A Grand Stage For Koosen Rufu in The Future - Sooka Gakkai in Austria 1961-1981 Lukas Pokorny 2014
A Grand Stage For Koosen Rufu in The Future - Sooka Gakkai in Austria 1961-1981 Lukas Pokorny 2014
Lukas Pokorny
1. Introduction
A flag bearer of global Engaged Buddhism, Sōka Gakkai (Value Creation
Society) is Japan’s single largest religious organisation with affiliations ‘in
192 countries and territories worldwide’.1 Today this international Buddhist
network—operating since 1975 under the name of Soka Gakkai Interna-
tional (SGI)—reports a membership of twelve million people, 2 of which
8.27 million ‘households’ (setai) belong to the Japanese branch.3 Though
for example, a Sōka Gakkai endorsed publication authored by the then-leader of SGI-UK
indicated 20 million adherents (Causton 1995: 270).
4 Nichiren (1222–1282) was a reformist Buddhist monk during Japan’s Kamakura
period (1185–1333; Kamakura jidai), in which Buddhism entered an era of massive
expansion and increasing diversity and doctrinal strife. Formally ordained at a Tendai
(Chinese: Tiāntái) temple, he later turned into a strident critic of this and competing
Buddhist traditions. After Nichiren’s passing, his major disciples went on to establish
their own schools based on his teachings, the sum of which is called Nichiren Buddhism
(Nichiren buppō). For a comprehensive discussion of Nichiren, see, for example, Ma-
tsudo 2004.
5 Dating back to the first or second century CE, the Lotus Sūtra or Sūtra of the Lotus
Flower of the Wonderful Law (Sanskrit: Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra; Japanese: Myō-
hōrengekyō, abbreviated Hok(k)ekyō) is likely to be the most seminal Mahāyānist sūtra,
figuring prominently in East Asian Buddhism. By far its most popular and authoritative
translation throughout more than 1500 years is the one by the Central Asian Buddhist
monk Kumārajīva (344/350–409/413; Japanese: Kumarajū) into Chinese completed in
406. Hence, the Japanese yomikudashi (Hosoi 1961; see also Sōka Gakkai Kyōgakubu
2002), that is, the traditional Japanese rendering from classical Chinese, as well as for
example the commissioned English (Watson 1993 and 2009) and German translation
(Deeg 2009) used by most Sōka Gakkai members today are based on Kumārajīva’s
Chinese version. The text of the Lotus Sūtra claims to contain the definite teachings of
Śākyamuni, dismissing previous sūtras as merely provisional or ‘skilful means’ (Sanskrit:
upāyakauśalya; Japanese: hōben zengyō). An elaboration of the latter in various contexts
and the disclosure of Śākyamuni’s primordiality and immortality represent the core
themes of the Lotus Sūtra. For a well-crafted introduction, including a list of available
translations into English, French and German, see Teiser and Stone 2009.
6 Before that time Austrian Sōka Gakkai appeared under the label of ‘Austrian Ni-
chiren Shoshu’ (Österreichische Nichiren Shoshu). See Section 3.2.
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 3
ner and future founder of the Austrian movement in 1969. The second over-
views major stages in the movement’s development from 1969 to 1981. The
third part succinctly discusses Ikeda’s second visit to Vienna, after which
the relationship with the Japanese headquarters was tightened, and the pace
in terms of proselytisation accelerated. Section 4 contains the concluding
remarks.
This paper offers the first thorough investigation into the formative his-
tory of a major East Asian neo-Buddhist movement in Austria, thereby
contributing to a better understanding of the dynamics of religious pluralism
in recent Austrian religious history.
9 For Makiguchi’s life and teachings, see Kumagai 1971 and 1994; Bethel 1973;
Mori 1977. Sōka Gakkai considers this the official foundation date of its precursor.
10 Nichiren Shōshū is one amongst several schools crediting Nichiren’s senior disci-
ple, Nikkō (1246–1333), as the true inheritor of Nichiren’s teachings. Nichiren Shōshū
traces its origins to the founding of Taisekiji (Great Stone Temple) in 1290, which has
served as its head temple since then. The group took the name Nichiren Shōshū in 1912
and claims 432.000 members as of 2011 (Bunkachō 2012: 75). Its exclusivist doctrine
differs in various respects from other (Nichiren) Buddhist schools, most notably in its
view of Nichiren as a ‘true buddha’ (honbutsu) in the age of mappō (Chinese: mòfǎ; final
dharma); hence the sobriquet Daishōnin (Great Sage). Mappō is the last stage in a tripar-
tite eschatological concept crucial in East Asian Buddhism. In Japanese sources it com-
monly refers to a period of 10.000 or more years, having commenced in 1052, in which
liberation is deemed impossible by traditional means (see Fischer 1976; Stone 1985a and
1985b).
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 5
1937 and between 300 and 400 by 1940. However, this growth picked up
pace—and concomitantly attracted scrutiny from the regime—with the
introduction of shakubuku (literally: break and subdue), that is, a method of
conversion involving the refutation of existing beliefs,11 as a new means of
proselytising in 1941. 12 By mid-1943 membership was reported to have
risen to 5000 people; however, in July the same year, the organisation was
virtually disbanded overnight when Makiguchi and other leaders, including
his closest disciple Toda Jōsei (1900–1958), were imprisoned for violating
the Peace Preservation Law (Chian iji hō). They refused to comply with an
enacted government directive which demanded all citizens and religious
organisations to enshrine a Shintō talisman (kamifuda) issued by the Grand
Shrine at Ise in symbolic support of State Shintō (McLaughlin 2012: 282).
Makiguchi, unyielding in his religious commitment, died in prison of mal-
nutrition on November 18, 1944. Toda too remained adamant and was re-
leased only shortly before the end of the war in July 1945. Having experi-
enced ‘spiritual awakening’ whilst in detention, Toda dedicated himself
thereafter to resuming the activities of Sōka Kyōiku Gakkai. He renamed
the movement Sōka Gakkai in March 1946, which signified a henceforth
more religious orientation coupled with a lessening of the hitherto peda-
gogical emphasis, culminating in Sōka Gakkai becoming a lay movement to
Nichiren Shōshū. In May that year Toda was appointed ‘director general’
(rijichō), and from May 1951 until his death on April 2, 1958 he presided as
second president of Sōka Gakkai. Under his presidency and driven by mas-
sive proselytising, Sōka Gakkai membership skyrocketed from 5700 (1951)
to almost one million households (1958). The youth division in particular
engaged in more fervent shakubuku, equipped with the Shakubuku kyōten
(Manual of shakubuku) (Toda 1958), a handbook published in eight editions
11 In its early application, particularly after World War II with the shakubuku daikō-
shin (Great March of shakubuku), shakubuku was notoriously prone to—what is seen
today as—malpractice as an acrimonious form of rebuking religious misconceptions in
order to propagate Nichiren Buddhism. The situation eased slowly under the leadership
of Ikeda. On shakubuku in the Nichiren Buddhist tradition, see Stone 1994.
12 The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism elucidates: ‘[Shakubuku is a] method of
expounding Buddhism, the aim of which is to suppress others’ illusions and to subdue
their attachment to error or evil. This refers to the Buddhist method of leading people,
particularly its opponents, to the correct Buddhist teaching by refuting their erroneous
views and eliminating their attachment to opinions they have formed. The practice of
shakubuku thus means to correct another’s false views and awaken that person to the
truth of Buddhism’ (Soka Gakkai 2002: 580). In Sōka Gakkai terms, drawing on canoni-
cal sources, shakubuku contrasts shōju (literally: embrace and accept), a soft conversion
technique by which members attempt to carefully guide without contesting the opposite’s
unorthodox position. Today, shakubuku as well as shōju are often used synonymously
with proselytising in general.
6 LUKAS POKORNY
between 1951 and 1969, that largely explains how to convince and rebut
objections of prospective converts, highlighting the absolute status of the
Nichiren faith (Itō 2004). In particular the perceived missionary zeal of the
1950s and early 1960s, spurred by the phenomenal growth of Sōka Gakkai,
imbued the Japanese collective memory with a negative image whose ves-
tiges echo until today.
The demise of Toda gave way to his ‘closest disciple’, Ikeda Daisaku,
who officially took the presidential reins after two years in 1960,13 navigat-
ing Sōka Gakkai on a more inclusivist and cosmopolitan trajectory. For the
most part of his presidency, Ikeda sought to turn the tide in favour of a more
positive public attitude towards Sōka Gakkai. The focus upon proselytising
continued unabated, attaining the next level of global kōsen rufu (literally:
to declare and spread widely), that is, promoting Nichiren Buddhism on an
international scale. However, the rhetoric adjusted to fit a more mainstream
language. Kōsen rufu was articulated as a worldwide peace mission, whose
prospective success was evermore taken to be based upon wholehearted
devotion to the promotion of culture and education, that is, the foundational
pillars of Sōka Gakkai’s peace agenda. Soaring membership numbers,
claimed to be more than five million households by 1965 (Dator 1965: 1),
fuelled Sōka Gakkai’s political ambitions. These were first markedly voiced
by Toda and put into action starting in the mid-1950s when members got
involved in electoral politics. A flawless series of political victories and a
declared intention to continue his teacher’s plea for ōbutsumyōgō (literally:
wondrous fusing of the sovereign and the Buddha), that is, the implementa-
tion of the Buddhist spirit of harmonious self-development in public policy,
had Ikeda further the movement’s political engagement. In November 1964
Sōka Gakkai established an independent political party called Kōmeitō
(literally: Justice Party; Clean Government Party), which was to turn into an
influential political force over the years.14 Toda’s erstwhile political aim to
make Nichiren Buddhism Japan’s state religion was later gradually margin-
alised by Ikeda and finally dropped in response to ongoing public tension
(Stone 2003: 207-211).15
13 This is according to the emic narrative. It is still debated why there was a two year
gap between Toda’s passing and Ikeda’s inauguration, leading some scholars to suspect a
power struggle from which Ikeda eventually arose victorious (Higuma 1971). It is also
argued that it was a matter of age—Ikeda was only 30 years old when Toda died—or
general reluctance on his part (Dehn 2011: 206).
14 Today, Kōmeitō is serving in a coalition government with the Liberal Democratic
Party (Jiyū-Minshutō). Kōmeitō received more than seven million votes (11.9%) in the
December 2012 General Election.
15 Sōka Gakkai cut all formal entwinement with Kōmeitō in 1970.
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 7
A prolific writer and avid traveller, Ikeda’s popularity rose steadily, ele-
vating him to the position of undisputed leader and the Buddhist role model
for Sōka Gakkai adherents. His writings and commentaries serve as inspira-
tional moral and practical guidelines which, for practitioners, are no less
important than the works of Nichiren (Gosho; literally: honourable writings)
and the Lotus Sūtra. By virtue of his superior authority in the movement,
Ikeda has been the mastermind responsible for the overall peace project,
spearheading Sōka Gakkai’s expansion course. Notable related cultural and
educational ventures comprise the Minshu Ongaku Kyōkai (Peoples Music
Association), in short ‘Min-On’ (Min-on), launched in 1963; the ‘Tōkyō
Fuji Art Museum’ (1983; Tōkyō Fuji bijutsukan) and Sōka University
(1971; Sōka daigaku) both located in Hachiōji, Soka University of America
in Aliso Viejo (2001),16 California; the ‘Ikeda Center for Peace, Learning,
and Dialogue’ (1993), formerly the ‘Boston Research Center for the 21st
Century’, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, or the ‘Toda Institute for Global
Peace and Policy Research’ in Tōkyō and Honolulu (1996).17 Burgeoning
internationally, Ikeda launched SGI in January 1975, which since then acts
as the parent organisation for the global community and its national subsidi-
aries. Whilst he took the position of International President emphatically
promoting international affairs—especially through involvement in the
United Nations (UN) starting in the 1980s—rising tensions with Nichiren
Shōshū led to his demission as National President of the Japanese branch in
April 1979 ‘as part of the reconciliation process’ (Métraux 1994: 84).18 The
alliance formed between the two organisations was uneasy from the outset,
becoming more and more troubled throughout the 1970s and finally erupt-
ing in November 1991 with the formal excommunication of Sōka Gakkai.
The reason for the frequently resurfacing conflict was a gradually diverging
doctrinal and practical understanding of Nichiren Buddhism between the
19 The split affected branches worldwide including Austria, where, as was the case
across the global community, a small number of members staying loyal to Nichiren
Shōshū broke off to form a separate group.
20 Stronger in the sense of successfully reaffirming its identity as a less strident ex-
ponent of worldwide Humanistic Buddhism. In this respect, criticism received by Ikeda
throughout his career from political and religious opponents as well as parts of the media
and the scholarly world lessened appreciably. Internationally, Ikeda became a well-
respected leader as evidenced, for example, by the enormous number of academic hon-
ours he received, which rose from 12 in late 1991 to 345 honorary professorships and
doctorates as of November 2013 (see http://www.daisakuikeda.org/sub/resources/ re-
cords/degree/by-date-order.html).
21 This concerns the majority of established new religious movements in Japan,
which entered a period of stagnation or even decline since the 1970s and 1980s.
22 At its core the concept of ichinen sanzen indicates that all dharmas or building
blocks of compounded being are mutually inclusive, that is, everything in the universe is
interpenetrating. In practical terms, this is taken by Sōka Gakkai that one’s self-
cultivation affects collective transformation since one’s thoughts and actions (micro-
cosm) impact one’s environment and the cosmos itself (macrocosm).
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 9
23 The first three realms—hell, the ‘realm of hungry spirits’ (gakikai) or a state of
greed, and the ‘realm of animals’ (chikushōkai) or a state devoid of morality only guided
by instinct—are called the ‘three evil paths’ (sanakudō). Together with the ‘realm of
asuras’ (shurakai)—a Pāli and Sanskrit term literally meaning ‘nongod’ but usually
rendered as ‘demigod’—or a condition of anger, they form the ‘four evil paths’ (shia-
kudō), characterising suffering. The next two emotional stages are the ‘realm of humans’
and the ‘realm of heaven’ (tenkai) or a state of joy. A person whose mind is dominated
by one of the ‘six paths’ (rokudō) is susceptible to the stimuli of his or her changing
environment. Transcending these emotional dependencies stand the last four realms, that
of the ‘voice-hearers’ (shōmon), a condition in which one seeks to improve through
learning, the ‘self-awakened ones’ (engaku), a state in which one discerns the imperma-
nence of reality, the bodhisattvas (bosatsu) or a condition of compassion, and the
buddhas (butsu).
24 Yet Buddhahood is also not an irreversible state of mind but can recede and be
superseded by any of the other ‘realms’. Thus a person by dint of Buddhist practice has to
constantly nourish his or her virtue.
25 Daimoku may also only stand for the title of the Lotus Sūtra.
10 LUKAS POKORNY
26 Gongyō and daimoku are often done twice a day but without a prescribed dura-
tion, which can lie between a few minutes to several hours. The cadenced chanting is
performed at a very fast pace.
27 It has inscribed at the centre namu Myōhorengekyō as well as Nichiren’s name,
surrounded largely by a number of names mainly comprising of representatives of the ten
realms. This signifies that every sentient being in the cosmos may achieve Buddhahood.
The inscriptions are made in Chinese characters, except for two names, which are written
in Siddhaṃ, an ancient Sanskrit script.
28 World Peace Day is taken ‘to symbolize the shared commitment of SGI members
around the world to creating a wave of positive change in society through promoting
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 11
nonviolence and working for the happiness of all humanity’; see http://www.sgi.org/
resource-center/study-materials/october-2-sgi-world-peace-day.html (accessed: January
14, 2014).
29 Sōka Gakkai has a particularly strong membership base in these three countries.
For Sōka Gakkai in the United States, see, for example, Hurst 1992, Snow 1993,
Hammond and Machacek 1999, Chappell 2000, Machacek 2000, and Machacek and
Mitchell 2000; for Canada, see Métraux 1996 and 1997; for North America, see Geekie
2008; and for Brazil, see Pereira 2001 and 2008, and Bornholdt 2007. For an emic trave-
logue of Ikeda’s first international journey, see Ikeda 2009b. For a chronicle of Ikeda’s
early-year activities including his many travels, see Nenpu: Ikeda Daisaku hensan iinkai
1988 (1949–1980) and Nenpu: Ikeda Daisaku hensan iinkai 1989 (1981–1988).
30 今回の山本伸一のアジア訪問の目的は、日蓮大聖人の御予言である、“仏
法西還”の第一歩を印し。
31 For the expansion of Sōka Gakkai to various parts of Southeast Asia, see Metraux
2001. A detailed emic account of Ikeda’s Asia tour is given in Ikeda 2009c.
32 A major feature of Ikeda’s presidency is overseas expansion. For example, only
two months after his appointment, he had established a special ‘overseas office’ (kaigai-
gakari) on July 15, 1960 (Nenpu: Ikeda Daisaku hensan iinkai 1988: 125), whose activi-
ties Dator describes as ‘(1) to provide appropriate translated material; (2) to advise and
guide members living overseas; and (3) to guide foreign members living in Japan’ (Dator
1969: 17).
33 His itinerary is detailed in Ikeda 2009d and Ikeda 2009e. Collected chapters in
German translation on Ikeda’s trips to Europe from the Shin ningen kakumei (The New
Human Revolution), a novelised history of Sōka Gakkai launched in 1993, centring on
and authored by Ikeda, can be found in Ikeda 2011a (1961–1963) and Ikeda 2011b
(1964–1973). As of late 2013, the Shin ningen kakumei comprises 25 volumes, of which
at present 24 have been translated into English (Ikeda 1995–2013) and eight into German
(Ikeda 2003–2014). There are translations into multiple other languages as well. Based
on the English translation, the Austrian group independently published the five chapters
of volume 1 in five small booklets already in 1994 (Ikeda 1994a-e). The novels, which
sequel the Ningen kakumei (The Human Revolution), a series like the former first pub-
lished in the Seikyō Shinbun between 1965 and 1993 (Ikeda 2009a) and focusing on the
12 LUKAS POKORNY
the purpose of the visit was, amongst others, to provide guidance to local
members, to purchase construction materials and furnishings for the Grand
Reception Hall,[ 34 ] and furthermore, to inspect the situation of religion
(Ikeda 2009d: 293).35
From Zurich, Ikeda and his party flew to Vienna, arriving at midmorning on
October 18, 1961.36 The visit was anticipated to last for two days, during
which Ikeda intended to ‘purchase chandeliers and other items for the
Grand Reception Hall’ 37 (Ikeda 2009e: 119; see Appendix, Figure
1).Vienna’s grandeur as a multi-cultural hotspot and rallying point of great
cultural minds such as Haydn, Mozart, Brahms and in particular Beethoven,
whom Ikeda admires,38 would echo through the furnishings bought, impart-
ing on the Grand Reception Hall a cosmopolitan aura (Ikeda 2009e: 120).
Hence, the party spent their first day shopping in downtown Vienna. Ikeda
development of Sōka Gakkai under Toda Jōsei, have become bestsellers in Japan and
serve as devotional literature for many adherents worldwide. To date the 12-volume
Ningen kakumei series has been published in English (Ikeda 1994f). Based on the English
version, four books have been published in a single volume in German (Ikeda 1989), an
edition which is commonly not used by members today. Translations of parts of Ningen
kakumei have also been published in various issues of the German SGI monthly Forum.
34 The Grand Reception Hall (Daikyakuden) at Taisekiji and, at the time, the major
pilgrimage site of Sōka Gakkai followers, was first built in 1465. Thanks to massive
fundraising campaigns and generous members’ donations, in April 1964 a new Grand
Reception Hall was inaugurated. Following the excommunication of Sōka Gakkai, Ni-
chiren Shōshū had the structure demolished and rebuilt.
35 訪間の目的は、現地の会員の指導、大客殿の建築資材・調度品の購入、
さらに、宗教事情などの視察である。
36 For the account of Ikeda’s flying visit to Vienna in the Shin ningen kakumei, see
Ikeda 2009e: 119-137.
37 このウィーンの訪問の目的は、大客殿のシャンデリアなどの購入にあった。
38 When asked about Ikeda’s connections to Austria in personal conversations,
members would normally highlight, on the one hand, his proclivity for classical music,
and on the other hand, his dialogues with the half-Japanese Austrian-born politician and
philosopher Richard Nikolaus Coudenhove-Kalergi (1894–1972), the pioneer of the pan-
European idea. Ikeda and Coudenhove-Kalergi first met in Tōkyō on October 30, 1967,
and a few times thereafter in October 1970 also in Tōkyō. A collection of their dialogue
was later published as a book (Karerugī and Ikeda 1972). Coudenhove-Kalergi’s Japa-
nese mother, Mitsuko (1874–1941; née Aoyama Mitsu), was and still is a popular figure
in Japan, as is her son.
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 13
Kōsen rufu is a movement for the rise of human culture. A place of cultural
fusion, Austria should become a grand stage for kōsen rufu in the future.
Therefore, undoubtedly, numerous friends [i.e. bodhisattvas] of the earth are
sure to appear in this place as well (Ikeda 2009e: 120-122).39
39 広宣流布とは、人間文化の興隆の運動である。そうであるならば、文化の
融合の大地オーストリアは、未来の広布の大舞台となるべき天地である。ゆえ
に、この地にも、幾多の地涌の友が必ず出現するはずだ。
40 In general, the emergence of (mainly Theravāda) Buddhism in Austria dates back
to the late nineteenth century. On December 2, 1947, Buddhism was eventually recog-
nised by the authorities as an association (Verein), namely the ‘Buddhist Society Vienna’
(Buddhistische Gesellschaft Wien). For a brief overview, see Hutter 2001.
41 The mouthpiece of the Austrian Bishops’ Conference (Österreichische
Bischofskonferenz), the ‘Catholic News Agency Austria’ (Katholische Presseagentur
Österreich) was founded in 1946 as Katholische Pressezentrale (‘Catholic Press Ser-
vice’); hence the commonly used abbreviation Kathpress.
42 Sōka Gakkai’s involvement in Japanese politics commenced in the April 1955 lo-
cal elections and has been relatively successful ever since. For the raison d’être, including
some religious underpinnings, of Sōka Gakkai’s political aspirations, see Baffelli 2011,
Fisker-Nielsen 2012: 56-60 and White 1970: 126-137. The latter also provides the
movement’s election statistics until 1969 in an appendix (310-321).
43 ‘Immerhin jedoch gewann die Religionsgemeinschaft, die ein eigenartiges und
manchmal geradezu abenteuerliches Gemisch aus schintoistischen, buddhistischen und
militärischen Elementen darstellt, in den letzten Jahren immer mehr an Bedeutung’.
44 Other early Kathpress releases mentioning Sōka Gakkai are Kathpress 1962, 1965
and 1966, all three of which indicate the movement’s alleged radical exclusivism. The
Kathpress report of April 9, 1962, especially, demonises Sōka Gakkai as a political
movement pillared by a ‘fanatical and nationalistic Buddhist sect’ (‘“Gakkai” ist eine
14 LUKAS POKORNY
On the second day in Vienna Ikeda and his entourage enjoyed sightseeing,
visiting the Zentralfriedhof and passing by the Danube River to collect
stones, which were to be ritually buried beneath the Grand Reception Hall.46
On the evening of that day—October 19, 1961—the group left for Rome by
plane. Ikeda’s brief and rather uneventful sojourn to Austria marked the
first time Sōka Gakkai officially entered Austria, however it was to take
politische Bewegung, die von einer fanatischen, nationalistischen Sekte des Buddhismus
getragen wird’), whose youth organisation is modelled on the Hitler Youth (‘Ihre Jugen-
dorganisation hat die Hitlerjugend zum Vorbild […]’). The movement is held to employ
fascist methods, which target its two main enemies, namely Communism and Christian-
ity. Finally, the brief article warns that further growth of Sōka Gakkai would put an end
to the religious peace in Japan (Kathpress 1962: 3). In the same vein the Kathpress report
of May 27, 1966, reviles Sōka Gakkai as ‘Japan’s youngest and most intolerant Buddhist
sect’, which established a reputation for its ‘large fellowship and excessive nationalist
tendencies’, as well as, especially, its anti-Christian and generally intolerant stance to-
wards other domestic forms of Buddhism (‘Der Sakagakkai [sic], Japans jüngste und
intoleranteste buddhistische Sekte, die sich in den letzten Jahren ausser durch ihren
großen Anhang und die übertriebenen nationalistischen Tendenzen vor allem auch durch
antichristliche und intolerante Haltung gegenüber den anderen Formen des Buddhismus
im Land einen Namen gemacht hat […]’). The article refers to past grave concerns of an
‘imminent overthrow of the government’ (bevorstehender Staatsstreich) by Sōka Gakkai
spurred through its political ambitions. It concludes with a more conciliatory remark,
pointing to Ikeda’s wish to henceforth ‘engage in cordial relationships with other relig-
ions’ (‘Die Sekte wolle in herzliche Beziehungen zu den anderen Religionen treten […]’)
(Kathpress 1966: 3).
45 ‘Tatsächlich könnte das Absingen des Spruches zu einer Massenhysterie führen,
bestätigen Psychologen, die etwa dem Veitstanz des europäischen Mittelalters oder den
Trancezuständen der Tanzenden bei Festen der afrikanischen Neger vergleichbar sei’.
46 See Ikeda 2009e: 122; 明くる日、山本伸一の一行は、大客殿に埋納するド
ナウ川の石を採取したあと、中央墓地に立ち寄った。
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 15
eight more years before a follower would finally settle in this country. In
the meantime, word of Sōka Gakkai’s continuing growth and increasing
political and societal significance in Japan, surprisingly, also reached the
wider Austrian public in the form of a two-page article in the major daily
newspaper, the Neue Kronen Zeitung, published in the Sunday issue of
November 1, 1964 (Trost 1964; see Appendix, Figure 2). Based on the
writer’s observations during a mass gathering of devotees at Taisekiji, the
article portrays Sōka Gakkai as a Buddhist peace mass movement, with 15
million members and clear fascist tendencies 47 that ‘guarantees material
success, a good life on earth. […] “Material welfare is the foundation for
spiritual fulfilment”’48 (Trost 1964: 3). Although not overtly polemic, the
article implicitly shapes a sinister image of Sōka Gakkai qua autocratic sect
aiming at the ‘peaceful conquest’ of the world under the banner of a dis-
torted form49 of Nichiren Buddhism. The national (and significantly, to a
greater extent international)50 ‘bad press’ had no noticeable adverse effect
on the early Sōka Gakkai mission several years later (which is unsurprising
given its reluctant start). However, it has certainly fortified a particular
stereotypical notion within the Church, whose main monitoring institution,
the ‘Department for Cults’ (Sektenreferat) of the Vienna Pastoral Office
(Wiener Seelsorgeamt)—today’s Department for Questions about World
Views of the Pastoral Office of the Catholic Archdiocese of Vienna (Referat
für Weltanschauungsfragen am Pastoralamt der Erzdiözese Wien)—has
garnered some initial attention as evidenced by my archival research.51 This
is hardly surprising given that even the Neue Kronen Zeitung article high-
lighted the movement’s present outreach to Europe, noting Ikeda’s recent
‘return from a long trip to Europe’ where he had met local Sōka Gakkai
branches. 52 Ikeda’s European endeavour was slowly to prove relatively 53
fruitful, with membership rising in various countries, especially in France
and Germany. When Sōka Gakkai in Germany was incorporated as an asso-
ciation under the name ‘German Nichiren Shoshu’ (Deutsche Nichiren
Shoshu) on January 5, 1970, it already had more than 500 members (Kötter
2006: 24). In Switzerland, another largely German speaking country,
around 30 members had been practising by mid-1969 (Personal Interview
Kudō 1961. Another more neutral early German article on Japanese new religious
movements, including a brief mentioning of Sōka Gakkai, is Benz 1961. The compara-
tively fierce image created by the mainstream media and the majority of scholarly works
particularly during the late 1950s and 1960s, was foremost based on a threefold allega-
tion of aggressive proselytising (shakubuku), religious exclusivism, and craving for
political power. This image has been cemented in many respects—considering, for ex-
ample, the still prevalent negative perception in the Japanese general public—up until the
present day.
51 The Pastoral Office was founded in August 1938 by the pastoral theologian Karl
Rudolf (1886–1964), who went on to establish the Sektenreferat in 1953. Similar depart-
ments were instituted in other Austrian dioceses over the years, resulting in the formation
of a national working group in 1962. The purpose of the Sektenreferat was to surveil and
assess fringe movements, processing and providing relevant information for the Church
and thus raising general awareness.
52 The article hints at Ikeda’s fourth journey to Europe from October 5 to October
18, 1964, where he visited Istanbul, Rome, Paris, Prague, Budapest, Zurich, Oslo and
Copenhagen. In fact, the number of members in these countries at the time was still
negligible or inexistent, putting the European expansion (as insinuated by the article) into
a somewhat different perspective.
53 However, compared to the North (25.000) and South American (13.000) as well
as the Southeast Asian (11.000) mission, the European (1.000) mission clearly lagged
behind. The numbers in brackets show the roughly estimated membership in mid-1965
given by Dator (1965: 220). Even this low figure for the European members is likely to
be an overestimate.
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 17
with Nakamura Yoshio: May 29, 2012),54 whilst in Austria kōsen rufu had
not yet taken root at all. This was to change the very same year when a
young 27 years old Japanese graphic designer settled down in Vienna.
54 The Swiss Sōka Gakkai (Soka Gakkai Schweiz), headquartered in Zurich, was
formed as an association in 1989.
55 These household gatherings as an efficient means of proselytising are not a unique
trademark of Sōka Gakkai but can be found elsewhere, especially in other Lotus Sūtra-
based movements such as Reiyūkai or Risshō Kōseikai, where they are called hōza (liter-
ally: dharma sitting).
56 二十歳の時から「人は何のために生まれて来たのか」「生をどのようにい
きれば良いか」と自問自答するようになり。
18 LUKAS POKORNY
57 Beginning with Toda’s presidency up until 1970, Japanese membership was struc-
tured along ‘vertical lines’ (tatesen) in units of increasing size, ranging from setai
(household), kumi (unit=up to ten households) and han (group=five to ten units) over
chiku (district=five to ten groups) and shibu (chapter=five to ten districts) to sōshibu
(general chapter), honbu (headquarters) and sōgōhonbu (joint headquarters). Today, Sōka
Gakkai maintains a horizontal (yokosen) administrative system.
58 For the first months, he made a living by taking on various odd jobs before enter-
ing a local graphic design company in the summer of 1970. In 1982, after having being
granted Austrian citizenship, Nakamura started his own import-export business before
becoming a full-time employee of Sōka Gakkai in Austria with the opening of the new
national centre in the premises of the historic Villa Windisch-Grätz in Linzer Straße 452,
in Vienna’s 14th district, in 1995.
59 A businessman, Kawaike moved to Germany for his company a couple of years
later before returning to Japan after his retirement.
60 The large majority of Japanese practitioners joining the Austrian group were al-
ready practicing members of Nichiren Buddhism back home.
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 19
peaceful and happy future of this country’61 (Personal Interview with Na-
kamura Yasue: December 16, 2013).
Parallel to the situation in other European countries, the early movement
in Austria only consisted of Japanese people, the majority of whom were
students of music, cooks, and businessmen and their families. Nakamura
was named by the Japanese headquarters as the main contact person in
Austria. Japanese emigrants—who remained a minority group—as well as
visitors would seek his apartment in Trubelgasse in Vienna’s third district
(see Appendix, Figure 3) as a rallying point. Over the next years the inflow
of (mostly temporary) Japanese practitioners gradually increased. To give
some examples: in May 1973, four members from Vienna travelled to Paris
to meet Ikeda on his eighth visit to Europe; in September 1974, 16 members
attended the Sōka Gakkai-sponsored second European family festival also
taking place in Paris; and about 16 followers went to see Ikeda during his
stay in Paris in May 1975. In June 1976, 18 people participated in a Peace
Festival in Frankfurt. In the same year Austrian followers attended the sec-
ond European summer course held at the SGI training centre in Trets in
South-Eastern France, which was inaugurated the year before and hence-
forth served as the venue for the annual summer courses. At that time Paris
and to a lesser extent Frankfurt were the administrative hubs of Sōka Gak-
kai in Europe, the former led by Yamazaki Eiichi (1923–2000), the French
and founding European chairman (shodai Ōshū gichō), who had lived in
Paris since 1961. Yamazaki presided over the European Conference (Yō-
roppa kaigi) headquarters in Paris, which were established during Ikeda’s
1973 visit on May 13 with 13 initial member states—Belgium, Denmark,
France, Greece Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
United Kingdom, West Germany, and Austria. The launch of this council
was encouraged by Ikeda, who envisaged it as a ‘coalition of humanism’
(ningen shugi no rengōtai) and a ‘spiritual union’ (seishin no ketsugō),
promoting kōsen rufu on a worldwide and European level (Ikeda 2010c:
314-315). The Austrian representative to this assembly was Austrian leader
Nakamura Yoshio.62
By the end of 1974, Sōka Gakkai in Austria comprised 15 adult mem-
bers, all of them Japanese. With a slowly consolidating membership base
61 夫がオーストリアに永住することを決意していましたので、私もオースト
リアの地で暮らすことになりました。夫はこの国の平和と幸福な未来の実現の
為にここで生涯を掛けて活動することを願っていましたので、私も同じ決意を
しました。
62 Up until May 1981 Nakamura carried no formal position, however as the first
practitioner in Austria he was charged by followers with leading authority. In Japan, he
was informally referred to as shibuchō, chief of the (Austrian) chapter.
20 LUKAS POKORNY
and Japanese members settling into the local environment, the first Austrian
acquaintances were to attend the group meetings from early 1975 onwards.
The first native convert was Wolfgang H. in March 1975. By March 1976,
the number of non-Japanese63 adherents octupled but was largely to remain
at this level for the next few years. In May 1981 internal records list 37
followers, of whom roughly a third were non-Japanese. 64 15 to 20 were
considered active (Personal Interview with Tsukui Kiyoshi: February 20,
2014). The formation of a stable core membership and a well-working
community life is mirrored by a rise of joint activities65 and by the organisa-
tion of general assemblies. The first of these was held on October 22, 1977
with 20 participants and the second on November 18, 1978 with around 25
participants, both taking place at the Hotel Ambassador on Vienna’s Kärnt-
ner Straße, Ikeda’s accommodation during his 1961 visit. Further general
assemblies were to be held annually thereafter every November. The
movement, though not yet legally instituted, took a clear organisational
shape as ‘Austrian Nichiren Shoshu’ (Österreichische Nichiren Shoshu) at
that time. Naturally, ties with the German movement developed closely;66
study materials in German, especially copies of the magazine Unser Forum
were gratefully received by the non-Japanese followers, once or twice a
year the Austrian group welcomed Peter Kühn (1930–2011), the chairman
of the German branch, and joint activities were launched, such as a training
course for members held in German at the Sōka Gakkai headquarters in
Shinanomachi, Tōkyō, in January 1979. In terms of membership Sōka Gak-
kai in Austria was still small compared to other European branches; how-
ever, the group cultivated a good relationship with Japan and the European
leadership, which is evidenced by the annual visits of Yamazaki Eiichi, the
European chairman and scattered visits of other high-ranking Japanese
dignitaries. These visitors included Izumi Satoru (1912–2005), the erstwhile
Sōka Gakkai vice president in 1976 (see Appendix, Figure 4), and Kawada
63 Alongside native Austrian and Japanese followers, starting early, the Austrian
group frequently welcomed guest members from other European countries.
64 This ratio was to turn as many Japanese members returned home in later years,
which is why the focus of proselytising shifted to a non-Japanese clientele. This devel-
opment corresponds to that of the German branch, which Kötter (2006: 25) divides into a
period of a Japan-oriented group (from its beginnings until the 1980s) and, what he calls
the ‘German time’, when the rising influence of non-Japanese followers had customs,
contents and rituals adjusted to the local context.
65 For example, the launch of separate gatherings for female Japanese members un-
der the guidance of Nakamura Yasue starting in 1976. These meetings were extended to
include female Austrian practitioners in 1987.
66 Despite Nakamura’s early-day ‘Swiss connection’, the Austrian movement up to
now hardly maintained any close contacts to Sōka Gakkai in Switzerland.
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 21
Yōichi (b. 1937), the vice chairman of the Sōka Gakkai Study Department
(Kyōgakubu), later Sōka Gakkai vice president and current director of the
movement’s ‘Institute of Oriental Philosophy’ (Tōyō tetsugaku kenkyūjo) in
1977.
The pivotal element of communal life was the monthly zadankai. Mem-
bers usually met in the apartment of the Nakamuras, first in Trubelgasse
and, from 1976, in Belvederegasse in Vienna’s fourth district. Vienna re-
mained the sole area of activity of the Austrian movement until 1980 when
a few small gatherings were held in Graz and Bruck an der Mur,67 hosted by
Tsukui Kiyoshi (b. 1949) and his wife Erika (b. 1955). Tsukui, a flutist and
second generation Sōka Gakkai member with leadership experience as a
hanchō, came to Vienna in September 1974 to study at the University of
Music and Performing Arts. He quickly became a Japanese core member;
others included the Nakamuras, Kimura Takuji (1945–2008), who brought
the first Austrian follower, Mitsugi Toshiyuki (b. 1950) and Nakamura
Hitoshi (b. 1952), 68 all of whom were appointed to official positions by
Ikeda in May 1981.69 Erika Tsukui, a flutist with a formal Lutheran back-
ground, came into contact with Sōka Gakkai through her husband Kiyoshi
and joined the first zadankai in September 1977. In November 1978 she
received the gohonzon, thus becoming one of the earliest non-Japanese
members and the only Austrian follower from the 1970s still practicing
today. To receive the gohonzon is to be ritually recognised as a member of
Sōka Gakkai.70
The structure of the usually two to three hours long zadankai held at that
time was no different from today: the practitioners met on a weekend in the
late afternoon, starting with casual discussions, followed by gongyō and
chanting the daimoku. Thereafter, a more focused discussion based on the
study materials would commence, concluding again with more casual dis-
cussions. Given the small number of non-Japanese participants, especially
in the first few years, the gatherings were conducted largely in Japanese
only. This was to change slowly with the rise of Austrian practitioners and
67 A little later, zadankai were also held in other cities such as Salzburg and Linz,
initially mainly organised by newly arriving Japanese people.
68 Like the Nakamuras and Tsukui, Kimura (1973) and Nakamura Hitoshi (1976)
came to Austria having already been Sōka Gakkai members in Japan; the former having
served as a chikubuchō. Only Mitsugi (1973) joined Sōka Gakkai whilst in Austria.
69 See Section 3.3.
70 The gohonzon, which was supplied by the Japanese headquarters, was handed
over in a brief ceremony in front of other practitioners. The decision to commit the go-
honzon and thus to grant formal membership was normally taken by Nakamura after
consultation with other leading members. The aspirant had to exhibit willingness and at
least a very basic familiarity with Nichiren Buddhist practice and theory.
22 LUKAS POKORNY
71 Honorific title commonly used by Japanese members for Ikeda; more formally, he
is referred to as kaichō or ‘President’. Similarly, non-Japanese followers usually call
Ikeda ‘President’.
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 25
and Ikeda 1984) with the Japanese edition released in two volumes a year
later in 1985 (Ikeda and Uiruson 1985a and 1985b). Secondly, a round-table
discussion attended by Ikeda, his major staff and local Sōka Gakkai follow-
ers. In the form of a master-disciple dialogue, questions were raised by the
attendees, which were then answered by Ikeda. An article in the Seikyō
Shinbun listing the conversation topics included a brief ‘summary’ of
Ikeda’s responses, including one in which he apparently gave encouraging
advice to and shared his modest expectations for the Austrian group:
In the Austrian organisation, I would like to ask that you consult about any-
thing mainly with your chapter leader Mr. Nakamura. By the principle of the
able minority, it is important that each of you demonstrates brilliant actual
proof of your practice, physically, spiritually and socially. Never be impa-
tient. Rather, with a limited number of members, I ask that for the next ten to
twenty years you build a solid foundation for the longer future (Sasaki
1981c).72
72 オーストリアは中村支部長を中心に、なんでも相談していっていただきた
い。少人数の精鋭主義で、一人一が身体的、精神的、社会的にも立派な輝く実
証を示しゆくことが大切である。絶対に焦ってはならない。むしろ少人数で、
長い将来の基盤を確実に築きゆく十年、二十年であっていただきたい。
73 A lengthy article in the Seikyō Shinbun (Sasaki 1981a) impassionedly describes
Ikeda’s visit and his emotive relation to his musical idol. Contrary to what the article
suggests, however, this Eroicahaus was neither the summer residence of Beethoven—the
actual building had been demolished long ago—nor the place where he composed his
fifth and sixth symphony which, in fact, was the Pasqualatihaus on the Mölker Bastei in
Vienna’s first district.
26 LUKAS POKORNY
Japan, which was organised by Sōka Gakkai’s Min-On the year before.74
The crucial significance of cultural and educational engagement in Sōka
Gakkai’s worldwide peacebuilding mission was underlined in a related
Seikyō Shinbun article, which reported that at the meeting ‘President Ikeda
said he would like to further thoroughly promote cultural exchanges to [the
cause of] world peace through Min-On and alike’75 (Sasaki 1981e). In a
second brief courtesy visit that day, Ikeda met with Fred Sinowatz (1929–
2008), Austria’s vice chancellor and federal minister of education and arts,
at the latter’s ministerial office. As before, mutual gratitude was exchanged
concerning past collaboration between Min-On and the State Opera with
Ikeda, according to the Seikyō Shinbun, alongside wishes for ‘further con-
tributions to [the cause of] world peace through cultural and educational
exchanges’76 (Sasaki 1981e). Following his reception at the ministry, Ikeda
was welcomed to participate in a gathering at the apartment of the Naka-
mura family in Belvederegasse. The attendees, including Ikeda, partook in
collective chanting and casual talk. Before taking a commemorative group
photo in the Belvedere garden, Ikeda officially appointed Nakamura Yoshio
and his wife Yasue to Austrian honbuchō (headquarters chief). In so doing,
he officially recognised the Austrian chapter as a fully-fledged member of
SGI. In addition, Ikeda designated other long-serving local Japanese mem-
bers to leadership positions, namely Kimura Takuji and Mitsugi Toshiyuki
to shibuchō, and Tsukui Kiyoshi and Nakamura Hitoshi to chikubuchō.
Given the small size of the Austrian group, these appointments did not
result in a rearrangement of the structural composition compliant with in-
ner-Japanese administrative divisions. Rather, they served as a formal ac-
knowledgement, honouring past engagement alongside already exercised
lines of seniority. The last item on Ikeda’s itinerary was a trip to the Eroica-
haus and its vicinity, followed by dinner with the Nakamuras. The Seikyō
Shinbun concluded its coverage on Ikeda’s stay in Austria with him gazing
at ‘the beautiful blue Danube, which resembled the stream of worldwide
kōsen rufu’77 (Sasaki 1981a). Early the next day Ikeda continued his journey
to Italy and would only return again to Austria once, eleven years later in
June 1992.
4. Concluding Remarks
The history of Sōka Gakkai in Austria in the 1970s is a silent history.
Emerging as a diasporic movement with a clear japanocentric outlook, it
passed largely unnoticed for more than a decade; unnoticed in particular by
the religious establishment because of its lack of any public presence.78 The
circle of practitioners, that is, mainly Japanese people who came to Vienna
temporarily—many already having some membership experience—never
sought to incorporate as an association with the aim to legally register its
religious status. The group remained essentially self-contained, mutually
supplying spiritual and ritual necessities.
The language barrier as an impediment to adaptation and thus substan-
tial expansion was only slowly overcome by individual adherents, enabling
an increasing number of non-Japanese people to partake in the religious
gatherings. Initially proselytising, albeit marginal at all times,79 did rarely
extend beyond the boundaries of the Japanese diaspora. Beginning in the
second half of the 1970s,80 this was to gradually change with the Austrian
group becoming less culturally homogeneous in the late 1970s and early
1980s. The Japanese core members, no more than five to ten people at any
time, were actively involved in European community life. Along with the
maintenance of closer contacts, especially to the European and, to a lesser
extent, the Japanese headquarters, forged most notably by Nakamura Yo-
shio, the founder and leading figure of Sōka Gakkai in Austria, this helped
to grant the movement some internal visibility despite its comparatively low
78 Whilst the activities of Sōka Gakkai in Austria were virtually untraceable until the
early 1980s, specialised academics as well as the Catholic Church were well aware of
Sōka Gakkai in general since at least the late 1950s and early 1960s. Scholars, Church-
related monitoring institutions and, subsequently, the media were, if at all, mostly render-
ing a negative image based on the rather poor reputation the movement enjoyed in Japan
owing to its enthusiastic proselytising and delicate political commitments.
79 ‘Street shakubuku’, which was conducted in some overseas branches, especially in
the United States, was neglected. There have been no promotional campaigns whatso-
ever, such as circulating pamphlets or running advertisements. The word was only spread
amongst family and friends. Joint religious activities were almost always limited to the
members’ homes. Hence, religious performances in the public space have been avoided.
80 This time period coincides with what Hutter (2001: 102) perceives as a turning
point in the general history of Buddhism in Austria when its expansion began to progress
noticeably.
28 LUKAS POKORNY
Appendix
Figure 1: Ikeda choosing a chandelier for the Grand Reception Hall in the Lobmeyr
store on Kärntner Straße 26 in Vienna’s first district, during his first visit to Austria
in October 1961. An artist’s impression published in Ikeda’s fifth volume of Shin
ningen kakumei (Ikeda 2009e: 121)
30 LUKAS POKORNY
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 31
Figure 4: Meeting with Sōka Gakkai Vice President Izumi Satoru (white shirt) and
European chairman Yamazaki Eiichi (far right) at Hotel Ambassador in August
1976. The Austrian leader Nakamura Yoshio is standing
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 33
Figure 5: First page of a brief article about Ikeda’s peace trips to Vienna in the
Japanese monthly study magazine Daibyakurenge (The Great White Lotus) (Naka-
mura 2006: 3) written by Nakamura Yoshio, showing a group photo of Ikeda and
Austrian followers in the garden of the Hotel Krainerhütte in May 1981. Ikeda is
sitting in the centre with Nakamura Yoshio behind him. Tsukui Kiyoshi and his wife
Erika are to the left of Ikeda
34 LUKAS POKORNY
List of Abbreviations
Glossary
Bosatsu 菩薩
Bukkai 仏界
Bunka 文化
Busshō 仏性
Butsu 仏
Chi 智
Chian iji hō 治安維持法
Chiku 地区
Chikubuchō 地区部長
Chikushōkai 畜生界
Daibyakurenge 大白蓮華
Daigohonzon 大御本尊
36 LUKAS POKORNY
Daikyakuden 大客殿
Daimoku 題目
Daishōnin 大聖人
Danshibu 男子部
Engaku 縁覚
Fāngbiàn pǐn 方便品
Fukō 不幸
Gakikai 餓鬼界
Genze riyaku 現世利益
Gohonzon 御本尊
Gongyō 勤行
Gosho 御書
Hachiōji 八王子
Han 班
Hanchō 班長
Hànyǔ Pīnyīn 汉语拼音 (漢語拼音)
Heiwa tabi 平和旅
Hōben bon 方便品
Hōben zengyō 方便善巧
Hok(k)ekyō 法華経
Honbu 本部
Honbuchō 本部長
Honbutsu 本仏
Hōza 法座
Ichinen sanzen 一念三千
Ise 伊勢
Jigoku 地獄
Jihi 慈悲
Jikkai 十界
Jinsei chirigaku 人生地理学
Jiyū-Minshutō 自由民主党
Kachi sōzō 価値創造
Kaichō 会長
Kaigai shidō no daiippo 海外指導の第一歩
Kaigaigakari 海外係
Kamakura jidai 鎌倉時代
Kamifuda 神札
Kōfuku 幸福
Kōmeitō 公明党
Kōsen rufu 広宣流布
Kumi 組
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 37
Kumichō 組長
Kyōgakubu 教学部
Kyōiku 教育
Mappō 末法
Meiyo kaichō 名誉会長
Min-on 民音
Minshu Ongaku Kyōkai 民主音楽協会
Mòfǎ 末法
Mumyō 無明
Myōhorengekyō 妙法蓮華経
Nagaoka 長岡
Namu Myōhorengekyō 南無妙法蓮華経
Nichiren buppō 日蓮仏法
Nichiren Shōshū 日蓮正宗
Niigata 新潟
Ningen kakumei 人間革命
Ningen shugi no rengōtai 人間主義の連合体
Ninkai 人界
Nyorai juryō hon 如来寿量品
Ōbutsumyōgō 王仏冥合
Reiyūkai 霊友会
Rijichō 理事長
Risshō Kōseikai 立正佼成会
Rokudō 六道
Rúlái shòuliàng pǐn 如來壽量品
Sanakudō 三悪道
Satori 悟り
Seikyō Shinbun 聖教新聞
Seishin no ketsugō 精神の結合
Sekai heiwa 世界平和
Sekai heiwa no hi 世界平和の日
Sensei 先生
Setai 世帯
Shakubuku 折伏
Shakubuku daikōshin 折伏大行進
Shakubuku kyōten 折伏教典
Shiakudō 四悪道
Shibu 支部
Shibuchō 支部長
Shin ningen kakumei 新・人間革命
Shinanomachi 信濃町
38 LUKAS POKORNY
Shingon 真言
Shintō 神道
Shodai Ōshū gichō 初代欧州議長
Shōju 摂受
Shōmon 声聞
Shūkyō nenkan 宗教年鑑
Shurakai 修羅界
Sōgōhonbu 総合本部
Sōka daigaku 創価大学
Sōka Gakkai 創価学会
Sōka Kyōiku Gakkai 創価教育学会
Sōka kyōikugaku taikei 創価教育学体系
Sōshibu 総支部
Sumida 墨田
Taisekiji 大石寺
Tatesen 縦線
Tendai 天台
Tenkai 天界
Tennō 天皇
Tiāntái 天台
Tōyō tetsugaku kenkyūjo 東洋哲学研究所
Tōkyō 東京
Tōkyō Fuji bijutsukan 東京富士美術館
Yīniàn sānqiān 一念三千
Yokosen 横線
Yomikudashi 訓(読)み下し
Yōroppa kaigi ヨーロッパ会議
Yōroppa kōfu ヨーロッパ広布
Zadankai 座談会
‘A GRAND STAGE FOR KŌSEN RUFU IN THE FUTURE’ 39
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