Module 1

 Nature and Characteristics of Research

Lessons in this module present the definition, purpose and characteristics of
research.
 
Definition
Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data;
documentation of critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that
data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific
professional fields and academic disciplines.
Research is conducted to evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an interpretive
framework; to assemble a body of substantive knowledge and findings for
sharing them in appropriate manners; and to generate questions for further
inquiries.
 
Dimensions
 
1. Research as a specialized process
It refers to an intricate act of describing, testing, explaining, investigating a
certain condition, new and existing phenomenon, concept or theory.
 
1. Research as the output
It refers to the product (actual printed copy) of the research process with
sections complying with a certain standard or framework.
 
1. Research as an act
It simply pertains on the action of seeking information about someone or
something. The library and internet are the usual sources of information.
 
Kinds
 
1. Academic Research- those conducted as part of academic requirements
for completion of a course or for graduation.
2. Business Research- those done related to business functions, operations
or other engagements
3. Commissioned Research- those paid research sold for the benefit of a
company or an organization. Sample of this is the Feasibility Study which is a
requirement in processing business permits and SWS, Nielsen surveys.
 
Functions
There are several functions of research:
 exploring new facts and truths (about world, technology, etc.)
 learning the relationships that occur between the various phenomena
(market, internal)
 creating theoretical knowledge (then used for innovation and creation of
new products)
 identification of market opportunities and potential risks
 solving problems and undertaking challenges for development
of company
 
Characteristics of Research
Certain terms are very commonly used in research and the success of any
research depends on these terms. These terms determine whether a research is
free of biases, prejudices, and subjective errors or not. They are called the
characteristics of research.
1. Reliability is a subjective term which cannot be measured precisely, but
today there are instruments which can estimatethe reliability of any research.
Reliability is the repeatability of any research, research instrument, tool or
procedure. If any research yields similar results each time it is undertaken with
similar population and with similar procedures, it is called to be a reliable
research. Suppose a research is conducted on the effects of single parenting on
the class performance of the children. If the results conclude that it causes low
grades in class, these results should have to be reliable for another sample
taken from a similar population. More the results are similar; more reliability is
present in the research.
 
1. Validity is the strength with which we can make research conclusions,
assumptions or propositions true or false. Validity determines the applicability of
the research. Validity of the research instrument can be defined as the suitability
of the research instrument to the research problem or how accurately the
instrument measures the problem. Some researchers say that validity and
reliability are co-related, but the validity is much more important than reliability.
Without validity, research goes in the wrong direction. To keep the research on-
 track define your concepts in the best possible manner so that no error occur
during the measurement.
 
1. Accuracy is also the degree to which each research process, instrument,
and tool is related to each other. Accuracy also measures whether research
tools have been selected in best possible manner and research procedures suits
the research problem or not. For example if a research has to be conducted on
the trans-gender people, several data collection tools can be used depending on
the research problems but if you find that population less cooperative the best
way is to observe them rather than submitting questionnaire because in
questionnaire either they will give biased responses or they will not return the
questionnaires at all. So choosing the best data collection tool improves the
accuracy of research.
 
1. Credibility comes with the use of the best source of information and best
procedures in research. If you are using second-hand information in your
research due to any reason your research might complete in less time but its
credibility will be at stake because secondary data has been manipulated by
human beings and is therefore not very valid to use in research. A certain
percentage of secondary data can be used if the primary source is not available
but basing a research completely on secondary data when primary data can be
gathered is least credible. When researcher gives accurate references in the
research the credibility of the research increases but fake references also
decrease the credibility of the research.
 
1. Generalization is the extent to which research findings can be applied to
larger population. When a researcher conducts a study he/she chooses a target
population and from this population he takes a small sample to conduct the
research. This sample is representative of the whole population so the findings
should also be. If research findings can be applied to any sample from the
population, the results of the research are said to be generalizable.
 
1. Empirical nature of research means that the research has been
conducted following rigorous scientific methods and procedures. Each step in
the research has been tested for accuracy and is based on real life experiences.
Quantitative research is easier to prove scientifically than qualitative research. In
qualitative research biases and prejudice are easy to occur.
 
1. Systematic approach is the only approach to carry on a research. No
research can be conducted haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are
 set of procedures that have been tested over a period of time and are thus
suitable to use in research. Each research, therefore, should follow a procedure.
 
1. Controlled in real life experience there are many factors that affect an
outcome. A single event is often a result of several factors. When similar event is
tested in research, due to the broader nature of factors that effect that event,
some factors are taken as controlled factors while others are tested for a
possible effect. The controlled factors or variables should have to be controlled
rigorously. In pure sciences, it is very easy to control such elements because
experiments are conducted in the laboratory but in social sciences it becomes
difficult to control these factors because of the nature of research.
 
Classification of Research
 
There are many kinds of research which are classified according to their
distinctive features. Some of the classifications are as follows:
 
1. According to purpose - There are three broadly different kinds of
research, namely, predictive, directive and illuminative.
 
 Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the
future operation of the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or
redirecting such for the better. “Predictive research proposes to give the result
from one specific educational practice or pattern and seeks to establish a close
statistical connection between characteristics of students and a prediction of
educational outcome.”
 
 Directive research determines what should be done based on the
findings. This is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is any.
 
 Illuminative research is concerned with the components of the variable
being investigated, as for example, “interaction of the components of educational
systems and aims to show the connections among, for example, student
characteristics, organizational patterns and policies, and educational
consequences.”
 
1. According to goal - According to goal, research may be classified as basic
or pure research and applied research.
  
 Basic or pure research is done for the development of theories or
principles. It is conducted for the intellectual pleasure of learning. Much of this
kind of research has been done in psychology and sociology.
 
 Applied research is the application of the results of pure research. This is
testing the efficacy of theories and principles. For instance, a principle says that
praise reinforces learning. To determine if this is true, one conducts an
experiment in which there are two classes. In one class, he uses praise but in
the other class there is no praise at all. All other things are kept equal. At the end
of the experimental period, he gives the same test to the two classes. If the
scores of the pupils in the class with praise are significantly higher than those in
the class without praise, then the principle is true.
 
1. According to the levels of investigation - French categorizes research
according to the levels of investigation into exploratory research, descriptive
research and experimental research.
 
 In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a
specific situation.
 
 In descriptive research, the researcher studies the relationships of the
variables.
 
 In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effects of the
variables on each other.
 
1. According to the type of analysis -According to the type of analysis,
research is classified into analytic and holistic research.
 
 In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to identify and isolate
the components of the research situation.
 
 The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing attention on
the system first and then on its internal relationships.
 
1. According to scope - Under this category is action research. This type of
research is done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is
not so big. It is almost problem solving.
 
In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem solving or research
used by teachers, supervisors, and administrators to improve the quality of their
decisions and actions; it seeks more dependable and appropriate means of
promoting and evaluating pupil growth in line with the specific and general
objectives and attempts to improve educational practices without references to
whether findings would be applicable beyond the group studied.
 
1. According to choice of answers to problems - Research that is concerned
with finding answers to problems into evaluation and development research.
 
 In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and
identified and the researcher tries to find the most advantageous.
 
 In development research, the focus is on finding or developing a more
suitable instrument or process than has been available.
 
1. According to statistical content - Under this type may be mentioned
quantitative research and non-quantitative research.
 
 Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential statistics are
utilized to determine the results if the study. Inferential statistics such as
correlation, chi-square, analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis.
This type of research usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect
relationships, etc.
 
 Non-quantitative research. This is the research in which the use of
quantity or statistics is practically nil. This is especially true in anthropological
studies where description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather
than quantitative data.
 
1. According to time element - According to time element, best classifies
research as historical, descriptive and experimental.
 
 Historical research describes what was.
 
 Descriptive research describes what is.
 
 Experimental research describes what will be.
 
Historical, descriptive and experimental are the major research methods. All
other methods, kinds and types of research whatever they are called fall under
these three major methods.
 
Other types and kinds of research are named according to the area or field of
activity. Hence, we have sociological research, social research, psychological
research, anthropological research, physical research. Chemical research
industrial research, economics research, health research, nursing research,
curriculum research, educational research and countless others.
 
Common Mistakes to Avoid When Writing a Research Paper
When writing a research paper, there are some predictable traps that students
tend to fall into time and time again. Being aware of these potential pitfalls before
starting your paper can go a long way in helping you to successfully avoid them.
This will take away a tremendous amount of stress and frustration. You’ll then be
able to write a paper that will impress your instructor and a paper that you will be
proud of.
Here are some of the most common mistakes students make when writing a
research paper:
1. Lack of research before choosing a thesis statement.
Sometimes, when stressed or busy, students will rush their selection of a subject
for a paper. As a result, their focus and connection with the subject matter can
suffer greatly, and inevitably this comes through in their writing. Doing good
research and choosing a subject you feel you can connect to are important steps
in writing a successful thesis statement, and ultimately a successful paper.
1. Lack of a strong thesis statement.
Once you select a subject, creating a strong thesis statement is the next step.
This is a critical, foundational element for a successful paper. One hallmark of a
successful thesis statement is that you “take a stand,” or a definite point of view.
The thesis statement should be clear and express one main idea. It should be
about a topic that warrants further discussion. A good thesis statement is
genuine, compelling, and makes the reader want to continue.
1. Failure to make appropriate connections between the thesis statement
and supporting statements.
The structure of a research paper flows from the thesis statement to the
supporting statements, which comprise the body of the paper. The best research
papers are in effect a sustained inquiry and a stimulating discussion of a well-
defined topic. You paper must transition effectively from your thesis statement to
your supporting statement.
1. Lack of strong, relevant data to support statements.
All supporting statements in a paper should be backed up by relevant sources
which substantiate the point of view put forward by the thesis statement. Your
supporting statements should flesh out your original thesis statement and have a
basis in strong, factual data that you cite and the reader can easily verify.
1. Failure to properly cite sources.
Proper credit must be given for all data and references used within a paper.
Specific requirements for doing so can vary depending upon the instructor.
Whether you’re working in the MLA style or some other format, each style has
specific parameters and guidelines for citing sources. Be sure to check with your
instructor for specifics so that you can cite sources within the required
guidelines.
Fortunately, there is now software on the market that can help in this area of
writing research papers. Whether it’s MLA style format, APA or some other,
formatting software can help take the guesswork out of the citation process.
Being aware of these common pitfalls when writing a research paper, can go a
long way helping you avoid making these mistakes. If you do, you will be well on
your way to writing a top-notch research paper.
 

Module 2
 The Research Problem
Lessons in this module explain what a research problem is, its importance,
conception, and presentation
 
Research Problem
It refers to the specific questions that have to be answered, certain objectives
that have to be attained, concepts/theory that have to be tested explained, or
 formulated, issue, concern or problem that have to be solved or
phenomenon/condition that has to be described. 
 
Functions of the Problem 
The purpose of a problem statement is to:
1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The
reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or
hypotheses to follow.
2. Places the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of
what is to be investigated.
3. Provides the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is
probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will
present this information.
 
Sources of Research Problem
Identifying a problem to study can be challenging, not because there is a lack of
issues that could be investigated, but due to pursuing a goal of formulating a
socially relevant and researchable problem statement that is unique and does
not simply duplicate the work of others. To facilitate how you might select a
problem from which to build a research study, consider these three broad
sources of inspiration:
 
1. Deductions from Theory
This relates to deductions made from social philosophy or generalizations
embodied in life in society that the researcher is familiar with. These deductions
from human behavior are then fitted within an empirical frame of reference
through research. From a theory, the research can formulate a research problem
or hypothesis stating the expected findings in certain empirical situations. The
research asks the question: “What relationship between variables will be
observed if theory aptly summarizes the state of affairs?” One can then design
and carry out a systematic investigation to assess whether empirical data
confirm or reject the hypothesis and hence the theory.
 
1. Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Identifying a problem that forms the basis for a research study can come from
academic movements and scholarship originating in disciplines outside of your
primary area of study. A review of pertinent literature should include examining
research from related disciplines, which can expose you to new avenues of
exploration and analysis. An interdisciplinary approach to selecting a research
 problem offers an opportunity to construct a more comprehensive understanding
of a very complex issue than any single discipline might provide.
 
1. Interviewing Practitioners
The identification of research problems about particular topics can arise from
formal or informal discussions with practitioners who provide insight into new
directions for future research and how to make research findings increasingly
relevant to practice. Discussions with experts in the field, such as, teachers,
social workers, health care providers, etc., offers the chance to identify practical,
“real worl” problems that may be understudied or ignored within academic
circles. This approach also provides some practical knowledge which may help
in the process of designing and conducting your study.
 
1. Personal Experience
Your everyday experiences can give rise to worthwhile problems for
investigation. Think critically about your own experiences and/or frustrations with
an issue facing society, your community, or in your neighborhood. This can be
derived, for example, from deliberate observations of certain relationships for
which there is no clear explanation or witnessing an event that appears harmful
to a person or group or that is out of the ordinary.
 
1. Relevant Literature
The selection of a research problem can often be derived from an extensive and
thorough review of pertinent research associated with your overall area of
interest. This may reveal where gaps remain in our understanding of a topic.
Research may be conducted to: 1) fill such gaps in knowledge; 2) evaluate if the
methodologies employed in prior studies can be adapted to solve other
problems; or, 3) determine if a similar study could be conducted in a different
subject area or applied to different study sample [i.e., different groups of people].
Also, authors frequently conclude their studies by noting implications for further
research; this can also be a valuable source of problems to investigate.
 
Steps in Identifying the Research Problem
1. Choose a topic of interest. NOTE: Do not confuse a research problem
with a research topic. A topic is something to read and obtain information about
whereas a problem is something to solve or framed as a question that must be
answered.
2. Read about the topic chosen. Learn about its details. What do different
authors or personalities say about it?
3. Look for related researches done on the chosen topic. Browse its content.
Focus on research objectives, findings and recommendations.
4. To look for related researches in the internet, type in the search bar this
text, Research in (topic) or Published research in (topic). You can also limit your
search to documents in ‘pdf’ form for easy access and reading. You just have to
include ‘pdf’ when you type your topic in the search box.
5. Determine the research gap which refers to subtopics not yet explored in
the study.
6. Verify accuracy of identified gap by connecting it to a specific problem
encountered in an industry or field of study, because of the identified gap. Do
companies/professionals in your field of expertise experience the same
problem?
7. Once a specific problem is identified, research if there has been a way to
solve the problem as offered by other researchers.
8. Formulate your rationale by explaining why there is a need to conduct a
research on the chosen topic. How will it benefit the target industry or field of
study? What will it contribute to the body of knowledge?
9. State your main problem. Write your statement of the problem by
formulating sub questions. Informative questions such as those with direct
answers and questions answerable by yes or no, have to be avoided. Make sure
that your sub questions are all directly related but not overlapping to your main
question.
10. Verify if your sub questions are researchable by doing the following:
1. Look for other research conducted about the specific sub problem
2. If you were able to find five or more, it means that your good to go.
But if you find it hard to look for related research, you may change your sub
problem and go back to Step 9
11. Write your final statement of the problem. If it is for Statement of the
Problem, it has to be in question form. If it is for Objectives of the Study, it has to
be in declarative form, beginning with an infinitive phrase.
 
Good Problem Statement
 
The good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which your
research is centred and then gradually leads the reader to the more narrow
questions you are posing. The statement need not be lengthy but a good
research problem should incorporate the following features:
 
 Compelling topic
Simple curiosity is not a good enough reason to pursue a research study. The
problem that you choose to explore must be important to you and to a larger
community you share. The problem chosen must be one that motivates you to
address it.
  
 Supports multiple perspectives
The problem most be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead
supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule
of thumb is that a good research problem is one that would generate a variety of
viewpoints from a composite audience made up of reasonable people.
 
 Researchable
It seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in the midst of
investigating a complex  research project and realize that you don't have much to
draw on for your research. Choose research problems that can be supported by
the resources available to you.