Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications: April 2014
Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications: April 2014
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The yeasts have been exploited by mankind for thousands of years for food and fermentation processes.
Traditionally the yeast has been used for the production of alcoholic beverages, biomass and glycerol.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been described as mankind’s most domesticated organism and still widely
exploited yeast species in industry today. The number of yeast species described so far is about 1500 and
only about a dozen is used at industrial scale. Some 70-80 species have been shown to possess potential
value for biotechnology. According to modest estimate, known yeast species represent roughly 5% of the
total number that may inhabitat Earth surface. Modern applications of yeasts have been greatly expanded
beyond clasical applications. Yeasts, especially S. cerevisiae and other non-saccharomyces yeasts today are
increasingly used for the heterologous production of enzymes and pharmaceutical proteins. Yeasts have
important roles in environmental applications such as bioremediation and removal of heavy metals from
wastewaters. Yeasts are also used in agriculture as biocontrol agents. Several chemicals can be produced
using yeast as a biocatalyst. New developments in engineering yeast have introduced novel capabilities to
extend substrate range and produce new products so far yeast can not produce. S. cerevisiae is largest
cultivated organism so far. Having in mind diversity and potential of all yeast species, the cultivation and
utilization of Saccharomyces yeasts are still the tip of the iceberg and there is a vast potential yet to be
discovered for the production of valuable products using saccharomyces and non-saccharomyces yeasts.
Introduction
Yeasts have been used for making bread, beer and wine since ancient ages. First
microscopic observation of microbial cells and description of the microscobic appearance of
yeast were observed by A. van Leeuwenhoek in 1680. Their role in fermentation was
recognized by Pasteur, and the first pure cultures (starters) of brewer’s and wine yeast were
obtained by Hansen and Müller-Thurgau, respectively, at the end of the 19th century. Since
then the application of yeast starters has become a standard practice in the industrial
fermentation not only for food and beverages but also for a broad variety of other products
made by yeasts or from yeast cells. The traditional fermentation processes are carried out by
a single species of yeasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae , hence for many, its name is
synonymous with yeasts, and it is thought that all yeasts are fermentative. Contrary to
general belief, about half of described species not being able to ferment; nevertheless many
of these have gained a significant role in biotechnology (Barnett and Barnett, 2011).
Yeasts form an artificial group of fungi comprising mostly unicellular organisms reproducing
vegetatively by budding and can be classified either to Ascomycetes (e.g. Saccharomyces,
Candida ) or Basidiomycetes (e.g. Filobasidiella, Rhodotorula). About 74,000 species of fungi
including yeasts have been described, while estimates of the total number of fungal species
has been estimated to be as high as 1,500,000 (Hawksworth 2004), Thus, fungi are among
the richest kingdoms on earth with respect to biodiversity, but much work is needed to
understand their potential to provide valuable industrial resources. Currently, there are
approximately 1,500 recognized yeast species listed in the latest edition of The Yeasts: a
Taxanomic Study (2011) and estimated total number is around 150,000 forming roughly 5-
10% of estimated fungal species. In the previous edition of this book, in 1998, 700 species
were described. Since then, the number of recognized yeast species has doubled, with a
The most important nutrients for yeasts are carbohydrates that serve for both carbon and
energy sources. Only a few sugars, mostly hexoses and oligosaccharides, can be fermented
by yeasts. The range of carbon sources that can be utilized aerobically is much wider, and
includes hexoses, pentoses, alcohols, organic acids, and other carbon compounds. Mono-
and oligosaccharides are widely utilized by yeasts, although the fermentation of galactose is
limited to some species. Not all yeasts are able to metabolize certain di- and trisaccharides
(sucrose, maltose, lactose, or raffinose) for lack of the necessary hydrolytic enzymes.
Utilization of pentoses is also restricted among yeasts. The fermentation of xylose may be a
potentially useful property for the industrial production of ethanol from hydrolysis products
of plant hemicelluloses. The ability of yeasts to metabolize polysaccharides and complex
carbohydrates is restricted to relatively few species. Utilization of starch is of particular
interest for industrial production of yeast biomass (single-cell protein, SCP) from starchy
agricultural wastes. Db. occidentalis and Lipomyces species are among the few types of
yeasts possessing enzymes of various amylase activities. S. cerevisiae is unable to hydrolyze
starch. Other possible carbon sources for yeasts are hydrocarbons, and several species are
capable of growing on these compounds (Deak, 2008). Both organic and inorganic nitrogen
sources can be utilized by yeasts. Although very few species can hydrolyze proteins
extracellularly, short peptides can be transported into the cell and utilized intracellularly.
Amino acids, amines, and urea are suitable nitrogen sources for practically all yeasts (Large,
1986), in addition to inorganic ammonium salts. Nitrate utilization, however, is confined to
certain species or genera of yeasts, and this is a valuable diagnostic character used for
identification purposes (Rossi and Berardi, 2009).
Yeasts are usually tolerant to broad pH ranges and are often found at the acidic end of the
scale where many bacteria are not able to compete. In terms of maximum temperature,
Tmax, microorganisms can be subdivided into three groups. The term thermophilic is applied
to microorganisms whose Tmax is well above 50◦C; those capable of growth at Tmax between
∼25◦C and 50◦C are referred to as mesophilic; and psychrophiles are those classified as
having a Tmax below 25◦C. Considered in these terms, nearly all known yeasts are mesophilic,
and grow best between 20◦C and 30◦C. However, truly thermophilic yeasts remain unknown.
Rarely can they grow above 42 0C and those that do may occupy specialized habitats such as
the intestine of warm-blooded animals. Most strains of S. cerevisiae occurring widely in
industrial fermentation can grow at 37◦C, whereas growth in a similar environment of S.
bayanus is limited up to 30–35◦C. The range of yeasts able to grow above 40◦C is limited.
Most of isolated thermotolerant yeasts capable of growing at temperatures above 40◦C
belonged to Kluyveromyces marxianus, but other thermotolerant strains were identified
with P. polymorpha, Geo. capitatum, S. cerevisiae, and Candida and Debaryomyces species.
Kluyveromyces strains are noteworthy for their relatively high Tmax values. However,
temperatures above 50◦C are usually lethal for yeast cells (Deak, 2008; Starmer and
Lachance, 2011).
Alcohol
Yeasts
Glycerol Food
A fermented food or beverage is defined as an edible product prepared from the raw or
cooked materials of plant or animal origins by microorganisms either naturally or by adding
mixed or pure culture(s). The essential objective of food fermentation is to carry over
supplies from the time of plenty to those of deficit. Traditionally people knew how to culture
the beneficial microorganisms, mostly lactic acid bacteria, yeasts and filamentous moulds,
for production of foods for consumption. What was the scientific explanation and identity of
these microorganisms were unknown to them. Microorganisms are present in or on the
ingredients, utensils, environment, and are selected through adaptation to the substrate for
fermentation. ‘Rice-soybean-fish-alcoholic beverage’ diet is the characteristic food culture
of the East and South East Asia, whereas ‘ wheat-milk and milk products-meat-wine ’ is the
basic diet in the Western part of the world. In East Asia rice is a staple food whereas in West
Asia wheat or barley is a staple food. Milk products similar to West and alcoholic beverages
similar to East are encountered in food habits of the people of the Himalayas. In Asia,
moulds are predominant microorganisms in the fermentation processes, whereas in Africa,
Europe and America, fermented foods are prepared exclusively using bacteria or bacteria-
yeasts mixed cultures; moulds seem to be little or never used. However, in the Indian sub-
continent, mostly due to wide variation in agroclimatic conditions and diverse form of
dietary culture, all major groups of microorganism (bacteria-yeasts-moulds) are associated
with fermented foods showing the transition of food culture (Tamang and Fleet, 2009; Fleet,
2011).
Yeasts play vital roles in production of many traditional fermented foods and beverages
across the world signifying the food culture of the regions and the community. Functional
yeasts genera associated with fermented foods and beverages are mostly Brettanomyces (its
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Advances in Science and Industrial Productionss of Baker’s Yeast
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perfect stage, Dekkera ) , Candida, Cryptococcus, Debaryomyces, Galactomyces, Geotrichum,
Hansenula, Hanseniaspora (its asexual counterpart Kloeckera ), Hyphopichia, Kluyveromyces,
Metschnikowia, Pichia, Rhodotorula, Saccharomyces, Saccharomycodes, Saccharomycopsis,
Schizosaccharomyces, Torulopsis, Trichosporon, Yarrowia and Zygosaccharomyces. The
common fermented foods and beverages, mostly prepared by yeasts, or in combination with
bacteria and moulds are: beers and ales, breads and bakery products, cachaça, cheeses,
kenkey, kimçi, dairy products (e.g., kefir; yoghurt, fermented milk), cocoa, coffee, fermented
meat and sausages, fermented olives and cucumber, soy paste, tea fungus, silage and
probiotics.
Many traditional foods and beverages in Anatolia are produced by fermentation involving
either bacteria including lactic acid bacteria or yeasts or mixtures of both. Lactic acid
fermentation in particular plays an important and predominant role in the production of
traditional foods and beverages of Turkey. Tarhana, kefir, koumiss and boza are traditional
fermented foods in which yeasts are present together with lactic acid bacteria. The yeast
species in these traditional fermented foods are Kluyveromyces marxianus, Candida
inconspicua, Candida maris, Torulopsis kefir Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces lactis, Torula
koumiss Kluyveromyces lactis, non-lactose fermenting yeast such as Saccharomyces unisporus,
Saccharomyces uvarum, Candida tropicalis, Candida glabrata, Geotrichium penicillatum, and
Geotrichium candidum, Candida diverca, Candida inconspicua, Candida pararugosa, Issatchenkia
orientalis (Kabak, B. And Dobson, 2011).
Certain yeast species have been used as prebiotic and probiotic agents for preventing or
treating various intestinal, nutritional, and toxicological disorders. In particular,
Yeast glucans and cell wall polysaccharides have been used as adjuncts for animal and fish
feeds. These polysaccharides have been shown to promote animal growth and health by
various mechanisms including immunomodulation, oxidative status, binding of toxins and
pathogens, and interactions with gut constituents (Kim et.al, 2011). Glucans and mannans
have also been found to have a myriad of biological functions in animal models and
potentially in humans, including modulation of histamine release and antitumor activities.
Further studies are needed in this area to evaluate health promotion by yeast cell wall
polysaccharides (Zechner-Krpan et.al., 2009).
BIOCONTROL BIOFUELS
Crop protection, Food Bioethanol, Biodiesel, FAEE,
and Feed Safety, Biobutanol, sesquiterpenoids
Probiotics Yeast farnesene, bisabolene, and
amorphadiene
Biotechnology
BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH
Drug discovery, Drug BIOCATALYSIS
Resistance and Pharmaceuticals, Chiral
Metabolism, Elucidation Chemical Intemediates,
of Disaese Mechanism Biotransformations
FUNDAMENTAL BIOLOGICAL
RESEARCH HETEROLOGOUS PROTEIN
Molecular and Cellular Biology, PRODUCTION
Genomics, Functional Genomics, Protein Pharmaceuticals,
Pathway Engineering, System Biology Enzymes, Hormones,
Mechanisms Vaccines, Toxins
However, several yeast enzymes have found application in the production of high-value
specialized fine chemicals and for biotransformation of pharmaceutical intermediates (see
section 13). Currently, about 90% of industrial enzymes are produced as heterologous
proteins by recombinant methods. Examples of industrially-relevant recombinant enzymes
produced in yeasts are presented in Table 3.
Certain yeasts, especially Komagataella pastoris and S. cerevisiae, are increasingly being
utilized for heterologous production of enzymes and a variety of other proteins (Aehle 2007,
van Beilen and Li, 2002). Bla. adeninivorans, O. polymorpha, K. lactis, Schiz. pombe, Y.
lipolytica, Pseudozyma spp., and other yeast species have also been developed for the
production of heterologous proteins (Demain and Vaishnav, 2009; Çelik and Çalık, 2012).
Industrial recombinant enzymes and those close to commercialization produced by yeasts
are presented in Table 2 and 3. Yeasts are desirable hosts of enzymes for food uses because
of their lack of production of toxic secondary metabolites (Olempska-Beer et al. 2006). K.
Table 4: Comodity Chemicals Produced by Yeasts (Amaral, 2008; Branduardi and Porro,
2012; Sauer et.al., 2008)
Products Yeast
Amino acids including lysine, methionine, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Rh. glutinis
phenylalanine, and proline
Erythritol C. magnoliae, Moniella spp.
C. peltata, and a Candida sp.
Mannitol Various yeast sp.
Glycerol C. glycerinogenes
S. cerevisiae
Astaxanthin Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous, Phaffia
rhodozyma
α-ketoglutaric, pyruvic, citric and isocitric acids, Yarrowia lipolytica
Gluconic acid Aureobasidum pullulans
2-phenylethanol Pichia fermentans
Pyruvic acid Candida glabrata
Riboflavin Pichia guilliermondii
Glycolipids and surfactants, Sophorolipids Basidiomycetous yeasts, Pseudozyma,
Candida, Kurtzmanomyces
easts are well-recognized as sources of food flavor enhancers for foods including nucleotides
and yeast extracts and autolysates, ribonucleotides, cell wall mannoproteins, cell wall
glucans, edible proteins, choline, glycerol, and inositol, mineral-enriched yeast, sterols,
vitamins, whole cell or single-cell proteins or single-cell oils, yeast enzymes (Walker, 1998).
Nucleotide taste enhancers are also produced by the enzymatic hydrolysis of yeast RNA into
nucleotide phosphates. Yeast cell wall polysaccharides have been used as adjuncts for
animal and fish feeds. These polysaccharides have been shown to promote animal growth
and health by various mechanisms including immunomodulation, oxidative status, binding of
toxins and pathogens, and interactions with gut constituents (Abbas, 2006). While chemical
synthesis is currently the preferred technology for producing flavor compounds, increasing
demand for ‘‘natural flavors’’ has given impetus to the development of microbial systems for
the production of VOSCs (volatile organic sulfur compounds) by ascomycetous and
basidiomycetous yeasts (Buzzini et.al, 2005).
Biopharmaceuticals
Since the early 1980s, yeasts have been utilized for heterologous production of a variety of
proteins. The production of heterologous proteins in yeasts holds enormous potential for
biotechnological processes. A major breakthrough in heterologous protein expression in
yeast was the cloning, expression, processing, and secretion of human proinsulin in S.
cerevisiae in the 1980s (Branduardi and Porro, 2012). Yeasts are intensively being developed
as protein expression systems and in comparison to mammalian cell lines have higher
productivity, higher cell yields, shorter fermentation cycles, can be cultured in defined media
under relatively inexpensive conditions, can efficiently secrete proteins, possess
posttranslational modification pathways, nonpathogenic and non-pyrogenic (Demain &
Vaishnav, 2009).
Several yeast species have been investigated for heterologous protein production, namely
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris, Hansenula polymorpha, Kluyveromyces lactis,
Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Yarrowia lipolytica, Arxula adeninivorans (Çelik & Çalık, 2012,
Demain & Vaishnav, 2009; Porro et.al., 2011).
Recombinant proteins
Pharmaceuticals
Statins and other neutral products
Vitamins
Value of Product
Figure-3: Volume versus values of biotechnological products (Hong & Nielsen, 2012)
Volume
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Glucose Biofuels
Systems Biology
Figure-4: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cell Factory (Hong & Nielsen, 2012)
Table 7: Example of products from S. cerevisiae (Hong & Nielsen, 2012, Buijs et.al., 2013)
Categories Products Categories Products
Biofuels Ethanol Fine β-amyrin, β-carotene
Biobutanol chemicals Amorpha-4,11-diene
Biodiesels Valencene and
Bisabolene (D2 dieselfuel, bisabolene) amorphadiene
The sesquiterpenoids:farnesene, amorphadiene Casbene (an anti-fungal
fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) (biodiesel) diterpene)
Bulk 1,2-propanediol Cinnamoyl anthranilates
chemicals D-ribose and ribitol Cubebol, Linalool
L-lactic acid Eicosapentaenoic acid
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (EPA)
Pyruvic acid Farnese and geranyl
Succinic acid geraniol, L-ascorbic acid
S. cerevisiae was among the first organisms to be designated “generally recognized as safe”
(GRAS), and the first genetically modified organism (GMO) used for recombinant production
of food and feed additives. In 1990, a genetically modified strain of S. cerevisiae became one
of the first GMOs to be approved for food-use in the UK. It is used in bakery products for
enhanced production of carbon dioxide. Many genes encoding desirable properties have
also been cloned in beer and wine yeast strains, S. pastorianus, and S. bayanus. However,
these strains have not been used commercially because of negative public perception
(Dequin, 2001; Attfield et.al, 2003; Randez-Gill et.al., 2003; Donalies et.al., 2008).
Of the 600 species of yeast, only 30 have been characterized as being able to accumulate
more than 25% of their dry weight as lipids. More specifically, examples of oleaginous yeast
species include: Cryptococcus albidus, Lipomyces lipofera, Lipomyces starkeyi,
Rhodosporidium toruloides, Rhodotorula glutinis, Trichosporon pullulan, and Yarrowia
lipolytica, (formerly classified as Candida lipolytica) (Li and Liu, 2008; Ageitos et.al., 2011)
Yeasts may be better adapted to low temperatures than bacteria. Yeasts belonging to genera
such as Bullera, Candida, Cryptococcus, Cystofilobasidium, Debaryomyces, Kondoa,
Leucosporidium, Metschnikowia, Mrakia, Pseudozyma , Rhodotorula, Sakaguchia,
Sporopachydermia, Sympodiomyces and Trichosporon have been identified in various
habitats of Antarctica. Psychrophilic yeasts have an optimum temperature for growth at
about 15 °C or lower, a maximum up to 25 ° C but are still capable of growing at 0 ° C or
below. Low temperature adaptation is associated with the proportion of unsaturated fatty
acids in composition of the membranes. The biotechnology of cold-adapted yeasts is not
merely confined to the production of cold-active enzymes: a number of recent studies
carried out at the laboratory scale have demonstrated that their future perspectives could
also be directed towards the production of polymeric compounds. The heterologous
expression of proteins from cold-adapted yeasts in suitable hosts is an additional possible
venture. The use of cold-adapted yeasts for agricultural, food and environmental
biotechnologies could represent another attracting way to ensure their possible economical
exploitation: low-temperature wine-making and beer-making, control of post-harvest
diseases of fruits and seeds, and bioremediation of hydrocarbon polluted cold ecosystems
represent undoubtedly the most relevant challenges. Cold-adapted spoilage yeasts can
potentially cause physical and chemical deterioration of foods, thus determining a potential
risk to consumers and a relevant economic burden for food (Buzzini et.al., 2012).
Table 9: Examples of Psychrophilic Enzymes and Proteins from Cold Adapted Yeasts (Buzzini
& Margesin, 2014. Margesin & Feller, 2010).
Products Yeast Genera or sp. Applications
Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) Glaciozyma antarctica, food industry (ice cream, frozen
Glaciozyma sp., and dough, fruits, and vegetables to keep
Rhodotorula glacialis longer shelf life cryopreservation of
Rec-Saccharomyces cerevisiae red blood cells, cryosurgery
Amylases, Xylanases, Food industry
Chitinases, and Lysozymes
Lipases Candida antarctica Food industry, pharmaceuticals or
cosmetics
Pectinolytic Enzymes Cystofilobasidium, fruit-processing İndustry, reducing
Cryptococcus, juice viscosity and for improving the
Anti-freeze proteins (AFPs) are a useful material in commercial applications such as food
industry, cryosurgery, and cryopreservation of red blood cells, oocytes, organs, and tissues.
Food industry is a significant field where antifreeze proteins can be applied. AFPs can be
added to various food items, such as ice cream to make a better texture and to frozen
dough, fruits, and vegetables to keep longer shelf life (Buzzini & Margesin, 2014).
Among the alternative approaches that have been explored, the use of microbial antagonists
like yeasts, fungi and bacteria has been demonstrated to be quite promising and gained
increased attention. The majority of microbial organisms studied for their potential use as
postharvest biocontrol agents belongs to yeasts due to the fact that many of these
microorganisms are considered as generally recognized as safe sa shown in Table 10.
Features required for any effective BCA should include a rapid growth rate in fruit wounds,
the effective utilization of the nutrients present in the wound, and the capability to survive
and develop at the infection site better than the pathogen. And to do so all, this should
occur at a low temperature, acidic pH, conditions of osmotic stress, resistance to
desiccation, tolerance to chemicals, The yeast in postharvest biocontrol formulations
apparently presents advantages over other organisms: easy to cultivate, fast growing and
readily found in a variety of substrates and conditions.
Research on the use of yeasts as BCAs has mainly focused on their use for managing
postharvest diseases, mainly of fruit; however, this application represents only a small
portion of the complete spectrum of plant disease management . Only six products based on
different yeast species have been registered for postharvest use (Buzzini and Margesin,
2014):
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Advances in Science and Industrial Productionss of Baker’s Yeast
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1. Aspire, based on C. oleophila (Ecogen Inc., Langhorne, USA);
2. Yield Plus, based on C. albidus (Lallemand, Montreal, Canada);
3. ShemerTM, based on Metschnikowia fructicola (Bayer CropScience);
4. Candifruit, based on Candida sake (Sipcam-Inaagri, SA Valencia, Spain);
5. Nexy, based on C. oleophila (Lesaffre-Bionext, France); and
6. Boni-Protect, based on A. pullulans (Biofa, Münsingen, Germany)
The scarcity of commercial products for postharvest use has been discussed and the main
problems mentioned are the small number of companies involved in the development of
biological products, the small size of the postharvest market, the expense and length of time
required for selection and registration (Buzzini and Margesin, 2014).
Environmental Applications
Yeasts have important roles in agriculture as agents of biocontrol, bioremediation, and as
indicators of environmental quality. Especially basidiomycetous yeasts have important roles
in the biotransformation and degradation of pollutants and xenobiotics. This activity is
thought mostly to be due to the production of solubilizing acids within microbial consortia
such as biofilms. Non-pathogenic species of Cryptococcus and Trichosporon are capable of
degrading polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, complex organic acids, and C2
hydrocarbons. Strains of Pseudozyma have been reported to degrade plastics and related
compounds (Pimenta et.al., 2009; Middelhoven, 2009; Seo et.al., 2007). The coloured
recalcitrant compounds can be removed from molasses based wastewaters by yeast
Issatchenkia orientalis which is main problem in bakers yeast industry (Tondee et.al., 2008).
Due to the ability of various yeast species to grow on a wide diversity of substrates, including
aromatic molecules, alkanes, lipid compounds, amines and other recalcitrant compounds,
they have the capacity for the transformation of deleterious compounds to innocuous
derivatives. Y. lipolytica transformed 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) to derivative products.
Molecular oxygen and oxidative enzymes such as cytochrome P450s and oxygenases are
often involved in the degradation pathways. Phenolic degradation is also carried out by
several yeasts, particularly basidiomycetous genera such as Cryptococcus, Rhodotorula, and
Trichosporon. Several species of Candida and Trichosporon spp. are recognized to efficiently
transform halogenated aromatic compounds. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were
degraded by species of Candida, Cryptococcus, Rhodotorula, and Trichosporon. Recombinant
yeasts expressing a soybean cytochrome P450 enhanced the metabolism of phenylurea
herbicides. It has been reported that Pseud. jejuensis is capable of degrading certain plastic
wastes (Seo et.al., 2007). Immobilized and cold-adapted yeast systems are being developed
as industrial biodegradative systems. Yeast systems have also been developed for the
sensing and accumulation of various ecotoxicants such as heavy metals. Xanthophyllomyces
dendrorhous and Ph. rhodozyma have been reported to degrade ochratoxin, a potent
mycotoxin. Trichosporon spp. are capable of degrading ochratoxin A and zearalenone in
laboratory cultures. S. cerevisiae strains have been reported to degrade patulin during cider
fermenations. The ability of yeasts to degrade mycotoxins has important health implications,
since these toxicants occur in commodities, such as feeds, foods, and beverages, and are
considered as serious health hazards (Schisler et.al, 2011).
Conclusions
Yeasts are remarkable organisms and they are more than Saccharomyces cerevisia used in
traditional fermentations. Their involvement and importance in traditional food
fermentations are unparalled by other organisms of biotechnological relevance. The number
of yeast species identified and their biotechnological potential are accelerating due to a
number of properties and developments. New developments in engineering pathways in
yeast using sytem biology and rDNA technologies have introduced novel capabilities to
extend substrate range, to improve cellular properties and to produce new products yeast
can not produce. S. cerevisiae and certain other yeast species are being developed for the
production of biofuels from cellulosic materials and potentially other substrates. During the
past decade, yeast systems have been developed for the production of heterologous
proteins in high yields. Yeasts are increasingly important as sources of biocatalysts for the
production of comodity and high-value fine chemicals and enzymes. Many species, especially
basidiomycetous yeasts have strong oxidative metabolism that enables the bioremediation
and degradation of chemicals, pollutants such as aromatic compounds, plastics, and other
recalcitrant compounds and polymers. These advances provide important strategies and
tools for enhancing the biotechnological importance of yeasts.
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