s
r e the d
e mas e
s f s c
s o flow r
u r rate e
r t thro a
e h ugh s
di e the e
ff capil s
e r lary .
r e tube T
e f incr h
n r eas e
c i es
e g as v
a e the a
cr r con r
o a den i
s n ser a
s t pres t
th t sure i
e o incr o
c eas n
o r posit s
f e e of o
m s the r
a , effec a
s n t of n
s a pres d
fl m sure
o e s on t
w l the h
r y com e
at , pres
e 3 sor e
th 0 mas v
r , s a
o 4 flow p
u 0 rate. o
g Hen r
h a ce, a
c n for a t
a d give o
pi n r
ll 5 valu a
a 0 e of r
o
ry con e
tu C den
b ser t
e i pres h
is n sure e
s ,
h F ther s
o i e is a
w g a m
n u defi e
fo r nite .
r e valu T
th e of h
r 2 eva i
e 4 pora s
e . tor
c 1 pres p
o . sure r
n T at e
d h whic s
e i h s
n s the u
s mas r
e i s e
r s flow
te rate i
m t s s
p h thro
e e ugh t
r the h
at o com e
u p pres
b r erat T
al t ure e
a e at ,
n m whic B
c p h a
e e the n
p r bala d
oi a nce
nt t poin T
th u t will e
at r occu ,
th e r. C
e , Figu
s t re .
y h 28.1 I
st e sho t
e r ws a i
m e set s
w of
ill i thre o
a s e b
c bala s
q a nce e
ui poin r
r d ts A, v
e e B e
in f and d
st i C
e n for t
a i the h
d t thre a
y e e t
st con t
at v den h
e. a ser e
H l tem
e u pera e
n e ture v
c s. a
e, o The p
fo f se o
r e bala r
a v nce a
gi a poin t
v p ts o
e o occu r
n r r at t
c a evap e
o t orat m
n o or p
d r tem e
e t pera r
n e ture a
s m s of t
e p Te,A , u
r c stea t
e t dy h
at O stat e
b f e.
al l How o
a o ever p
n a , in e
c d prac r
e tice a
p v the t
oi a refri i
nt r gera o
in i tion n
cr a load
e t may o
a i vary f
s o due c
e n to o
s seve m
w T ral p
it h reas r
h e ons, e
in such s
cr s as s
e i the o
a t vari r
s u atio a
e a n of n
of t ambi d
c i ent
o o tem c
n n pera a
d ture p
e d s il
n e etc. l
s s It is a
e c poss r
r r ible y
te i for
m b the t
p e load u
e d to b
r incre e
at a ase
u b or a
r o decr n
e. v ease d
e .
2 This a
4. i vari f
2. s atio f
2. n of e
E i load c
ff n affec t
e ts s
t
h
e
b
al
a
n
c
e
p
oi
nt
b
et
w
e
e
n
th
e
m
.
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
5
Increase in refrigeration Load:
The second possibility is that at lower evaporator mass flow rate, the
Reynolds number decreases and as a result, the heat transfer coefficient of
evaporator decreases. Or in a flooded evaporator, the reduction in mass flow rate
reduces the wetted surface area and the heat transfer coefficient. Therefore,
larger temperature difference is required in the evaporator for the same amount
of heat transfer. This decreases the evaporator temperature and corresponding
pressure to the previous values.
Compressor
Capillary
For any new system, the diameter and the length of capillary tube have to
be selected by the designer such that the compressor and the capillary tube
achieve the balanced point at the desired evaporator temperature. There are
analytical and graphical methods to select the capillary tube. The fine-tuning of
the length is finally done by cut-and-try method. A tube longer than the design
(calculated) value is installed with the expected result that evaporating
temperature will be lower than expected. The tube is shortened until the desired
balance point is achieved. This is done for mass production. If a single system is
to be designed then tube of slightly shorter length than the design length is
chosen. The tube will usually result in higher temperature than the design value.
The tube is pinched at a few spots to obtain the required pressure and
temperature.
P+ (3P/3Y)Ay pV.V+pV(5V/5Y)Ay
1
w w X-
Ay
g
X.
P
pV.V
Mass Conservation:
3(pV) . pVA+AyA -pVA = 0
<3y (24.1)
Momentum Conservation:
2r. *dV . 2 , . 2 dp A 2„ « R.
nR [pVV + pV— Ay] - %R [pVV ] = - %R — Ay - pavggftRAy - 27t/?Jyzw (24.2)
dy dy
At the face y + zly, Taylor series expansion has been used for pressure and
momentum and only the first order terms have been retained. The second order
terms with second derivatives and higher order terms have been neglected. If the
above equation is divided by %R2Ay and limit Ay^> 0 is taken; then all the higher
order terms will tend to zero if these were included since these will have Ay or its
higher power of Ay multiplying them. Also, /^avg will tend to p since the control
volume will shrink to the bottom face of the control volume where p is defined.
Further, neglecting the effect of gravity, which is very small, we obtain:
1<9V dp Tw
pV— = - - 2— (24.3)
dy dy R
The wall shear stress may be written in terms of friction factor. In fluid flow
through pipes the pressure decreases due to shear stress. This will be referred to
as frictional pressure drop and a subscript ‘f will be used with it and it will be
written in terms of friction factor. The Darcy’s friction factor is for fully developed
flow in a pipe. In fully developed flow the velocity does not change in the flow
direction. In case of a capillary tube it increases along the length. Still it is good
approximation to approximate the shear stress term by friction factor. For fully
developed flow the left hand side of Equation (28.3) is zero, hence the frictional
pressure drop Apf may be obtained from the following equation:
Tw = pf V2 / 8 (24.6)
VdV dp pfV2
p— = -— ---------------- (24.7)
dy dy 2D
G = pV
SV 3p fVG
G— = -—-------------- (24.9)
dy dy 2D
In this equation the term on the left hand side is the acceleration of fluid. The
first term on the right hand side is the pressure drop required to accelerate the
fluid and to overcome the frictional resistance. The second term on the right hand
side is the frictional force acting on the tube wall. The friction factor depends
upon the flow Reynolds number and the wall roughness for the fully developed
flow. For the developing flow it is function of distance along the tube also in
addition to Reynolds number. The flow accelerates along the tube due to vapour
formation, as a result, the Reynolds number increases along the tube. The
velocity and Reynolds number vary in a complex manner along the tube and
these are coupled together. Hence, an exact solution of Eqn.(24.9) is not
possible. To a good approximation the integral of product f V, that is, If V dy can
be calculated by assuming average value of the product f V over a small length
AL of the capillary tube.
Ap = Apaccln + Apf
This means that total pressure drop over a length AL is the sum of that required
for acceleration and that required to overcome frictional resistance.
For laminar flow the effect of wall roughness in negligible and friction factor is
given by
f = 64/Re (24.12)
For turbulent flow the friction factor increases with increase in roughness
ratio. Moody’s chart gives the variation of friction factor with Reynolds numbers
for various roughness ratios. A number of empirical expressions are also
available for friction factor in standard books on Fluid Mechanics. One such
expression for the smooth pipe, known as Blasius Correlation is as follows:
The condenser and evaporator temperatures Tc and Te, the refrigerant and its
mass flow rate are usually specified and the length and bore of capillary tube are
required. Eqn.(24.11) is valid for a small length of the tube. Hence, the tube is
divided into small lengths ALi such that across each incremental length a
temperature drop Ati of say 1 or 2 degrees takes place depending upon the
accuracy of calculation required. The length of the tube ALi for temperature to
drop by say, 1oC is found from Eqn.(24.11). The temperature base is taken for
calculations instead of pressure base since the refrigerant properties are
available on basis of temperature.
1. Assume an appropriate diameter D for the tube. At condenser exit and inlet to
capillary tube point “0” shown in Figure 24.4, say the state is saturated liquid
state hence,
v0 = vf, h0 = hf , juo = jUf and
m is known from thermodynamic cycle calculation for the given cooling capacity.
.-.Re = 4m/(TiDju),
G = m/A = pV = V/v
The constants in Eqn.(24.11) G, G/(2D) and 4m /nD required for solution are then
calculated.
2
3
h
Fi
g.
2
4.
4:
St
e
p-
wi
s
e
c
al
c
ul
at
io
n
pr
o
c
e
d
ur
e
fo
r
c
a
pil
la
ry
tu
b
e
le
n W1g
gt are
h obtain
o ed at t
n 1. It is
p- assu
h med
diagra that
m the
enthal
2. At –a py
inlet 0n remai
i = 0 .2d ns
: 5V const
Re0 0 ant
= = during
4m/ expan
(izD v sion
jUo) 0 as
, f0 G shown
= in
0.32 Figure
Re 28.5.
1081. 1082.
At i = If x 1 is
1 in the
Figure dryne
10.6: t ss
1 = tc - fractio
At1 , n at i
find = 1,
the then
satura h 0 = h 1 = x1h1g
tion + (1 - x1) h1f
press (24.14)
ure p1
at t 1.
The 5.
satura
tion Find v
proper 1 = x 1
ties v1 v 1g +
f , v1g, (1 -
h1 f, x1)
h1g v1f
and /
u1 f Assu
and / ming
that
viscos (
ity of
mixtur T
e can
be z
taken
as D
weight
ed /
sum
of w
viscos
ity of
1
satura
ted
)
liquid
and
vapou ,
r we
get,
/W1 f
=x
1H1 1
g +
(1 -
x 1)
/W1 =
f
R
0
e
.
1
3
2
=
R
4
e
m
/
-
0
1
5
-
a V
n 0
d Δp
=
p0
–
V p1
1
Versio
n1
ME,
= IIT
Khara
gpur
12
v
=
[fV]mean = [ f0 V0 + f1 V1 ]/2
Hence, from Eqn.(24.11) the incremental length of capillary tube for the first step,
AL1 is,
-Ap-GAV
AL1 -------------------------
(G/2D) (fV)mean
1083. For the next section i = 2 : t2 = t 1 - At2 , find the saturation pressure p2 at t2.
The saturation properties v2f, v2g, h2f, h2g and /u2f and /u2g are obtained at
temperature t2.
1084. Assuming the enthalpy to remain constant, that is h2 = h1 = h0, the quality x2
is found and steps 4 and 5 are repeated to find the incremental length AL2.
It is observed from Eqn.(24.11) that the total pressure drop is the sum of
pressure drops due to acceleration that is, Apaccln = G AV and the pressure drop
due to friction, that is, Apf = [G/2D] [fV]mean AL. It may so happen under some
conditions that after a few steps of calculation, the total pressure drop required
for a segment may become less than the pressure drop required for acceleration
alone, Ap < Apaccln. The increment length AL for this segment will turn out to be
negative which has no meaning. This condition occurs when the velocity of
refrigerant has reached the velocity of sound (sonic velocity). This condition is
called choked flow condition. The velocity of fluid cannot exceed the velocity of
sound in a tube of constant diameter, hence the calculation cannot proceed any
further. The flow is said to be choked-flow and the mass flow rate through the
tube has reached its maximum value for the selected tube diameter. For a
capillary tube of constant diameter, choked flow condition represents the
minimum suction pressure that can be achieved. If further pressure drop is
required a tube of larger diameter should be chosen in which the velocity of
sound occurs at larger length.
Figure 24.5 shows the variation mass flow rate with suction pressure for
fixed condenser pressure. The mass flow rate through the capillary tube
increases as the evaporator pressure decreases. However at a pressure of p* the
flow is choked. If the choking occurs at some interior point of the tube, the length
of the tube from this point to the exit will offer frictional resistance to the flow and
the pressure must decrease to overcome this. The pressure however cannot
decrease since the flow is choked. Hence, adjustment in the inlet conditions
occurs and the mass flow rate is reduced so that the flow will (always) be choked
at the exit of the tube with reduced mass flow rate. This is typical of compressible
sonic flow where upstream influence occurs; otherwise the downstream pressure
decides the mass flow rate.
Choked flow
mr
Pe
Te or Pe *
Fig.24.5: Variation mass flow rate with suction pressure for fixed condenser
pressure
It is observed that in the early part of the capillary tube, the constant
enthalpy line does not deviate very much from the Fanno line. In the latter part,
the deviation from the Fanno line increases. Most of the length of the capillary
tube happens to be in the latter portion where quality and velocity changes are
very significant; hence constant enthalpy approximation may introduce significant
error.
s *
h
Fi
g.
24
.6:
Fa
nn
o
lin
e
for
ca
pil
lar
y
tu
be
on
h-
s
di
ag
ra
m
Poi
nt A on the
Fanno line
is the point
where the
entropy is
maximum.
This point
correspon
ds to
choked
flow
condition.
Pressure
cannot
drop
below this
value
since in the
it will latter part
requir of the
e a capillary
decre tube. In
ase in step 4 of
entrop the
y calculation
under procedure
adiab enthalpy
atic was
conditi assumed
on, to be
which constant.
is not To
possib improve
le in a upon it,
real the quality
syste is
m. calculated
This by
would considerin
mean g energy
violati balance,
on of that is, the
secon sum of
d law enthalpy
of and
therm kinetic
odyna energy is
mics. assumed
to remain
Modifi constant.
ed The
Proce quality of
dure the
mixture is
I not found
t is from Eqn.
obser (24.14).
ved Instead,
that sum of
the enthalpy
Kineti and
c kinetic
energ energy is
y taken as
chang constant.
es For the
signifi first
cantly segment
we 2 4
get
Substitutin
h ( g for h1
and v1 in
terms of
quality x1
and
properties
at
saturation,
we get
x1h
1g +
(1
–
x1)
h1f
+
G2
[x1
v1g
+
(1
–
x1)
v1f ]
2
/2
=
h0
+
Vo2/
2,
or
h
1f +
x1h1fg +
G2 [v1f
+ x1v1fg
]2 /2 =
h0 +
Vo2/2,
or x12
[v1fg2
G2/2] +
x1[
G2
v1f
v1fg
+
h1fg
]+
(h1f
–
h0)
+
(G2
/2)
v1f2
-
Vo2
/2
=0
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
15
This is a quadratic equation for x1 that can be solved to find x1. The
positive root of this equation is taken as the value of x1. The enthalpy is usually
given in kJ/kg and velocity in m/s, hence to make the equation dimensionally
consistent, the enthalpy is multiplied by 1000, that is,
The remaining part of the procedure from step 5 to 6 remains the same.
For all subsequent steps, the quality is calculated from Eqn.(24.1).
Graphical Procedure
These plots are for choked flow conditions. Corrections for non-choked
flow conditions are given in ASHRAE Handbook.
= 0.10
di = 1.63 mm
Lc= 2.03 m
10oC subcooling
mr
5oC subcooling
Pinlet
= Pc
Fig.24.7: Variation of
refrigerant mass flow rate
with inlet state for the
standard
capillary tube (Choked
flow condition)
di=3 mm
di=2.5Nmm
10
*
0.2
Lcapillary
Fig.24.8: Variation of flow
correction factor φ with
capillary tube length and
dia
met
er
(Ch
oke
d
flow
con
ditio
n)
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
17
24.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of capillary tubes
1085. It is inexpensive.
1086. It does not have any moving parts hence it does not require
maintenance
1087. Capillary tube provides an open connection between condenser
and the evaporator hence during off-cycle, pressure equalization occurs
between condenser and evaporator. This reduces the starting torque
requirement of the motor since the motor starts with same pressure on the
two sides of the compressor. Hence, a motor with low starting torque
(squirrel cage Induction motor) can be used.
1088. Ideal for hermetic compressor based systems, which are critically
charged and factory assembled.
Needle
Strainer
From condenser
Adjustable screw
Adjustable spring
Diaphragm
To evaporator
If Fe + Ffs > Fs + Fo the needle will be pushed against the orifice and the valve
will be fully closed.
On the other hand if Fe + Ffs < Fs + Fo, the needle will be away from the orifice
and the valve will be open. Hence the relative magnitude of these forces controls
the mass flow rate through the expansion valve.
The adjustment spring is usually set such that during off-cycle the valve is
closed, that is, the needle is pushed against the orifice. Hence,
Where, subscript o refers to forces during off cycle. During the off-cycle, the
refrigerant remaining in the evaporator will vaporize but will not be taken out by
the compressor, as a result the evaporator pressure rises during the off-cycle as
shown in Fig.24.10.
When the compressor is started after the off-cycle period, the evaporator
pressure Pe starts decreasing at a very fast rate since valve is closed; refrigerant
is not fed to evaporator while the compressor removes the refrigerant from the
evaporator. This is shown in Fig.24.10. As Pe decreases the force Fe decreases
from Feo to (Feo - ΔFe). At one stage, the sum Fe + Ffs becomes less than Fs + Fo,
Pe
Time *
Fig.24.10: Variation of evaporator pressure during on- and off-cycles of an
AEV based refrigeration system
When the refrigerant starts to enter the evaporator, the evaporator pressure
does not decrease at the same fast rate as at starting time. Thus, the movement
of the needle stand will slow down as the refrigerant starts entering. As the
needle moves downwards, the adjustment spring elongates, therefore the force
Fs decreases from its off-cycle value of Fs0, the decrease being proportional to
the movement of the needle.
The constant is sum of force due to spring force and the atmospheric
pressure, hence it depends upon position of adjustment spring. This will be the
equilibrium position. Then onwards, the valve acts in such a manner that the
The mass flow rate through the valve is directly proportional to the
pressure drop through the orifice (Pc–Pe) and the area of the orifice opening
(needle position). At constant condenser pressure the mass flow rate will
decrease if the evaporator pressure pe increases or as the orifice opening
becomes narrower.
Decrease In Load
Increase In Load
On the other hand if the refrigeration load increases or the evaporator heat
transfer rate increases, the evaporator temperature and pressure will increase for
a flooded evaporator. This will increase Fe. A look at the schematic diagram
reveals that this will tend to move the needle stand upwards, consequently
making the orifice opening narrower and decreasing the mass flow rate. Again
the valve counteracts in a manner opposite to what is required. This shifts the
operating point from A to point C where the compressor draws out more
refrigerant than that fed by the expansion valve leading to starving of the
evaporator.
Compressor -\
Flooding \
^-Balancedx\ /"'^
▲ \% / \ \^HSIormal opening
mr X X
/ 4 X N
/ \ J^Narrow opening
Te *
Fig.24.11: Effect of load variation on balance point of the system using AEV
A1
___i
P2,V2,ρ2
P1,V1,ρ
Mass Conservation:
P1 + V1 = P2 + V2
(24.20)
2 Therefore, V 1.0 - V
2⎠ A22
P1 - P2 = V2 V 1.0 -
= (24.21
2 1
)
⎠
Th
Qideal = A2V2 = A2 (24.22) e
actual
flow
Defining Qide 2 throug
al = ρ
M= h the
MA2 orifice
1.0
is less
2(P1 -P2) than
ρ1 ideal
A /10-(A2/ A1) flow
becau
se
1.0 viscou
2
we get s
^1.0- (A2 / A1) effects
are not
includ
ed in
the
above
treatm
ent. An
empiri
cal
coeffici
ent
CD,
called
discha
rge
coeffic
ient is
introdu
ced to
accou
nt for
the
viscou
s
effects
.
J2(P1 -P2)
ρ1
(24.24)
Qa
ctua
l=
CD
Qid
eal
= CDMA2 4. 25)
Introducing flow coefficient K = The area of the orifice
CD M opening is usually
2(P1 -P2)
ρ1 Q controlled to control the
a mass flow rate through the
ct expansion valve. It is
u
al
observed that the mass
= flow rate depends upon
K the difference between the
A condenser and evaporator
pressures also. It is
2
To account for curious that single phase
compressibility another relations have been given
empirical constant Y is above while it was shown
that during expansion of
introduced for actual mass
high pressure liquid, the
flow rate. Hence, the mass
refrigerant flashes into a
flow rate is expressed as,
low pressure mixture of
m 2 liquid and vapour as it
=K ρ flows through the
ρ1Y expansion valve. Actually,
A2 studies show that the
refrigerant remains in a
thermodynamic
metastable liquid state as
it flows through the orifice
of the expansion valve.
That is, it remains a liquid
at a lower pressure and
temperature during its
passage through the
orifice. It flashes into a
mixture of liquid and
vapour as soon as it
emerges out of the orifice
of the valve. This kind of
phenomenon has been
observed in the initial
sections of transparent
capillary tubes also.
Fp = Ab Pp (24.26)
The evaporator pressure is exerted below the bellows. In case the evaporator is
large and has a significant pressure drop, the pressure from evaporator exit is
fed directly to the bottom of the bellows by a narrow tube. This is called pressure-
equalizing connection. Such a TEV is called TEV with external equalizer,
otherwise it is known as TEV with internal equalizer. The force Fe exerted due to
this pressure Pe on the bottom of the bellows is given by
Fe = Ab Pe (24.27)
The difference of the two forces Fp and Fe is exerted on top of the needle
stand. There is an adjustment spring below the needle stand that exerts an
upward spring force Fs on the needle stand. In steady state there will be a force
balance on the needle stand, that is,
Fs = Fp - Fe (24.28)
Superheated
refrigerant to
compressor
Capillary tube "Suction line
Bellows
Screw
Needle
Adjustable
High pressure^ Evaporator
stand
spring
liquid
As the refrigerant enters the evaporator it arrests the fast rate of decrease of
evaporator pressure. The movement of needle stand also slows down. The
spring, however gets compressed as the needle stand moves downward to open
Fs = Fs0 + ΔFs
Fs = Fp - Fe = Ab ( Pp – Pe) (24.29)
That is, Fp is greater than Fe or Pp is greater than Pe. The pressure Pp and Pe
are saturation pressures at temperature (Te + ΔTs) and Te respectively. Hence, for
a given setting force Fs of the spring, TEV maintains the difference between Fp
and Fe or the degree of superheat ΔTs constant.
If the load on the plant increases, the evaporation rate of liquid refrigerant
increases, the area available for superheating the vapour increases. As the
degree of superheat increases, pressure of power fluid Pp increases, the needle
stand is pushed down and the mass flow rate of refrigerant increases. This is the
ideal case. The evaporation rate of refrigerant is proportional to the load and the
mass flow rate supplied through the expansion valve is also proportional to the
load.
On the other hand, if the load on the plant decreases, the evaporation rate
of refrigerant decreases, as a result the degree of superheat decreases. The
thermostatic expansion valve reacts in such a way so as to reduce the mass flow
rate through it. The flow rate of refrigerant in this valve is proportional to the
evaporation rate of refrigerant in the evaporator. Hence, this valve always
establishes balanced flow condition of flow between compressor and itself.
Figure 24.14 shows the saturated vapour line with pressure along the
ordinate. The difference between Pp and Pe is proportional to the spring force, Fs
and their corresponding projection from the saturated vapour line is the degree of
superheat given by a set of Pp and Pe. The figure shows three sets of Pp and Pe
Pp
bar Pp
0.3
Pe
Pe
Pp
bar
0.3
3K
bar
0.3
A -40oC "► B C 5oC
Te -20oC
Refrigerant
ΔPs
ΔPs
A B
T
24.15: Vapour pressure
c
u
r
v
e
s
o
f
r
e
f
r
i
g
e
r
a
n
t
a
n
d
p
o
w
e
r
f
l
u
i
d
(
c
r
o
s
s
-
c
h
a
r
g
e
d
T
E
V
)
24.5.3
. TEV
with
Exter
nal
Press
ure
Equal
izer
Th
e
press
ure
drop
of the
refrige
rant is
quite
signifi
cant in
large
evapo
rators,
for
exam
ple in
direct
expan
sion
coils
with a
single
long
tube.
Therm
ostatic
expan
sion
valve
maint
ains
Fp –
Fe =
Ab(Pp
– P e)
at a
consta
nt
value
equal
to
spring
force.
The
pressu
re Pp
is the
satura
tion
pressu
re at
(Te +
ΔTs)
while
Pe is
satura
tion
press
ure at
Te. In
a
large
evapo
rator,
due to
press
ure
drop
ΔPe,
the
pressu
re at
exit is
say,
Pe -
ΔPe
and
corres
pondin
g
satura
tion
tempe
rature
at exit
of
evapo
rator
is Te-
ΔTe.
The
super
heat
ΔTs
corres
ponds
to
evapo
rator
press
ure Pe
and
tempe
rature
TE.
Theref
ore,
effecti
ve
super
heat
at
evapo
rator
exit is
ΔTs +
ΔTe.
This
may
beco
me
very
large
and
may
result
in low
COP
and
lower
volum
etric
efficie
ncy of
compr
essor.
To
correc
t for
this,
TEV is
provid
ed
with a
tappin
g,
which
feeds
the
press
ure Pe
- ΔPe
from
evapo
rator
exit to
the
botto
m of
bellow
s. This
will
result
in a
degre
e of
super
heat
equal
to the
set
value
ΔTs. A
TEV
with
this
provisi
on is
called
TEV
with
Extern
al
Press
ure
Equali
zer. In
this
TEV a
stuffin
g box
is
provid
ed
betwe
en
pushpi
ns
and
the
valve
body
so
that
evapo
rator
inlet
press
ure is
not
comm
unicat
ed to
the
botto
m of
bellow
s.
Figure
24.16
shows
a TEV
with
an
extern
al
equali
zer
arrang
ement
with
press
ure
tappin
g.
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
29
Pressure tapping
TEV
3
C J
C j Feeler
bulb
Evaporator --------------
'
In any case a large evaporator pressure drop leads to a lower COP; hence a
number of parallel paths or circuits are provided in the evaporator. The refrigerant
is fed to these paths by a single TEV fitted with a distributor. In such a case, it is
recommended that external pressure equalizer be used and care taken to ensure
that all the paths are symmetric and have the same length.
The volume of power fluid in the feeler bulb and the connecting tube is
constant, therefore heating and cooling of power fluid is a constant specific
volume process. Figure 24.17 shows the pressure-temperature variation of the
power fluid. The bulb usually has a mixture of liquid and vapour and the pressure
exerted by power fluid corresponds to its saturation pressure. The pressure of the
power fluid increases rather rapidly as its temperature increases since the liquid
evaporates and it has to be accommodated in fixed volume. This sharp rise in
pressure with temperature continues until point B on the saturation curve, where
no liquid is left. Since the pressure of the power fluid does not increase
significantly beyond B, the valve does not open any wider, pp « constant, hence
for a fixed spring setting pe remains almost constant and thereby limits the
pressure in the evaporator to Maximum Operating pressure. It was observed in
an earlier lecture on reciprocating compressors that the power requirement of a
reciprocating compressor is maximum at a certain evaporator pressure. The air-
conditioning systems usually operate near the peak while the refrigeration
systems such as those for ice cream or frozen food operate on the left side of the
The limit charged valve is prone to failure known as reversal. The feeler bulb
has vapour only. The head of the feeler bulb is usually colder than the rest of it,
as a result a small amount of vapor can condense in this region. This colder
region will have lower saturation pressure that will decide the pressure of the
feeler bulb and this low pressure may be insufficient to open the valve. This is
avoided by keeping the head of the valve warm by internal circulation.
i . D
P
AP2 T
t -------------------------
7
ATe
------------►
AP1 .
^^
t ATe
T
Fig.24.17: Variation of power fluid pressure with temperature in a limit
charged TEV
From condenser
High side float
chamber
Applied voltage
Refrigerant
EEV
Liquid sensing
out
thermistor
t Needle
Refrigerant
in Fig.24.19: Schematic of an electronic expansion valve
During summer months, the mass low rate through expansion valve is
large because of large pressure difference. The corrective action taken by the
system is to pass vapour through the expansion valve. This problem can occur if
there is insufficient charge of refrigerant in the system so that the liquid seal at
condenser exit is broken and vapour enters the expansion valve. It can occur
because of higher elevation of expansion valve over the condenser so that there
is static pressure drop to overcome gravitational force to reach the expansion
valve, which causes flashing of refrigerant into a mixture of liquid and vapour.
This is however not advisable since it leads to lower COP. Hence, it is advisable
to use a liquid to vapour subcooling heat exchanger so that the liquid is
subcooled and will not flash before entry into expansion valve.
Since the area available for refrigerant flow in the expansion device is
normally very small, there is a danger of valve blockage due to some impurities
present in the system. Hence, it is essential to use a filter/strainer before the
expansion device, so that only refrigerant flows through the valve and solid
particles, if any, are blocked by the filter/strainer. Normally, the automatic
expansion valve and thermostatic expansion valves consist of in-built
filter/strainers. However, when a capillary tube is used, it is essential to use a
Ans.: d)
1098. The refrigerant mass flow rate through a capillary tube increases as
condenser pressure decreases and evaporator pressure increases
1099. The refrigerant mass flow rate through a capillary tube increases as
condenser pressure increases and evaporator pressure decreases
1100. A capillary tube tends to supply more mass flow rate as refrigeration load
increases
c) A capillary tube tends to supply more mass flow rate as refrigeration load
decreases
Ans.: b) and d)
1104. The mass flow rate through a capillary is maximum under choked flow
conditions
1105. The mass flow rate through a capillary is minimum under choked flow
conditions
1106. The enthalpy of refrigerant remains constant as it flows through a capillary
tube
Ans.: a) and d)
5. For a given refrigerant mass flow rate, the required length of a capillary tube
increases as:
Ans.: b) and d)
Ans.: b) and d)
1119. Cross-charging is used in TEV when the pressure difference across the
evaporator is large
1120. Cross-charging is used in TEV when the evaporator has to operate over a
large temperature range
1121. An external equalizer is used when pressure drop in evaporator is large
1122. By limiting the amount of power fluid, the power peak during pull-down
period can be avoided
1123. A float valve maintains a constant level of liquid in the float chamber
1124. A float valve maintains a constant pressure in the float chamber
1125. Low-side float valves are used with direct expansion type evaporators
1126. High-side float valves are used in flooded type evaporators
Ans.: a)
11. A thermostatic expansion valve uses R12 as the power fluid, and is used in a
R12 based system operating at an evaporator temperature of 4 oC. The
adjustable spring is set to offer a resistance equivalent to a pressure of 60 kPa.
What is the degree of superheat?
Ans.: From the properties of R12, at 4oC, the saturation pressure Pe is 350 kPa.
Hence the pressure acting on the bellows/diaphragm due to the power fluid Pp is:
Pp = Pe+Ps = 350 + 60 = 410 kPa The saturation
temperature corresponding to a pressure of 410 kPa is 9oC
12. For the above thermostat, what is the actual degree of superheat if there is a
pressure drop of 22 kPa in the evaporator?
This implies that a TEV with external equalizer is preferable to reduce the
superheat
Ans.: At the design conditions the evaporator temperature is 7oC and degree of
superheat is 5 K.
Ps = Psat(12oC) - Psat(7oC)
If the above TEV is operated at -23oC evaporator temperature, then the pressure
exerted by the power fluid is:
This example shows that when the same TEV operates at a lower
evaporator temperature, then the required degree of superheat increases
implying improper utilization of evaporator area. Hence, it is better to use cross-
charging (power fluid is another fluid with a higher boiling point than refrigerant).
1140. Explain the concept of complete system analysis and the characteristics of
graphical and analytical methods
1141. Express or plot the performance characteristics of individual components
such as compressors, condensers and evaporators and enumerate the influence
of operating parameters such as cooling water and brine flow rates, inlet
temperatures etc.
1142. Obtain balance point for a condensing unit by matching the characteristics
of compressors and condensers
1143. Obtain the balance point and characteristics curves for a complete system
assuming an ideal expansion valve
1144. Explain the effect of expansion device on system performance
1145. Explain the meaning of sensitivity analysis and its importance in system
design and optimization
In analytical method, the mass flow rate through expansion valve can be
represented by an algebraic equation in terms of evaporator and condenser
temperatures. Similarly, the mass flow rate through a given compressor can also
be represented by an algebraic equation in terms of evaporator and condenser
temperatures by regression analysis of experimental or analytical data. The
balance point of the two components can be obtained by simultaneous solution
of the two algebraic equations.
>
4 1 P
T
2 Pe
Tc Te
S Fig.25.1: A single
For the above cycle, the refrigeration capacity and power input to
compressor are given by:
h1 =m
—h4
(25.1)
Q .
^ v1 > (h1 - h4 )=V
. ..
where Qe is the refrigeration capacity, mr and V1 are the refrigerant mass
flow rate and volumetric flow rate of refrigerant at compressor inlet, respectively,
V1 V = n.ry 71D L V N N
(25.2)
Tc = 30oC
Tc = 35oC
Capacity, Qe
Evaporator temperature, Te
Qe=a1+a2Te+a3Te2+a4Tc+a5Tc2+a6TeTc+a7Te2Tc+a8TeTc2+a9Te2Tc2 (25.3)
For water-cooled condenser, one has to consider the water flow rate and
inlet water temperature as additional parameters. In this case also a single region
with constant condenser temperature Tc is considered. The heat transfer rate for
a water-cooled condenser is expressed as follows:
Qc = UcAcLMTD = mwCpw(Tw,o ~Tw i) (25.5)
where mw is the water flow rate, Uc is overall heat transfer coefficient, Tw, and Tw,o
are the inlet and outlet water temperatures respectively. The log mean
temperature difference of condenser LMTDc is expressed as follows:
- U c Ac
Two = Tc -(Tc -Tw ,i)e ^ mw pw
-Tc-(Tc-Tw ,i)e NTU
(25.6)
Qe = mr (h 1 - h4) (25.8)
Qe=b1+b2Te+b3Te2+b4Tc+b5Tc2+b6TeTc+b7Te2Tc+b8TeTc2+b9Te2Tc2 (25.9)
Tc = 40oC
Capacity, Qe
Evaporator temperature, Te
Fig.25.3. Condenser performance at fixed water inlet temperature and flow rate
Tc= 30oC Qe = (
G(Tc - 2
Tw,i ) 5
.
1
0
)
Capacity, Qe
I
0
o o
25 C 30 C
35oC
40oC
Water inlet
temperature,
o
C
Fig.25.4.
Condenser
performance Version 1
with water ME, IIT
inlet Kharagpur
temperature 9
at fixed flow
rate
The
characteristi
cs in Fig.
25.4 are
straight
lines with
almost
same slope
for all the
condenser
temperature
s. These
may be
represented
by the
25.4. Evaporator Performance
Evaporator is also a heat exchanger just like condenser. For the sake of
illustration, consider an evaporator that is used for chilling a brine. The cooling
capacity of brine chiller is shown in Fig. 25.5 as a function of brine flow rate for
different values of LMTD of evaporator. The brine side heat transfer coefficient h b
increases as the brine flow rate increases as a result, the overall heat transfer
coefficient of the evaporator increases. Figure 25.5 shows that the cooling
capacity increases with flow rate for fixed LMTDe for this reason.
LMTDe = 7oC
LMTDe = 6oC
One can obtain the data for cooling capacity at various brine inlet
temperatures from the characteristics of evaporator as shown in Fig.25.5. For
example, if a plot for brine inlet temperature Tb,i of 10oC is required, then we may
choose an LMTDe of 5oC and read the capacity Qe for the chosen brine flow rate
m b. Then the brine outlet temperature Tb,o is obtained from the equation:
Then the evaporator temperature Te is obtained from the expression for LMTDe:
Evaporator
or
temperature,
at T
fix
F ed
i bri
g ne
. flo
2 w
5 rat
. e
6
:
P
e
r
f
o Version 1
r ME, IIT
m Kharagpur
a 11
n
c
e
c
25.5.Expansion valve Characteristics:
The characteristics of expansion valve play an important role in deciding
the conditions achieved by the refrigeration system. It was shown in Chapter 24
that compressor and expansion valve seek an evaporator temperature such that
under steady state conditions, the mass flow rate is same through the
compressor and expansion valve. This was the result under the constraint that
the condenser and evaporator have sufficiently large heat transfer areas and do
not influence the performance of expansion device and compressor. In this
chapter it is assumed that the expansion valve is capable of providing sufficient
mass flow rate at all condenser and evaporator temperatures. This is assumed to
simplify the matching problem. A float type of expansion valve or thermostatic
expansion valve will meet this requirement. If the analysis is being done by
computational method then the valve performance may also be included with
some additional computational effort.
25.6.Condensing unit:
As mentioned before, if graphical procedure is used to find performance
evaluation of various components, then only two components can be considered
at a time. In view of this the first sub-system considered is the condensing unit.
Condensing unit is a combination of compressor and condenser. This unit draws
refrigerant from the evaporator, compresses it in the compressor, condenses it in
the condenser and then feeds the condensed liquid refrigerant to the expansion
valve. It is available off-the-shelf as a packaged unit from the manufacturer with
matched set of compressor, compressor motor and condenser along with
reservoir and controls. This may be air-cooled or water-cooled unit which may be
installed as an outdoor unit.
E
v
Capacity, Qe a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
T
e
Fig.25.7: Performance
character
istics of a
condensi
ng unit
as a
function
of
evaporat
or and
condensi
ng
temperat
ures
It is observed that as
the evaporator temperature
decreases, the condensing
temperature for the
combination also decreases.
This is explained as follows:
at lower evaporator
temperatures compre . The two figures are shown
, the ssor side-by-side. At constant
volumetric inlet. evaporator temperature of
efficiency say, – 5oC and condenser
and the F temperature of 30oC, the inlet
mass flow igure water temperature
rate through 25.8 corresponding to point D is
the shows required to match the two
compressor the components. Points E and F
decreases. variatio are the balance points at
This n of condenser temperatures of
decreases refriger 35 and 40oC respectively.
the load on ation Line DEF is the
the capacit characteristics of the
condenser. A y of the condensing unit at an
large conden evaporator temperature of –
condenser sing 5oC. It is observed that the
heat transfer unit with cooling capacity decreases
area is variatio as the inlet water
available for n in temperature to condenser
small mass inlet increases.
flow rate, water
hence tempera
condensatio ture to
n can occur the
at lower conden Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur
condenser ser. 13
temperature. This is
It is also obtaine
seen that as d by
the superim
evaporator position
temperature of
decreases, compre
the ssor
refrigeration charact
capacity of eristics
the of
condensing Fig.25.2
unit also on the
decreases. variatio
This is due n of
to the lower conden
mass flow ser
rate through perform
the ance
compressor with
due to lower inlet
volumetric water
efficiency temper
and lower ature
vapour given in
density at Fig.25.4
Tc=30oC
Tc=35oC
Tc=40oC
Qe
F
i
g
.
2
5
.
8
:
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
o
f
t
h
e
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
i
n
g
u
n
i
t
a
s
f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
w
a
t
e
r
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
a
t
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
i
n
l
e
t
T
hese
charact
eristics
can
also be
obtaine
d by
simulta
neous
solutio
n of
Eqns.
(25.3)
and
(25.9)
for
consta
nt
water
temper
ature
at
conden
ser
inlet
and
consta
nt
water
flow
rate.
For
exampl
e, we
wish to
find the
conden
ser
temper
ature
and
capacit
y for a
given
evapor
ator
temper
ature
of say
10oC.
An
iterativ
e
proced
ure
may be
devise
d as
follows:
(
i
)
F
o
r
T
e
1
0
o
a
s
s
u
m
e
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
i
n
g
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
T
c
=
3
5
o
C
(ii) Find
Qe from Eqn.
(25.3)
(iii)
Substit
ution of
Te =
o
10 C
and Qe
in Eqn.
(25.9)
will
yield a
quadra
tic
equatio
n for
Tc. The
value
of Tc is
found
and
checke
d
against
the
assum
ed
value
of Tc
o
(35 C
being
the first
iterate)
and
iteratio
n is
continu
ed until
the
calcula
ted
value
matche
s with
the
assum
ed
value
of
conden
ser
temper
ature.
25.7.
Perfor
manc
e of
compl
ete
syste
m -
conde
nsing
unit
and
evapo
rator:
I
n
steady
state, a
balanc
e
conditi
on
must
prevail
betwee
n all
the
compo
nents,
that is,
betwee
n
conden
sing
unit
and
evapor
ator
assumi
ng that
the
expans
ion
valve
will
provide
approp
riate
mass
flow
rate.
This
conflue
nce will
repres
ent the
perfor
mance
of
comple
te
single-
stage
vapour
compre
ssion
refriger
ation
system
. The
combin
ed
curves
will
also
give
insight
into the
off-
One can study the response of the system in transient state also by this
figure. In a transient state, say the evaporator temperature is 5 oC. The figure
shows that at this point the condensing unit has a capacity corresponding to point
B while the evaporator has capacity corresponding to a lower value at C. Hence
the condensing unit has excess capacity. The excess capacity will reduce the
temperature of refrigerant and the metallic wall of the evaporator. This will
continue until the balance point of 3oC is reached at point A.
Figure 25.10 shows the effect of brine mass flow rate compared to that at
the balance point. If the brine flow rate is increased, it is observed that cooling
capacity increases to point D. At higher flow rate the overall heat transfer
coefficient increases while (Tb,i-Tb,o) decreases permitting a larger mean
temperature difference between refrigerant and brine. Therefore with increase in
mass flow rate of brine, the cooling capacity increases. The pump power also
Evaporator starving
Capacity, Qe
----------------w
25.9. Conclusion:
The methods presented in this chapter are useful when compressor,
condenser, evaporator and expansion valve have been selected and the
performance of combined system is desired. This analysis may not be useful in
selecting the initial equipment. The techniques presented in this chapter are
useful in predicting system performance for off-design conditions like a change in
ambient temperature, condenser inlet water temperature and brine inlet
temperature etc. The power requirement of the compressor has not been given
due emphasis in the analysis. In fact, an equation similar to Eqn. (25.3) may be
written for this also. This can also be found from known values of condenser and
evaporator loads.
Ans.: d)
Ans.: a)
1161. At constant RPM, cooling water flow rate and inlet temperature, the
balance point condensing temperature increases as evaporator temperature
increases
1162. At constant RPM, cooling water flow rate and inlet temperature, the
balance point condensing temperature increases as evaporator temperature
decreases
1163. At constant RPM, cooling water flow rate and inlet temperature, the
cooling capacity at balance point increases as evaporator temperature increases
1164. At constant RPM, cooling water flow rate and inlet temperature, the
cooling capacity at balance point increases as evaporator temperature decreases
Ans.: a) and c)
26.1. Introduction:
The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigeration system depends mainly on
its operating temperatures. However, important practical issues such as the
system design, size, initial and operating costs, safety, reliability, and
serviceability etc. depend very much on the type of refrigerant selected for a
given application. Due to several environmental issues such as ozone layer
depletion and global warming and their relation to the various refrigerants used,
the selection of suitable refrigerant has become one of the most important issues
in recent times. Replacement of an existing refrigerant by a completely new
refrigerant, for whatever reason, is an expensive proposition as it may call for
several changes in the design and manufacturing of refrigeration systems. Hence
it is very important to understand the issues related to the selection and use of
refrigerants. In principle, any fluid can be used as a refrigerant. Air used in an air
cycle refrigeration system can also be considered as a refrigerant. However, in
this lecture the attention is mainly focused on those fluids that can be used as
refrigerants in vapour compression refrigeration systems only.
f) Liquid specific heat: Should be small so that degree of subcooling will be large
leading to smaller amount of flash gas at evaporator inlet
g) Vapour specific heat: Should be large so that the degree of superheating will
be small
i) Viscosity: Viscosity should be small in both liquid and vapour phases for smaller
frictional pressure drops
The freezing point of the refrigerant should be lower than the lowest
operating temperature of the cycle to prevent blockage of refrigerant pipelines.
1179. Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the Montreal protocol, the
ODP of refrigerants should be zero, i.e., they should be non-ozone depleting
substances. Refrigerants having non-zero ODP have either already been
phased-out (e.g. R 11, R 12) or will be phased-out in near-future(e.g. R22). Since
ODP depends mainly on the presence of chlorine or bromine in the molecules,
refrigerants having either chlorine (i.e., CFCs and HCFCs) or bromine cannot be
used under the new regulations
1180. Global Warming Potential (GWP): Refrigerants should have as low a GWP
value as possible to minimize the problem of global warming. Refrigerants with
zero ODP but a high value of GWP (e.g. R134a) are likely to be regulated in
future.
1181. Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI): The factor TEWI considers both
direct (due to release into atmosphere) and indirect (through energy
consumption) contributions of refrigerants to global warming. Naturally,
refrigerants with as a low a value of TEWI are preferable from global warming
point of view.
Based on the above criteria, ASHRAE has divided refrigerants into six safety
groups (A1 to A3 and B1 to B3). Refrigerants belonging to Group A1 (e.g. R11,
R12, R22, R134a, R744, R718) are least hazardous, while refrigerants belonging
to Group B3 (e.g. R1140) are most hazardous.
h) Miscibility with lubricating oils: Oil separators have to be used if the refrigerant
is not miscible with lubricating oil (e.g. ammonia). Refrigerants that are
completely miscible with oils are easier to handle (e.g. R12). However, for
refrigerants with limited solubility (e.g. R 22) special precautions should be taken
while designing the system to ensure oil return to the compressor i) Dilelectric
strength: This is an important property for systems using hermetic compressors.
For these systems the refrigerants should have as high a dielectric strength as
possible
j) Ease of leak detection: In the event of leakage of refrigerant from the system, it
should be easy to detect the leaks.
The balance indicates the number of Chlorine atoms. Only 2 digits indicates that
the value of X is zero.
Ex: R 22
X = 0 ⇒ No. of Carbon atoms = 0+1 = 1 ⇒ derivative of methane (CH 4)
Y = 2 ⇒ No. of Hydrogen atoms = 2-1 = 1 Z = 2 ⇒ No. of Fluorine atoms = 2 The
balance = 4 – no. of (H+F) atoms = 4-1-2 = 1 ⇒ No. of Chlorine atoms = 1 ∴The
chemical formula of R 22 = CHClF2
R12 = CCl2F2
R134a = C2H2F4 (derivative of ethane)
(letter a stands for isomer, e.g. molecules having same chemical composition but
different atomic arrangement, e.g. R134 and R134a)
Azeotropic mixtures:
Zeotropic mixtures:
It should be noted that the use of natural refrigerants such as carbon dioxide,
hydrocarbons is not a new phenomena, but is a revival of the once-used-and-
discarded technologies in a much better form. Since the natural refrigerants are
essentially making a comeback, one advantage of using them is that they are
familiar in terms of their strengths and weaknesses. Another important advantage
is that they are completely environment friendly, unlike the HFC based
refrigerants, which do have considerable global warming potential. The alternate
synthetic refrigerants are normally non-toxic and non-flammable. It is also
possible to use blends of various HFCs to obtain new refrigerant mixtures with
required properties to suit specific applications. However, most of these blends
are non-azeotropic in nature, as a result there could be significant temperature
glides during evaporation and condensation, and it is also important take
precautions to prevent leakage, as this will change the composition of the
mixture. Table 26.1 shows a list of refrigerants being replaced and their
replacements.
Refrigerant Application
Substitute suggested
R 11(CFC) Large air conditioning systems Retrofit(R)/New (N)
NBP = 23.7oC Industrial heat pumps As foam R 123 (R,N)
hfg at NBP=182.5 kJ/kg
blowing agent R 141b (N)
Tcr =197.98oC
Cp/Cv = 1.13 R 245fa (N)
ODP = 1.0
n-pentane (R,N)
GWP = 3500
R 12 (CFC)
NBP = -29.8oC Domestic refrigerators R 22 (R,N)
hfg at NBP=165.8 kJ/kg Small air conditioners R 134a (R,N)
Tcr =112.04oC Water coolers Small R 227ea (N)
Cp/Cv = 1.126 R 401A,R 401B (R,N)
cold storages
ODP = 1.0 R 411A,R 411B (R,N)
R 717 (N)
GWP = 7300
R 22 (HCFC) R 410A, R 410B (N)
NBP = -40.8oC
Air conditioning systems R 417A (R,N)
hfg at NBP=233.2 kJ/kg R 407C (R,N)
Tcr =96.02oC Cold storages R 507,R 507A (R,N)
Cp/Cv = 1.166 R 404A (R,N)
ODP = 0.05 R 717 (N)
GWP = 1500
R 134a (HFC) No replacement required
NBP = -26.15oC
hfg at NBP=222.5 kJ/kg - Immiscible in mineral oils
Tcr =101.06oC Used as replacement for R 12 in - Highly hygroscopic
Cp/Cv = 1.102 domestic refrigerators, water
ODP = 0.0 coolers, automobile A/Cs etc
GWP = 1200 Cold storages Air conditioning
R 717 (NH3) systems Simultaneous cooling No replacement required
NBP = -33.35oC and heating (Transcritical cycle)
hfg at NBP=1368.9 kJ/kg - Toxic and flammable
Tcr =133.0oC
- Incompatible with copper
Cp/Cv = 1.31
Cold storages Ice plants - Highly efficient
ODP = 0.0
Food processing Frozen - Inexpensive and available
GWP = 0.0
food cabinets
No replacement required
- Very low critical temperature
- Eco-friendly
- Inexpensive and cycle
available 1185. The freezing
Refrigerant point of a brine is
generally lower than
R718 (H2O) the freezing point of
NBP = 100.oC its constituents
hfg at NBP=2257.9 kJ/kg Tcr
1186. The freezing
=374.15oC Cp/Cv = 1.33
point of a brine is
ODP = 0.0 GWP = 1.0
generally higher than
the freezing point of
its constituents
R600a (iso-butane)
NBP = -11.73oC Ans.: b) and c)
hfg at NBP=367.7 kJ/kg
Tcr =135.0oC 2. Which of the following
Cp/Cv = 1.086 ODP = statements are TRUE?
0.0 GWP = 3.0
1187. The suction
pressure of a refrigerant
Table 26.1: should be as high as
Refrigerants, their
applications and possible
substitutes (contd.) 1188. The suction
pressure of a refrigerant
Questions
should be as low as
and
answers: possible
1189. The discharge
1. Which of the
pressure of a refrigerant
following
statements are should be as high as
TRUE?
possible
1183. A 1190. The discharge
primary pressure of a refrigerant
refrigerant does
should be as low as
not undergo
phase change in possible
a refrigeration
cycle Ans.: a) and d)
1184. A
secondary
refrigerant
does not
undergo
Version 1 ME, IIT
phase
Kharagpur
change in a
refrigeration
3. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
1195. A refrigerant having high critical temperature yields high COP and high
volumetric capacity
1196. A refrigerant having high critical temperature yields low COP and high
volumetric capacity
1197. A refrigerant having high critical temperature yields low COP and low
volumetric capacity
1198. A refrigerant having high critical temperature yields high COP and low
volumetric capacity
Ans.: d)
1199. Low molecular weight refrigerants have high latent heat of vaporization
1200. Low molecular weight refrigerants have low latent heat of vaporization
1201. For saturated state at the inlet to the compressor, a refrigerant having high
vapour specific heat may give rise to wet compression
1202. For saturated state at the inlet to the compressor, a refrigerant having low
vapour specific heat may give rise to wet compression
Ans.: a) and c)
1203. CCl3F
1204. CClF3
1205. CCl
HF d)CHF
Ans.: a)
1206. C2H3ClF3
1207. C2H2Cl3F
1208. C2H3Cl2F
1209. C2H2ClF3
Ans.: c)
Ans.: a) and d)
1214. R11
1215. R21
1216. R12
1217. R32
1218. R22
1219. R11
1220. R134a
1221. R141b
Ans.: c)
11. Which of the following refrigerants are suggested as replacements for R22 in
large air conditioning and cold storage systems?
1222. R134a
1223. R21
1224. R410A
1225. R407C
Ans.: c) and d)
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 14
1
Lesson
27
Psychrometry
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 1
2
27.1. Introduction:
Atmospheric air makes up the environment in almost every type of air
conditioning system. Hence a thorough understanding of the properties of
atmospheric air and the ability to analyze various processes involving air is
fundamental to air conditioning design.
Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus water vapour and a number
of pollutants (Fig.27.1). The amount of water vapour and pollutants vary from place
to place. The concentration of water vapour and pollutants decrease with altitude,
and above an altitude of about 10 km, atmospheric air consists of only dry air. The
pollutants have to be filtered out before processing the air. Hence, what we process
is essentially a mixture of various gases that constitute air and water vapour. This
mixture is known as moist air.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 2
3
The moist air can be thought of as a mixture of dry air and moisture. For all
practical purposes, the composition of dry air can be considered as constant. In
1949, a standard composition of dry air was fixed by the International Joint
Committee on Psychrometric data. It is given in Table 27.1.
Based on the above composition the molecular weight of dry air is found to be
28.966 and the gas constant R is 287.035 J/kg.K.
At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can only hold a certain
maximum amount of moisture. When the moisture content is maximum, then the air
is known as saturated air, which is established by a neutral equilibrium between the
moist air and the liquid or solid phases of water.
For calculation purposes, the molecular weight of water vapour is taken as 18.015
and its gas constant is 461.52 J/kg.K.
Afte
r
Mixture of
permanent
gases
(N2,O2,Ar,H2
Water vapour
Moist air fo
Fig.27.1:
Atmospheric a
27.2.
Meth
ods
for
esti
mati
ng
prop
ertie
s of
mois
t air:
I
n
order
to
perfor
m air
conditi
oning
calcul
ations,
it is
essent
ial first
to
estima
te
variou
s
proper
ties of
air. It
is
difficul
t to
estima
te the
exact
proper
ty
values
of
moist
air as
it is a
mixtur
e of
sever
al
perma
nent
gases
and
water
vapou
r.
Howe
ver,
moist
air
upto 3
atm.
press
ure is
found
to
obey
perfec
t gas
law
with
accur
acy
suffici
ent for
engin
eering
calcul
ations.
For
higher
accur
acy
Goff
and
Gratc
h
tables
can
be
used
for
estima
ting
moist
air
proper
ties.
These
tables
are
obtain
ed
using
mixtur
e
model
s
based
on
funda
menta
l
princip
les of
statisti
cal
mech
anics
that
take
into
accou
nt the
real
gas
behavi
our of
dry air
and
water
vapou
r.
Howe
ver,
these
tables
are
valid
for a
barom
etric
press
ure of
1 atm.
only.
Even
thoug
h the
calcul
ation
proce
dure
is
quite
compl
ex,
using
the
mixtur
e
model
s it is
possib
le to
estima
te
moist
air
proper
ties at
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
4
other pressures also. However, since in most cases the pressures involved are low,
one can apply the perfect gas model to estimate psychrometric properties.
According to the Gibbs-Dalton law for a mixture of perfect gases, the total
pressure exerted by the mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the
constituent gases. According to this law, for a homogeneous perfect gas mixture
occupying a volume V and at temperature T, each constituent gas behaves as
though the other gases are not present (i.e., there is no interaction between the
gases). Each gas obeys perfect gas equation. Hence, the partial pressures exerted
by each gas, p1,p2,p3 … and the total pressure pt are given by:
Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist air as measured by a
standard thermometer or other temperature measuring instruments.
Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the saturated partial pressure of water vapour at
the dry bulb temperature. This is readily available in thermodynamic tables and
charts. ASHRAE suggests the following regression equation for saturated vapour
pressure of water, which is valid for 0 to 100oC.
ln(psat) = 1 + c2 + c3T + c4T + c5T + c6 ln(T) (27.3)
where psat = saturated vapor pressure of water in kiloPascals
T = temperature in K The regression
coefficients c1 to c6 are given by:
Relative humidity (Φ) is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapour in
moist air to mole fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the same temperature
and pressure. Using perfect gas equation we can show that:
Humidity ratio (W): The humidity ratio (or specific humidity) W is the mass of water
associated with each kilogram of dry air1. Assuming both water vapour and dry air to
be perfect gases2, the humidity ratio is given by:
Substituting the values of gas constants of water vapour and air R v and Ra in
the above equation; the humidity ratio is given by:
W pv
= 0.622------ (27.6)
pt -pv
For a given barometric pressure pt, given the DBT, we can find the saturated vapour
pressure psat from the thermodynamic property tables on steam. Then using the
above equation, we can find the humidity ratio at saturated conditions, Wsat.
4030(DBT + 235)
DPT =----------------------------------235 (27.7)
4030 - (DBT + 235)lnφ
where Φ is the relative humidity (in fraction). DBT & DPT are in oC. Of course, since
from its definition, the dew point temperature is the saturation temperature
corresponding to the vapour pressure of water vapour, it can be obtained from steam
tables or using Eqn.(27.3).
1
Properties such as humidity ratio, enthalpy and specific volume are based on 1 kg of dry
air. This is useful as the total mass of moist air in a process varies by the addition/removal of
water vapour, but the mass of dry air remains constant.
2
Dry air is assumed to be a perfect gas as its temperature is high relative to its saturation
temperature, and water vapour is assumed to be a perfect gas because its pressure is low
relative to its saturation pressure. These assumptions result in accuracies, that are, sufficient
for engineering calculations (less than 0.7 percent as shown by Threlkeld). However, more
accurate results can be obtained by using the data developed by Goff and Gratch in 1945.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 6
7
Degree of saturation μ: The degree of saturation is the ratio of the humidity ratio W to the
humidity ratio of a saturated mixture Ws at the same temperature and pressure, i.e.,
μ= W
(27.8)
Ws
t,P
Enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air and the enthalpy
of the water vapour. Enthalpy values are always based on some reference value. For moist
air, the enthalpy of dry air is given a zero value at 0oC, and for water vapour the enthalpy of
saturated water is taken as zero at 0oC. The enthalpy of moist air is given by:
Humid specific heat: From the equation for enthalpy of moist air, the humid specific heat of
moist air can be written as:
Since the second term in the above equation (w.cpw) is very small compared to the
first term, for all practical purposes, the humid specific heat of moist air, c pm can be taken as
1.0216 kJ/kg dry air.K
Specific volume: The specific volume is defined as the number of cubic meters of moist air
per kilogram of dry air. From perfect gas equation since the volumes occupied by the
individual substances are the same, the specific volume is also equal to the number of cubic
meters of dry air per kilogram of dry air, i.e.,
3
Though the water vapor in moist air is likely to be superheated, no appreciable error results
if we assume it to be saturated. This is because of the fact that the constant temperature
lines in the superheated region on a Mollier chart (h vs s) are almost horizontal.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 7
8
v=a3TR
=
R
m
(27.12)
/kg
aTdry air
pt
X
Saturation curve (RH \>C^ . \ c/'
= 100%)^^ '7
Lines of _^__^ \ ^\ * / \\
constant \ —■
enthalpy \
\S< \ (
/ y
^^/ \ \
w \
^^ \ \ \ \ \
\- \ \ \ \\ \\ ^
27.3.1. Combined heat and mass transfer; the straight line law
The straight line law states that “when air is transferring heat and mass
(water) to or from a wetted surface, the condition of air shown on a psychrometric
chart drives towards the saturation line at the temperature of the wetted surface”.
For example, as shown in Fig.27.3, when warm air passes over a wetted
surface its temperature drops from 1 to 2. Also, since the vapor pressure of air at 1 is
greater than the saturated vapor pressure at t w, there will be moisture transfer from
air to water, i.e., the warm air in contact with cold wetted surface cools and
dehumidifies. According to the straight line law, the final condition of air (i.e., 2) lies
on a straight line joining 1 with t w on the saturation line. This is due to the value of
unity of the Lewis number, that was discussed in an earlier chapter on analogy
between heat and mass transfer.
-H dA |^-
^water
(Di at enperatu
-— CD
tenperaiure
tw
Fig.27.3: Principle of straight-line law for air-water mixtures
27.3.2. Adiabatic saturation and thermodynamic wet bulb temperature:
On the psychrometric chart as shown in Fig.27.4, point 1 lies below the line of
constant enthalpy that passes through the saturation point 2. t 2 = f(t1,W1) is not a
unique function, in the sense that there can be several combinations of t 1 and W1
which can result in the same sump temperature in the adiabatic saturator. A line
passing through all these points is a constant wet bulb temperature line. Thus all
inlet conditions that result in the same sump temperature, for example point 1’ have
the same wet bulb temperature. The line is a straight line according to the straight-
line law. The straight-line joining 1 and 2 represents the path of the air as it passes
through the adiabatic saturator.
Perfect insulation
Moist air
t2,W2,p
Water at t2
Moist air
t1,W1,p
W2
W1
t2 enperature t1
Fig.27.5: Adiabatic saturation process 1-2 on psychrometric chart
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 11
12
Wet wick
DBT
4 By performing energy balance across the wet-bulb, it can be shown that, the
temperature measured by the wet-bulb thermometer is:
t2 = t1 ~ (kw /hc)hfg(wi _ w); where kw is the mass transfer coefficient
for air-water mixtures, the ratio (hc/kwcpm) = Lewis number is «1, hence, the wick
temperature is approximately equal to the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature. It
should be noted that, unlike thermodynamic WBT, the WBT of wet bulb
thermometer is not a thermodynamic property as it depends upon the rates of heat
and mass transfer between the wick and air.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 12
27.4. Calculation of psychrometric properties from p, DBT and
WBT:
As mentioned before, to fix the thermodynamic state of moist air, we need to
know three independent properties. The properties that are relatively easier to
measure, are: the barometric pressure, dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb
temperature. For a given barometric pressure, knowing the dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures, all other properties can be easily calculated from the psychrometric
equations. The following are the empirical relations for the vapor pressure of water in
moist air:
The units of all the pressures in the above equations should be consistent.
Once the vapor pressure is calculated, then all other properties such as
relative humidity, humidity ratio, enthalpy, humid volume etc. can be calculated from
the psychrometric equations presented earlier.
27.5. Psychrometer:
Any instrument capable of measuring the psychrometric state of air is called a
psychrometer. As mentioned before, in order to measure the psychrometric state of
air, it is required to measure three independent parameters. Generally two of these
are the barometric pressure and air dry-bulb temperature as they can be measured
easily and with good accuracy.
The function of the wick on the wet-bulb thermometer is to provide a thin film
of water on the sensing bulb. To prevent errors, there should be a continuous film of
water on the wick. The wicks made of cotton or cloth should be replaced frequently,
and only distilled water should be used for wetting it. The wick should extend beyond
the bulb by 1 or 2 cms to minimize the heat conduction effects along the stem.
1244. The maximum amount of moisture air can hold depends upon its temperature
and barometric pressure
1245. Perfect gas model can be applied to air-water mixtures when the total
pressure is high
1246. The minimum number of independent properties to be specified for fixing the
state of moist air is two
1247. The minimum number of independent properties to be specified for fixing the
state of moist air is three
Ans.: a) and d)
Ans.: b) and d)
a) When the dry bulb temperature is equal to dew point temperature, the relative
humidity of air-water mixture is 1.0
Ans.: a) and d)
Ans.: a)
5. On a particular day the weather forecast states that the dry bulb temperature is
37oC, while the relative humidity is 50% and the barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa.
Find the humidity ratio, dew point temperature and enthalpy of moist air on this day.
Ans.:
At 37oC the saturation pressure (ps) of water vapour is obtained from steam tables as
6.2795 kPa.
Since the relative humidity is 50%, the vapour pressure of water in air (pv) is:
(Ans.)
(Ans.)
6. Will the moisture in the above air condense when it comes in contact with a cold
surface whose surface temperature is 24oC?
Ans.: Moisture in condense when it is cooled below its dew point temperature.
The dew point temperature of the air at 37 oC and 50 % relative humidity is equal to
the saturation temperature of water at a vapour pressure of 3.13975 kPa.
Ans.:
a) Using modified Apjohn equation and the values of DBT, WBT and barometric
pressure, the vapour pressure is found to be:
From steam tables, the saturation pressure of water at 32oC is 4.7552 kPa, hence,
f) Similarly the density of water vapour in air is obtained using perfect gas law as:
(Ans.)
g)Enthalpy of moist air is found from the equation:
Lesson
28
Psychrometric Processes
28.1. Introduction:
In the design and analysis of air conditioning plants, the fundamental
requirement is to identify the various processes being performed on air. Once identified,
the processes can be analyzed by applying the laws of conservation of mass and
energy. All these processes can be plotted easily on a psychrometric chart. This is very
useful for quick visualization and also for identifying the changes taking place in
important properties such as temperature, humidity ratio, enthalpy etc. The important
processes that air undergoes in a typical air conditioning plant are discussed below.
During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant but its
temperature decreases as it flows over a cooling coil. For moisture content to remain
W
DBT *
Fig.28.1: Sensible cooling process O-A on psychrometric chart
During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant and its
temperature increases as it flows over a heating coil. The heat transfer rate during this
process is given by:
!
W
When moist air is cooled below its dew-point by bringing it in contact with a cold
surface as shown in Fig.28.3, some of the water vapor in the air condenses and leaves
the air stream as liquid, as a result both the temperature and humidity ratio of air
decreases as shown. This is the process air undergoes in a typical air conditioning
system. Although the actual process path will vary depending upon the type of cold
surface, the surface temperature, and flow conditions, for simplicity the process line is
assumed to be a straight line. The heat and mass transfer rates can be expressed in
terms of the initial and final conditions by applying the conservation of mass and
conservation of energy equations as given below:
Qt
hO
Cooling coil TC To
W
o
Ts
Wc
Fig.28.3: Cooling and dehumidification process (O-C)
from the above two equations, the load on the cooling coil, Qt is given by:
the 2nd term on the RHS of the above equation is normally small compared to the other
terms, so it can be neglected. Hence,
Qt = ma(hO -hC) (28.6)
It can be observed that the cooling and de-humidification process involves both latent
and sensible heat transfer processes, hence, the total, latent and sensible heat transfer
rates (Qt, Ql and Qs) can be written as:
Qt = Ql +Qs where Ql = ma(hO -hw ) = ma.hfg(wO - wC) Qs = ma(hw -hC) =
ma.cpm(TO -TC) (28.7)
By separating the total heat transfer rate from the cooling coil into sensible and
latent heat transfer rates, a useful parameter called Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) is
defined. SHF is defined as the ratio of sensible to total heat transfer rate, i.e.,
SHF = Qs /Qt = Qs /(Qs + Ql ) (28.8)
From the above equation, one can deduce that a SHF of 1.0 corresponds to no
latent heat transfer and a SHF of 0 corresponds to no sensible heat transfer. A SHF of
0.75 to 0.80 is quite common in air conditioning systems in a normal dry-climate. A
Thus we can see that the slope of the cooling and de-humidification line is
purely a function of the sensible heat factor, SHF. Hence, we can draw the cooling
and de-humidification line on psychrometric chart if the initial state and the SHF are
known. In some standard psychrometric charts, a protractor with different values of
SHF is provided. The process line is drawn through the initial state point and in
parallel to the given SHF line from the protractor as shown in Fig.28.4.
L To-Tc J
Fig.28.4: A psychrometric chart with protractor for SHF lines
CF = 1-BPF (28.13)
During winter it is essential to heat and humidify the room air for comfort. As
shown in Fig.28.5., this is normally done by first sensibly heating the air and then
adding water vapour to the air stream through steam nozzles as shown in the figure.
Qh hD
Steam nozzles
wD
wO
Heating coil
TO TD
Fig.28.5: Heating and humidification process
Mass balance of water vapor for the control volume yields the rate at which steam has
to be added, i.e., mw:
mw = ma(wD - wO) (28.14)
where Qh is the heat supplied through the heating coil and hw is the enthalpy of steam.
Since this process also involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer, we can define a
sensible heat factor for the process in a way similar to that of a coolind and dehumidification
process.
As the name implies, during this process, the air temperature drops and its humidity
increases. This process is shown in Fig.28.6. As shown in the figure, this can be achieved by
spraying cool water in the air stream. The temperature of water should be lower than the dry-
bulb temperature of air but higher than its dew-point temperature to avoid condensation (TDPT <
Tw < TO).
TO TDPT TE
I
t
c
a
n
b
e
s
e
e
n
t
h
a
t
d
u
r
i
n
g this process there is sensible heat transfer from air to water and latent heat transfer
from water to air. Hence, the total heat transfer depends upon the water temperature. If
the temperature of the water sprayed is equal to the wet-bulb temperature of air, then
the net transfer rate will be zero as the sensible heat transfer from air to water will be
equal to latent heat transfer from water to air. If the water temperature is greater than
WBT, then there will be a net heat transfer from water to air. If the water temperature is
less than WBT, then the net heat transfer will be from air to water. Under a special case
when the spray water is entirely recirculated and is neither heated nor cooled, the
system is perfectly insulated and the make-up water is supplied at WBT, then at steady-
state, the air undergoes an adiabatic saturation process, during which its WBT remains
constant. This is the process of adiabatic saturation discussed in Chapter 27. The
process of cooling and humidification is encountered in a wide variety of devices such
as evaporative coolers, cooling towers etc.
WF
F O
TO TF
Fig.28.7. Chemical de-humidification process
From the above equations, it can be observed that the final enthalpy and
humidity ratio of mixture are weighted averages of inlet enthalpies and humidity ratios.
A generally valid approximation is that the final temperature of the mixture is the
Eliminator Plates
Pump
Cooler/heater
Fig.28.10: Air washer
In the air washer, the mean temperature of water droplets in contact with air
decides the direction of heat and mass transfer. As a consequence of the 2 nd law, the
heat transfer between air and water droplets will be in the direction of decreasing
temperature gradient. Similarly, the mass transfer will be in the direction of decreasing
vapor pressure gradient. For example,
1269. Cooling and dehumidification: tw < tDPT. Since the exit enthalpy of air is less than
its inlet value, from energy balance it can be shown that there is a transfer of total
energy from air to water. Hence to continue the process, water has to be externally
cooled. Here both latent and sensible heat transfers are from air to water. This is shown
by Process O-A in Fig.28.11.
1270. Adiabatic saturation: tw = tWBT. Here the sensible heat transfer from air to water is
exactly equal to latent heat transfer from water to air. Hence, no external cooling or
heating of water is required. That is this is a case of pure water recirculation. This is
W
DBT *
Fig.28.11: Various psychrometric processes that can take place in an air washer
The sensible (QS) and latent (QL) heat transfer rates are given by:
QS = hCAS(ti -t a )
(28.18)
QL = mw .hfg = hD.AS(wi - wa).hfg
Since the transport mechanism that controls the convective heat transfer between air
and water also controls the moisture transfer between air and water, there exists a relation
between heat and mass transfer coefficients, h c and hD as discussed in an earlier chapter. It
has been shown that for air-water vapor mixtures,
h
orDC ≈ = Lewis number ≈ 1.0
cpm hD.cpm (28.20)
hc
where cpm is the humid specific heat ≈ 1.0216 kJ/kg.K. Hence the total
CS
QT = QS +QL = [(ti - ta) + (wi - wa).hfg] cpm
(28.21)
thus the total heat transfer and its direction depends upon the enthalpy difference (or
potential) between water and air (hi-ha).
if hi > ha; then the total heat transfer is from water to air and water gets cooled
if hi < ha; then the total heat transfer is from air to water and water gets heated
if hi = ha; then the net heat transfer is zero, i.e., the sensible heat transfer rate is equal
to but in the opposite direction of latent heat transfer. Temperature of water remains at
its wet bulb temperature value
The concept of enthalpy potential is very useful in psychrometric calculations
and is frequently used in the design and analysis of evaporative coolers, cooling
towers, air washers etc.
a) During sensible cooling of air, both dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures decrease
b) During sensible cooling of air, dry bulb temperature decreases but wet bulb
temperature remains constant
c) During sensible cooling of air, dry and wet bulb temperatures decrease but dew point
temperature remains constant
d) During sensible cooling of air, dry bulb, wet bulb and dew point temperatures
decrease
Ans.: a) and c)
1274. The sensible heat factor for a sensible heating process is 1.0
1275. The sensible heat factor for a sensible cooling process is 0.0
1276. Sensible heat factor always lies between 0.0 and 1.0
1277. Sensible heat factor is low for air conditioning plants operating in humid climates
Ans.: a) and d)
1279. The BPF of the coil increases as the velocity of air through the coil increases
1280. The BPF of the coil increases as the fin pitch increases
1281. The BPF of the coil decreases as the number of rows in the flow direction
increase
1282. During cooling and humidification process, the enthalpy of air decreases
1283. During cooling and humidification process, the enthalpy of air increases
1284. During cooling and humidification process, the enthalpy of air remains constant
d) During cooling and humidification process, the enthalpy of air may increase,
decrease or remain constant depending upon the temperature of the wet surface
Ans.: d)
5. An air stream at a flow rate of 1 kg/s and a DBT of 30 oC mixes adiabatically with
another air stream flowing with a mass flow rate of 2 kg/s and at a DBT of 15 oC.
Assuming no condensation to take place, the temperature of the mixture is
approximately equal to:
1285. 20oC
1286. 22.5oC
1287. 25oC
Ans.: a)
1289. In an air washer, water has to be externally cooled if the temperature at which it
is sprayed is equal to the dry bulb temperature of air
1290. In an air washer, water has to be externally heated if the temperature at which it
is sprayed is equal to the dry bulb temperature of air
1291. In an air washer, if water is simply recirculated, then the enthalpy of air remains
nearly constant at steady state
Ans.: b) and c)
1292. When the enthalpy of air is equal to the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted
surface temperature, then there is no sensible heat transfer between air and the wetted
surface
1293. When the enthalpy of air is equal to the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted
surface temperature, then there is no latent heat transfer between air and the wetted
surface
1294. When the enthalpy of air is equal to the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted
surface temperature, then there is no net heat transfer between air and the wetted
surface
1295. When the enthalpy of air is equal to the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted
surface temperature, then the wet bulb temperature of air remains constant
Ans.: c) and d)
8. What is the required wattage of an electrical heater that heats 0.1 m 3/s of air from
15oC and 80% RH to 55oC? The barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa.
Ans.: Air undergoes sensible heating as it flows through the electrical heater
From energy balance, the required heater wattage (W) is given by:
W = ma(he-hi) « (Va/Va).cpm(Te-Ti)
Where Va is the volumetric flow rate of air in m3/s and va is the specific volume of dry
air. Te and Ti are the exit and inlet temperatures of air and cpm is the average specific
heat of moist air («1021.6 J/kg.K).
Using perfect gas model, the specific volume of dry air is found to be:
At 15oC and 80% RH, the vapour pressure p v is found to be 1.364 kPa using
psychrometric chart or equations.
Substituting the values of Ra, T, pt and pv in the equation for specific volume, we find
the value of specific volume to be 0.8274 m3/kg
(ans.)
Ans.: Given:
Using psychrometric equations or psychrometric chart, the humidity ratio and enthalpy
of stream 1 are found to be:
Stream 2: mass flow rate, m2 = 0.3 kg/s; T2 = 45oC and W2 = 0.018 kgw/kgda
h1 = 71.0 kJ/kgda
From energy balance (assuming the specific heat of moist air to remain constant):
From T3 and W3, the relative humidity of air after mixing is found to be:
The relative humidity at the exit of heater is obtained from the values of DBT (40oC) and
humidity ratio (0.0132 kgw/kgda) using psychrometric chart/equations. This is found to
be:
Ans.:
From psychrometric chart/equations the following values are obtained for the inlet:
From psychrometric chart/equations the following values are obtained for the outlet:
ma = 18.97 kg/s,
11. In an air conditioning system air at a flow rate of 2 kg/s enters the cooling coil at
25oC and 50% RH and leaves the cooling coil at 11oC and 90% RH. The apparatus dew
point of the cooling coil is 7 oC. Find a) The required cooling capacity of the coil, b)
Sensible Heat Factor for the process, and c) By-pass factor of the cooling coil. Assume
the barometric pressure to be 1 atm. Assume the condensate water to leave the coil at
ADP (hw = 29.26 kJ/kg)
Ans.: At the inlet to the cooling coil; Ti = 25oC and RH = 50%
From psychrometric chart; Wi = 0.00988 kgw/kgda and hi = 50.155 kJ/kgda
a) From mass balance across the cooling coil, the condesate rate, mw is:
c) From its definition, the by-pass factor of the coil, BPF is given by:
1The small difference between Qc and (Qs + Ql) is due to the use of average values for specific
heat, cpm and latent heat of vaporization, hfg.
1302. Explain the need for selecting design inside and outside conditions with
respect to a typical air conditioning system
1303. Define thermal comfort, metabolism, metabolic rate and discuss the
effects of variation in body temperatures on human beings
1304. Write the heat balance and heat transfer equations from a human body
and using these equations, estimate various heat transfer rates
1305. List the factors affecting thermal comfort
1306. Define the various thermal indices used in evaluating indoor environment
1307. Draw the ASHRAE comfort chart and mark the comfort zones for summer
and winter conditions
1308. Select suitable indoor design conditions based on comfort criteria
1309. Define PMV and PPD and explain their significance
1310. Explain the method followed for selecting suitable outside design
conditions
me= mo mrc
Cooling coil
Supply
mo fan ms=mo+ mrc
GTH=GSH+GLH Supply duct losses
conditioning system
Neutral condition
The metabolic rate depends on the activity. It is normally measured in the unit
“met”. A met is defined as the metabolic rate per unit area of a sedentary person and is
found to be equal to about 58.2 W/m2. This is also known as “basal metabolic rate”.
Table 29.1 shows typical metabolic rates for different activities:
Studies show that the metabolic rate can be correlated to the rate of respiratory
oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. Based on this empirical equations
have been developed which relate metabolic rate to O 2 consumption and CO2
production.
Since the metabolic rate is specified per unit area of the human body (naked
body), it is essential to estimate this area to calculate the total metabolic rate. Even
though the metabolic rate and heat dissipation are not uniform throughout the body, for
calculation purposes they are assumed to be uniform.
The total heat transfer rate from the skin Qsk is given by:
where Qconv = Heat transfer rate due to convection (sensible heat) Qrad
= Heat transfer rate due to radiation (sensible heat), and Qevp =
Heat transfer rate due to evaporation (latent heat)
Qc= 14.8V05 ( t b - t )
Qr = 11.603 (tb- t s ) (29.5)
Qe = 181.76V (psb - p v )
where Cres = Dry heat loss from respiration (sensible, positive or negative) Eres
= Evaporative heat loss from respiration (latent, always positive)
For comfort, the rate of heat stored in the body Qst should be zero, i.e.,
Since the body temperature depends on the heat balance, which in turn
depends on the conditions in the surroundings, it is important that the
surrounding conditions should be such that the body is able to maintain the
thermal equilibrium with minimum regulatory effort. All living beings have in-built
body regulatory processes against cold and heat, which to some extent
maintains the body temperatures when the external conditions are not favorable.
For example, human beings consist of a thermoregulatory system, which tries to
maintain the body temperature by initiating certain body regulatory processes
against cold and heat.
When the environment is hotter than the neutral zone, then body loses
less heat than is generated. Then the regulatory processes occur in the following
order.
1313. Zone of vaso-motor regulation against heat (vaso-dilation): Here the blood
vessels adjacent to the skin dilate, increasing the flow of blood and transport of
heat to the immediate outer surface. The outer skin temperature increases
providing a greater temperature for heat transfer by convection and radiation.
1316. Physiological factors such as age, activity, sex and health. These factors
influence the metabolic rate. It is observed that of these factors, the most
important is activity. Other factors are found to have negligible effect on thermal
comfort.
1317. Insulating factor due to clothing. The type of clothing has strong influence
on the rate of heat transfer from the human body. The unit for measuring the
resistance offered by clothes is called as “clo”. 1 clo is equal to a resistance of
about 0.155 m2.K/W. Typical clo values for different types of clothing have been
estimated and are available in the form of tables. For example, a typical business
suit has a clo value of 1.0, while a pair of shorts has a clo value of about 0.05.
1318. Environmental factors. Important factors are the dry bulb temperature,
relative humidity, air motion and surrounding surface temperature. Of these the
dry bulb temperature affects heat transfer by convection and evaporation, the
relative humidity affects heat loss by evaporation, air velocity influences both
convective and evaporative heat transfer and the surrounding surface
temperature affects the radiative heat transfer.
Apart from the above, other factors such as drafts, asymmetrical cooling
or heating, cold or hot floors etc. also affect the thermal comfort. The objective of
a comfort air conditioning system is to control the environmental factors so that
comfort conditions prevail in the occupied space. It has no control on the
physiological and insulating factors. However, wearing suitable clothing may help
in reducing the cost of the air conditioning system.
Ta = Ambient DBT, K
V= Air velocity in m/s, and
C= A constant, 0.247 X 109
The derived indices combine two or more direct indices into a single factor.
Important derived indices are the effective temperature, operative temperature, heat
stress index, Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), Percent of People Dissatisfied (PPD) etc.
Effective temperature (ET): This factor combines the effects of dry bulb temperature
and air humidity into a single factor. It is defined as the temperature of the environment
at 50% RH which results in the same total loss from the skin as in the actual
environment. Since this value depends on other factors such as activity, clothing, air
velocity and Tmrt, a Standard Effective Temperature (SET) is defined for the following
conditions:
Operative temperature (Top): This factor is a weighted average of air DBT and
Tmrt into a single factor. It is given by:
where hr and hc are the radiative and convective heat transfer coefficients and Tamb is
the DBT of air.
ASHRAE has defined a comfort chart based on the effective and operative
temperatures. Figure 29.3 shows the ASHRAE comfort chart with comfort zones for
summer and winter conditions. It can be seen from the chart that the comfort zones are
bounded by effective temperature lines, a constant RH line of 60% and
ET=22.5oC
Top
Fig.29.3: ASHRAE comfort chart for a sedentary person (activity ≈ 1.2 met)
where M is the metabolic rate and L is the thermal load on the body that is the
difference between the internal heat generation and heat loss to the actual
environment of a person experiencing thermal comfort. The thermal load has to
be obtained by solving the heat balance equation for the human body.
where dissatisfied refers to anybody not voting for -1, 0 or +1. It can be seen
from the above equation that even when the PMV is zero (i.e., no thermal load on
body) 5 % of the people are dissatisfied! When PMV is within ± 0.5, then PPD is
less than 10 %.
Where To and Tc are the outdoor and indoor comfort temperature in oC,
respectively. According to the above correlation, higher the outdoor temperature,
higher can be the indoor temperature. This is very important from energy
conservation point-of-view as air conditioning systems are very energy intensive,
and the load on an air conditioning plant can be reduced by maintaining the
indoor temperatures at as high a value as is allowed from thermal comfort point-
of-view.
Table 29.3: Design summer outside conditions for some Indian cities (ASHRAE)
1325. The metabolic rate depends mainly on age of the human being
1326. The metabolic rate depends mainly on the activity level of the human
being
1327. The metabolic rate depends mainly on the sex of the human being
1328. All of the above
Ans.: b)
1329. To maintain thermal comfort, the DBT of air should be increased as its
moisture content increases
1330. To maintain thermal comfort, the DBT of air should be decreased as air
velocity increases
1331. To maintain thermal comfort, the DBT of air should be increased as the
temperature of the surrounding surfaces decrease
1332. All of the above
Ans.: c)
1333. Surrounding air velocity affects convective heat transfer from the body
only
1334. Surrounding air velocity affects evaporative heat transfer from the body
only
1335. Surrounding air velocity affects both convective and evaporative heat
transfers from the body
d) Moisture content of the air affects both convective and evaporative heat
transfers from the body
Ans.: c)
Ans.: b) and d)
1340. Effective temperature combines the affects of dry bulb temperature and air
velocity into a single index
1341. Effective temperature combines the affects of dry bulb temperature and
wet bulb temperature into a single index
1342. Mean radiant temperature combines the affects of dry bulb temperature
and surrounding surface temperature into a single index
1343. Operative temperature combines the affects of dry bulb temperature and
mean radiant temperature into a single index
Ans.: b) and d)
1344. Lower dry bulb temperatures and higher moisture content are
recommended for winter
1345. Lower dry bulb temperatures and lower moisture content are
recommended for winter
1346. Lower dry bulb temperatures and higher moisture content are
recommended for summer
1347. Higher dry bulb temperatures and higher moisture content are
recommended for summer
Ans.: b) and d)
1348. For the same metabolic rate, as the thermal load on human body
increases, the PMV value increases
1349. For the same metabolic rate, as the thermal load on human body
increases, the PMV value decreases
1350. As the absolute value of PMV increases, the percent of people dissatisfied
(PPD) increases
1351. As the absolute value of PMV increases, the percent of people dissatisfied
(PPD) decreases
Ans.: a) and c)
1352. When a human body is at neutral equilibrium, the PMV value is 1.0
1353. When a human body is at neutral equilibrium, the PMV value is 0.0
1354. When a human body is at neutral equilibrium, the PPD value is 0.0
1355. When a human body is at neutral equilibrium, the PPD value is 5.0
Ans.: b) and d)
1356. The air conditioning load on a building increases, if 0.4% design value is
used for outside conditions instead of 1.0% value for summer
1357. The air conditioning load on a building decreases, if 0.4% design value is
used for outside conditions instead of 1.0% value for summer
1358. For winter air conditioning, a conservative approach is to select 99.6%
value for the outside design conditions instead of 99% value
1359. For winter air conditioning, a conservative approach is to select 99% value
for the outside design conditions instead of 99.6% value
Ans.: a) and c)
10. A 1.8 meter tall human being with a body mass of 60 kg performs light work
(activity = 1.2 met) in an indoor environment. The indoor conditions are: DBT of
30oC, mean radiant temperature of 32oC, air velocity of 0.2 m/s. Assuming an
average surface temperature of 34oC for the surface of the human being and
light clothing, find the amount of evaporative heat transfer required so that the
human being is at neutral equilibrium.
Ans.: Using Du Bois equation, the surface area of the human being As is: ADu
Hence the total heat generation rate from the body, Qg is:
Using Belding & Hatch equations, the convective and radiative heat losses from
the surface of the body are found as:
Qg = Qc + Qr + Qe = ⇒ Qe = Qg - (Qc + Qr)
Substituting the values of Qg, Qc and Qr in the above expression, we find that
the required amount of evaporative heat transfer Qe is equal to:
1. Estimate the load on the cooling coil and fix the supply conditions for various
summer conditioning systems, namely:
1369. Supply air conditions (air flow rate, DBT, humidity ratio & enthalpy)
1370. Coil specifications (Latent and sensible loads on coil, coil ADP & BPF)
In this chapter fixing of supply air conditions and coil specifications for
summer air conditioning systems are discussed. Since the procedure is similar for
winter air conditioning system, the winter air conditioning systems are not discussed
here.
In this simple system, there is no outside air and the same air is recirculated
as shown in Fig.30.1. Figure 30.2 also shows the process on a psychrometric chart.
It can be seen that cold and dry air is supplied to the room and the air that leaves the
condition space is assumed to be at the same conditions as that of the conditioned
space. The supply air condition should be such that as it flows through the
conditioned space it can counteract the sensible and latent heat transfers taking
place from the outside to the conditioned space, so that the space can be maintained
at required low temperature and humidity. Assuming no heat gains in the supply and
return ducts and no energy addition due to fans, and applying energy balance across
the room; the Room Sensible Cooling load (Q s,r), Room Latent Cooling Load (Q l,r)
and Room Total Cooling load (Qt,r) are given by:
From cooling load calculations, the sensible, latent and total cooling loads on
the room are obtained. Hence one can find the Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF)
from the equation:
QQ
s,r s,r
RSHF= = (30.4)
Qs,r +Ql,r Q t,r
a
s
ms
ts,Ws,hs i
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undergone p o
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through the
conditioned
space.
Assuming
no heat Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur
transfer due
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and fans,
the sensible
and latent
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rates at the
cooling coil
are exactly
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sensible and
latent heat
transfer
rates to the
conditioned
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Q s,r =Q l (
s,c & Ql,r
=Q
Fixing of supply condition:
If the by-pass factor (X) of the cooling coil is known, then, from room
conditions, coil ADP and by-pass factor, the supply air temperature t s is obtained
using the definition of by-pass factor as:
Once the supply temperature ts is known, then the mass flow rate of supply air is
obtained from Eqn.(30.1) as:
Q s,r Q s,r
ms =------------------=------------------------------ (30.8)
Cpm(ti-ts) Cpm(ti - tADP)(1- X)
From the mass flow rate of air and condition i, the supply air humidity ratio and
enthalpy are obtained using Eqns.(30.2) and (30.3) as:
Ws = Wi - Q l,r
(30.9)
mshfg
hs=hi--------- (30.10)
ms
From Eqn.(30.8), it is clear that the required mass flow rate of supply air
decreases as the by-pass factor X decreases. In the limiting case when the by-pass
factor is zero, the minimum amount of supply air flow rate required is:
Thus with 100 % re-circulated air, the room ADP is equal to coil ADP and the
load on the coil is equal to the load on the room.
Figure 30.2 shows the schematic of the summer air conditioning system with
outdoor air and the corresponding process on psychrometric chart, when the by-pass
factor X is zero. Since the sensible and latent cooling loads on the conditioned space
are assumed to be known from cooling load calculations, similar to the earlier case,
one can draw the process line s-i, from the RSHF and state i. The intersection of this
line with the saturation curve gives the room ADP. As shown on the psychrometric
chart, when the by-pass factor is zero, the room ADP is equal to coil ADP, which in
turn is equal to the temperature of the supply air. Hence from the supply temperature
one can calculate the required supply air mass flow rate (which is the minimum
required as X is zero) using the equation:
ms = Qs,r
Qs,r = (30.12)
Cpm(ti -ts) Cpm(ti -tADP)
From the supply mass flow rate, one can find the supply air humidity ratio and
enthalpy using Eqns.(30.9) and (30.10).
ti,Wi,hi
Supply ms=mo+mrc
ti,Wi,hi
Cooling
ti tm to
Fan
ADP = ts
Qs,c, Ql,ccoil
Fig.30.2: A summer air conditioning system with outdoor air for ventilation and a
zero by-pass factor
From mass balance of air;
Where mrc is the re-circulated air flow rate and mo is the outdoor air flow rate.
Since either mo or the ratio mo : mrc are specified, one can calculate the amount of re-
circulated air from Eqn.(30.13).
From energy balance across the cooling coil; the sensible, latent and total
heat transfer rates, Qs,c, Ql,c and Qt,c at the cooling coil are given by:
Qsc =msCpm(tm - t s )
Ql,c =mshfg(Wm -Ws) (30.14)
Qt,c =Qs,c +Ql,c =ms(hm - h s )
Where ‘m’ refers to the mixing condition which is a result of mixing of the recirculated
air with outdoor air. Applying mass and energy balance to the mixing process one
can obtain the state of the mixed air from the equation:
Since (mo/ms) > 0, from the above equation it is clear that W m > Wi, hm > hi
and tm > ti. This implies that ms(hm - hs) > ms(hi - hs), or the load on the cooling coil is
greater than the load on the conditioned space. This is of course due to the fact that
during mixing, some amount of hot and humid air is added and the same amount of
relative cool and dry air is exhausted (m o = me).
From Eqn.(30.1) to (30.3) and (30.14), the difference between the cooling
load on the coil and cooling load on the conditioned space can be shown to be equal
to:
Qs,c-Qs,r = m o C p m ( t o - t i )
Ql c-Ql r = mohfg(Wo - Wi) (30.16)
Qt,c - Qt,r = mo (ho - hi)
From the above equation it is clear that the difference between cooling coil
and conditioned space increases as the amount of outdoor air (m o) increases and/or
the outdoor air becomes hotter and more humid.
The line joining the mixed condition ‘m’ with the coil ADP is the process line
undergone by the air as it flows through the cooling coil. The slope of this line
depends on the Coil Sensible Heat Factor (CSHF) given by:
Q s,c Q s, c
CSHF=----------------= — (30.17)
Qs,c +Ql,c Qt,c
For actual cooling coils, the by-pass factor will be greater than zero, as a
result the air temperature at the exit of the cooling coil will be higher than the coil
ADP. This is shown in Fig.30.3 along with the process on psychrometric chart. It can
m s=m
A/C o+ morc
Room Return duct losses
ti, Wi, hi o Qs,r, Ql,r
Qt,c=Qs,c+Ql,c
i
s
Supply fan
ADP ts
Fig.30.3: A summer air conditioning system with outdoor air for ventilation and a non-
zero by-pass factor
i. Since the supply temperature is specified one can calculate the required supply air
flow rate and supply conditions using Eqns. (30.8) to (30.10).
ii. Since conditions ‘i’, supply air temperature ts and RSHF are known, one can draw
the line i-s. The intersection of this line with the saturation curve gives the room ADP.
iii. Condition of air after mixing (point ‘m’) is obtained from known values of m s and
mo using Eqn.(30.15).
iv. Now joining points ‘m’ and ‘s’ gives the process line of air as it flows through the
cooling coil. The intersection of this line with the saturation curve gives the coil ADP.
It can be seen that the coil ADP is lower than the room ADP.
vi. From points ‘m’, ‘s’ and coil ADP, the by-pass factor of the cooling coil can be
calculated.
If the coil ADP and coil by-pass factor are given instead of the supply air
temperature, then a trial-and-error method has to be employed to obtain the supply
air condition.
When the latent load on the building is high due either to high outside
humidity or due to large ventilation requirements (e.g. hospitals) or due to high
internal latent loads (e.g. presence of kitchen or laundry), then the simple system
discussed above leads to very low coil ADP. A low coil ADP indicates operation of the
refrigeration system at low evaporator temperatures. Operating the system at low
evaporator temperatures decreases the COP of the refrigeration system leading to
higher costs. Hence a reheat coil is sometimes used so that the cooling coil can be
operated at relatively high ADP, and at the same time the high latent load can also
be taken care of. Figure 30.4 shows an air conditioning system with reheat coil along
with the psychrometric representation of the process. As shown in the figure, in a
system with reheat coil, air is first cooled and dehumidified from point ‘m’ to point ’c’
in the cooling coil and is then reheated sensibly to the required supply temperature t s
using the reheat coil. If the supply temperature is specified, then the mass flow rate
and state of the supply air and condition of the air after mixing can be obtained using
equations given above. Since the heating process in the reheat coil is sensible, the
process line c-s will be horizontal. Thus if the coil ADP is known, then one can draw
the coil condition line and the intersection of this line with the horizontal line drawn
from supply state ‘s’ gives the condition of the air at the exit of the cooling coil. From
this condition, one can calculate the load on the cooling coil using the supply mass
flow rate and state of air after mixing. The capacity of the reheat coil is then obtained
from energy balance across it, i.e.,
i
iiii
Cooling coil
Reheat coil
Fig.30
.4: A
summ
er air
conditi
oning
syste
m with
reheat
coil
for
high
latent
coolin
g
load applications
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
10
Advantages and disadvantages of reheat coil:
Thus the actual benefit of reheat coil depends may vary from system.
ii. The cooling coil should have 2 to 6 rows for moderate climate and 6 to 8 rows in
hot and humid climate. The by-pass factor of the coil varies from 0.05 to 0.2. The by-
pass factor decreases as the number of rows increases and vice versa. The fin pitch
and air velocity should be suitable.
iii. If chilled water is used for cooling and dehumidification, then the coil ADP will be
higher than about 4oC.
1374. The purpose of psychrometric calculations is to fix the supply air conditions
1375. The purpose of psychrometric calculations is to find the load on the building
1376. In a 100% re-circulation system, the coil ADP is equal to room ADP
1377. In a 100% re-circulation system, the coil ADP is less than room ADP
Ans.: a) and c)
1378. In a 100% re-circulation system, the load on coil is equal to the load on
building
1379. In a system with outdoor air for ventilation, the load on building is greater than
the load on coil
1380. In a system with outdoor air for ventilation, the load on building is less than
the load on coil
1381. In a system with outdoor air for ventilation, the Coil ADP is less than room
ADP
1382. Systems with reheat are used when the Room Sensible Heat Factor is low
1383. Systems with reheat are used when the Room Sensible Heat Factor is high
1384. When reheat coils are used, the required coil ADP can be increased
1385. When reheat coils are used, the required supply airflow rate increases
4. A 100% outdoor summer air conditioning system has a room sensible heat load of
400 kW and a room latent heat load of 100 kW. The required inside conditions are
24oC and 50% RH, and the outdoor design conditions are 34 oC and 40% RH. The air
is supplied to the room at a dry bulb temperature of 14 oC. Find a) the required mass
flow rate of air b) moisture content of supply air, c) Sensible, latent heat loads on the
coil, and d) The required cooling capacity of the coil, Coil Sensible Heat Factor and
coil ADP if the by-pass factor of the coil is 0.2. Barometric pressure = 1 atm.
Comment on the results.
a) From sensible energy balance equation for the room, we find the required mass
flow rate of air as:
ms = Qs,r
400 = =39.154 kg/ s (Ans.)
Cpm(ti - ts) 1.0216(24 - 14)
b) The moisture content of supply air is obtained from latent energy balance of the
room as:
Ql,r
W0.0093
100
=
(Ans.)
s =Wi - - =0.0083 kgw /kgda
mshfg 39.154x2501
c) From energy balance, the sensible and latent loads on the coil are obtained as:
Qs,c =msCpm(to - ts)=39.154x1.0216x(34 -14)=800 kW
(Ans.)
Ql,c =mshfg(Wo - Ws)=39.154x2501x(0.01335 -0.0083) =494.5 kW
d) The required cooling capacity of the coil is equal to the total load on the coil, Qt,c:
tADP(1 - X) = ts - X.to
Comments:
1386. It is seen that with 100% outdoor air, the load on the coil (or required
cooling capacity of the coil) is much higher compared to the cooling load on
the building (Required coil capacity = 1294.5 kW whereas the total load on the
room is 500 kW). Since 100% outdoor air is used, the relatively cold and dry
indoor air is exhausted without re-circulation and the hot and humid air is
conditioned using the coil coil. Thus the required cooling capacity is very high
as the cooling coil has to cool and dehumidify outdoor air.
1387. It is observed that the CSHF (0.618) is much smaller compared to the
room SHF (0.8), hence, the coil ADP is much smaller than the room ADP.
5. A room is air conditioned by a system that maintains 25 oC dry bulb and 50 % RH
inside, when the outside conditions are 34 oC dry bulb and 40% RH. The room
sensible and latent heat gains are 60 kW and 12 kW respectively. As shown in the
figure below, The outside fresh air first flows over a first cooler coil and is reduced to
state 1 of 10oC dry bulb and a relative humidity of 85%. It is then mixed with re-
circulated air, the mixture (state 2) being handled by a fan, passed over a second
cooler coil and sensibly cooled to 12oC dry bulb (state 3). The air is then delivered to
the room. If the outside fresh air is used for dealing with the whole of the room latent
heat gain and if the effects of fan power and duct heat gains are ignored, find: a)
mass flow rates of outside fresh air and supply air; b) DBT and enthalpy of the air
handled by the fan (state 2); and c) required cooling capacity of first cooler coil and
second sensible cooler coil.
1
Supply
air 12oC
1 2 Outdoor air 34oC
(DBT) 40% (RH)
i
Coil 1 Coil 2
Ans.: From psychrometric chart, the following properties are obtained: Inside
Q 60
s,r
m3 = = =4.894 kg/s (Ans.)
Cpm(ti - t3) 1.0216(24 - 12)
The moisture content of supply air is obtained from latent energy balance
across the room as:
Ql,r 12
Ws =Wi - =0.0093- =0.0083 kgw/kgda
m3hfg 4.894x2501
Since the fresh air takes care of the entire latent load, the heat transfer across
coil 2 is only sensible heat transfer. This implies that:
W2 = W3 = 0.0083 kgw/kgda
Applying mass balance across the mixing of re-circulated and fresh air (1-2), we
obtain:
m1W1+(m2-m1)Wi = m2.W2
From total enthalpy balance for the mixing process, the enthalpy of mixed air at 2 is:
Comment: It can be seen that the combined cooling capacity (72.49 + 35.25 =
107.74 kW) is larger than the total cooling load on the building (60 + 12 = 72 kW).
The difference between these two quantities (107.74 – 72 = 35.74 kW) is equal to
the cooling capacity required to reduce the enthalpy of the fresh air from outdoor
conditions to the required indoor conditions. This is the penalty one has to pay for
providing fresh air to the conditioned space. Larger the fresh air requirement, larger
will be the required cooling capacity.
6) An air conditioned building has a sensible cooling load of 60 kW and latent load of
40 kW. The room is maintained at 24 oC (DBT) and 50% RH, while the outside design
conditions are: 34oC (DBT) and 40% RH. To satisfy the ventilation requirement,
outdoor air is mixed with re-circulated air in the ratio of 1:3 (by mass). Since the
latent load on the building is high, a reheat coil is used along with a cooling and
dehumidifying coil. Air is supplied to the conditioned space at 14 oC (DBT). If the by-
pass factor of the cooling coil is 0.15 and the barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa,
find: a) Mass flow rate of supply air, b) Required cooling capacity of the cooling coil
and heating capacity of the reheat coil
Qs,r 60
m3 = = =5.873kg/s (Ans.)
Cpm(ti - ts) 1.0216(24 - 14)
The moisture content of supply air is obtained from latent energy balance
across the room as:
Ql,r 40
Ws =Wi - =0.0093- =0.0066 kgw/kgda
m3hfg 5.873x2501
mo = 0.25 x 5.873 = 1.468 kg/s and mrc = 0.75 x 5.873 = 4.405 kg/s (Ans.)
b) From sensible energy balance for the mixing process of fresh air with re-circulated
air (Fig.30.4), we obtain the mixed air conditions as:
Since heating in the reheat coil is a sensible heating process, the moisture
content of air remains constant during this process. Then from Fig.30.4., writing the
by-pass factor in terms of humidity ratios as:
From the above expression, the humidity ratio at coil ADP condition is found to be:
tADP = 6.38oC
Hence, the temperature of air at the exit of the cooling coil (t C in Fig.30.4) is obtained
from the by-pass factor as:
From Wc (= Ws) and tc, the enthalpy of air at the exit of the cooling coil is found from
psychrometric chart as:
hc = 26.02 kJ/kgda
Exhaust air(i)
Water spray or W
wetted surface at
er
pu
m
p
w
to,w
bt
ts
to
Fi
g.
3
1.
1:
A
dire
ct,
eva
por
ativ
e
cool
ing
syst
em
Version 1 ME,
IIT Kharagpur
4
Depending upon the design aspects of the evaporative cooling system, the
effectiveness may vary from 50% (for simple drip type) to about 90% (for
efficient spray pads or air washers).
.
The amount of supply air required ms can be obtained by writing
energy balance equation for the conditioned space, i.e.,
.
Qt
ms = (31.2)
(hi -hs )
where Qt is the total heat transfer rate (sensible + latent) to the building, h i and
hs are the specific enthalpies of return air and supply air, respectively.
"\ Air-to-air
Primar
heat -J
y air
exchanger
(o)
lili^
Secondary
air (o)
w
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Primary air in
(o)' ^'
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cle s d
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ca n r
n a y
or n h
ca y i
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be c ,
sta Version 1
nd- ME, IIT
alo Kharagpur
ne 8
ev
ap
ora
tiv
e
co
oli
ng
sys
te
ms
ca
nn
ot
be
us
ed
for
pro
vidi
ng
the
rm
al
co
mf
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es
pe
cial
ly
in
res
ide
nc
es,
offi
ce
bui
ldi
ng
s
etc
.
On
e
of
the
old
er
rul
es-
of-
thu
mb
specifies that evaporative cooling systems can be used wherever the average
noon relative humidity during July is less than 40%. However, experience
shows that evaporative coolers can be used even in locations where the
relative humidity is higher than 40%. A more recent guideline suggests that
evaporative cooling can be used in locations where the summer design wet
bulb temperatures are less than about 24 oC (75oF). It is generally observed
that evaporative coolers can compete with conventional systems when the
noon relative humidity during July is less than 40%, hence should definitely be
considered as a viable alternative, whereas these systems can be used in
places where the noon relative humidity is higher tha 40% but the design
WBT is lower than 24oC, with a greater sacrifice of comfort. It should be
mentioned that both these guidelines have been developed for direct
evaporative cooling systems. Indirect evaporative coolers can be used over a
slightly broader range. Evaporative air conditioning systems can also be used
over a broader range of outdoor conditions in factories, industries and
commercial buildings, where the comfort criteria is not so rigid (temperatures
as high as 30oC in the conditioned space are acceptable). Evaporative air
conditioning systems are highly suitable in applications requiring large
amounts of ventilation and/or high humidity in the conditioned space such as
textile mills, foundries, dry cleaning plants etc.
Exhaust air
Recirculated
air (i)
.
Qs =ms cpm(ts - ti) (31.3)
.
Ql =ms hfg (ws - wi ) (31.4)
.
where ms is the mass flow rate of supply air, cpm is the specific heat of air, hfg
is the latent heat of vapourization of water, ws and wi are the supply and return
air humidity ratios and ts, ti are the supply and return temperatures of air. By
applying mass and/or energy balance equations across individual
components, the amount of sensible heat transfer rate to the pre-heater and
re-heater and the amount of moisture to be added in the humdifier can easily
be calculated.
Figure 31.5 shows another scheme that can also be used for heating
and humidification of air as required in a winter air conditioning system. As
shown in the figure, this system does not consist of a pre-heater. The mixed
air is directly humidified using an air washer (m-1) and is then reheated (1-s)
before supplying it to the conditioned space. Though this system is simpler
compared to the previous one, it suffers from disadvantages such as
possibility of water freezing in the air washer when large amount of cold
outdoor air is used and also from health hazards to the occupants if the water
used in the air washer is not clean. Hence this system is not recommended
for comfort conditioning but can be used in applications where the air
temperatures at the inlet to the air washer are above 0 oC and the conditioned
space is used for products or processes, but not for providing personnel
comfort.
DDI
Exhaust air(i)
Conditioned Recircu
space lated
air(i) air
O S
h
(
Air washer
Re-heater
w
r
stream as all
a t the electrical
power input to
i
the fan is
r a finally
dissipated in
the form of
heat.
c p
o r
n e
d - Version 1 ME,
IIT Kharagpur
i h 12
t e
i a
o t
n e
i r
n
Act
g ual winter
air
conditioni
ng
s systems,
y in addition
to the
s basic
compone
t nts shown
above,
e consist of
fans or
m blowers
for air
circulation
w and filters
for
i purifying
air. The
t fan or
blower
h introduce
o s sensible
heat into
u the air
31.6. All year (complete) air conditioning systems:
Figure 30.6 shows a complete air conditioning system that can be used
for providing air conditioning throughout the year, i.e., during summer as well
as winter. As shown in the figure, the system consists of a filter, a heating coil,
a cooling & dehumidifying coil, a re-heating coil, a humidifier and a blower. In
addition to these, actual systems consist of several other accessories such as
dampers for controlling flow rates of re-circulated and outdoor (OD) air, control
systems for controlling the space conditions, safety devices etc. Large air
conditioning systems use blowers in the return air stream also. Generally,
during summer the heating and humidifying coils remain inactive, while during
winter the cooling and dehumidifying coil remains inactive. However, in some
applications for precise control of conditions in the conditioned space all the
coils may have to be made active. The blowers will remain active throughout
the year, as air has to be circulated during summer as well as during winter.
When the outdoor conditions are favourable, it is possible to maintain comfort
conditions by using filtered outdoor air alone, in which case only the blowers
will be running and all the coils will be inactive leading to significant savings in
energy consumption. A control system is required which changes-over the
system from winter operation to summer operation or vice versa depending
upon the outdoor conditions.
Exhaust
Return air
OD
B air H CC RH Hu
F \ Supply air
1416. Evaporative cooling systems are attractive for hot and humid climates
1417. Evaporative cooling systems are attractive for hot and dry climates
1418. Evaporative cooling systems are ideal for comfort applications
1419. Evaporative cooling systems are ideal for several industrial applications
Ans.: b) and d)
Ans.: a) and c)
Ans.: b) and d)
1431. Direct evaporative cooling systems are attractive in places where the
summer design WBT is greater than 24oC
1432. Direct evaporative cooling systems are attractive in places where the
summer design WBT is less than 24oC
c) Indirect evaporative cooling systems can be used over an extended range
of climatic conditions
d) A combination of evaporative cooling system with conventional air
conditioning system can offer better overall performance
Ans.: b) and d)
1437. When humidification is done using an air washer, the temperature of air
drops during humidification
1438. When humidification is done using an air washer, the temperature of air
rises during humidification
1439. When humidification is carried out by adding dry steam, the
temperature of air remains close to the WBT of entering air
1440. When humidification is carried out by adding dry steam, the
temperature of air remains close to the DBT of entering air
Ans.: a) and d)
1441. An all year air conditioning system can be used either as a summer air
conditioning system or as a winter air conditioning system
1442. When an all year air conditioning system is used during summer, the
heaters are always switched-off
1443. When an all year air conditioning system is used during winter, the
cooling and dehumidification coils are switched-off
1444. In an all year air conditioning systems, the blowers are always on
Ans.:
Inlet conditions to the evaporative cooling system are the outdoor conditions:
ho = 46.67 kJ/kgda
w
t *
Fig.31.7
Assuming the evaporative process to follow a constant WBT and hence nearly
a constant enthalpy line,
ho =ho’ = 46.67 kJ/kgda
1
Standard psychrometric chart cannot be used here as the barometric pressure is nit
1 atm.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 16
Applying energy balance for the sensible heating process in the fan (process
o’-s) and heating and humidification process through the conditioned space
(process s-i), we obtain:
hi = 61.38 kJ/kgda
We have two unknowns (ms and hs) and two equations (E.1 and E.2), hence
solving the equations simultaneously yields:
10. A winter air conditioning system maintains a building at 21 oC and 40% RH.
The outdoor conditions are 0oC (DBT) and 100% RH. The sensible load load
on the building is 100 kW, while the latent heating load is 25 kW. In the air
conditioning system, 50% of the outdoor air (by mass) is mixed with 50% of
the room air. The mixed air is heated in a pre-heater to 25 oC and then
required amount of dry saturated steam at 1 atm. pressure is added to the
pre-heated air in a humidifier. The humidified air is then heated to supply
temperature of 45oC and is then supplied to the room. Find a) The required
mass flow rate of supply air, b) Required amount of steam to be added, and c)
Required heat input in pre-heater and re-heater. Barometric pressure = 1atm.
From sensible energy balance across the room (Process s-i) in Fig.31.8:
t
*
Fig.3
1.8
From
latent
energ
y
balanc
e for
proce
ss s-i,
the
humidi
ty
ratio
of
supply
air is
found
to be:
Ws
=
Wi
+
Ql/
(hf
g.m
s) =
0.0
061
7+
25/
(25
01
x
4.0
8) =
0.0
086
2
kg
w/k
gda
b)
Requi s.)
red
amou c)
nt of
steam
to be
added Heat
mw is
obtain input
ed
from to the
mass
balan pre-
ce
acros heater
s the
humid (proce
ifier
(proce ss m-
ss r-h)
as: r) is
mw obtain
= ed as:
ms( Qph
Ws - =
Wm) ms.c
= pm(tr -
4.08 tm) =
x 60.44
(0.0 kW
086 (Ans.
2- )
0.00 Heat
497) input
= to the
0.01 re-
49 heater
kg/s (proce
(An ss h-
this
s) is assu
mptio
obtain n is
valid.
ed as:
Qrh =
ms.c
pm(ts
- tr) =
83.36
kW
Versio
(Ans. n1
ME,
) IIT
Khara
In the
gpur
above
18
exam
ple, it
is
assu
med
that
during
additi
on of
steam
, the
dry
bulb
tempe
rature
of air
remai
ns
const
ant. A
simple
check
by
using
energ
y
balan
ce
acros
s the
humid
ifier
shows
that
Lesson
32
Cooling And Heating
Load Calculations
- Estimation Of Solar
Radiation
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 1
The specific objectives of this lecture are to:
1445. Introduction to cooling and heating load calculations (Section 32.1)
1446. Solar radiation, solar constant and solar irradiation (Section 32.2)
1447. Solar geometry, latitude, declination, hour angles, local solar time and total
sunshine hours (Section 32.2.4)
1448. Derived solar angles (Section 32.2.5)
1449. Angle of incidence for horizontal, vertical and tilted surfaces (Section
32.2.6)
6. Calculation of direct, diffuse and reflected radiation using ASHRAE solar
radiation model (Section 32.3)
7. Effect of clouds (Section 32.4)
1450. Explain the need for cooling and heating load calculations
1451. Explain the importance of solar radiation in air conditioning
1452. Define solar angles namely, latitude, declination and hour angles and
calculate the same and estimate the time of sunrise, sunset and total sunshine
hours at a given location on a given day
1453. Define derived solar angles and express them in terms of basic solar
angles
1454. Calculate the angle of incidence for surfaces of any orientation
6. Estimate direct, diffuse, reflected and total solar irradiation incident on
surfaces of any orientation using ASHRAE models
7. Explain the effects of clouds on incident solar radiation
32.1 Introduction:
The primary function of an air conditioning system is to maintain the
conditioned space at required temperature, moisture content with due attention
towards the air motion, air quality and noise. The required conditions are decided
by the end use of the conditioned space, e.g. for providing thermal comfort to the
occupants as in comfort air conditioning applications, for providing suitable
conditions for a process or for manufacturing a product as in industrial air
conditioning applications etc. The reason behind carrying out cooling and heating
load calculations is to ensure that the cooling and heating equipment
1455. A major part of building heat gain is due to solar radiation, hence an
estimate of the amount of solar radiation the building is subjected to is
essential for estimating the cooling and heating loads on the buildings.
1456. By proper design and orientation of the building, selection of
suitable materials and landscaping it is possible to harness solar energy
beneficially. This can reduce the overall cost (initial and operating) of the
air conditioning system considerably by reducing the required capacity of
the cooling and heating equipment.
1457. It is possible, at least in certain instances to build heating and
cooling systems that require only solar energy as the input. Since solar
energy is available and is renewable, use of solar energy for applications
such as cooling and heating is highly desirable.
For calculation purposes, the sun may be treated as a radiant energy source
with surface temperature that is approximately equal to that of a blackbody at
6000 K. The sprectum of wavelength of solar radiation stretches from 0.29 μm to
about 4.75 μm, with the peak occurring at about 0.45 μm (the green portion of
visible spectrum). Table 32.1 shows spectral distribution of solar radiation with
percentage distribution of total energy in various bandwidths.
This is the flux of solar radiation on a surface normal to the sun’s rays
beyond the earth’s atmosphere at the mean earth-sun distance. The currently
accepted value of solar constant is 1370 W/m 2. Since the earth’s orbit is slightly
elliptical, the extra-terrestrial radiant flux varies from a maximum of 1418 W/m 2
on January 3rd to a minimum of 1325 W/m2 on July 4th.
where β is called as altitude angle, which depends on the location, time of the
day and day of the year. Thus smaller the altitude angle, larger will be the
depletion of radiation.
In order to calculate the building heat gain due to solar radiation, one has
to know the amount of solar radiation incident on various surfaces of the building.
The rate at which solar radiation is striking a surface per unit area of the surface
is called as the total solar irradiation on the surface. This is given by:
Irθ I =IDNcosθ + Idθ +I
i θ (32.2)
The first term on the RHS, i.e., I DN cos θ, is the contribution of direct normal
radiation to total irradiation. On a clear, cloudless day, it constitutes about 85 percent of
the total solar radiation incident on a surface. However, on cloudy days the percentage
of diffuse and reflected radiation components is higher. The objective of solar radiation
calculations is to estimate the direct, diffuse and reflected radiations incident on a given
surface. These radiations and the angle of incidence are affected by solar geometry.
O
level
P/
Fig.32.1: Depletion of solar radiation due to earth’s atmosphere
Normal to surface
i. Location on earth
ii. Time of the day, and
iii. Day of the year
The above three parameters are defined in terms of latitude, hour angle and
declination, respectively.
The planet earth makes one rotation about its axis every 24 hours and one
revolution about the sun in a period of about 365 "" "" days. The earth’s
Version 1 Position
Fig.32.3: ME, IIT Kharagpur
of earth with6respect to sun for different seasons
equatorial plane is tilted at an angle of about 23.5o with respect to its orbital
plane. The earth’s rotation is responsible for day and night, while its tilt is
responsible for change of seasons. Figure 32.3 shows the position of the earth at
the start of each season as it revolves in its orbit around the sun. As shown in
Fig.32.4, during summer solstice (June 21st) the sun’s rays strike the northern
hemisphere more directly than they do the southern hemisphere. As a result, the
northern hemisphere experiences summer while the southern hemisphere
experiences winter during this time. The reverse happens during winter solstice
(December 21st).
Fig.32.4: Direction of sun’s rays during summer and winter solstice
^1 A
Sun’s rays O’
Equatorial plane B
A
Fig.32.5: Definition of latitude (l), declination (d) and hour angles (h)
Latitude, l: It is the angle between the lines joining O and P and the projection of
OP on the equatorial plane, i.e.,
Thus the latitude along with the longitude indicates the position of any
point on earth and it varies from 0o at equator to 90o at the poles.
The hour angle is a measure of the time of the day with respect to solar
noon. Solar noon occurs when the sun is at the highest point in the sky, and hour
angles are symmetrical with respect to solar noon. This implies that the hour
angles of sunrise and sunset on any given day are identical. The hour angle is 0o
at solar noon and varies from 0o to 360o in one rotation. Since it takes 24 clock
hours for one rotation, each clock hour of time is equal to 15o of hour angle. For
example, at 10 A.M. (solar time) the hour angle is 330o, while at 4 P.M. it is 60o.
Solar time: Solar radiation calculations such as the hour angle are based on
local solar time (LST). Since the earth’s orbital velocity varies throughout the
year, the local solar time as measured by a sundial varies slightly from the mean
time kept by a clock running at uniform rate. A civil day is exactly equal to 24
hours, whereas a solar day is approximately equal to 24 hours. This variation is
called as Equation of Time (EOT) and is available as average values for different
months of the year. The EOT may be considered as constant for a given day. An
approximate equation for calculating EOT given by Spencer (1971) is:
EOT =0.2292(0.075 + 1.868 cos N -32.077 sin N -4.615 cos 2N-40.89 sin 2N)
(32.3)
where N =(n-1)-------- ; n is the day of the year (counted from January 1 st )
y365J
in the above equation LStT is the local standard time, LSM is the local standard
time meridien and LON is the local longitude. In the above equation ‘+’ sign is
Declination, d: The declination is the angle between the line joining the center of
the earth and sun and its projection on the equatorial plane, the angle between
line OO’ and line OB;
declination,d = angle ZO'OB
360(284+ N)
declination,d = 23.47sin------------------ (32.5)
365
where N is the day of the year numbered from January 1 st. Thus on March 6th, N
is 65 (65th day of the year) and from the above equation, declination on March 6 th
is equal to -6.4o.
In addition to the three basic solar angles, i.e., the latitude, hour angle and
declination, several other angles have been defined (in terms of the basic
angles), which are required in the solar radiation calculations. Figure 32.6 shows
a schematic of one apparent solar path and defines the altitude angle (B), zenith
angle (\\r) and solar azimuth angle (y). It can be shown by analytical geometry
that these angles are given by:
Altitude angle, B: It is the angle between the sun’s rays and the projection of
sun’s rays onto a horizontal plane as shown in Fig.32.6. The expression for
altitude angle is given by:
Zenith angle, v|/: It is the angle between sun’s rays and the surface normal to the
horizontal plane at the position of the observer. It can be seen from Fig.32.6 that:
N
F
i
g
.
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.
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d.si ed for l
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s
cos 32.2.6.
Inciden
p t angle
(32. of
10) sun’s
rays, 6:
At
solar T
noon he
when incident
the angle of
hour sun’s
angle rays 6,
is is the
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th and the
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ation, solar
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if l < the
d. surface.
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solar For
azimu horizon
th tal
angle surface
at s: For
solar
horizont
noon
is not al
defin surface
s 2. 1
(Fig.3
2.7) Fig.32.7: Incident angle for a
the horizontal surface
angle
of For vertical surfaces: Figure
incide 32.8 shows an arbitrarily
nce orientated vertical surface
0hor (shaded) that is exposed to
is solar radiation. The angle of
equal incidence of solar radiation on
the vertical surface depends
to the
upon the orientation of the wall,
zenith
i.e, east facing, west facing etc.
angle, Additional angles have to be
\\r, defined to find the angle of
i.e., incidence on the vertical walls.
From Fig.32.8 it
can be seen that
the wall solar
azimuth angle, is
given by:
a = [7r-(Y +
^)jF
(32.12)
The factor F is -1
for forenoon and
+1 for afternoon.
Now it can be
shown that the
angle of incidence
on the vertical
surface, 0ver is
given by:
0 (
This equation is a general equation and can be used for any arbitrarily oriented
surface. For example, for a horizontal surface, Z is 0o, hence 9hor is equal to (90-
P), as shown earlier. Similarly, for a vertical surface, Z is 90o, hence 9ver is equal to
cos-1 (cos p.cos a), as shown before.
Tilted surface S
N
Fig.32.9: An arbitrarily oriented surface with a tilt angle I
Horizontal
The value of C is assumed to be constant for a cloudless sky for an average day
of a month. Its average monthly values have been computed and are available in
tabular form. The value of C can be taken as 0.135 for mid-summer and as 0.058
for winter. The factor FWS is called as view factor or configuration factor and is
equal to the fraction of the diffuse radiation that is incident on the surface. For
diffuse radiation, FWS is a function of the orientation of the surface only. It can be
easily shown that this is equal to:
F (1 + cosΣ)
ws =----------------- (32.17)
2
where Σ is the tilt angle. Obviously for horizontal surfaces (Σ = 0o) the factor F WS
is equal to 1, whereas it is equal to 0.5 for a vertical surface (Σ = 90o). The above
model is strictly true for a cloudless sky only as it assumes that the diffuse
radiation from the sky falls uniformly on the surface. The diffuse radiation will not
be uniform when the sky is cloudy.
The amount of solar radiation reflected from the ground onto a surface is
given by:
Ir = (IDN + Id )ρgFWG (32.18)
where ρg is the reflectivity of the ground or a horizontal surface from where the
solar radiation is reflected on to a given surface and FWG is view factor from
ground to the surface. The value of reflectivity obviously depends on the surface
property of the ground. The value of the angle factor FWG in terms of the tilt angle
is given by:
F (1-cosΣ)
WG=------------------ (32.19)
2
Though the ASHRAE clear sky model is widely used for solar radiation
calculations in air conditioning, more accurate, but more involved models have
also been proposed for various solar energy applications.
Example: Calculate the total solar radiation incident on a south facing, vertical
surface at solar noon on June 21st and December 21st using the data given
below:
Latitude = 23o
Reflectivity of the ground = 0.6
Assume the sky to be cloudless
Ans.:
= 0.5
Reflected radiation,Ir:
2. Find the maximum altitude angle for Kolkata (l = 22o82’N) on June 21st.
The maximum altitude angle occurs at solar noon at which the hour angle is zero.
Hence, Maximum altitude angle, βmax is given by:
Sunrise takes place at (12.00 - 6.08) = 5.52 A.M (solar time) (Ans.)
Sunset takes place at (12.00+6.08) = 6.08 P.M. (solar time)
Total sunshine hours are 2 X 6.08 = 12 hours and 16 minutes
4. What is the angle of incidence at 3 P.M. (solar time) of a north-facing roof that
is tilted at an angle of 15o with respect to the horizontal. Location: 22oN, and date
September 9th.
Since the roof is north facing, the surface azimuth angle E, is equal to 180o.
d.sin h\
4.62sin45^ /cos cos d.sin h
1 J cos
4.62sin45 ) o
y=sin ----------------- =sin-1 ---------------------- =74.96
^ cos p J ^ cos43.13 ,
The wall solar azimuth angle a = 180 - (y+£) = 180 - (74.96-180) = 285o Hence
Ans.: From the earlier example, on June 21 st at solar noon, the direct solar
radiation is equal to 875.4 W/m2. Since the surface is horizontal, the view factor
for diffuse radiation, FWS is equal to 1, whereas it is 0 for reflected radiation.
Since the surface is horizontal, the reflected solar radiation is zero. The angle of
incidence, is given by:
1463. Define fenestration and explain the need for fenestration and its effect on
air conditioning
1464. Calculate heat transfer rate due to fenestration using SHGF tables and
shading coefficients
1465. Calculate the dimensions of shadow cast on windows with overhangs and
estimate the heat transfer rate through shaded windows
1466. Explain the need for ventilation and select suitable ventilation rates
1467. Define infiltration and explain the causes for infiltration
1468. Calculate the heat transfer rates due to infiltration and ventilation
Assuming the transmittivity and absorptivity of the surface same for direct,
diffuse and reflected components of solar radiation, the amount of solar radiation
passing through a transparent surface can be written as:
Heat transferred
by convection
Indoors
Sun
Outdoors
Clear plate glass x =
0.80, a = 0.12, p = 0.08
Fig.33.1: Radiation properties of clear plate glass
In the above equation, the total incident radiation consists of direct, diffuse
and reflected radiation, and it is assumed that the values of transmittivity and
absorptivity are same for all the three types of radiation. Under steady state
conditions it can be shown that the fraction of absorbed radiation transferred to
the indoors, i.e., N is equal to:
U N = — ho
(33.2)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, which takes into account the
external heat transfer coefficient, the conduction resistance offered by the glass
and the internal heat transfer coefficient, and ho is the external heat transfer
coefficient.
From the above two equations, we can write:
T
oc Qsg= t ------
(33.3)
U
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 4
The term in square brackets for a single sheet, clear window glass (reference) is
called as Solar Heat Gain Factor (SHGF), i.e.,
tSHGF
ταU
+
ho
(33.4)
ss
Thus SHGF is the heat flux due to solar radiation through the reference
glass (SS). The maximum SHGF values for different latitudes, months and
orientations have been obtained and are available in the form of Tables in
ASHRAE handbooks. For example, Table 33.1 taken from ASHRAE
Fundamentals shows the maximum SHGF values in W/m 2 for 32o N latitude for
different months and orientations (direction a glass is facing).
Table 33.1: Maximum SHGF factor for sunlit glass located at 32oN (W/m2)
The first column in the table gives the maximum SHGF values of a north
facing glass or a glass shaded from solar radiation and oriented in any direction.
Again it can be observed that, a glass facing south is desirable from cooling and
heating loads points of view as it allows maximum heat transfer in winter
(reduces required heating capacity) and minimum heat transfer in summer
(reduces required cooling capacity). Similar tables are available for other
latitudes also in ASHRAE Handbooks.
The shading coefficient depends upon the type of the glass and the type
of internal shading devices. Typical values of SC for different types of glass with
Shading Coefficient, SC
Table 33.2: Shading coefficients for different types of glass and internal shading
It can be inferred from the above table that the heat transferred through
the glass due to solar radiation can be reduced considerably using suitable
internal shadings, however, this will also reduce the amount of sunlight entering
into the interior space. Values of SC for different types of curtains have also been
evaluated and are available in ASHRAE handbooks. Thus from the type of the
sunlit glass, its location and orientation and the type of internal shading one can
calculate the maximum heat transfer rate due to solar radiation.
Using solar geometry the area of the window that is not shaded at any location at a
particular instant can be calculated. It can be shown that x and y are given by:
x = W-d(tan α)
(33.7)
tan β
(33.8) cos α y = H-d
where β is the altitude angle and α is the wall solar azimuth angle.
Window
Sun
H
Using a separation between the top of the window and the overhang, it is
possible to completely shade the window in summer and completely unshade it
in winter. Complete shading of the window can be provided by selecting infinite
combinations of overhang width (Wo) and separation dimensions (S), as shown in
Fig.33.3. It should however be noticed that for complete shading as the
separation distance S increases, the width of the overhang W o should also
increase and vice versa. ASHRAE defines a Shade Line Factor (SLF) which is
the ratio of the distance a shadow falls below the edge of an overhang to the
width of the overhang. Thus from the knowledge of the SLF and the dimensions
of the window with overhang, one can calculate the unshaded area. The average
SLF values for 5 hours of maximum on August 21 st for different latitudes and
orientations of the window are presented in tabular form by ASHRAE.
G) Wo
Window
1475. Dilute the odours inside the occupied space to a socially acceptable
level
1476. Maintain carbon dioxide concentration at a satisfactory level
1477. Pressurizing the escape routes in the event of fire
It can be observed from the above table that the ventilation requirement
increases with the occupancy. It can also be seen that the required amount of
OD air increases significantly if smoking is permitted in the conditioned space.
33.5. Infiltration:
Infiltration may be defined as the uncontrolled entry of untreated, outdoor
air directly into the conditioned space. Infiltration of outdoor air into the indoors
takes place due to wind and stack effects. The wind effect refers to the entry of
outdoor air due to the pressure difference developed across the building due to
winds blowing outside the building. The stack effect refers to the entry of
outdoor air due to buoyancy effects caused by temperature difference between
the indoor and outdoors. Though infiltration brings in outdoor air into the building
similar to ventilation, in many commercial buildings efforts are made to minimize
it, as it is uncontrolled and uncertain. Some of the means employed to control
infiltration include use of vestibules or revolving doors, use of air curtains,
building pressurization and sealing of windows and doors. It is very difficult to
estimate the exact amount of infiltration as it depends on several factors such as
the type and age of the building, indoor and outdoor conditions (wind velocity and
The sensible heat transfer rate due to ventilation and infiltration, Qs,vi is given by:
The latent heat transfer rate due to ventilation and infiltration, Ql,vi is given by:
mo and Vo are the mass flow rate and volumetric flow rates of outdoor air due to
ventilation and infiltration, cpm is the average specific heat of moist air, hfg is the
latent heat of vaporization of water, To and T are the outdoor and indoor dry bulb
temperatures and Wo and Wi are the outdoor and indoor humidity ratios. Thus
from known indoor and outdoor conditions and computed or selected values of
ventilation and infiltration rates, one can calculate the cooling and heating loads
on the building. The sensible and latent heat transfer rates as given by the
equations above will be positive during summer (heat gains) and negative during
winter (heat losses).
Though the expressions for heat transfer rates are same for both
ventilation and infiltration, there is a difference as far as the location of these
loads are considered. While heat loss or gain due to infiltration adds directly to
the building cooling or heating load, heat loss or gain due to ventilation adds to
the equipment load. These aspects will be discussed in a later Chapter.
Ans.: a)
coefficient
1483. Internal shading of windows is taken care of by using a shading coefficient
1484. The shading coefficient for the reference SS glass is 0.0
1485. The shading coefficient for the reference SS glass is 1.0
Ans.: b) and d)
Ans.: c)
6. Calculate the maximum heat transfer rate through a 1.5 m2 area, unshaded,
regular double glass facing south during the months of June and December
without internal shading and with internal shading consisting of light venetian
blinds. Location 32oN
Ans.: For the month of June the SHGFmax from Table 33.1 is 190 W/m2. Using the
values of shading coefficients from Table 33.2, the heat transfer rate is:
These values for the month of December (SHGFmax = 795 W/m2) are:
Ans.: From the above data the altitude angle β and wall solar azimuth angle α
are found to be:
β = 48.23o, α = 39.87o
Therefore area of the unshaded portion = x X y, where x and y are given by:
Hence the total amount of radiation transmitted into the building, Qsg is given by:
Thus there is a reduction of 115.4 W (16.7%) due to external shading. Of course, these
values will be different for different periods.
From Table 33.3, assume a ventilation requirement of 3.5 l/s/person. Hence the total
OD air required is:
Hence using expressions similar to ventilation, the sensible, latent and total heat
transfer rates due to infiltration are found to be:
It can be seen from the above example that the total load on the air conditioning
system is very high ( = 1880.3 kW = 534.6 TR).
1. Calculate the steady heat transfer rates through homogeneous and non-
homogeneous walls, through composite walls consisting of a combination of
homogeneous and non-homogeneous walls and air spaces
1505. Explain the need for considering transient heat transfer through buildings
1506. Derive one-dimensional, transient heat conduction equation for building walls
and roof and indicate suitable initial and boundary conditions
1507. Discuss the general aspects of the analytical, numerical and semi-empirical
methods used to solve the transient building heat transfer problem
1508. Use the ETD/CLTD methods to estimate heat transfer rate through opaque
walls and roof of the buildings
34.1. Introduction:
Whenever there is a temperature difference between the conditioned indoor
space of a building and outdoor ambient, heat transfer takes place through the
building structure (walls, roof, floor etc.). This is known as fabric heat gain or loss,
depending upon whether heat transfer is to the building or from the building,
respectively. The fabric heat transfer includes sensible heat transfer through all the
structural elements of a building, but does not include radiation heat transfer through
fenestration. Exact analysis of heat transfer through building structures is very
complex, as it has to consider:
For cooling and heating load calculations, the indoor conditions are generally
assumed to be constant to simplify the analysis. However, the variation in outdoor
conditions due to solar radiation and ambient temperature has to be considered in
the analysis to arrive at realistic cooling loads during summer. In winter, the heating
load calculations are based on peak or near-peak conditions, which normally occur
early in the morning before sunrise, in addition, in cold countries, the ambient
temperature variation during the winter months is not significant. Hence, in
conventional heating load calculations, the effects of solar radiation and ambient
temperature variation are not considered and the heat transfer is assumed to be
steady. However by this steady state method, the calculated heating capacity will be
more than required. Thus for higher accuracy, it is essential to consider the transient
heat transfer effects during winter also. In the present lecture, first steady state heat
transfer through buildings will be discussed followed by the unsteady state heat
transfer.
qr,oqc,
(from Ts,o)
o
qin Outdoors
(a) Wall
Ts,i
q■ W s,o
1/hr,i W r,o
1/hr,o
T w,i Ax/kw
vVWW T w,o
Ti
qin
1/hci 1/hco
qc,i V\AA (b)
c,o
w\wv
Ti( 1/hi Ax/kw 1/ho
WW WW To
qin (c)
Fig.34.1: Steady state heat transfer through a building wall and the resistance
network
and convection heat transfer on both sides, while heat transfer through the wall is by
conduction.
If outside and inside conditions do not vary with time, then the heat transfer
through the wall is steady, and we can construct a heat transfer network considering
various heat transfer resistances as shown in Fig.34.1(b). The heat transfer rate per unit
area of the wall qin under steady state is given by:
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 4
qin = { c,o +qr,o } = { qc,i +qr,i } W/m2 (34.1)
where qc,o and qro are the convective and radiative heat transfers to the outer surface
of the wall from outside and qc,i and qr,i are the convective and radiative heat transfers
from the inner surface of the wall to the indoors, respectively. Writing the radiative
heat transfer in terms of a linearized radiative heat transfer coefficient, we can write
the heat transfer rate per unit area as:
where Ti and To are the indoor and outdoor air temperatures, T w,i and Tw,o are the
inner and outer surface temperatures of the wall respectively. In the above equation,
hi and ho are the inner and outer surface heat transfer coefficients or surface
conductances, which take into account both convection and radiation heat transfers.
From the resistance network, it can easily be shown that the surface conductances hi
and ho are given by:
w,i
hi =hc,i +hr,i ----- (34.3)
v T w,i - Ti ;
Normally due to wind speed, the heat transfer from the outside air to the outer
surface of the wall is by forced convection. Hence to estimate the outer convective
heat transfer coefficient hc,o, suitable forced convective heat transfer correlations
should be used.
Table 34.1 shows typical surface conductance values, which can be used for
estimating inner and outer heat transfer coefficients (hi and h o). When the air is still
(i.e., for the inside heat transfer coefficient), the order-of-magnitude of convective
heat transfer is almost same as that of the radiative heat transfer coefficient, as a
Table 34.1: Surface conductance values in W/m2.K for different orientations, air
velocities and surface emissivity (C.P. Arora)
Eliminating the surface temperatures of the wall (T w,i and Tw,o), the steady
state heat transfer rate per unit area of the wall can be written in terms of the indoor
and outdoor air temperatures and the overall heat transfer coefficient, i.e.,
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and R tot is the total resistance to heat
transfer. From the heat transfer network, the expression for overall heat transfer
coefficient is given by:
1 Ax 1 hi kw (W/m2.K)
tot (34.8)
hoy
where Ax and kw are the thickness and thermal conductivity of the wall, respectively.
If the wall consists of windows, doors etc., then the overall heat transfer Uo is
obtained using the individual U-values and their respective areas as:
where Uwall, Udoor, Uwindow etc. are the overall heat transfer coefficients for the wall, door,
window etc., which are obtained using Eqn.(34.8), and Awall, Adoor, Awindow are the
corresponding areas. Atotal is the total area of the wall that includes doors, windows
etc. The above equation for overall heat transfer coefficient (Eqn.(34.9)) is valid
when the temperature difference across the wall components are same and the heat
transfer paths through these elements are parallel.
Tw,o
Tw,i
Buildings may consist of air spaces between walls. Since air is a bad
conductor of heat, the air space provides effective insulation against heat
transfer. Heat transfer through the air space takes place by a combined
mechanism of conduction, convection and radiation as shown in Fig. 34.3.
F
i
g
.
3
Surface 2 at 4
temperature .
T2 3
:
H
e
a
t
tr
a
n
sf
e
r
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
a
n
ai
r
s
p
a
c
e
in
t
h
e
w
al
l
Thus
the heat
transfer rate
through the air
spaces
depends upon
its width,
orientation and
surface surfaces (i.e.,
emissivities of when air is
the wall well-mixed in
surfaces and the air space),
the the air
temperature temperature to
difference be uniform and
between the the surfaces 1
two surfaces. and 2 to be
Heat transfer infinite parallel
by conduction planes, it can
is considerable be shown that
only when the the
thickness of conductance C
the air space is given by:
is very small.
Studies show CW ( 3
that beyond an + hr
air gap of c /
about 2 cms, +
h m
r
the effect of 2
conduction .
heat transfer is K
negligible, and
heat transfer is
predominantly
by convection
and radiation.
Since the
thickness of
the air spaces
varies
normally from
5 cms to 55
cms (e.g. for
false ceilings),
the effect of
conduction
may be
neglected. In
such a case,
the heat flux
through the air
space is given
by:
q (
where C is the
conductance
of the air
space that
includes the
radiation as
well as
convection
effects.
Assuming the
heat transfer
coefficient hc
to be same for
both the
4 The linearized
. radiative heat
1 transfer
2 coefficient hr is
) given by:
hF K (
1
r2
=P
3 where the view
4 factor F12 is
. given by:
1
3 F 1 V
.
) 1
12
= 1
/
( 3 4
Thus from the structure of the wall, various material properties and
conductance values of non-homogeneous materials and air spaces and inner and
outer surface temperatures and conductance, one can calculate the heat transfer
rate under steady state conditions. It should be kept in mind that the equations given
above are limited to plane walls. For non-planar walls (e.g. circular walls), the
contour of the walls must be taken into account while calculating heat transfer rates.
^c/xy
dx qx=Le=-kw T = ho(To -Tx=L)+ocDID +ocdId -R (34.17)
'x=L,9
Applying energy balance equation to the inner surface of the wall (x = 0), we
can write:
f pr\
\xy
dx qx=0e=-kw T = hi(Tx=0 -Ti) (34.18)
'x=0,e
1
If the thermal capacity of the wall is small (e.g. for a thin door), the heat transfer will still be
transient due to changing outdoor conditions. However, at any point of time the heat transfer
rate at the outer surface is equal to the heat transfer rate at the inner surface, i.e., qo,e = qi,e
due to negligible thermal storage effect
x Fig.34.4. Unsteady
heat transfer through a building wall
Outdoor air
at To
I
n
general
due to
the
finite
thermal
capacity
of the
walls; at
any
point of
time 9,
the heat
transfer
rate at
the
outer
surface
is not
equal to
the heat
transfer
rate at
the
inner
surface,
i.e.,
q
x
(3 4
d2T
(
= 3
1fdT 4
8x 2 .
2
a ^50
0
)
Tx,e= (
0=Ti( 3
x) 4
.
2
1
)
sol-air o
a D I D +a d I d -R ho
+ (34.23)
It can be easily seen that in the absence of any radiation, the sol-air temperature is
simply equal to the outdoor air temperature. The difference between the sol-air
temperature and ambient air temperature increases as the amount of radiation
incident on the outer surface increases and/or the external heat transfer coefficient
decreases. Since on any given day, the outdoor air temperature and solar radiation
vary with time, the sol-air temperature also varies with time in a periodic manner.
In terms of the sol-air temperature the boundary condition at x=L is written as:
Thus the one-dimensional unsteady heat transfer equation through the plane wall
given by Eq.(34.20) should be solved using the initial condition given by Eq.(34.21)
and the boundary conditions given by Eqs.(34.18) and (34.24). This problem can be
solved by an analytical method involving an infinite harmonic series or by using
numerical techniques such as finite difference or finite volume methods or by using
semi-empirical methods.
Analytical solutions to transient transfer through building walls and roof are
available for simple geometries. To simplify the problem further it is generally
assumed that the outdoor air temperature and solar radiation intensity vary in a
periodic manner. In addition, normally the indoor temperature and thermal properties
of the wall materials are assumed to be constant. Though the variation of ambient
temperature and solar radiation is highly erratic and hence non-periodic due mainly
to the presence of clouds and other climatic factors, the assumption of periodic
variation is justified if one assumes a clear sky. For example Fig.34.5, shows the
direct, diffuse and total radiation intensity on a horizontal roof under clear sky
conditions. It can be seen that the variation is periodic with the peak occurring at the
solar noon. Applying periodic boundary condition at the outer surface, the analytical
solution is obtained in terms of an infinite Fourier series consisting of various
harmonics.
IDirect
1200
1000
800
600
IDiffuse
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Solar Time,h
Fig.34.5: Variation of direct, diffuse and total solar radiation on a horizontal surface with
time under clear sky conditions
sol-air 1
cos TOn0 d0 (34.27)
M = 1 I T 12 0
sol-air 1
Nn = 1 I T 12 0 sin tnn6 d6 (34.28)
where A,B, C and D are constants, and m = 4^1. The coefficients A, B, Cn and Dn can be
either real or complex. However, in the solution only the real parts are considered. Then it is
shown that the inner wall temperature (i.e, at x = 0) the temperature is given by:
1
U= (34.31)
1 1
hi kw ho
hiho
Vn =------------- 2 (34.32)
ankwyYn +Zn
^nkw w an = n ; and aw = =
2ocw Pwcp,w Thermal diffusivityof the wall (34.33)
\
The constants Yn and Zn in Eqn.(34.34) are expressed in terms of hi, ho, on, L, kw. The term §n
§n = tan Zn
(34.34)
The rate of heat transfer from the inner surface is also shown to be in the form of an infinite
series as shown below:
qx=0,8 = U\lTe,m + ^1Te,1 cos(tn1y — v|/1 — cp1) + A,2Te2 cos(tn2o — H^2 — Y2)J— Tx=0,0/
(34.35)
In the above expression the quantity X,n is called as decrement factor and as
mentioned before, §n is the as time lag factor. The factor \j/ n takes into account the inner and
outer heat transfer coefficients, thickness and thermal properties of the wall etc. The
expressions for decrement factor Xn and factor v|/n are given by:
The semi-empirical methods use the form suggested by the analytical method
along with experimental observations on standard walls. These semi-empirical
methods based on Equivalent Temperature Difference (ETD) or Cooling Load
Temperature Difference (CLTD), are widely used by air conditioning industry due to
their simplicity. However, the empirical data covers only standard walls and is
suitable for specific location, orientation and day. In the present lecture, this method
is used to estimate unsteady heat transfer through building walls and roofs. Before
presenting this method, one has to consider the physical significance of decrement
factor and time lag factor mentioned under analytical methods.
Based on the form suggested by analytical methods, the heat transfer rate to
the conditioned space at any time 9 can be written as:
In the above expression, Tsol-air,m is the time averaged sol-air temperature, Tsol-
air,e-* is the sol-air temperature § hours before 9, U and A are the overall heat transfer
coefficient and area of the wall, X is the decrement factor and § is the time lag.
The decrement factor, X accounts for the fact that due to finite thermal
capacity, the heat transferred to the outer surface of the wall is partly stored and
partly transferred to the conditioned space. Due to the thermal energy storage, the
temperature of the wall increases, and if it exceeds the outdoor air temperature then
a part of the energy stored is transferred to outside and not to the conditioned space.
Thus finally the heat transferred to the conditioned space from the inner surface
(cooling load) is smaller than the heat transferred to the outer surface. This implies
that the finite thermal capacity of the wall introduces a decrement in heat transfer.
The finite thermal capacity of the building walls and roof also introduces a
time lag, §. The time lag is the difference between the time at which the outer
surface receives heat and the time at which the inner surface senses it. Due to the
effect of time lag, if the outdoor temperature is maximum at noon, the indoor
temperature of a non-air conditioned room reaches a maximum somewhere in the
afternoon.
As mentioned both decrement factor and time lag depend on the thermal
capacity (mass x specific heat) of the wall. Most of the commonly used building
structural materials have a specific heat of about 840 J/kg.K, then, the thermal
capacity of these walls depend mainly on the thickness and density of the wall
material. For these standard wall materials, the decrement factor decreases and the
time lag increases as the wall thickness and density increase as shown in Fig. 34.6.
Thus from the comfort point of view it is always advantageous to construct buildings
with thick walls as this will yield low decrement factor and large time lag. In the
limiting case, when the thermal capacity of the wall is very large, then the decrement
factor becomes zero, then the heat transferred to the conditioned will remain
constant throughout the day at the mean value as given by the Eqn.(34.37), i.e.,
On the other extreme, if the wall has negligible thermal capacity, then the
decrement factor will be 1.0 and the time lag will be 0, and the heat transfer rate to
the conditioned space at any point is equal to the heat transferred to the outer
surface of the wall at that instant, i.e.,
Fi
150 300 450 g.3
Wall thickness (mm) 4.6
:
Va
riat
ion
of
tim
e
lag
an
d
de
cre
me
nt
fac
tor
wit
h
wa
ll
thi
ck
ne
ss
an
d
density
I
n
gener
al the
decre
ment
factor
of building walls and roof lies
between 0 to 1 and the time lag
will be greater than 0 hours.
However, for windows and thin
doors etc, which are exposed to
outdoors, the decrement factor
may be taken as 1.0 and the time
lag factor as 0.0, as the thermal
storage capacity of these
elements is very small. Figure
34.7 shows the variation of heat
transfer rate to the conditioned
space with solar time for walls of
different thickness. It can be seen
that for thin walls with small time
lag, the peak heat transfer occurs
sometime around 4 P.M, whereas
for thick walls with large time lags,
the peak occurs well after
midnight. Since the outside
temperatures will be much smaller
during the night the building can
reject heat to the
Qin
8 A.M
Noon 4 P.M 8 P.M
Midnight 4 A.M 8
A.M
When the thermal capacity of the building is sufficiently large, then it is also
possible to maintain reasonably comfortable temperatures inside the building even
without an air conditioning system during both winter and summer. This is the
principle behind old temples and buildings, which are comfortable throughout the
year without any artificial air conditioning systems. However, the effect of the thermal
capacity becomes significant mainly in locations, which have large variation in diurnal
temperatures (i.e., Tmax-Tmin on a particular day is large). This is generally the case in
dry areas, where thick walled buildings are highly beneficial. In costal areas with
large humidity the diurnal temperature variation is not very large, as a result the
decrement factor will be high even with thick walled buildings as the building cannot
loose significant amount of heat to the outside even during the night due to the
relatively high night temperatures. Thus thick walled buildings are not as effective in
coastal areas as in dry areas.
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 19
Empirical methods for cooling load estimation:
w
h
e
r
e
A
T
e
f
f
,
c
a
l
l
e
d
a
s
E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
D
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e (ETD) or Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) is a
given by: d
d
^ T eff =( T sol-air,m - T i ) + ""( T sol-air,G-<|> - Tsol-air,m) it
i
o
n
(34.41)
t
o
It can be seen from the above expression that ETD or CLTD
t
depends on: h
e
i. Decrement (X) and Time Lag (§) factors
ii. Solar radiation and outside ambient temperature o
(through sol-air t
tem h
perature), e
and iii. r
Inside p
temperatu a
re, T r
a
Tables of ETD and CLTD have been prepared for fixed m
values of inside and outside temperatures, for different e
latitudes, orientations and different types of walls and roofs. t
For example, a typical CLTD table for a roof without e
suspended ceiling prepared and presented by ASHRAE is r
shown in Table 34.4: s
,
Roof Mass per Heat Solar Time, h t
type unit capacity, h
2
area,kg/m2 kJ/m .K 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 e
3 90 90 -2 1 5 11 18 25 31 36 39 40
o
4 150 120 1 0 2 4 8 13 18 24 29 33 r
i
5 250 230 4 4 6 8 11 15 18 22 25 28 e
6 365 330 9 8 7 8 8 10 12 15 18 20 n
t
Descr iption of f types: a
Roo ti
Type 3: 100 mm o
thick, lightweight n
concrete Type 4: 150
o
mm thick, lightweight f
concrete Type 5: 100 t
h
mm thick, e
heavyweight concrete
Type 6: Roof w
a
terrace systems ll
a
Table 34.4: CLTD values (in K) for flat roofs without suspended f
ceilings (ASHRAE f
Handbook) For vertical walls in e
cts the incident solar radiation and hence the CLTD values. wall
For example, Table 34.5 shows the CLTD values for a D-Type s
(100-mm face brick with 200-mm concrete block and interior and
finish or 100-mm face brick and 100-mm concrete brick with roof
interior finish) wall with solar time for different orientations: s
with
insul
ation
,
wett
Version 1 ME, ed
IIT Kharagpur roof
20 s
Solar Orientation etc.
Time,h N NE E SE S SW W
T
7 3 4 5 5 4 6
hus
8 3 4 5 5 4 5
kno
9 3 6 7 5 3 5 wing
10 3 8 10 7 3 4 the
11 4 10 13 10 4 4 valu
12 4 11 15 12 5 5 e of
13 5 12 17 14 7 6 the
14 6 13 18 16 9 7 over
15 6 13 18 17 11 9 all
16 7 13 18 18 13 12 10 heat
17 8 14 18 18 15 15 13 trans
18 9 14 18 18 16 18 17 fer
19 10 14 17 17 16 20 20 coeff
20 11 13 17 17 16 21 22 icien
CLTDmax 11 14 18 18 16 21 23 t and
area
Table 34.5: CLTD values (in K) for D-type walls of
the
(ASHRAE Handbook) The above tables are valid for the wall
from
following conditions: the
build
a) Inside temperature of 25oC, maximum outside temperature of ing
35oC with an spec
o o
average value of 29 C and a daily range of 12 C. For inside and ificat
average outside ions,
temperatures (Ti and Tav) other than the above, the following local
adjustment has to be desi
made to CLTD: gn
outd
CLTDadj = CLTDTable + (25-Ti) + (Tav-29) oor
temp
(34.42) erat
ures
Where CLTDTable is the value obtained from the table. and
suita
b) Solar radiation typical of July 21 st at 40oN latitude, but in the
ble
absence of more
ETD
accurate data, the tables can be used without significant error for
or
0oN to 50oN and for CLT
summer months. D
Similar data are available for other types of walls and roofs valu
and for different latitudes. Adjustments are also suggested for es
from the tables, one can calculate the heat transfer rate to the
conditioned space through the opaque walls and roof of the
building using Eq.(34.40). It should be remembered that the use of
published ETD or CLTD cannot cover all possible walls and roofs
and other conditions. Hence, some error is always involved in
using these data. However, by developing individual heat transfer
models for the specific building and using the numerical methods,
one can estimate the heat transfer rate to the building more
accurately. However, since this is extremely time consuming,
practising engineers generally use the published data and provide
a safety factor to account for possible differences in the actual and
published values.
Version 1 ME,
IIT Kharagpur
21
Questions and answers:
1. Estimation of heat transfer rate through buildings is complex due to:
1511. Complex structure of the walls and roofs consisting of a wide variety of
materials
1512. Varying indoor and outdoor conditions
1513. Large size of the buildings
1514. All of the above
Ans.: a) and b)
Ans.: d)
1519. A wall is said to be homogeneous if its properties do not vary with temperature
1520. A wall is said to be homogeneous if its properties do not vary with location
1521. The heat transfer resistance of a homogeneous wall depends on its thickness
and density
1522. The heat transfer resistance of a homogeneous wall depends on its thickness
and thermal conductivity
Ans.: b) and d)
1523. Heat transfer can take place by more than one mode in a non-homogeneous
wall
1524. The heat transfer resistance of a non-homogeneous wall is indicated in terms
of its conductance
1525. In an air space, the conduction effect becomes dominant as the air gap
reduces
1526. In an air space, the conduction effect becomes dominant as the air gap
increases
1527. Heat transfer through a building wall may be considered as steady if its
thermal capacity is very small
1528. When the thermal capacity of the wall is large, at any point of time the heat
transferred to the outer surface of the wall is larger than the heat transfer from the
inner surface
1529. When the thermal capacity of the wall is large, the heat transfer rate at the
outer surface of the wall can be smaller than the heat transfer rate from the inner
surface
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 22
d) Due to finite thermal capacity of the wall, the outer surface temperature is always
higher than the inner surface temperature
Ans.: c)
Ans.: d)
1532. In the analytical method, the outer boundary conditions are generally
assumed to be independent of time
1533. In the analytical method, the outer boundary conditions are generally
assumed to vary in a periodic manner with time
1534. In the analytical method, the indoor temperature is generally assumed to be
independent of time
1535. Analytical methods are amenable to simple geometries only
1536. For walls with negligible thermal capacity, the decrement factor is 0.0 and time
lag is 1.0
1537. For walls with negligible thermal capacity, the decrement factor is 1.0 and time
lag is 0.0
1538. The required cooling capacity of the air conditioning plant increases as
decrement factor increases and time lag decreases
1539. The required cooling capacity of the air conditioning plant increases as
decrement factor decreases and time lag increases
Ans.: b) and c)
9. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
1540. From thermal comfort point of view, thick walled structures are beneficial in
hot and humid climates
1541. From thermal comfort point of view, thick walled structures are beneficial in
hot and dry climates
1542. On a given day, the CLTD value of east facing wall reaches a peak before a
west facing wall
1543. On a given day, the CLTD value of west facing wall reaches a peak before a
east facing wall
Ans.: b) and c)
Ans.: From the psychrometric chart; for inside conditions of 21oC and 50% RH:
The overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall U is given by:
Assuming steady state, the heat transfer rate through the wall is given by:
The temperature of the inner surface of the wall, Ts,i is obtained using the equation:
Under this condition, the maximum allowable heat transfer rate is given by:
Ans.: The total heat transfer rate through the wall is given by:
The U values for the wall and glass are obtained from their individual resistance
values as:
Hence, UoAtotal = UwallAwall + UglassAglass = 2.503 x 15.5 + 6.48 x 4.5 = 67.96 W/K
13. A multi-layered wall consists (from inside to outside) 6mm thick plywood, 125
mm thick common brick, 2.1 mm thick air space, 125 mm thick common brick and 6
mm thick cement plaster. The values of internal and external surface conductance
for the wall are 8.3 W/m 2.K and 34.4 W/m2.K, respectively. Find the overall heat
transfer coefficient of the wall. What is the value of U, if the air space is replaced by
20 mm thick EPS board? Assume the temperature difference across the air space to
be 10 K.
Ans.: For the composite wall, the overall heat transfer coefficient U is given by:
t
h
e
v
a
l
u
e
s
o
f
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
s
u
s
i
n
g
t
h a r I , 14. orpt =o37 + _ To +
Tsol-air
h -------------------------------
e n a f Det ivity Ans q = 62.94 (Ans.)
altit (
d l t erm of 34.4
i l t h ine the .: ude
n t h e the roof Sinc
p h h e n sol- for For angl e Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 26
u e e air dire the
t r a a t tem ct a e time
m t i h per and lag
v a r e atur sca flat Tota is 0
a l t e tter and
l
l r s n for ed roof sola decr
u c a p e a radi eme
r
e o n a w flat atio , the irra nt
s n s c roof n fact
diati
d f e U if as angl or is
on
o u e - the 0.9, 1.0
on
f c r i v dire the e of for
the
t s a ct hea the
flat
w a c l radi t roof
inci roof
a n o r u atio tran , the
It is
l c e e e n sfer heat
den give
l e f p nor coe tran
n
f l i mal ffici sfer
by:
t ( i a s to ent ce 9 rate
h F c c : the of thro
i r i e sun the is It = ugh
c o e U ’s out IDN. the
d
k m n ray sid give cos roof
n t s e (0) is
b Thu (IDN + Id give
e T surf n
y s ) is = n
s a i ace
s b s repl 893 as by: 893 by:
2 acin W/ x
l 34.
0 g m2 cos
a e g 4 0=
n s i the and W/ (10)
m
d v air the m , (7t/ +
2
m gap inte 112
3 e the
t 4 n with nsit out 2) - =
E EP y of 991.
h . sid
e 2 b P S sca e P = 43
r y S lea tter air W/
2
m a : ds ed tem (7i/ m
a n ( to a radi per
d k dec atio atur 2) - Hen
1 U
V0 V0fv ce
rea n e
l 8++ 5+83=
3 0. = se nor as 80 the
. 1. .4 sol-
4 . in mal 37o
c 3286.00 air
. 1 the to C
o y5y54.. = tem
3 7 U- the and
n ) ^ y0 val roof the 10o per
d 0
, 1 3 ue (Id) sol atur
u 7
^ 37 by is ar e is
c whe give
t m abo 112 altit
t h W ut W/ ude n
i / re p by:
e K 34 m2. ang
v m
/ per Tak le
i o W
. cen e as is (XD
t v K t. the 80o 0.9x991.43
y e ) abs . Ifthe
= o
15. A building has its north, west facing walls and the roof exposed to sun. The
dimensions of the building are 12 m X 12 m X 5 m (WXLXH). The U-value of the
walls are 0.5 W/m2.K, while it is 0.4 W/m2.K for the roof. There are no windows on
north and west walls, and the other two walls are exposed to air conditioned spaces.
The outside design temperature is 41oC while the indoor is maintained at 25 oC, while
the average temperature for the design day is 31 oC. Calculate heat transfer rate to
the building at 5 P.M., 6 P.M and & P.M. Assume the walls are of D-Type and the roof
is of Type 5.
Ans.: Since the average outside temperature is different from 29oC, adjustments
have to be made to the values obtained from the CLTD tables.
From the Table of CLTD values for roof (Table 34.5), the CLTD values at 5 P.M., 6
P.M. and 7 P.M. are 29oC, 30oC and 29oC, respectively.
∴Qroof,5 P.M. = UroofAroofCLTDadj,5 P.M. = 0.4 x 144 x (29 + 2) = 1785.6 W Qroof, 6.P.M.
= UroofAroofCLTDadj,6 P.M. = 0.4 x 144 x 32 = 1843.2 W
Qroof, 7 P.M. = Qroof, 5 P.M. = 1785.6 W (as the CLTD values are same)
Table 34.6 is used for obtaining CLTD values for the walls
Similar to the north facing wall, the heat transfer rates through the west facing walls
are found to be:
1549. It is seen that the maximum amount of heat transfer rate is through the roof,
hence, putting additional insulation on the roof will reduce the cooling load
1550. Due to the thermal lag effect of the building, the peak heat transfer takes place
not during sunshine, but after sunset.
35.1. Introduction:
As mentioned in an earlier chapter, heating and cooling load calculations are
carried out to estimate the required capacity of heating and cooling systems, which
can maintain the required conditions in the conditioned space. To estimate the
required cooling or heating capacities, one has to have information regarding the
design indoor and outdoor conditions, specifications of the building, specifications of
the conditioned space (such as the occupancy, activity level, various appliances and
equipment used etc.) and any special requirements of the particular application. For
comfort applications, the required indoor conditions are fixed by the criterion of
thermal comfort, while for industrial or commercial applications the required indoor
conditions are fixed by the particular processes being performed or the products
being stored. As discussed in an earlier chapter, the design outdoor conditions are
chosen based on design dry bulb and coincident wet bulb temperatures for peak
summer or winter months for cooling and heating load calculations, respectively.
For estimating cooling loads, one has to consider the unsteady state
processes, as the peak cooling load occurs during the day time and the outside
conditions also vary significantly throughout the day due to solar radiation. In
addition, all internal sources add on to the cooling loads and neglecting them would
lead to underestimation of the required cooling capacity and the possibility of not
being able to maintain the required indoor conditions. Thus cooling load calculations
are inherently more complicated as it involves solving unsteady equations with
unsteady boundary conditions and internal heat sources.
For any building there exists a balance point at which the solar radiation
(Qsolar) and internal heat generation rate (Qint) exactly balance the heat losses from the
building. Thus from sensible heat balance equation, at balanced condition:
where UA is the product of overall heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer area of
the building, Tin is the required indoor temperature and T out is the outdoor
temperature.
(Q +Q)
Tout,bal =Tin - solar int sensible (35.2)
UA
2. Internal 2.8 TR
zones 6.0 – 12.0 TR
Computer
rooms Single room:
3.
H
o 0.6 TR per
t
e room Double
4. l
s room: 1.0 TR
Restaurant
s –
Departmen
t stores
Basement
& ground 5
floors
.
Upper
floors 0
Shops
R
5 – 5 estimating cooling and heating loads
based on applications, such as for
7 Theatr 0.07 residences, for commercial buildings
. es & TR etc.
– T Audito per
riums seat
R
5 cooling capacities for
: Required
4 . various applications
0 based on rules-of-
. T thumb (Croome and
Roberts, 1981) Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 5
R
5 More accurate
load estimation
6B
methods involve a
. combination of
analytical methods and
empirical results
obtained from actual
data, for example the
use of Cooling Load
Temperature Difference
(CLTD) for estimating
fabric heat gain and the
use of Solar Heat Gain
Factor (SHGF) for
estimating heat transfer
through fenestration.
These methods are
very widely used by air
conditioning engineers
as they yield reasonably
accurate results and
estimations can be
carried out manually in
a relatively short time.
Over the years, more
accurate methods that
require the use of
computers have been
developed for
estimating cooling
loads, e.g. the Transfer
Function Method
(TFM). Since these
methods are expensive
and time consuming
they are generally used
for estimating cooling
loads of large
commercial or
institutional buildings.
ASHRAE suggests
different methods for
35.4. Cooling load calculations:
As mentioned before, load calculations involve a systematic and stepwise
procedure that takes into account all the relevant building energy flows. The cooling
load experienced by a building varies in magnitude from zero (no cooling required) to
a maximum value. The design cooling load is a load near the maximum magnitude,
but is not normally the maximum. Design cooling load takes into account all the
loads experienced by a building under a specific set of assumed conditions.
1. Design outside conditions are selected from a long-term statistical database. The
conditions will not necessarily represent any actual year, but are representative of
the location of the building. Design data for outside conditions for various locations
of the world have been collected and are available in tabular form in various
handbooks.
2. The load on the building due to solar radiation is estimated for clear sky
conditions.
The total building cooling load consists of heat transferred through the
building envelope (walls, roof, floor, windows, doors etc.) and heat generated by
occupants, equipment, and lights. The load due to heat transfer through the
envelope is called as external load, while all other loads are called as internal
loads. The percentage of external versus internal load varies with building type, site
climate, and building design. The total cooling load on any building consists of both
sensible as well as latent load components. The sensible load affects dry bulb
temperature, while the latent load affects the moisture content of the conditioned
space.
a) Heat transfer through opaque surfaces: This is a sensible heat transfer process.
The heat transfer rate through opaque surfaces such as walls, roof, floor, doors etc.
is given by:
For sunlit surfaces, CLTD has to be obtained from the CLTD tables as discussed in
the previous chapter. Adjustment to the values obtained from the table is needed if
actual conditions are different from those based on which the CLTD tables are
prepared.
For surfaces which are not sunlit or which have negligible thermal mass (such
as doors), the CLTD value is simply equal to the temperature difference across the
wall or roof. For example, for external doors the CLTD value is simply equal to the
difference between the design outdoor and indoor dry bulb temperatures, Tout-Tin.
Estimation of CLTD values of floor and roof with false ceiling could be tricky.
For floors standing on ground, one has to use the temperature of the ground for
estimating CLTD. However, the ground temperature depends on the location and
varies with time. ASHRAE suggests suitable temperature difference values for
estimating heat transfer through ground. If the floor stands on a basement or on the
roof of another room, then the CLTD values for the floor are the temperature
difference across the floor (i.e., difference between the temperature of the basement
or room below and the conditioned space). This discussion also holds good for roofs
which have non-air conditioned rooms above them. For sunlit roofs with false ceiling,
the U value may be obtained by assuming the false ceiling to be an air space.
However, the CLTD values obtained from the tables may not exactly fit the specific
roof. Then one has to use his judgement and select suitable CLTD values.
b) Heat transfer through fenestration: Heat transfer through transparent surface such
as a window, includes heat transfer by conduction due to temperature difference
across the window and heat transfer due to solar radiation through the window. The
heat transfer through the window by convection is calculated using Eq.(35.3), with
CLTD being equal to the temperature difference across the window and A equal to
the total area of the window. The heat transfer due to solar radiation through the
window is given by:
where Aunshaded is the area exposed to solar radiation, SHGFmax and SC are the
maximum Solar Heat Gain Factor and Shading Coefficient, respectively, and CLF is
the Cooling Load Factor. As discussed in a previous chapter, the unshaded area has
to be obtained from the dimensions of the external shade and solar geometry.
SHGFmax and SC are obtained from ASHRAE tables based on the orientation of the
window, location, month of the year and the type of glass and internal shading
device.
Table 35.2: Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for glass with interior shading and located in
north latitudes (ASHRAE)
c) Heat transfer due to infiltration: Heat transfer due to infiltration consists of both
sensible as well as latent components. The sensible heat transfer rate due to
infiltration is given by:
1
At any point of time, cooling load may be equated to the heat transfer rate to the air in the
conditioned space. If heat is transferred to the walls or other solid objects, then it does not become a
part of the cooling load at that instant
where Vo is the infiltration rate ( in m3/s), ρ o and cp,m are the density and specific heat
of the moist, infiltrated air, respectively. To and T are the outdoor and indoor dry bulb
temperatures.
where hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water, W o and Wi are the outdoor and
indoor humidity ratio, respectively.
Vo =(ACH).V/3600 m3 /s (35.7)
where ACH is the number of air changes per hour and V is the gross volume of
the conditioned space in m3. Normally the ACH value varies from 0.5 ACH for tight
and well-sealed buildings to about 2.0 for loose and poorly sealed buildings. For
modern buildings the ACH value may be as low as 0.2 ACH. Thus depending upon
the age and condition of the building an appropriate ACH value has to be chose,
using which the infiltration rate can be calculated.
where A is the effective leakage area of the cracks, C is a flow coefficient which
depends on the type of the crack and the nature of the flow in the crack, ΔP is the
difference between outside and inside pressure (Po-Pi) and n is an exponent
whose value depends on the nature of the flow in the crack. The value of n varies
between 0.4 to 1.0, i.e., 0.4 ≤ n ≤ 1.0. The pressure difference ΔP arises due to
pressure difference due to the wind (ΔPwind), pressure difference due to the stack
effect (ΔPstack) and pressure difference due to building pressurization (ΔPbld), i.e.,
d) Miscellaneous external loads: In addition to the above loads, if the cooling coil has
a positive by-pass factor (BPF > 0), then some amount of ventilation air directly
enters the conditioned space, in which case it becomes a part of the building cooling
load. The sensible and latent heat transfer rates due to the by-passed ventilation air
.
can be calculated using equations (35.5) and (35.6) by replacing Vo with
..
V vent .BPF , where Vvent is the ventilation rate and BPF is the by-pass factor of the
cooling coil.
In addition to this, sensible and latent heat transfer to the building also occurs
due to heat transfer and air leakage in the supply ducts. A safety factor is usually
provided to account for this depending upon the specific details of the supply air
ducts.
If the supply duct consists of supply air fan with motor, then power input to the
fan becomes a part of the external sensible load on the building. If the duct consists
of the electric motor, which drives the fan, then the efficiency of the fan motor also
must be taken into account while calculating the cooling load. Most of the times, the
power input to the fan is not known a priori as the amount of supply air required is
not known at this stage. To take this factor into account, initially it is assumed that the
supply fan adds about 5% of the room sensible cooling load and cooling loads are
then estimated. Then this value is corrected in the end when the actual fan selection
is done.
The internal loads consist of load due to occupants, due to lighting, due to
equipment and appliances and due to products stored or processes being performed
in the conditioned space.
a) Load due to occupants: The internal cooling load due to occupants consists of
both sensible and latent heat components. The rate at which the sensible and latent
heat transfer take place depends mainly on the population and activity level of the
occupants. Since a portion of the heat transferred by the occupants is in the form of
radiation, a Cooling Load Factor (CLF) should be used similar to that used for
radiation heat transfer through fenestration. Thus the sensible heat transfer to the
conditioned space due to the occupants is given by the equation:
Table 35.3: Total heat gain, sensible heat gain fraction from occupants
The value of Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for occupants depends on the hours after
the entry of the occupants into the conditioned space, the total hours spent in the
conditioned space and type of the building. Values of CLF have been obtained for
different types of buildings and have been tabulated in ASHRAE handbooks.
Since the latent heat gain from the occupants is instantaneous the CLF for latent
heat gain is 1.0, thus the latent heat gain due to occupants is given by:
b) Load due to lighting: Lighting adds sensible heat to the conditioned space. Since
the heat transferred from the lighting system consists of both radiation and
convection, a Cooling Load Factor is used to account for the time lag. Thus the
cooling load due to lighting system is given by:
The usage factor accounts for any lamps that are installed but are not switched on at
the time at which load calculations are performed. The ballast factor takes into
account the load imposed by ballasts used in fluorescent lights. A typical ballast
factor value of 1.25 is taken for fluorescent lights, while it is equal to 1.0 for
incandescent lamps. The values of CLF as a function of the number of hours after
the lights are turned on, type of lighting fixtures and the hours of operation of the
lights are available in the form of tables in ASHRAE handbooks.
The installed wattage and usage factor depend on the type of the appliance or
equipment. The CLF values are available in the form of tables in ASHARE
handbooks.
For other equipment such as computers, printers etc, the load is in the form of
sensible heat transfer and is estimated based on the rated power consumption. The
CLF value for these equipment may be taken as 1.0 as the radiative heat transfer
from these equipment is generally negligible due to smaller operating temperatures.
When the equipment are run by electric motors which are also kept inside the
conditioned space, then the efficiency of the electric motor must be taken into
account. Though the estimation of cooling load due to appliance and equipment
appears to be simple as given by the equations, a large amount of uncertainty is
introduced on account of the usage factor and the difference between rated
(nameplate) power consumption at full loads and actual power consumption at part
loads. Estimation using nameplate power input may lead to overestimation of the
loads, if the equipment operates at part load conditions most of the time.
If the conditioned space is used for storing products (e.g. cold storage) or for
carrying out certain processes, then the sensible and latent heat released by these
specific products and or the processes must be added to the internal cooling loads.
The sensible and latent heat release rate of a wide variety of live and dead products
commonly stored in cold storages are available in air conditioning and refrigeration
handbooks. Using these tables, one can estimate the required cooling capacity of
cold storages.
Thus using the above equations one can estimate the sensible (Qs,r), latent
(Ql,r) and total cooling load (Qt,r) on the buildings. Since the load due to sunlit
Figure 35.2 shows a schematic of an air conditioning system with the cooling
coil, supply and return ducts, ventilation and fans. The cooling coil has a by-pass
factor X. Then the cooling load on the coil due to sensible heat transfer of the
ventilated air is given by:
where mvent and Vvent are the mass and volumetric flow rates of the ventilated air
and X is the by-pass factor of the coil.
The latent heat load on the coil due to ventilation is given by:
where Wo and Wi are the humidity ratios of the ambient and conditioned air,
respectively and hfg is the latent heat of vapourization of water.
35.4.2. Load on the coil due to leakage in return air duct and due to return air
fan:
If there is leakage of air and heat from or to the return air duct, additional
capacity has to be provided by the cooling coil to take care of this. The sensible heat
transfer to the return duct due to heat transfer from the surroundings to the return
duct depends on the surface area of the duct that is exposed to outside air (A exposed),
amount of insulation (Uins) and temperature difference between outdoor air and
return air, i.e.,
The amount of sensible and latent heat transfer rates due to air leakage from
or to the system depends on the effectiveness of the sealing provided and the
Supply fan ms
mvent
Qt,c=Qs,c+Ql,c
Now the total sensible load on the coil (Qs,c) is obtained by summing up the
total sensible load on the building (Qs,r), sensible load due to ventilation (Qs,vent) and
sensible load due to return air duct and fan (Qs,retrun duct), that is:
Q s,c =Q s,r + Q s,vent +Q s,return duct (35.15)
Similarly the total latent load on the coil (Ql,c) is obtained by summing up the total
latent load on the building (Ql.r), latent load due to ventilation (Ql,vent) and latent load
due to return air duct and fan (Ql,retrun duct), that is:
Ql,c =Ql,r +Ql,vent +Ql,return duct (35.15)
Finally the required cooling capacity of the system which is equal to the total load on
the coil is obtained from the equation:
One can also calculate the sensible heat factor for the coil (CSHF) and draw
the process line on the psychrometric chart and find the required coil Apparatus Dew
1559. Steady state methods are justified in case of heating load calculations
as the outside temperatures during winter are normally very low
1560. Steady state methods are justified in case of heating load calculations
as the peak load normally occurs before sunrise
1561. Steady state methods are justified in case of heating load calculations
as the outside temperature variation is normally low during winter months
1562. Neglecting internal heat sources while calculating heating loads
underestimates the required capacity
Ans.: b) and c)
1563. An all year air conditioning system has to be switched from winter
mode to summer mode as the outdoor temperature exceeds the outdoor
temperature at balance point
1564. An all year air conditioning system has to be switched from summer
mode to winter mode as the outdoor temperature exceeds the outdoor
temperature at balance point
1565. The outdoor temperature at balance point increases as the amount of
insulation increases
1566. The outdoor temperature at balance point decreases as the amount of
insulation increases
Ans.: a) and d)
1567. Methods based on rules-of-thumb are not always useful as they are not
based on practical systems
1568. Methods based on rules-of-thumb are not always useful as they do not
distinguish between a good building design and a bad building design
1569. Methods based on Transfer Function Method are not always useful as
they do not yield accurate results
1570. Methods based on Transfer Function Method are not always useful as
they are complex and time consuming
Ans.: b) and d)
capacity
1572. An externally loaded building requires a system with variable cooling
capacity
1573. An auditorium is a good example of an internally loaded building
1574. A residence is a good example of an internally loaded building
Ans.: b) and d)
Ans.: a) and c)
Ans.: a)
Ans.: b) and d)
9. A building has a U-value of 0.5 W/m 2.K and a total exposed surface area of 384
m2. The building is subjected to an external load (only sensible) of 2 kW and an
internal load of 1.2 kW (sensible). If the required internal temperature is 25 oC, state
Since the outdoor temperature at balance point is greater than the external
temperature (Text < Tout,bal);
When the U-value of the building is reduced to 0.36 W/m.K, the new balanced
outdoor temperature is given by:
Since now the outdoor temperature at balance point is smaller than the external
temperature (Text > Tout,bal);
The above example shows that adding more insulation to a building extends the
cooling season and reduces the heating season.
10. An air conditioned room that stands on a well ventilated basement measures 3 m
wide, 3 m high and 6 m deep. One of the two 3 m walls faces west and contains a
double glazed glass window of size 1.5 m by 1.5 m, mounted flush with the wall with
no external shading. There are no heat gains through the walls other than the one
facing west. Calculate the sensible, latent and total heat gains on the room, room
sensible heat factor from the following information. What is the required cooling
capacity?
25oC dry bulb, 50 percent RH Inside conditions
43oC dry bulb, 24oC wet bulb Outside conditions
1.78 W/m2.K 1.316 W/m2.K U-value for wall
1.2 W/m2.K U-value for roof
U-value for floor
Effective Temp. Difference (ETD) for wall: 25oC
Effective Temp. Difference (ETD) for roof: 30oC
U-value for glass ; 3.12 W/m2.K
Solar Heat Gain (SHG) of glass ; 300 W/m2
Internal Shading Coefficient (SC) of glass: 0.86
For the outside conditions of 43oC dry bulb, 24oC wet bulb:
External loads:
a) Heat transfer rate through the walls: Since only west wall measuring 3m x 3m with
a glass windows of 1.5m x 1.5m is exposed; the heat transfer rate through this wall is
given by:
c) Heat transfer rate through floor: Since the room stands on a well-ventilated
basement, we can assume the conditions in the basement to be same as that of the
outside (i.e., 43oC dry bulb and 24oC wet bulb), since the floor is not exposed to solar
radiation, the driving temperature difference for the roof is the temperature difference
between the outdoor and indoor, hence:
d) Heat transfer rate through glass: This consists of the radiative as well as
conductive components. Since no information is available on the value of CLF, it is
taken as 1.0. Hence the total heat transfer rate through the glass window is given by:
(Sensible)
e) Heat transfer due to infiltration: The infiltration rate is 0.5 ACH, converting this into
mass flow rate, the infiltration rate in kg/s is given by:
minf = density of air x (ACH x volume of the room)/3600 = 1.095 x (0.5 x 3x3x6)/3600
Internal loads:
a) Load due to occupants: The sensible and latent load due to occupants are:
b) Load due to lighting: Assuming a CLF value of 1.0, the load due to lighting is:
Total sensible and latent loads are obtained by summing-up all the sensible and
latent load components (both external as well as internal) as:
To calculate the required cooling capacity, one has to know the losses in return air
ducts. Ventilation may be neglected as the infiltration can take care of the small
ventilation requirement. Hence using a safety factor of 1.25, the required cooling
capacity is:
1606. Discuss the criteria used for selection of air conditioning systems
i—i
Win I
i i
Win I
i
Conditioned space
A/C plant
The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the same
duct, but not both heating and cooling simultaneously. These systems can be
further classified into:
Figure 36.2 shows the classic, single duct, single zone, constant volume
systems. As shown in the figure, outdoor air (OD air) for ventilation and recirculated
air (RC air) are mixed in the required proportions using the dampers and the mixed
air is made to flow through a cooling and dehumidifying coil, a heating coil and a
humidifier using a an insulated ducting and a supply fan. As the air flows through
these coils the temperature and moisture content of the air are brought to the
required values. Then this air is supplied to the conditioned space, where it meets
the building cooling or heating requirements. The return air leaves the conditioned
space, a part of it is recirculated and the remaining part is vented to the atmosphere.
A thermostat senses the temperature of air in the conditioned space and controls the
amount of cooling or heating provided in the coils so that the supply air temperature
can be controlled as per requirement. A humidistat measures the humidity ratio in the
conditioned space and controls the amount of water vapour added in the humidifier
and hence the supply air humidity ratio as per requirement.
Supply
OD air duct
Humidifier
with fan
Cooling coil Heating coil
air
■^-----------------------------------^
Conditioned
Dampers Return air
IH
Exhaust
space duct with fan
Fig.36.2. A constant volume, single zone system
This system is called as a single duct system as there is only one supply duct,
through which either hot air or cold air flows, but not both simultaneously. It is called
as a constant volume system as the volumetric flow rate of supply air is always
maintained constant. It is a single zone system as the control is based on
In coil control, supply air temperature is controlled by varying the flow rate
of cold and hot water in the cooling and heating coils, respectively. As the cooling
season gradually changes to heating season, the cooling coil valve is gradually
closed and heating coil valve is opened. Though coil control is simpler, using this
type of control it is not possible to control the zone humidity precisely as the
dehumidification rate in the cooling coil decreases with cold water flow rate. Thus at
low cold water flow rates, the humidity ratio of the conditioned space is likely to be
higher than required.
In face-and-bypass control, the cold and hot water flow rates are maintained
constant, but the amount of air flowing over the coils are decreased or increased by
opening or closing the by-pass dampers, respectively. By this method it is possible to
control the zone humidity more precisely, however, this type of control occupies
more space physically and is also expensive compared to coil control.
1625. Spaces with uniform loads, such as large open areas with small
external loads e.g. theatres, auditoria, departmental stores.
The Multiple, single zone systems can be used in large buildings such as
factories, office buildings etc.
Reheat coils
Fig.36.3. Single duct, constant volume system with multiple zones and reheat
coils
1630. High energy consumption for cooling, as the air is first cooled to a very
low temperature and is then heated in the reheat coils. Thus energy is required first
for cooling and then for reheating. The energy consumption can partly be reduced by
increasing the supply air temperature, such that at least one reheat coil can be
switched-off all the time. The energy consumption can also be reduced by using
waste heat (such as heat rejected in the condensers) in the reheat coil.
Figure 36.4 shows a single duct, multiple zone, variable air volume system for
summer air conditioning applications. As shown, in these systems air is cooled and
dehumidified to a required level in the cooling and dehumidifying coil (CC). A
Zone dampers
Cooling coil
Compared to constant volume systems, the variable air volume systems offer
advantages such as:
1632. Lower energy consumption in the cooling system as air is not cooled to very
low temperatures and then reheated as in constant volume systems.
1633. Lower energy consumption also results due to lower fan power input due to
lower flow rate, when the load is low. These systems lead to significantly lower
power consumption, especially in perimeter zones where variations in solar load and
outside temperature allows for reduced air flow rates.
However, since the flow rate is controlled, there could be problems with
ventilation, IAQ and room air distribution when the zone loads are very low. In
addition it is difficult to control humidity precisely using VAV systems. Balancing of
dampers could be difficult if the airflow rate varies widely. However, by combining
VAV systems with terminal reheat it is possible to maintain the air flow rate at a
minimum required level to ensure proper ventilation and room air distribution. Many
Figure 36.5 shows the schematic of a dual duct, constant volume system. As
shown in the figure, in a dual duct system the supply air fan splits the flow into two
streams. One stream flow through the cooling coil and gets cooled and dehumidified
to about 13oC, while the other stream flows the heating coil and is heated to about
35–45oC. The cold and hot streams flow through separate ducts. Before each
conditioned space or zone, the cold and hot air streams are mixed in required
proportions using a mixing box arrangement, which is controlled by the zone
thermostat. The total volume of air supplied to each zone remains constant, however,
the supply air temperature varies depending upon load.
Warmair
Cold air Return air
Mixing box
CC
Fig.36.5: Dual duct, constant volume system
1634. Since total airflow rate to each zone is constant, it is possible to maintain
proper IAQ and room air distribution.
1635. Cooling in some zones and heating in other zones can be achieved
simultaneously
1636. System is very responsive to variations in the zone load, thus it is possible
to maintain required conditions precisely.
1637. Occupies more space as both cold air and hot air ducts have to be
sized to handle all the air flow rate, if required.
1638. Not very energy efficient due to the need for simultaneous cooling and
heating of the air streams. However, the energy efficiency can be improved by
completely shutting down the cooling coil when the outside temperature is low
and mixing supply air from fan with hot air in the mixing box. Similarly, when
the outside weather is hot, the heating coil can be completely shut down, and
the cold air from the cooling coil can be mixed with supply air from the fan in
the mixing box.
These systems are similar to dual duct, constant volume systems with the
only difference that instead of maintaining constant flow rates to each zone, the
mixing boxes reduce the air flow rate as the load on the zone drops.
1639. All air systems offer the greatest potential for energy conservation by
utilizing the outdoor air effectively.
1644. The complete air conditioning plant including the supply and return air
fans can be located away from the conditioned space. Due to this it is
possible to use a wide variety of air filters and avoid noise in the conditioned
space.
1645. They occupy more space and thus reduce the available floor space in
the buildings. It could be difficult to provide air conditioning in high-rise
buildings with the plant on the ground floor or basement due to space
constraints.
1646. Retrofitting may not always be possible due to the space requirement.
1647. Balancing of air in large and particularly with variable air volume
systems could be difficult.
All air systems can be used in both comfort as well as industrial air
conditioning applications. They are especially suited to buildings that require
individual control of multiple zones, such as office buildings, classrooms,
laboratories, hospitals, hotels, ships etc. They are also used extensively in
applications that require very close control of the conditions in the conditioned space
such as clean rooms, computer rooms, operation theatres, research facilities
etc.
A 2-pipe system is used for either cooling only or heating only application, but
cannot be used for simultaneous cooling and heating. Figure 36.6 shows the
schematic of a 2-pipe, all water system. As shown in the figure and as the name
implies, a 2-pipe system consists of two pipes – one for supply of cold/hot water to
the conditioned space and the other for the return water. A cooling or heating coil
provides the required cold or hot water. As the supply water flows through the
conditioned space, required heat transfer between the water and conditioned space
A 4-pipe system consists of two supply pipelines – one for cold water and one
for hot water; and two return water pipelines. The cold and hot water are mixed in a
required proportion depending upon the zone load, and the mixed water is supplied
to the conditioned space. The return water is split into two streams, one stream flows
to the heating coil while the other flows to the cooling coil.
Heating/cooling coil Flow control valves
Supply water line
Heat transfer between the cold/hot water and the conditioned space takes
place either by convection, conduction or radiation or a combination of these. The
cold/hot water may flow through bare pipes located in the conditioned space or one
of the following equipment can be used for transferring heat:
A fan coil unit is located inside the conditioned space and consists of a heating
and/or cooling coil, a fan, air filter, drain tray and controls. Figure 36.7 shows the
schematic of a fan coil unit used for cooling applications. As shown in the figure, the
basic components of a fan coil unit are: finned tube cooling coil, fan, air filter,
insulated drain tray with provision for draining condensate water and connections for
In a radiator, the heat transfer between the coil and the surrounding air is
primarily by radiation. Some amount of heat is also transferred by natural convection.
Radiators are widely used for heating applications, however, in recent times they are
also being used for cooling applications.
1651. The thermal distribution system requires very less space compared to all air
systems. Thus there is no penalty in terms of conditioned floor space. Also the plant
size will be small due to the absence of large supply air fans.
1652. Individual room control is possible, and at the same time the system offers all
the benefits of a large central system.
1653. Since the temperature of hot water required for space heating is small, it is
possible to use solar or waste heat for winter heating.
1656. Requires higher maintenance compared to all air systems, particularly in the
conditioned space.
1657. Draining of condensate water can be messy and may also create health
problems if water stagnates in the drain tray. This problem can be eliminated, if
dehumidification is provided by a central ventilation system, and the cooling coil is
used only for sensible cooling of room air.
1659. Control of humidity, particularly during summer is difficult using chilled water
control valves.
All water systems using fan coil units are most suitable in buildings requiring
individual room control, such as hotels, apartment buildings and office buildings.
Central plant
for secondary
water
1660. It is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and heating using primary air
and secondary water.
1661. Space requirement is reduced, as the amount of primary supplied is less than
that of an all air systems.
1663. Since no latent heat transfer is required in the cooling coil kept in the
conditioned space, the coil operates dry and its life thereby increases and problems
related to odours or fungal growth in conditioned space is avoided.
1664. The conditioned space can sometimes be heated with the help of the heating
coil and secondary air, thus avoiding supply of primary air during winter.
1665. Service of indoor units is relatively simpler compared to all water systems.
1666. Operation and control are complicated due to the need for handling and
controlling both primary air and secondary water.
1668. The secondary water coils in the conditioned space can become dirty if the
quality of filters used in the room units is not good.
1669. Since a constant amount of primary air is supplied to conditioned space, and
room control is only through the control of room cooling/heating coils, shutting down
the supply of primary air to unoccupied spaces is not possible.
1670. If there is abnormally high latent load on the building, then condensation may
take place on the cooling coil of secondary water.
These systems are mainly used in exterior buildings with large sensible
loads and where close control of humidity in the conditioned space is not required.
These systems are thus suitable for office buildings, hospitals, schools, hotels,
apartments etc.
CONDENSER FAN
EVAPORATOR
(indoorconditioning coil
CONTROL
BOX
Fig.3
6.9. A
typica
l
windo
w
EVAPORATOR type
FAN room
air
condit
ioner
Figure 36.10
shows a typical
package unit with a
remote condensing
unit. As shown, in a
typical package
unit, the remote
condensing unit
consists of the
compressor and a
condenser, while
the indoor unit
consists of the plate
fin-and-tube type,
evaporator, a
blower, air filter,
drain tray and an
arrangement for
connecting supply
air and return air
ducts. These units
are available in
capacities ranging
from about 5 TR to
upto about 100 TR.
The condenser
used in these
systems could be
either air cooled or
water cooled. This
type of the evaporator.
system
can be
used for
providing
air
conditioni
ng in a
large
room or it
can cater
to several
small
rooms
with
suitable
supply
and return
ducts. It is
also Version 1 ME, IIT
possible Kharagpur 18
to house
the entire
refrigerati
on in a
single
package
with
connectio
ns for
water
lines to
the water
cooled
condenser
and
supply
and return
air ducts.
Larger
systems
are either
constant
air volume
type or
variable
air volume
type. They
may also
include
heating
coils
along with
Condensing
Return
Coldairair unit
from
to
conditionedspace
onditioned space
Indoor unit
Refrigerant lines
1672. Each conditioned space has individual air distribution with simple adjustment
by the occupants.
1675. Operation of the system is simple and there is no need for a trained operator.
1678. As the components are selected and matched by the manufacturer, the
system is less flexible in terms of air flow rate, condenser and evaporator sizes.
1683. Systems are generally designed to meet the appliance standards, rather than
the building standards.
1685. The space temperature may experience a swing if on-off control is used as in
room air conditioners.
1687. The function of a thermal distribution system is to transfer sensible and latent
heat between the air conditioning plant and the conditioned space
1688. A thermal distribution system may also supply the required amount of fresh air
to the conditioned space
1689. Only air flows through a thermal distribution system
1690. Air, water, refrigerant or any other fluid can flow through a thermal distribution
system
1695. A single zone, single duct, constant volume system can be used either for
cooling or for heating, but not for both cooling and heating simultaneously
1696. The cooling capacity of a single zone, single duct, constant volume system is
controlled by controlling the supply air temperature
1697. Single zone, single duct, constant volume systems are not suitable when the
space conditions have to be controlled precisely
1698. Single zone, single duct, constant volume systems can be used for large
single rooms only
Ans.: a) and b)
1699. Single duct, multiple zone, constant volume systems can be used
for simultaneous cooling and heating applications
1700. Single duct, multiple zone, constant volume systems can be used for large
buildings comprising of several offices
c) Single duct, multiple zone, constant volume systems are energy efficient
d) Single duct, multiple zone, constant volume systems always ensure proper
ventilation
Ans.: b) and d)
1701. In single duct, variable air volume systems, the temperature of the supply air
remains constant, but the supply air flow rate is varied depending upon the load
1702. Variable air volume systems generally consume less power compared to
constant volume systems
1703. Variable air volume systems occupy less space compared to constant volume
systems
1704. Variable air volume systems always ensure adequate ventilation and good
room air distribution
Ans.: a) and b)
1705. Dual duct systems can provide simultaneous cooling and heating
1706. Dual duct systems are constant air volume systems
1707. Dual duct systems are energy efficient
1708. Dual duct systems occupy more space compared to single duct systems
Ans.: a) and d)
1709. In all air systems, the outdoor and re-circulated airflow rates are controlled
independently
1710. In all air systems, it is sometimes possible to switch of the cooling coil and use
only outdoor air for air conditioning
1711. All air systems are highly suitable for retrofitting applications
1712. All air systems generally ensure precise control of conditioned space
Ans.: b) and d)
1713. A two-pipe all water system can be used for simultaneous cooling and heating
applications
1714. In all water systems, separate provision must be made for ventilation
1715. An all water system is easier to maintain compared to an all air system
1716. Precise control of room conditions is difficult using all water systems
Ans.: b) and d)
1717. All water systems are suitable in buildings requiring individual room control
1718. All water systems consume less space compared to all air systems
1719. All water systems offer lower initial and running costs
1720. All of the above
Ans.: a) and b)
10. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
1721. An air-water system uses both air and water in the thermal distribution system
1722. In an air-water system, all the latent load on the building is handled by the
primary air only
1723. In an air-water system, the cooling coil kept in the conditioned space operates
under dry conditions
1724. Compared to all water systems, an air-water system is difficult to maintain
1729. A fan coil unit is used with all water systems only
1730. A fan coil unit can be used either with an all water system or with an air-water
system
1731. It is possible to control the cooling capacity by controlling either liquid flow rate
or air flow rate in a fan coil unit
1732. A fan coil unit used in an all water system requires a provision for draining the
condensed water
1737. Unitary refrigerant based systems are used for very small capacities only
1738. Unitary refrigerant based systems are available only for cooling applications
1739. Unitary systems are factory assembled with a performance guaranteed by the
manufacturer
1740. Unitary systems are also called as package units
Ans.: c) and d)
1741. Small unitary systems have air cooled condensers, while larger systems can
be either air cooled or water cooled
1742. A split type room air conditioner should be used when the room does not have
an exterior wall
1743. A split type air conditioner is more reliable compared to a window air
conditioner
1744. It is possible to provide fresh air in a window air conditioner, whereas this is
not possible in a split air conditioner
1749. Compared to central systems, the initial cost of a unitary system is less
1750. Unitary systems can be installed quickly and their operation is relatively
simple
1751. Unitary systems consume less power compared to central systems of same
capacity
1752. Unitary systems are ideal for retrofitting applications
1766. Discuss the need for studying transmission aspects of air in air conditioning
(Section 37.2)
1767. Discuss airflow through air conditioning ducts, Bernoulli and modified
Bernoulli equations, Static, dynamic, datum and total head, Fan Total Pressure (FTP)
and power input to fan (Section 37.3)
1768. Discuss estimation of pressure loss through air conditioning ducts (Section
37.4)
1769. Estimation of dynamic pressure drop in various types of fittings (Section 37.5)
1771. Apply Bernoulli equation and modified Bernoulli equation to air conditioning
ducts and estimate various pressure heads, pressure loss, FTP and fan power input
1772. Estimate frictional pressure drops through circular and non-circular ducts
using friction charts and equations
1773. Estimate dynamic pressure drop through various fittings used in air
conditioning ducts using tables, charts and equations
1774. Define static regain and calculate static regain factor for various types of duct
enlargements
37.1. Introduction:
In air conditioning systems that use air as the fluid in the thermal distribution
system, it is essential to design the Air Handling Unit (AHU) properly. The primary
function of an AHU is to transmit processed air from the air conditioning plant to the
conditioned space and distribute it properly within the conditioned space. A typical
AHU consists of:
1775. A duct system that includes a supply air duct, return air duct, cooling and/or
heating coils, humidifiers/dehumidifiers, air filters and dampers
1776. An air distribution system comprising various types of outlets for supply air
and inlets for return air
V2
where p is the pressure head, — is the velocity head and Z is the static head,
Pg 2g
respectively. Each of the heads has units of length as explained before. The above
equation can be written in terms of static, velocity, datum and total pressures as:
ρV12 ρV22
p1 +—+ρgz1 =p2++ρgz2 =pT = total pressure (37.2)
The above equation implies that for frictionless flow through a duct, the total
pressure remains constant along the duct. Since all real fluids have finite
viscosity, i.e. in all actual fluid flows, some energy will be lost in overcoming friction.
This is referred to as head loss, i.e. if the fluid were to rise in a vertical pipe it will
rise to a lower height than predicted by Bernoulli’s equation. The head loss will
cause the total pressure to decrease in the flow direction. If the head loss is denoted
by Hl, then Bernoulli’s equation can be modified to:
p1 V12 p2 V V1 p 2 V 2
+ +z1 = + +z2 +Hl
ρg 2g ρg the
To overcome 2g fluid friction and the resulting head, a fan is required in air
conditioning systems. When a fan is introduced into the duct through which air is
flowing, then the static and total pressures at the section where the fan is located
+ +z1 = + +z2 +Hl (37.3)
P(V22-V12)
FTP = (p2 -p1) +--------------- + pg(z2 -z1) + pgHl (37 5)
2g
Thus to evaluate FTP, one needs to know the static pressures at sections 1
and 2 (p1, p2), air velocities at 1 and 2 (V1, V2), datum at 1 and 2 (Z1, Z2) and the
head loss Hl. Normally, compared to the other terms, the pressure change due to
datum pg(z2 -z1) is negligible. If the static pressures at the inlet and exit are equal,
say, to atmospheric pressure (p1= p2 = patm) and the duct has a uniform cross section
(v1=v2), then FTP is equal to the pressure loss due to friction. Thus to find FTP, one
has to estimate the total pressure loss as air flows through the duct from one section
to other.
Apt=Apf+Apd (37 6)
pV 2
Ap f =f— — (37.7)
Dl 2
relative surface roughness of the pipe or duct surface in contact with the fluid.
For turbulent flow, the friction factor can be evaluated using the empirical
correlation suggested by Colebrook and White is used, the correlation is given by:
1 ks 2.51
Vf
=-2log 10 3.7D + (37.8)
(ReD)Vf
where ks is the average surface roughness of inner duct expressed in same units as
the diameter D. Evaluation of f from the above equation requires iteration since f
occurs on both the sides of it.
In general in air conditioning ducts, the fluid flow is turbulent. It is seen from
the above equation that when the flow is turbulent, the friction factor is a function of
Reynolds number, hydraulic diameter and inner surface roughness of the duct
material. Table 37.1 shows absolute roughness values of some of the materials
commonly used in air conditioning:
Of the different materials, the GI sheet material is very widely used for air
conditioning ducts. Taking GI as the reference material and properties of air at
20oC and 1 atm. pressure, the frictional pressure drop in a circular duct is given by:
= 2
in N/m
Apf
(37.9) . 0.022243Q
1.852
L
4.973 D
. where Qair is the volumetric flow rate of air in m3/s, L is the length and D is
the inner
diameter of the duct in meters, respectively.
Using the above equation, friction charts have been created for estimation of
frictional pressure drop of standard air through circular ducts made of GI sheets.
Figure 37.1 shows the standard chart for estimating frictional pressure drop in
circular ducts made of GI sheets at standard air conditions.
D.6
O.OIO
0.5
o.s
V i
0.008
0.4O 5 ,.o' , sr © •
0.OO6
0.3
^f
>* ■
■^ < >-
T
V 3 ss>T_;
*ff
O3 \ --cV t
X
0.2 ^
(W
CIS
O. 15 /«\ ^ ^v J c ' l\ 1
^Ift
O.IO
O.IO <; -Ir-lJA-
□ OS
^°
^
/■
n-b' .^ J-T \
0.06
;»' V\ ^■w^-S-
0.05
Q 06
0.04
^°"
<* S V
O 05
*c vkfN
0.04 .£ &>
0.03
O 03
O 02
s
^
\r\ s, \ N\<Jr\
O.OIO
O
¥ YA-^W-
4 n» ^
o.ooa ^f z>* \
O 006 ^C-*— ^ rJ 1 ** S^ * CP
V I ^"
O.l D.2 0.30.4 I_Z 1.5
0.6 O.B 1 2 3 4 6 s,^
SIO
\ K^l\ \
15 20 30 40 60 80 100
It can be seen from the chart that one can estimate frictional pressure drop
per unit length if any two parameters out of the three parameters, i.e., flow rate Qair,
diameter D and velocity V are known. Correction factors have to be applied to the
pressure drop values for ducts made of other materials and/or for air at other
conditions. For small changes in air density (p) and temperature (T in K), one can
use the following relation to obtain frictional pressure drop from the standard chart.
Apf,1 0.857
Apf,1 T2^ ^T1
ZAp f,2 = and ZApf 2
(37.10)
P2 j
The chart shown above is valid only for circular ducts. For other shapes, an
equivalent diameter has to be used to estimate the frictional pressure drop.
Even though circular ducts require the least material for a given flow rate and
allowable pressure drop, rectangular ducts are generally preferred in practice as
they fit easily into the building construction thus occupying less space, and they are
also easy to fabricate. The ratio of the two sides ‘a’ and ‘b’ of the rectangle (a/b) is
called as aspect ratio of the duct. Since square ducts with aspect ratio 1.0 come
close in performance to a circular duct, it is preferable to use an aspect ratio as close
to unity as possible for best performance.
One can use equation (37.9) and friction chart for circular ducts for estimating
pressure drop through a rectangular duct by using an equivalent diameter. A
rectangular duct is said to be equivalent to a circular duct, if the volumetric
flow rate Qairand frictional pressure drop per unit length (ΔPf/L) are same for
both. Equating these two parameters for a rectangular duct and an equivalent
circular duct, it can be shown that the equivalent diameter is given by:
(ab) 0.625
Deq= (a + b)0.25 (3711)
The above equation is found to be valid for aspect ratio less than or equal
to 1:8. Thus from the known values of the two sides of the duct ‘a’ and ‘b’, one can
find the equivalent diameter Deq. From the equivalent diameter and the air flow rate,
one can estimate the frictional pressure drop per unit length by using either Eq.(37.9)
or the friction chart Fig. 37.1. However, when using equivalent diameter and flow rate
to find the frictional pressure drop from the chart, the velocity values shown on the
chart are not the actual velocities. The actual velocities have to be obtained from
the flow rate and the actual cross-sectional area of the rectangular duct. If a
rectangular duct has to be designed for a given flow rate and a given frictional
pressure drop, then one can first find the equivalent diameter from the friction chart
or from Eq.(37.9) and then find the required dimensions of the duct either by fixing
the aspect ratio or one of the sides.
S
ometi
mes,
an
equiva
lent
length
Leq is
define
d to
estima
te the
dynam
ic
pressu
re loss
throug
h
bends
and
fittings
. The
dynam
ic
pressu
re loss
is
obtain
ed
from
the
equiva
lent
length
and the R (b )
frictional
pressure T
drop he
equation or cross-
chart, i.e., sectio
n of
A pf the
p 2 ( elbow
d could
be
= circula
r or
where f is rectan
the friction gular.
factor and Leq Weisb
is the ach
equivalent propos
length. ed that
the
37.5.1. dynam
Evaluation ic
of dynamic pressu
pressure re loss
loss in an
through elbow
various is due
fittings: to the
sudde
a) Turns, n
bends or expan
elbows: The sion
most from
common the
type of vena
bends used contra
in air cta
conditioning region
ducts are 90o (1’) to
turns shown full
in Fig. cross-
37.2(a). sectio
n 2 as
shown
1’
1 in
Fig.37.
2(a).
The
dynam
ic
pressu
re
drop
due to
the elbow or 3 7.1 4
90o turn is
found to be a
function of Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 8
the aspect
ratio (W/H),
inner and
outer radii of
the turn (R1
and R2) and
the velocity
pressure
pV2/2, i.e.,
Z_ 2
\pd p
b
Vf(( (
=
Cb 2
W/
2H),
R1,
R2)
[V
The value of dynamic loss coefficient C b as a function of aspect ratio (W/H),
inner and outer radii of the turn (R 1 and R2) is available in the form of tables and
graphs (Fig.37.2(b)). It can be seen from Fig. 37.2(b) that the pressure loss
increases as (R1/R2) decreases and/or the aspect ratio W/H decreases. As a result,
installing turning vanes in the bends reduces the dynamic pressure drop as it is
equivalent to increasing W/H, as shown in Fig. 37.2(c).
Turning vanes
b) Branch take-offs: Branch take-offs (Fig. 37.3) are commonly used in air
conditioning ducts for splitting the airflow into a branch and a downstream duct. The
dynamic pressure drop from the upstream (u) to downstream (d), Apu-d is given by:
where Vd and Vu are the air velocities in the downstream and upstream ducts,
respectively.
The dynamic pressure drop from the upstream (u) to branch (b), Apu-b is given by:
ZAp|| _Y\
Pvd (37.16)
u-b
2
The value of
dynamic loss coefficient
Cu-b is available in the form
of tables and graphs as a
function of the angle p and
the ratio of branch-to-
upstream velocity, Vb/Vu.
Cu-b is found to increase
as p and Vb/Vu increase.
u
c) Branch entries: Branch
entries (Fig. 37.4) are
commonly used in return
air ducts. Similar to branch
take-offs, the values of
dynamic pressure loss
coefficients from
upstream-to-downstream
(Cu-d) and from branch-to-
downstream (Cu-d) are
available in the form of
tables and graphs as
functions of upstream,
branch and downstream
velocities and the angle p.
►u
Fig.37.4: A
branch
entry
d) Sudden enlargement:
The pressure loss due to
sudden enlargement,
shown in Fig. 37.5(a),
APd,e )
nl is
given where V1 is the velocity
by before enlargement, and A1
Borda and A2 are the areas
before and after
-
enlargement, respectively.
Carno The above expression,
t which is obtained
equat analytically using modified
ion Bernouille’s equation and
as: momentum balance
equation is found to
A
A (
p
dA Version 1 ME, IIT
, Kharagpur 10
e
n
l
_
2
V
1
2
P
V
J
over-predict the pressure loss when the air flow rates are high and under-predict
when the flow rate is low. Correction factors are available in the form of tables for
different enlargements.
^ 1-----------1’
Vena contracta
2
^ 1
Apd,con - 2 V 2 2Y 1
A2 P
(37.18)
2 2 ICc
where V2 is the velocity in the downstream, and A1’ and A2 are the areas at vena
contracta and after contraction, respectively. The coefficient C c is known as
contraction coefficient and is seen to be equal to area ratio A1’/A2. The contraction
coefficient Cc is found to be a function of the area ratio A2/A1, and the values of Cc as
obtained by Weisbach are shown in Table 37.3.
A2/A1 Cc
0.1 0.624
0.5 0.681
0.8 0.813
1.0 1.000
Filters, cooling and heating coils, dampers etc.: The pressure drop across air
handling unit equipment, such as, air filters, dampers, cooling and heating coils
depend on several factors. Hence, normally these values have to be obtained from
the manufacturer’s data.
1 2
p
t
pT
Fig.37.6(a): Ideal
enlargement
1> ??
7 ?V
p L 2
1
Fig.37.6(b):
Sudden
enlargement
1779. An air handling unit conveys air between the conditioned space and the plant
1780. An air handling unit consists of supply and return air fans
1781. The fan used in an air conditioning system consumes large amount of power
1782. All of the above
Ans.: d)
a) Under ideal conditions, the static pressure through an air conditioning duct
remains constant
1783. Under ideal conditions, the total pressure through an air conditioning duct
remains constant
1784. A fan is required in an air conditioning duct to overcome static pressure loss
1785. A fan is required in an air conditioning duct to overcome total pressure loss
Ans.: b) and d)
1786. In a duct of uniform cross section, the static pressure remains constant
1787. In a duct of uniform cross section, the static pressure decreases along length
1788. In a duct of uniform cross section, the total pressure decreases along length
1789. In a duct of uniform cross section, the dynamic pressure remains constant
5. Rectangular ducts are generally preferred over circular ducts in buildings as:
1792. For a given flow rate, the pressure drop is less compared to a circular duct
1793. For a given pressure drop, it requires less material compared to a circular
duct
1794. Rectangular ducts are easier to fabricate
1795. Rectangular ducts match better with building profile
Ans.: c) and d)
Ans.: From continuity equation; the required cross-sectional area of the duct is given
by:
a) Circular duct:
Since the duct is straight, the dynamic pressure drop is zero in the absence of any
fittings, hence:
( b) 0.625 (0 2) 0.625
0.25
Deq = 1.3 =1.3---------------------------- = 0.46236 m
(a + b) (0.22361 + 0.8944)
Qair.FTP 1.0x41.24
Wfan =---------------=---------------= 58.91 W (Ans.)
ilfan 0.7
Thus for the same flow rate and velocity, a rectangular duct consumes
54.5% higher fan power and weighs 41% compared to a circular duct.
Ans.: Assuming standard air conditions, the density of air is approximately equal to
1.2 kg/m3. Hence the volumetric flow rate of air, Q is given by:
Sudden enlargement:
From Borda-Carnot Equation; pressure drop due to sudden enlargement is given by:
Apd,enl = V1 P 2
2 A1 A2,
Sudden contraction:
C is From Table 37.3, for an area ratio (A2/A1) of 0.1, the contraction coefficient
0.624. The velocity after contraction (V2) is 10 m/s. Hence substituting these
values in the above equation:
^pd,con V2 1.2x1 2
P2 1 Cc 1.0
= = 0 = 36.15 (Ans.)
2 ^0.62 N/m
2
4
It can be seen from the example that for the same area ratio and flow rate, the
pressure drop due to sudden enlargement is larger than that due to sudden
contraction by about 34.4%.
Ans.: The velocity of air at the inlet and exit of the fitting are:
Vin = 1/Ain = 1/0.08 = 12.5 m/s and Vout = 1/Aout = 1/0.12 = 8.33 m/s
Taking a value of 1.2 kg/m 3 for the density of air, the velocity pressure at the inlet and
exit are given by:
Static pressure rise through the fitting (static regain) is given by:
(Ps,out - Ps,in) = R(Pv,in - Pv,out) = 0.7 x (93.75 - 41.63) = 36.484 N/m2 (Ans.)
APt,loss = (1-R) (Pv,in - Pv,out) = 0.3 x (93.75 - 41.63) = 15.636 N/m2 (Ans.)
1815. State the important requirements of an air conditioning duct and the
general rules to be followed in the design of ducts
1816. Classify air conditioning ducts based on air velocity and static pressure
1817. Design air conditioning ducts using velocity method, equal friction method
or static regain method
1818. Explain typical performance characteristics of a duct system
1819. Explain the importance of system balancing and optimization
1820. State and explain the importance of fan laws, and use the performance of
fans under off-design conditions
1821. Describe interaction between fan and duct and the concept of balance
point
Low pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 5 cm H2O (g) Medium
pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 15 cm H2O (g)
High pressure systems: Velocity > 10 m/s, static pressure 15<ps ≤ 25 cm H2O (g)
1831. Smaller ducts and hence, lower initial cost and lower space
requirement
1832. Higher pressure drop and hence larger fan power consumption
Recommended air velocities depend mainly on the application and the noise
criteria. Typical recommended velocities are:
Due to the several issues involved, the design of an air conditioning duct
system in large buildings could be a sophisticated operation requiring the use of
Computer Aided Design (CAD) software. However, the following methods are
most commonly used for simpler lay-outs such as the one shown in Fig.38.1.
G ~^—(4
H
>
A
A
> >
C D
FAN > V V
A B V
1 E
F
2
3
Fig.38.1: Typical air conditioning duct lay-out
ii. Find the diameters of main and branch ducts from airflow rates and velocities
for circular ducts. For rectangular ducts, find the cross-sectional area from flow
rate and velocity, and then by fixing the aspect ratio, find the two sides of the
rectangular duct
iii. From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the previous step, find the
frictional pressure drop for main and branch ducts using friction chart or equation.
v. Select a fan that can provide sufficient FTP for the index run
vi. Balancing dampers have to be installed in each run. The damper in the index
run is left completely open, while the other dampers are throttled to reduce the
flow rate to the required design values.
The velocity method is one of the simplest ways of designing the duct
system for both supply and return air. However, the application of this method
requires selection of suitable velocities in different duct runs, which requires
experience. Wrong selection of velocities can lead to very large ducts, which,
occupy large building space and increases the cost, or very small ducts which
lead to large pressure drop and hence necessitates the selection of a large fan
leading to higher fan cost and running cost. In addition, the method is not very
efficient as it requires partial closing of all the dampers except the one in the
index run, so that the total pressure drop in each run will be same.
For example, let the duct run A-C-G-H be the index run and the total
pressure drop in the index run is 100 Pa. If the pressure drop in the shortest duct
run (say A-B) is 10 Pa, then the damper in this run has to be closed to provide an
additional pressure drop of 90 Pa, so that the required airflow rate to the
conditioned zone 1 can be maintained. Similarly the dampers in the other duct
runs also have to be closed partially, so that the total pressure drop with damper
partially closed in each run will be equal to the pressure drop in the index run
with its damper left open fully.
In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit length in the main and
branch ducts (Δpf/L) are kept same, i.e.,
Δp f Δpf ⎞ Δp f Δp f (38.1)
L L L L
A B
Then the stepwise procedure for designing the duct system is as follows:
i. Select a suitable frictional pressure drop per unit length (Δpf/L) so that the
combined initial and running costs are minimized.
ii. Then the equivalent diameter of the main duct (A) is obtained from the selected
value of (Δpf/L) and the airflow rate. As shown in Fig.38.1, airflow rate in
From the airflow rate and (Apf/L) the equivalent diameter of the main duct (Deq,A)
can be obtained either from the friction chart or using the frictional pressure drop
equation, i.e.,
V4.973/
Deq,A 1.852
0.022243QA
(38.3)
'Apf
L V L /
iii. Since the frictional pressure drop per unit length is same for all the duct runs,
the equivalent diameters of the other duct runs, B to I are obtained from the
equation:
1.852 .
1.852
=
(38.4)
1.8524.973
Q
D
e
A q 4.973
Deq Deq
B
iv. If the ducts are rectangular, then the two sides of the rectangular
duct of each run are obtained from the equivalent diameter of that run and by
fixing aspect ratio as explained earlier. Thus the dimensions of the all the duct
runs can be obtained. The velocity of air through each duct is obtained from the
volumetric flow rate and the cross-sectional area.
v. Next from the dimensions of the ducts in each run, the total frictional pressure
drop of that run is obtained by multiplying the frictional pressure drop per unit
length and the length, i.e.,
AP Apf v ApfN
f,A .LA ; AP f,B B ... (38.5)
L j L j B
vi. Next the dynamic pressure losses in each duct run are obtained based on the
type of bends or fittings used in that run.
vii. Next the total pressure drop in each duct run is obtained by summing up the
frictional and dynamic losses of that run, i.e.,
viii. Next the fan is selected to suit the index run with the highest pressure loss.
Dampers are installed in all the duct runs to balance the total pressure loss.
This method is commonly used for high velocity systems with long duct
runs, especially in large systems. In this method the static pressure is maintained
same before each terminal or branch. The procedure followed is as given below:
ii. Velocities in each successive runs are reduced such that the gain in static
pressure due to reduction in velocity pressure equals the frictional pressure drop
in the next duct section. Thus the static pressure before each terminal or branch
is maintained constant. For example, Fig.38.2 shows a part of the duct run with
two sections 1 and 2 before two branch take-offs. The velocity at 1 is greater
than that at 2, such that the static pressure is same at 1 and 2. Then using the
static regain factor, one can write:
where Δpf,2 and Δpd,2 are the frictional and dynamic losses between 1 and 2, and
pv,1 and pv,2 are the velocity pressures at 1 and 2 respectively.
iii. If section 1 is the outlet of the fan, then its dimensions are known from the flow
rate and velocity (initially selected), however, since both the dimensions and
velocity at section 2 are not known, a trial-and-error method has to be followed to
solve the above equation, which gives required dimensions of the section at 2.
iv. The procedure is followed in the direction of airflow, and the dimensions of the
downstream ducts are obtained.
v. As before, the total pressure drop is obtained from the pressure drop in the
longest run and a fan is accordingly selected.
Static Regain method yields a more balanced system and does not call for
unnecessary dampering. However, as velocity reduces in the direction of airflow,
the duct size may increase in the airflow direction. Also the velocity at the exit of
the longer duct runs may become too small for proper air distribution in the
conditioned space.
where C is the resistance offered by the duct system. Once the duct system is
designed and installed, the value of C is supposed to remain constant. However,
if the air filters installed in the duct become dirty and/or if the damper position is
altered, then the value of C changes. Thus variation of total pressure drop with
airflow rate is parabolic in nature as shown in Fig. 38.3. In this figure, the curve A
refers to the performance of the duct at design conditions, while curve B refers to
the performance under the conditions of a dirty filter and/or a higher damper
closure and curve C refers to the performance when the damper is opened more.
From the duct characteristic curve for constant resistance, one can write
Δptt ,1
Δp ,2
(Q1)2
=1) (38.10)
(Q2)2
Q—-
Fig.38
.3:
Variati
on of
total
press
ure
drop
with
flow
rate
for a
given
duct
syste
m
38.6
.
Syst
em
bala
ncin
g
and
opti
miza
tion:
I
n
large
buildi
ngs,
after
the Air
Handli
ng
Unit is
install
ed, it
has to
be
balan
ced
for
satisfa
ctory
perfor
manc
e.
Syste
m
balan
cing
requir
es as
a first
step,
meas
ureme
nts of
actual
airflow
rates
at all
supply
air
outlet
s and
return
air
inlets.
Then
the
damp
ers
are
adjust
ed so
that
the
actual
meas
ured
flow
rate
corres
ponds
to the
specifi
ed
flow
rates.
Syste
m
balan
cing
may
also
requir
e
adjust
ing
the
fan
speed
to get
requir
ed
tempe
rature
drop
acros
s the
coolin
g or
heatin
g coils
and
requir
ed
airflow
rates
in the
conditi
oned
zone.
Balan
cing a
large
air
condit
ioning
syste
m can
be a
very
expen
sive
and
time
consu
ming
metho
d and
may
requir
e very
accur
ate
instru
ments
for
meas
uring
air
flow
rates
and
tempe
rature
s.
Howe
ver,
syste
m
balan
cing is
alway
s
recom
mend
ed to
get
the
full
benefi
t from
the
total
cost
incurr
ed on
air
conditi
oning
syste
m.
L
arge
air
condit
ioning
syste
ms
requir
e
optimi
zation
of the
duct
desig
n so
as to
minim
ize
the
total
cost,
which
includ
es the
initial
cost
of the
syste
m and
the
lifetim
e
operat
ing
cost.
At
prese
nt
very
sophi
sticat
ed
comm
ercial
comp
uter
softw
are
are
availa
ble for
optimi
zing
the
duct
desig
n.
One
such
metho
d is
called
as T-
Metho
d. The
reade
r
shoul
d
refer
to
advan
ced
textbo
oks or
ASHR
AE
handb
ooks
for
detail
s on
duct
optimi
zation
metho
ds.
Versio
n1
ME,
IIT
Khara
gpur
11
38.7. Fans:
The fan is an essential and one of the most important components of
almost all air conditioning systems. Thus a basic understanding of fan
performance characteristics is essential in the design of air conditioning systems.
The centrifugal fan is most commonly used in air conditioning systems as it can
efficiently move large quantities of air over a large range of pressures. The
operating principle of a centrifugal fan is similar to that of a centrifugal
compressor discussed earlier. The centrifugal fan with forward-curved blades is
widely used in low-pressure air conditioning systems. The more efficient
backward-curved and airfoil type fans are used in large capacity, high-pressure
systems.
The fan laws are a group of relations that are used to predict the effect of
change of operating parameters of the fan on its performance. The fan laws are
valid for fans, which are geometrically and dynamically similar. The fan laws
have great practical use, as it is not economically feasible to test fans of all sizes
under all possible conditions.
1837. Density of air (p) which depends on its temperature and pressure
1838. Operating speed of the fan (co in rps), and
1839. Size of the fan.
Here the fan laws related to the density of air and the rotative speed of the
fan are considered. The effect of the size of the fan is important at the time of
designing the fan. For a given air conditioning system with fixed dimensions,
fittings etc. it can be easily shown that:
airflow rate,Qoco
pV
2
V
V2J (38.11)
static pressure rise, Ap s oc-------
2 (38.12)
From the expression for fan power input (Eqn.(38.13)), it can be seen that
the 1st term on the RHS accounts for power input required for increasing the
static pressure of air and the 2nd term on RHS accounts for the power input
required to impart kinetic energy to air as it flows through the fan. Using the
above relations, the following fan laws can be obtained.
Law 3: Static pressure rise Aps remains constant and density p varies:
(38.16)
co QC — and WQC—= Qoc—=; Aps =constant,
Δpt, FTP
t,1
Δp
t,2
Δp
Q2 Q1
Q
Fig.38.4: Fan and duct performance curves and balance points
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 13
pressure loss which is equal to the FTP is Δpt,1. Now if the flow rate is reduced to
Q2, then the total pressure loss reduces to Δp t,2. To match the reduced flow rate
and the reduced pressure loss, the speed of the fan has to be reduced to ω 2 or
the position of the inlet guide vanes of the centrifugal fan have to be adjusted to
reduce the flow rate. This will give rise to a new balance point at 2. Thus the fan
and duct system have to be matched when there is a change in the operating
conditions.
1840. The air conditioning duct should have high aspect ratio for good
performance
1841. If the air conditioning duct is diverging, then the angle of divergence
should be as small as possible to reduce pressure loss
1842. To minimize noise and vibration, air should flow with a low velocity
1843. All of the above
Ans.: b) and c)
1844. High air velocity in ducts results in lower initial costs but higher operating
costs
1845. Higher air velocities may result in acoustic problems
1846. Air velocities as high as 30 m/s are used in residential systems
1847. Low air velocities are recommended for recording studios
1848. In a duct layout, the total pressure drop is maximum in the index run
1849. At balanced condition, the total pressure drop is equal for all duct runs
1850. Dampers are required for balancing the flow in each duct run
1851. All of the above
Ans.: d)
1852. If not done properly, the velocity method gives rise to large sized ducts
1853. In equal friction method, dampering is not required
1854. In static regain method, dampering is required
1855. All of the above
Ans.: c)
1856. In a given duct system, the total pressure drop varies linearly with flow
rate
1857. In a given duct system, the total pressure drop varies in a parabolic
manner with flow rate
1858. For a given flow rate, the total pressure drop of a duct increases as the
dampers are opened more
1859. For a given flow rate, the total pressure drop of a duct is less when the air
filters are new
Ans.: b) and d)
Ans.: a) and d)
1863. For a given fan operating at a constant temperature, the power input to fan
increases by 4 times when the fan speed becomes double
1864. For a given fan operating at a constant temperature, the power input to fan
increases by 8 times when the fan speed becomes double
1865. For a given fan operating at a constant flow rate, the power input
increases as the air temperature increases
1866. For a given fan operating at a constant static pressure rise, the flow rate
reduces as the air temperature increases
Ans.: b)
a) For a backward curved blade, the fan total pressure (FTP) increases as flow
rate increases
b) For a backward curved blade, the fan total pressure (FTP) reaches a
maximum at a particular flow rate
c) When the air filter in the air conditioning duct becomes dirty, the speed has to
be increased to maintain the balance between fan and duct systems
d) When the damper installed in the duct is opened more, to maintain the
balance, the speed of the fan should be increased
Ans.: b) and c)
Ans: For a flow rate of 0.2 m3/s and an allowable frictional pressure drop of 3
Pa/m, the equivalent diameter is found to be 0.2 m from friction chart or friction
equation.
Then taking an aspect ratio of 1:2, the dimensions of the rectangular duct are
found to be :
a ≈ 0.13 m and b ≈ 0.26 m. (Ans.)
10. The following figure shows a typical duct layout. Design the duct system
using a) Velocity method, and b) Equal friction method. Take the velocity of air in
■ 15 m
12 rn -
2 m3/s 1 m3/s
Fan A
(2) ("3)
D F
■18 n- 6 rn
E
1 m3/s(1
the main duct (A) as 8 m/s for both the methods. Assume a dynamic loss
coefficient of 0.3 for upstream to downstream and 0.8 for upstream to branch and
for the elbow. The dynamic loss coefficients for the outlets may be taken as 1.0.
Find the FTP required for each case and the amount of dampering required.
Ans.:
=> cross-sectional area AC = QC/VC = 3/5 = 0.6 m2 => Deq,A = 0.874 m (Ans.)
=> cross-sectional area AD = QD/VD = 2/5 = 0.4 m2 => Deq,D = 0.714 m (Ans.)
Segments E&F: Flow rate, QE,F = 1 m3/s and velocity, VE,F = 5 m/s
=> cross-sectional area AE,F = QE,F/VE,F = 1/5 = 0.2 m2 => Deq,A = 0.505 m (Ans.)
Section A-B:
where APA,f and APB,f stand for frictional pressure drops in sections A and B,
respectively, APu-b is the dynamic pressure drop from upstream to branch and
APexit is the dynamic pressure loss at the exit 1.
1.852
= 0.022243 Qair = L 0.022243x4 x15
4.973 = 13 .35 Pa
0.798
ApA,f
1.852
= 3.99 Pa 0.022243 Qair
x6 1852
L = 0.022243x1
4.973 0.5054.973
ApB,
The dynamic pressure drop from upstream to branch is given by:
2f
dV2 Apu-b = Cu-b 2
1.2x5
p
=
2 0.8 J = 12 Pa
The dynamic pressure drop at the exit is given by:
APA-C-E-F = APA,f+APC,f+APE,f+APF,f+APu-d,C+APu-d,E+APelbow+APexit
Thus the run with maximum pressure drop is A-C-E-F is the index run. Hence the
FTP required is:
4.973
eq D eq
4.973 = 4.97
e D 3D
q =
B
Deq,D
= Deq,A
Deq,E =
Deq,F
=Deq,A
n
o o + P
f m A +
A -
t f P B 1
o a B 8
t n , = .
a f 9
l t 1
o + 3 =
p .
r 1 A 3 5
e : P 5 2
s A u .
s P - + 6
u A
b 9
r - 5
e B
+ . P
3 a
d = A 4
r P F
o A e + r
p P x o
: A i 1 m
, t 5
f . f
F
A 1 a
r
n + . a elbow+APexi
A 3 F t
t P 4 r APAC-E-F
o e + o = 13.35 +
x 9 m 10.68 +
2 it . 16.02 +
: A 9 f 5.34 +
A P 4 a 9.94 +
PA- A + n 5.67 +
C-D C 2 t 15.1 +
= - 1 o 18.9 = 95
AP D . e Pa
A,f = 5 x As before,
+ 1 5 it the Index
3 + 3 run is
AP
. 2 : from fan
C,f
3 6 to exit 3.
+ APA-C-
5 . The
AP E -F =
+ 9 required
D,f APA,f+
1 = FTP is:
+ APC,f+
AP 0 8 APE,f+
FTP =
u- . 7 APF,f+A APAC-E-F
d,C 6 . Pu- = 95 Pa
+ 8 7 d,C+AP (Ans.)
AP + 6 u- Amoun
u-b 5 P d,E+AP t of
dam 7.
perin 24
g Pa
requi (A
red ns
at 1 .)
FTP -
APA- Versio
n1
ME,
B=
IIT
Khara
42.3
gpur
19
1 Pa
(Ans.
Amo
unt of
dam
perin
requi
red
at 2 =
FTP -
APA-
C-D =
From the example, it is seen that the Velocity method results in larger duct
diameters due to the velocities selected in branch and downstream. However,
the required FTP is lower in case of velocity method due to larger ducts.
Equal Friction method results in smaller duct diameters, but larger FTP.
1879. Explain the importance of proper air distribution in conditioned space and
define ADPI and SDEF
1880. List the factors to be considered in the design of air distribution devices and
explain buoyancy effects and deflection of air jets
1881. Estimate throw, drop, spread and entrainment ratio of circular and rectangular,
isothermal free jets
1882. List different types of supply air outlet devices and their characteristics
1883. Draw the airflow patterns for ceiling, sidewall and slotted diffusers
1884. Explain stratified mixing flow, displacement flow, cold air distribution and spot
cooling and heating
1885. List the criteria for selection of supply air outlets.
39.1. Introduction
After the required amount of supply air is transmitted to the conditioned
space, it is essential to distribute the air properly within the conditioned space. Thus
it is important to design suitable air distribution system, which satisfies the following
requirements:
where DBT is the local dry bulb temperature (in oC) and V is the local velocity (m/s).
For comfort, the EDT should be within -1.7oC to +1.1oC and the air velocity should
be less than 0.36 m/s.
The objective of air distribution system design is to select and place the
supply air diffusers in such a way that the ADPI approaches 100 percent. The ADPI
provides a rational way of selecting air diffusers. Studies show that the value of ADPI
depends very much on space cooling load per unit area. A large value of space
cooling load per unit area tends to reduce the value of ADPI.
where Tex is the temperature of the exhaust air, Ts is the supply air temperature and Tr
is the temperature of the room air (at the measuring point). A SDEF value of < 1
implies that some amount of cold supply air has not mixed with the room air and is
leaving the conditioned space as exhaust. The space air distribution is considered to
be effective if SDEF > 1.0.
Table 39.1 shows the recommended supply air velocities for diffusers. Since
the air velocity at the supply air outlet is normally much higher than 0.36 m/s and its
temperature is much lower than 24.4oC, it has to mix properly with the room air
before it reaches the occupancy level. This depends on the effective design of the air
distribution system.
1886. Velocity of air at the inlet to the supply diffuser: Noise criteria to be observed
1891. Room surface temperature: Lower the surface temperature (e.g. with glass)
stronger are the natural convection currents.
h) Room turbulence
Due to the buoyancy effects, a supply air stream that is cooler than the room
air will drop and supply air that is warmer than room air rises. However, from thermal
comfort point-of-view, it is important that the supply air stream does not strike at
occupancy level. Figure 39.1(a) shows the drop of a supply air jet that is cooler than
the room air.
Il
/f Beam
Room
Room
Fig.39.1(a): Drop of a cool air jet Fig.39.1(b): Deflection of a cool air jet
where ATd is the difference between the temperature of air at supply outlet and the
room air.
(39.7) gH Ar
ΔTd Tr =
Vo2
In the above expression for Archimedes number, H may be the height of the room or
the hydraulic diameter, Dh of the room given by:
Dh = 4WH 2(W +H)
(39.8)
where W and H are the width and height of the room, respectively. Archimedes
number conveniently combines the supply air velocity at the outlet, supply to room
temperature difference and the principle dimensions of the room- important factors
that define the air distribution in a room. Several studies show that the airflow pattern
in a room is largely dependent on the Archimedes number. The Archimedes number
can also be viewed as a ratio of Grashof number to the square of Reynolds number
(Ar ≈ Gr/Re2), thus combining the effects of natural convection due to buoyancy and
forced convection due to supply air jet. Archimedes number also affects the heat
transfer between the air inside the conditioned space and the surrounding surfaces.
To avoid cold drafts in the occupied zone, the Archimedes number should not exceed
a maximum value, which depends on the room dimensions. Table 39.2 shows the
maximum Archimedes number values as a function of W/H ratio.
39.2.2. Deflection:
When an air stream strikes a solid surface such as a concrete beam or a wall,
it deflects. Again from comfort criteria, it is essential to ensure that due to deflection,
the supply air does not strike the occupants before it is diffused. Figure 39.1(b)
shows the deflection of a supply air jet as it strikes a solid beam.
Blow or throw:
It is the vertical distance the air moves after leaving the supply outlet and
reaches the end of blow.
Figure 39.2 shows the meaning of drop and throw of free-stream jets.
1,8 m
Entrainment ratio:
As the high velocity jet (called as primary air) leaves the supply air outlet, it
entrains some amount of room air (called as secondary air). Entrainment gives rise
to motion of room air. The entrainment ratio at a distance x from the supply outlet is
defined as the ratio of volumetric flow rate of air at x to the volumetric flow rate of air
at the supply air outlet (x=0), i.e.,
Qx
(39.9) Entrainment ratio at x,Rx =
Qx= 0
Spread:
It is the angle of divergence of the air stream after it leaves the supply air
outlet as shown in Fig.39.3. The spread can be both horizontal as well as vertical.
Vanes are normally used in the supply air outlets. These vanes can be straight,
converging or diverging. Figure 39.3 shows the outlet with diverging vanes, for which
the horizontal spread is 60o as shown in the figure. For straight vanes and
converging the spread is equal to 19o both in horizontal and vertical directions.
Converging vanes yield a blow that is about 15% longer than that of straight vanes,
whereas for diverging vanes it is about 50% less than that of horizontal vanes.
Room
Fig.39
.3:
Sprea
d of
an air
jet
with
divergi
ng
vanes
39.4.
Circu
lar
jets:
A
n
unders
tandin
g of
the
principl
e of
the
simple
circular
jet can
be
used
to
unders
tand
the
charac
teristic
s of
most
of the
comm
ercial
supply
air
diffuser
s and
grilles.
Figure
39.4
shows
the
airflow
pattern
in a
circular
jet. As
shown
in the
figure,
supply
air
leaves
the
outlet
at a
velocit
y V o.
The
velocit
y
decays
as the
jet
enters
the
room
and
entrain
s the
room
air.
Figure
39.4
also
shows
the
velocit
y
profile.
It can
be
seen
that
the
velocit
y of air
varies
as a
functio
n of
distanc
e,
horizo
ntal x
from
the
openin
g
along
the
centerli
ne and
the
radial
distanc
e from
the
centerli
ne.
U
sing
the
mass
and
mome
ntum
balanc
e
equati
ons to
the
circular
jet, it
has
been
shown
by
Schlich
ting
that
the
velocit
y
profile
for the
circular
jet is
given
by:
I
r27/x22
V
(
x
,
r
)
=
39 .
where
Vo is
the
velocit
y at
the
outlet,
m/s;
V(x,r)
is the
velocit
y of air
in the
jet at x
and r,
and Ao
is the
cross-
section
al area
of the
outlet.
From
the
above
equati
on it is
easy to
predict
that
the air
velocit
y in the
circular
jet
decrea
ses as
x and r
increas
e, and
as Ao
and Vo
decrea
se.
Thus a
jet
sustain
s its
velocit
y
better
as the
velocit
y at
the
supply
outlet
increas
es
and/or
the
area of
openin
g
increas
es.
One
can
also
deduc
e that
since
the
velocit
y
decrea
ses
with x
and r,
the jet
spread
s as it
flows,
so that
the
mass
of air is
always
conser
ved.
And
from
mome
ntum
conser
vation,
it can
be
deduc
ed that
entrain
ment
of
room
air
takes
place
as the
jet
moves
away
from
the
supply
air
outlet.
Versio
n1
ME, IIT
Kharag
pur 8
centreline
Fig.39.4:
Velocity
distribution
through a
circular jet
From Eqn.
(39.10), the
velocity of
air in the
circular jet
along the
centerline
(r=0) is
found to be:
V(
7.41
x,
r
=
0)
=
9. 1 )
From the
above
expression,
the
entrainment
ratio Rx for
the circular
jet can be
written as:
00
J
V(x,r).
27tr.dr
= Qx
= r=0
=
0.405
x
(39.12)
Qx=0 ^Ao
AoVo
Larg
e circular
openings
are rarely
used in
actual air
distribution
systems as
they travel
long
distances
before
mixing with
room air. As
this can
cause
discomfort
to the
occupants,
normally
diffusers are
used in
circular jets.
These
diffusers
provide
rapid
velocity
decay and
large
entrainment
.
39.5.
Rectang
ular jets:
Long
,
rectangular
grilles are
commonly
used for
distributing
air in
conditioned
space.
These
grilles can
be modeled
using
equations of
rectangular
jet. It has
been shown
that for a
rectangular
jet, the
velocity
distribution
is given by:
2.4 1 7 (
0
VoV - .x 3
b
V 6 9
(x, t 7 .
y) =---------------------
Vxa 1
n 3
h )
— — z _ - -** — — - - — —
—
Duct
height
^
i
\
Frame
vane
Fig. 39.5. Front view of a supply air grille with horizontal and vertical vanes
I
Adjustable vanes
Neck
"--•.
v*E
^m± SA^X
in. hole
Perforate
d panel
16
Perforated panel
Fig.39.6(b): Schematic of a perforated ceiling
diff user
Slot
diffuser
Slot
diffuser
1894. An integrated layout of light troffer, diffuser and return slots can be
formed on suspended ceilings
1896. A combination of light troffer and return slot reduces the space cooling
load as the return air absorbs a part of the heat emitted by the lights.
However, they should be designed such that the return air does not come in
direct contact with the tube so that deposition of dust on the fluorescent tube
is prevented
Figure 39.8 shows a light troffer-diffuser slot that combines the light troffer, supply air
diffuser and return air slot.
In addition to the above air distribution devices, the floor mounted grilles
and diffusers, low-side wall diffusers, nozzle diffusers etc. are also used for
room air distribution.
Similar to supply air outlets, return air inlets can be classified as grilles, registers,
diffusers etc. In many commercial buildings the ceiling plenum is used as return air
plenum. In this case, return slots are used to draw the return air through the ceiling.
In return air inlets the air velocity decreases sharply as the distance from the inlet
increases. Based on noise criteria, the air velocity should be within 3 m/s if the return
air inlet is inside the occupied space and it should be less than 4 m/s if it is above the
occupied space.
1899. Entrainment of room air to reduce the air temperature and velocity in
the occupied zone to acceptable levels
1900. Reverse air stream in the occupied zone for an even velocity and
temperature distribution
The airflow pattern in the conditioned space is influenced mainly by the type and
location of supply air outlets. The high side outlets, ceiling diffusers and slot diffusers
are most commonly used in air conditioned buildings.
Figure 39.9 shows the airflow pattern using high side outlets installed on a
high sidewall for cooling and heating applications. As the air is discharged from the
high side outlet, due to surface effect (Coanda effect) the air jet tends to stick to the
ceiling as shown in the figure. For cooling applications, the cold supply air entrains
the room air and deflects downwards when it strikes the opposite wall. The reverse
Return
Vertical Supply
air nlet
spread outlet
nj Reverse \T
Tota? Primary air
envelope Or airstream
Reverse
airstream
■"*, - ■>■■
"v
; Cooling End
view
I tiT AAAAAAAAA f
Cooling
Plan view
t^ Stagnant IT3
CoJd
draft
Heating
Fig.39.9: Airflow pattern using high side outlets for cooling and heating
applications
Figure 39.10 shows the airflow pattern using ceiling diffusers for both cooling
and heating applications. It is seen that ceiling diffusers produce a shorter throw, a
lower and more even distribution of air velocity and a more even temperature in the
occupied zone when used for cooling. However, when used for heating it is seen that
a larger stagnant area is formed due to buoyancy effect. Ceiling diffusers are widely
Figure 39.11 shows the airflow patters obtained using slot diffusers installed in
the ceiling in the perimeter and interior zones. The slot diffusers installed in the
perimeter zone discharge air vertically downwards and also in the horizontal
direction. Due to its better surface effect, the air jet remains in contact with the ceiling
for a longer period and the reverse air stream ensures uniformity of temperature and
velocity in the occupied zone. Due to their superior characteristics and better
aesthetics, slot diffusers are widely used in large office spaces with normal ceiling
heights and with VAV systems.
Stratified mixing flow for summer cooling offers the following advantages:
1902. Convective heat transfer from the hot roof is effectively blocked by the
higher temperature air in the stagnant upper zone thus reducing the building
cooling load
1903. Location of the return air inlets affects the cooling load only when they
are located in the upper zone
a) Due to the lower dew-point temperature, the space humidity can be maintained
between 35 to 45 %, as a result the occupied space can be maintained at a
slightly higher temperature without causing discomfort
However, due to considerably reduced airflow rates, the air distribution and IAQ
may get affected, especially when using with VAV systems. Better insulation and
sealing of the ducts may be required to reduce losses and prevent surface
condensation.
1912. Shape, size and ceiling height of the building: Ceiling and slot
diffusers are ideal for buildings with limited ceiling height. For large buildings
with large ceiling heights, high side wall mounted outlets are recommended.
1913. Volume flow rate per unit floor area: Sidewall outlets are limited to low
specific volume flow rates as they give rise to higher air velocities in the
occupied zone. Compared to slot diffusers, the ceiling diffusers can handle
efficiently a larger volumetric flow rates. Table 39.3 shows the specific volume
flow rate of different outlets
1914. Volume flow rate per outlet: The volume flow rate per supply outlet
depends on the throw required to provide a satisfactory room air distribution.
For linear slot diffusers, the volume flow rate per unit length is important. Its
value normally lies between 23 to 62 L/s.m for linear slot diffusers. In a closed
office with a floor area of about 14 m2 and only one external wall, one ceiling
diffuser is normally sufficient
1915. Throw: High side wall outlets have a longer throw than ceiling diffusers.
Square ceiling diffusers and circular ceiling diffusers have similar throw
1917. Total pressure drop: The total pressure loss of supply air as it flows
through a slot diffuser of 19 mm width is normally between 12 to 50 Pascals,
whereas it is between 5 to 50 Pascals for ceiling diffuser. Normally the
pressure loss across the supply outlet should not exceed 50 Pascals
1918. Cost and Appearance: Finally the cost and appearance of the supply
air outlets also have to be considered depending upon the specific application
Type of outlet Specific volume flow rate Max. ACH for 3-m
L/s/m2 of floor area ceiling
Grilles 3.0 to 6.0 7
Slot diffuser 4.0 to 20.0 12
Perforated Panel 4.5 to 15.0 18
Ceiling diffuser 4.5 to 25.0 30
Ans.: b) and d)
1923. The effective draft temperature increases as dry bulb temperature and air
velocity increase
1924. The effective draft temperature increases as dry bulb temperature increases
and air velocity decreases
1925. A good air distribution system should yield high value of ADPI and a small
value of SDEF
1926. A good air distribution system should yield high values of both ADPI and
SDEF
Ans.: b) and d)
1927. Due to buoyancy effect a cold air stream rises and a hot air stream drops
1928. The buoyancy effects become stronger as the temperature difference between
the supply air and room air increases
1929. A high Archimedes number indicates a strong buoyancy effect
d) The design Archimedes number should increase as the height of the room
decreases
Ans.: b) and c)
1930. The centerline velocity of air from a circular jet increases as the distance from
the outlet increases
1931. The centerline velocity of air from a circular jet increases as the outlet area
decreases
1932. The centerline velocity of air from a circular jet increases as the supply air
velocity at the outlet increases
1933. All of the above
Ans.: c)
1934. Compared to other outlet types, a grille has lower entrainment ratio and
greater drop
1935. Ceiling diffusers are recommended when the ceiling height is high
1936. Sidewall diffusers are generally used in large spaces
1937. All of the above
Ans.: a) and c)
1942. Stratified mixing flows are recommended for buildings with high ceilings
1943. Stratified mixing flow reduces the radiant heat load from the ceilings
1944. Cold air distribution systems reduce the space requirement and fan power
1945. Cold air distribution systems may lead to surface condensation
1946. Displacement flows are recommended in operation theatres due to better IAQ
1947. In displacement flow system, supply air temperature is only slightly different
from comfort temperature
1948. In displacement flow system, supply air velocity is low
1949. All of the above
Ans.: d)
1950. Spot cooling and heating systems are widely used in industrial applications
1951. Spot cooling and heating systems provide better individual control
1952. Spot cooling and heating systems reduce the total cooling load
1953. All of the above
Ans.: d)
Ans.: From the DBT and air velocity (V) data, the Effective Draft Temperature (EDT)
for each point is calculated using the equation:
The calculated EDT values are shown in the table. It is seen from the table
that the EDT value varies widely from -3.31oC to +0.3oC, indicating improper
distribution.
For this space the Air Distribution Performance Index (ADPI) is calculated
using the equation:
ADPI v9v
x100 = x100 = 55.6 (Ans.)
where Nθ is the number of locations at which the effective draft temperature is within
–1.7oC to +1.1oC.
An ADPI value of 55.6 indicates the need for improving the design of the air
distribution system, as it indirectly indicates that only about 56% of the occupied
zone meets the comfort criteria, whereas the remaining space gives rise to drafts.
7.41VoA/Ao
V(x,r) =---------------------------
^2 / x
1 + 57.5 / 2
Vr x
where Vo is the velocity at supply air outlet (x=0), Ao is the area of the opening, r is
the radial distance from the centerline and V(x,r) is the velocity at point (x,r). An
airflow rate of 0.12 m3/s is supplied through a circular opening at a velocity of 3 m/s.
Find the distance from the outlet at which the centerline velocity reduces to 1 m/s.
What is the total airflow rate (primary + secondary) at this point?
7.41 Vo JAo
V(x,r = 0) =------------------
x
7.41VoJAo 7.41x3x^0.04
x =------------------=----------------------= 4.446 m (Ans.)
V(x,r = 0) 1.0
Qx = 4.446 m = Qx=0.Rx
00
|V(x,r).27rr.dr
R = Qx=4.446 = r=0___________= 0.405 x = 0.405 x 4.446 90
Qx=0 AoVo ^Ao V0.04
where Vo is the velocity at supply air outlet (x=0), b is the width of the slot, y is the
normal distance from the central plane and V(x,y) is the velocity at point (x,y). Find
the ratio of velocity V(x,y) to V(x,y=0) at a plane x at which the spread angle is 19o.
V(x,y)
2θ
Supply air _x_
Ans.: The spread angle is given by 2θ as shown in the figure given above.
1954. Discuss characteristics of natural ventilation and estimation of airflow rate due
to wind and stack effects (Section 40.3)
1955. List the general guidelines for natural ventilation (Section 40.4)
1956. Discuss briefly forced ventilation using electric fans (Section 40.5)
1957. Discuss interior air movement using interior fans, unit ventilators, whole house
fans and solar chimneys (Section 40.6)
1958. Discuss the effectiveness of ventilated air for cooling of buildings and
occupants
1960. Estimate airflow rates due to wind effect and stack effect and combined wind
and stack effects
1963. Discuss the benefits of interior air movement and ways and means of
achieving interior air movement such as the use of fans, ventilators, solar chimneys
etc.
40.1. Introduction:
In a previous chapter, ventilation has been defined as “supply of fresh air to
the conditioned space either by natural or by mechanical means for the purpose of
maintaining acceptable indoor air quality”. However, when outdoor conditions are
suitable, the ventilation can also be used for cooling of the buildings, for cooling of
the occupants or both.
When the ambient dry bulb temperature is lower than the building
temperature, then the outdoor air can be used for cooling the building. Normally due
to solar and internal heat gains, buildings can become hotter than the ambient air.
This provides an opportunity for cooling the building at least partly, by using the
Under certain circumstances, outdoor air can also be used very effectively for
cooling the occupants of a building directly. By allowing the outdoor air to flow over
the body at a higher velocity, it is possible to enhance the heat and mass transfer
rates from the body, thus leading to a greater feeling of comfort. As a thumb rule,
studies show that each increase in air velocity by 0.15 m/s will allow the conditioned
space temperature to be increased by 1 oC. As mentioned before, maintaining the
conditioned space at a higher temperature can give rise to significant reduction in the
energy consumption of the air conditioning system. However, in general the air
velocity if it exceeds about 1.0 m/s may give rise to a feeling of draft or irritation to
the occupants.
When wind blows over a building, a static pressure difference is created over
the surface of the building. The pressure difference depends on the wind speed,
wind direction, surface orientation and surrounding structures. As shown in Fig.40.1,
in an undisturbed air stream, the pressure is positive on the windward direction and
negative on the leeward direction. The static pressure on the other surfaces depends
upon the angle of attack. This pressure is called as wind pressure. In general, the
magnitude of the wind pressure (P w) is proportional to the velocity pressure, and in
an ideal case it is given by:
ρVw2
Pw =Cp (40.2)
2
where Cp is surface pressure coefficient, ρ is the air density and Vw is the wind
speed. The value of Cp depends on several factors such as the wind direction,
orientation of the building etc. Analytical evaluation of C p is quite complicated, even
though these values have been measured experimentally for simple structures.
—►
Windward
side
Fig.4
0.1:
Wind
press
ure
on a
buildi
ng
The pressure
difference across
the building due to
wind creates a
potential for airflow
through the
building, if openings
are available on the
building. The airflow
rates through the
buildings due to
wind effect can be
obtained
approximately using
the equation
suggested by
ASHRAE:
.
Qw =
C.R.A.Vw
(40.3)
.
Where Qw is the
airflow rate in m3/s,
A is the area of
opening (m2), C is
a constant that
takes the value of
0.55 for
perpendicular
winds and 0.30 for
oblique winds, and
R is a factor that is
function of inlet and
outlet areas (Ai and
Ao) of the openings.
The factor R varies
from 1.0 to about
1.38 depending
upon the ratio of
inlet and outlet
areas.
Estimation of
wind speed is
difficult, however,
data provided by
the meteorological
departments can be
used for calculation
purposes. Since the
wind speed varies
with season, for
design calculations
50 percent of the
summer wind
speed as provided
by the
meteorological data
can be used.
Since the
airflow rate due to
wind effect is a
strong function of
the opening or
window area,
suitable values
should be used for
design calculations.
The areas to be
used in the
calculations are the
net free area of the
openings, not the
total opening areas.
The distribution of
opening areas
between inlet and
outlet is also
important. It is
shown that the flow
rate is maximum
when the inlet area
is equal to the
outlet area. When
inlet and outlet
areas are not
equal, an effective
area has to be used
in Eqn.(40.3). It is
given by:
Aeff = ( ) 0 . 5
(40.4)
Ao /Ai
(A o
2
+Ai2
)
When outlet
area is greater than
the inlet area (Ao >
Ai), then greater
speeds are
obtained at the inlet
compared to the
outlets and vice
versa. Thus
manipulating
The shape of the window also plays role, if the wind is not perpendicular. For
oblique winds, short and wide windows provide better airflow compared to square or
narrow and tall windows. In general any window treatment such as curtains, blinds
etc. reduce the airflow rate due to wind effect. Architectural features such as
overhangs, balconies can be used beneficially to improve the airflow due to wind
effect.
ASHRAE suggests the following equation for estimating airflow rate due to
stack effect:
( 0 . 5
h.ΔT/. (40.5)
/ w)
In the above expression, h is the height difference between the inlet and exit in m, T w
is the warm air temperature in K, ΔT is the temperature difference between warm
and cold air, A is the free area of the inlets or outlets in m 2 and C is a constant that
takes a value of 0.0707 when inlets and outlets are optimal (about 65% effective)
and 0.054 when inlets or outlets are obstructed (about 50% effective). From the
above equation, it can be seen that compared to the height h and temperature
difference ΔT, the airflow rate due to stack effect depends more strongly on the area
of the openings.
Complications arise when it is required to estimate the airflow rate due to the
combined effects of wind and stack effects. Generally, the total airflow rate has to be
obtained using the combined pressure difference due to wind and stack effect, and
not by adding up airflow rates due to stack effect and wind effect separately. This is
due to the non-linear dependence of flow rate on pressure difference across the
openings. In general, taller the building with small internal resistance, stronger will be
the stack effect, and higher the area of exposure of the building, stronger will be the
wind effect. Several models have been proposed to estimate the airflow rate due to
combined effects of wind and stack. For example, one such model uses the equation
given below for estimating the total airflow rate due to stack and wind effects.
Qtotal = 2
Qw2+Qst2 (40.6)
1970. In hot and humid climates, maximize air velocities in the occupied zone
for body cooling, while, in hot and dry climates, maximize the airflow
throughout the building for structural cooling, especially during the nights.
1971. The buildings should be shaped such that the maximum surface area is
exposed to the external winds.
1972. Locate the windows suitably. Windows on opposite walls increase the
airflow rate, while windows on the adjacent walls provide airflow over a
greater area.
1973. In buildings with only one external wall, higher airflow rates are
obtained by two widely spaced windows.
1974. The windows should be placed as far as possible from the NPL to
maximize stack effect.
1975. Wide and short windows are generally better than square or vertical
windows as they provide higher airflow over a wider range of wind directions.
1976. Windows should be accessible to and operable by the occupants for
greater control of natural ventilation.
In some houses, solar chimneys are used to boost the ventilation due to
stack effect. A solar chimney is basically a passive solar air heater installed normally
on the roof, with its inlet connected to the interior of the house. Figure 40.2 shows
the schematic of a solar chimney. Due to solar heating, the air in the solar chimney
gets heated up and flows out to be replaced continuously by air from the interior.
This induces flow of outdoor air into the building. Thus a continuous air movement
can be obtained by using solar radiation. Though solar chimneys appear to be
simple, optimized design of solar chimney could be complicated due to the effect of
wind. The wind may assist the flow of air due to solar chimney or it could oppose the
flow. In a worst case, due to the wind effect, the flow direction could get reversed,
resulting in the entry of heated outdoor air into the building through the solar
chimney. Keeping the solar chimney on the leeward direction, can prevent the flow
reversal.
Solar radiation
1977. Ventilated outdoor air can be used for cooling of the buildings throughout the
year in all locations
1978. Ventilated outdoor air can be used for cooling of the buildings during many
days of the year in most of the locations
1979. Ventilated air has greater potential for cooling of buildings in hot and humid
areas
1980. Ventilated air has greater potential for cooling of buildings in hot and dry areas
Ans.: b) and d)
a) Ventilated outdoor air can extract both sensible and latent heat from the
occupants
1981. Increased air motion due to ventilated air increases the convective heat and
mass transfer coefficients between the human body and surrounding air
1982. Ventilated outdoor air can also enhance radiant heat transfer from the body
1983. All of the above
Ans.: a) and b)
1988. Due to wind effect, outdoor air enters the building from openings provided on
the windward direction and leaves from openings provided on the leeward direction
1989. Due to wind effect, outdoor air enters the building from openings provided on
the leeward direction and leaves from openings provided on the windward direction
1990. Wind effect is a strong function of air density and wind speed
1991. Wind effect is a strong function of area of openings and wind speed
Ans.: a) and d)
1992. Stack effect takes place when outdoor air is warmer than indoor air
1993. Stack effect takes place when outdoor air is cooler than indoor air
1994. Stack effect depends on temperature difference between indoor and outdoor
air
1995. Stack effect does not depend on building height
Ans.: c)
1996. Due to stack effect, in winter outdoor air enters from openings provided at the
base of the building and leaves from the openings provided at the top
1997. Due to stack effect, in winter, outdoor air enters from openings provided at the
top of the building and leaves from the openings provided at the bottom
1998. Due to stack effect, in summer, outdoor air enters from openings provided at
the base of the building and leaves from the openings provided at the top
b) Due to stack effect, in summer, outdoor air enters from openings provided at the
top of the building and leaves from the openings provided at the bottom
Ans.: a) and d)
1999. For effective utilization of outdoor air, both natural and mechanical ventilation
should be used in a building
2000. Design of windows and other openings in the buildings plays a major role in
natural ventilation
2001. For maximum airflow rate, the openings should be as close to the neutral
pressure level as possible
2002. All of the above
Ans.: a) and b)
2003. Ceiling fans provide greater comfort by reducing the temperature of air in the
buildings
2004. Ceiling fans provide greater comfort by increasing the temperature of air in the
buildings
2005. Ceiling fans provide greater comfort by increasing the heat and mass transfer
rates from the body to the surroundings
2006. Ceiling fans can be used for cooling of the buildings also
Ans.: c)
a) By improving the internal air movement, the energy consumption of the air
conditioning system can be reduced substantially
Ans.: a) and c)
10. A building consists of a 1.5 m x 1.5 m window on the wall facing the wind and an
opening of 1.5m x 1.0 m on the opposite window. The center-to-centre distance
between the windows in the vertical direction is 2.5 m. The outdoor temperature is
313 K, while the indoor is maintained at 303 K. Calculate the airflow rate due to the
combined effect of wind and stack effects, if the wind blows at a speed of 25 kmph.
Ans.: a) Airflow rate due to wind effect: The expression to be used is:
Qw = C.R.A.Vw
Take the value of C as 0.55 for perpendicular wind and a value of 1.18 for R (based
on the ratio of areas of openings)
( Ao /Ai ) (1.5x1.0/1.5x1.5) 2
Aeff = =----------------------------------- = 0.2465 m
(Ao2 + Ai2) [(1.5x1.0)2 + (1.5x1.5)2 ]
2010. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by W.F. Stoecker & J.W. Jones, McGraw-
Hill, 1982
2012. Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning by F.C. McQuiston, J.D. Parker &
J.D. Spitler, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001
2019. Air conditioning and ventilation of buildings by D.J. Croome and B.M.
Roberts, Pergamon Press