Chapter 4

Application of Tensors in Special

Relativity

4.1 The energy - momentum tensor

Consider a pressure - less distribution of non - interacting particles [ called dust ],
with rest mass m and number density n in the momentarily comoving reference
frame [ MCRF ] .
The density in this frame is
ρ = nm . (4.1)

In a general frame the number density will go up by a factor γ

n → γn (4.2)

and
m → γm , (4.3)

so
! "−1
v2
ρ→ 1− c2
ρ. (4.4)

Thus the density ρ is not a component of a four - vector. We will see that it is a
component of a 2/0 tensor.
We can introduce a number flux four - vector N:

N = nU →O γ (nc, nv) = γ (nc, nv x , nv y , nv z ) , (4.5)

42
CHAPTER 4: APPLICATION OF TENSORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 43

where γnv x is the flux per unit area across a surface with normals in the x direction
etc, and γn can be interpreted as the flux across a constant t surface. Thus N
combines the flux and the number density in a single four - dimensional quantity.
Note that
N · N = −n2 c2 . (4.6)

The most convenient definition of the energy - momentum tensor is in terms of its
components in some arbitrary frame.
! "
T d̃xα , d̃xβ = T αβ , (4.7)

where T αβ is the flux of α - momentum across a surface of constant xβ . By α -

momentum we mean the α component of the f our - momentum pα .
Let us see how this definition fits in with the discussion above. Consider first
T 00 . This is defined as the flux of 0 - momentum [ energy divided by c ] across a
surface of constant t. This is just the energy density.

T 00 = energy density . (4.8)

Similarly, T 0i is the flux of energy divided by c across a surface of constant xi :

T 0i = (energy f lux/c) across a surf ace xi = const . (4.9)

Then T i0 is the flux of i - momentum across a surface of constant t: the density of

i - momentum multiplied by c:

T i0 = i − momentum density × c . (4.10)

Finally T ij is the j - flux of i - momentum:

T ij = f lux of i − momentum across a surf ace xj . (4.11)

For any particular system, giving the components of T in some frame, defines it
completely.
For dust, the components of T in the MCRF are particularly simple. There
is no motion of the particles, so all i - momenta are zero and all spatial fluxes are
CHAPTER 4: APPLICATION OF TENSORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 44

zero. Therefore:
! "
T 00 = ρc2 = mnc2 ,
M CRF
! " ! " ! "
T 0i = T i0 = T ij =0. (4.12)
M CRF M CRF M CRF

It is easy to see that the tensor P ⊗ N has exactly these components in the MCRF,
where P = mU is the four - momentum of a particle. It follows that, for dust we
have
T = P ⊗ N = mnU ⊗ U = ρU ⊗ U . (4.13)

From this we conclude that the components of T are:

T αβ = ρU α U β , (4.14)

or in matrix form:
ρc2 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 
T αβ =  . (4.15)
 
0 0 0 0

 
0 0 0 0

In a frame O with U →Ō γ (c, v), we therefore have

T 0̄0̄ = ρU 0̄ U 0̄ = γ 2 ρc2 ,

T 0̄ī = ρU 0̄ U ī = γ 2 ρcv ī ,

T ī0̄ = ρU ī U 0̄ = γ 2 ρcv ī ,

T īj̄ = ρU ī U j̄ = γ 2 ρv ī v j̄ . (4.16)

These are exactly what we would calculate from first principles, for the energy
density, energy flux, momentum density and momentum flux respectively. Notice
one important property of T: it is symmetric:

T αβ = T βα . (4.17)

This will turn out to be true in general, not just for dust.
CHAPTER 4: APPLICATION OF TENSORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 45

a
3

4 2

1
y
a

Figure 4.1: Energy flow across a fluid element.

4.1.1 General fluids

A general fluid has pressure p [ random velocities ] and viscosity [ interaction
between particles ]. T αβ has the same interpretion as for dust except that T 0i
and T ij need no longer be zero in the MCRF. In particular T 0i represents heat
conduction and T ij represents the stress forces between adjacent fluid elements [
i’th component of force per area across a surface of constant xj ].

4.1.2 Conservation of energy - momentum

Since T represents the energy and momentum content of the fluid, there must be
some way of using it to express the law of conservation of energy and momentum.
In fact it is reasonably easy.
Consider a cubical fluid element [ see Figure 4.1 ] of side a, seen only in cross
section below [ z direction suppressed ]. Energy can flow across all sides. The
rate of flow across face (4) is ca2 T 0x (x = 0), and across (2) is −ca2 T 0x (x = a);
the second term has a minus sign because T 0x represents energy flowing in the
positive x - direction, which is out of the volume across face (2). Similarly, the
CHAPTER 4: APPLICATION OF TENSORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 46

energy flowing in the y direction is a2 cT 0y (y = 0) − a2 cT 0y (y = a).

The sum of these rates across each face must be equal to the rate of increase
of energy inside the cube ∂/∂t(a3 T 00 ): This is the statement of conservation of
energy. Therefore we have:
∂ 3 00 )
(a T ) = a2 c T 0x (x = 0) − T 0x (x = a) + T 0y (y = 0) − T 0y (y = a)
∂t
*
+ T 0z (z = 0) − T 0z (z = a) . (4.18)

Dividing by a3 and taking the limit a → 0 gives

+ ,
∂ 00 ∂ 0x ∂ 0y ∂
T = −c T + T + T 0z . (4.19)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

Dividing by c we get
∂ ∂ 0x ∂ 0y ∂
T 00 + T + T + T 0z . (4.20)
∂(ct) ∂x ∂y ∂z

Since x0 = ct, x1 = x, x2 = y and x3 = z, we can write this as

T 00 ,0 + T 01 ,1 + T 02 ,2 + T 03 ,3 = 0 , (4.21)

or
T 0α ,α = 0 . (4.22)

This is the statement of the law of conservation of energy.

Similarly momentum is conserved. The same mathematics applies. with the
index 0 changed to i [ the spatial components ] i.e.

T iα ,α = 0 . (4.23)

The general conservation law of energy and momentum is therefore

T αβ ,α = 0 . (4.24)

This applies to any material in Special Relativity.

CHAPTER 4: APPLICATION OF TENSORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 47

4.1.3 Conservation of particles

It may also happen, that in a fluid flow, the total number of particles does not
change. This conservation law is derivable in the same way as the conservation of
energy and momentum [ EXERCISE 4.1 ]:
∂ ∂ x ∂ y ∂
N0 + N + N + Nz = 0 , (4.25)
∂(ct) ∂x ∂y ∂z
or
N α ,α = 0 ⇔ (nU α ),α . (4.26)

We will confine ourselves to discussing fluids which obey this conservation law.
This is hardly any restriction since we can always take n to be the number density
of baryons.

4.1.4 Perfect fluids

Finally we come to the type of fluid which will be of most interest to us. A
perfect fluid in Relativity is defined to be a fluid that has no heat conduction in
the MCRF. It is the generalization of the ideal gas in ordinary thermodynamics.
In the MCRF the components of T are
ρc2 0 0 0
 
 0 p 0 0 
T αβ =  . (4.27)
 
0 0 p 0

 
0 0 0 p

It is easy to show that in a general frame we have [ EXERCISE 4.2 ]:

p
- .
αβ
T = ρ + 2 U α U β + pη αβ . (4.28)
c
This is the energy - momentum tensor of a perfect fluid.

4.1.5 The conservation equations

We can now apply the conservation laws T αβ ,β = 0 and N α ,α = 0 to find the
conservation equations. We have:
p
/- . 0 ! "
αβ
T ,β = ρ + 2 U αU β + pη αβ =0
c ,β ,β
CHAPTER 4: APPLICATION OF TENSORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 48

1 p
/ - . 0
= ρ + 2 nU α U β + pη αβ ,β + η αβ p,β = 0
n c ,β

1 p
/ - . 0
= nU β ρ + 2 Uα + η αβ p,β = 0 . (4.29)
n c ,β

If we multiply by Uα and use

η αβ Uα = U β , U α Uα = −c2 , (4.30)

and
1 ∂
(U α Uα ) = 0 ⇔ U α ,β Uα = 0 , (4.31)
2 ∂xβ
we get
1 p
- .
ρ + 2 n,β U β − ρ,β U β = 0 , (4.32)
n c
which gives
ρ + p/c2
1 2
dρ dn
= , (4.33)
dτ n dτ
d
where dτ
≡ U β ∂x∂ β is the derivative along the world line of the fluid.
The i components of T αβ ,β = 0 give
ρ + p/c2
1 2
p
- .
i β
U ,β U ρ + 2 η iβ p,β + nU β U i =0, (4.34)
c n ,β

so in the MCRF [ U i = 0 ] this equation is

dU i p
- .
ρ + 2 + η iβ ∇β p = 0 . (4.35)
dτ c
Equation (4.33) is the energy conservation equation and equation (4.35) is the
momentum conservation equation [ or acceleration equation ].
In the Newtonian limit v ( c and p ( ρc2 so in this case the conservations
equations become [ EXERCISE 4.2 ]
dρ dn
=m , (4.36)
dt dt
and + ,
∂v
ρ + (v · ∇) v = −∇p , (4.37)
dt
where we have used
∂v
U i ,β U β = + (v · ∇) v . (4.38)
dt
CHAPTER 4: APPLICATION OF TENSORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 49

4.2 The Electromagnetic tensor

Maxwell’s equations for the electromagnetic field [ in units with '0 = µ0 = c = 1 ]
are:
∂E ∂B
∇×B− = 4πj , ∇×E+ =0,
∂t ∂t
∇ · E = 4πρ , ∇·B=0. (4.39)

Defining the anti - symmetric tensor F with components:

0 Ex Ey Ez
 
 −E x 0 B z − B y 
F αβ =  
(4.40)
−E y − B z 0 B x
 
 
−E z B y − B x 0

the electric and magnetic fields are given by

! "
E = (E x , E y , E z ) = F 01 , F 02 , F 03 , (4.41)
! "
B = (B x , B y , B z ) = F 23 , F 31 , F 12 . (4.42)

If we also define a current four - vector:

J = (ρ, j x , j y , j z ) , (4.43)

Maxwell’s equations can be written as [ EXERCISE 4.3 ]

F µν ,ν = 4πJ µ , (4.44)

Fµν,λ + Fνλ,µ + Fλµ,ν = 0 , (4.45)

where Fµν = ηµα ηνβ F αβ . We have now expressed Maxwell’s equations in tensor
form as required by Special Relativity.
The first of these equations implies charge conservation

∂ρ
J µ ,µ = 0 ⇔ + ∇.j = 0 . (4.46)
∂t
Proof:

4πJ µ ,µ = F µν ,νµ = F νµ ,νµ

CHAPTER 4: APPLICATION OF TENSORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 50

= −F µν ,νµ

⇒ F µν ,νµ = 0

⇒ J µ ,µ = 0 . (4.47)

By performing a Lorentz transformation to a frame moving with speed v in the

x direction, one can calculate how the electric and magnetic fields change:

F µ̄ν̄ = Λµ̄ α Λν̄ β F αβ . (4.48)

We find [ EXERCISE 4.3 ] that E|| = E x is unchanged, while

E⊥ = γ (E + v × B) , (4.49)

where E|| and E⊥ is the electric field parallel and perpendicular to x̂. Thus E and
B get mixed.
The four - force on a particle of charge q and velocity U in an electromagnetic
field is [ EXERCISE 4.4 ]:

K µ = qF µν Uν

= qγ (E.v, E + v × B) . (4.50)

The spatial part of K µ is the Lorentz Force and the time part is the rate of work
by this force.
By writing J = qU, Maxwell’s equations give [ EXERCISE 4.4 ]:

K µ = −T µν ,ν , (4.51)

where
! "
T µν = 1
4π
F µα F ν α − 14 η µν Fαβ F αβ . (4.52)

This is the energy momentum tensor of the electromagnetic field. Note that T µν
is symmetric as required and the energy density is [ EXERCISE 4.4 ]

T 00 = 1
8π
(E2 + B2 ) . (4.53)