(Sasikala & Karunanidhi, 2011) - Terkunci

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January, 2011 ISSN 0019-4247 Volume 37, Number 1
Journal of the
Indian Academy of Applied Psychology
Copyright © 2011 by the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology
Special Feature
9. Positive Psychology Research in India: A Review and Critique

Seema Mehrotra and Ravikesh Tripathi
Emotional Intelligence
27. Emotional Intelligence and Life Satisfaction: Re-examining the Link and
Mediating Role of Affectivity and Personality in India
Nutankumar S. Thingujam
35. Personality, Emotional Intelligence and Marital Satisfaction of Violent and

Non-Violent Couples.
Tejbeer Kaur and Gurminder Sokhey
47. Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Psychological Well Being of

male Police Personnel
Omar H. Dar, S. Alam and Zahoor A. Lone
Depression, Stress and Anxiety
53. Depression in Institutionalised and Non-Institionalized Elderly

S. Venkatesan and Anupama Ravindranath
60. Parental Styles and Depression among Adolescents

Mandeep Sharma,Novrattan Sharma and Amrita Yadava
69. Coronary – Prone Behaviour Pattern, Stressful Life Events, Optimism and
Subjective Well-being as Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease
Navdeep Kaur and Hardeep Lal Joshi
78. Impact of Pranakarshan Pranayam on Anxiety: A Matched Control Trial

Hemadri Kumar Sao, Santosh Kumar Vishvakarma and Surendra
Kumar Sia
(Contents continued on next page)
This issue has been published with the grant-in-aid from

Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi
JIAAP is abstracted and indexed in Indian Science Abstracts (ISA), Indian Psychological Abstracts &
Reviews, IndMED, NCERT Educational Abstracts, Psychological Abstracts,
PsycINFO and PsycALERT Database, USA., Routledge Database, UK.
2
Gender Differences
86. Gender Differences in Depressive Symptoms: The Role of Daily Hassles,

Coping Styles, Social Support and Personal Mastery
Sangeeta Bhatia and Shohag Dey
98. Cognitive Functioning in Children: The Role of Child Abuse, Setting and
Gender
Sushma Pandey
Regular Articles
106. Construct Validity of Reading MotivationQuestionnaire

Debdulal Dutta Roy
114. Development and Validation of Perception of Parental

Expectations’ Inventory
S. Sasikala and S. Karunanidhi
125. Mental and Emotional Impact of Divorce on Women

Bharti Sharma
132. Achievement Motivation and Parental Support to Adolescents

Neha Acharya and Shobhna Joshi
140. Transformational Leadership and Innovative Work Behaviour

Bishakha Majumdar and Anjali Ray
149. An Analysis of Individualism-Collectivism Across Northern India

Shalini Duggal Jha and Kamlesh Singh
157. Information Technology (Internet): Effects on Social Participation and

Well-Being of Users
Radhey Shyam and Amit Bhoria
163. Personality Correlates of Loneliness

Shreya Nayyar and Bhupinder Singh
169. Love Types, Psychological Well-Being and Self-Concept

Bahman Kord Tamini, Fereshteh Bakhshi Bojhd, and Sepideh Yazdani
179. Interpersonal Differences: Implications for Organizations

NK Natarajan, Dinesh Nagar and Deepa Ayachit
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Book Reviews
185. Panch. Ramalingam (2010). Recent Studies in School Psychology. Reviewed

by V.T. Patil.
185. Rabindra Kumar Pradhan and Purnima Mathur (2008). Emotional

Intelligence (Perspectives in Organizations). Reviewed by Atasi Mohanty.
187. Updesh Kumar and Manas K. Mandal (2010). Suicidal Behaviour (Assessment
of People-at-Risk).
187. Roy Moodley, Aanchal Rai, and Waseem Alladin(2010). Bridging East-West
Psychology and Counselling. Reviewed by B. Sharmila.
188. Aradhana Shukla (2009). Culture Cognition and Behaviour.
189. Prof. Anima Sen Award for Excellence in Research.
190. Information for Authors
AUTHORS
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JIAAP
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© Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology

Special Feature
January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 9-26.
Positive Psychology Research in India: A Review and Critique
Seema Mehrotra and Ravikesh Tripathi

NIMHANS, Bangalore
Rapid strides have been made in the field of positive psychology across the
globe in the last one decade. The present paper reviews the published empirical
literature from India that falls within the purview of positive psychology. The
primary tool for extracting relevant studies was an electronic search of databases
covered on EBSCOhost, using pre-determined criteria in addition to a
supplementary manual search. The studies reviewed span the years from 1954
to the beginning of 2010.The themes covered ranged from folk notions of
happiness, values and wellbeing, socio-demographic, intrapersonal and
interpersonal correlates and predictors of subjective wellbeing, positive adaptation
to illness, posttraumatic growth, perceptions and expressions of positive
emotions, development of positive traits & strengths, to examining outcomes
that go beyond subjective reports of wellbeing. A large proportion of intervention
studies have been rooted in spiritual frameworks. The review indicates the nature
of issues addressed in field while bringing to light some of the areas that require
attention in further research. The paper highlights the critical need for cumulative
building of knowledge- base in the Indian positive psychology research through
adequate linkages of studies from one to another.
Keywords: Positive Psychology, Indian research, Wellbeing, Psychological
health
Inquiries in the ‘good- life’, the best in human the American Psychological Association
behaviors and the highest levels of (Seligman, 1999). In a rapidly evolving field
experiences have intrigued philosophers from like that of positive psychology, it becomes
times immemorial and have also long been crucial to periodically take stock of the nature
the subject of attention for theorists and of research that falls within its purview. Such
researchers in psychology. However, in the an exercise is expected to provide a global
post world war era, psychology as a science view of the kind of research questions
began to focus largely on negative aspects addressed, pitfalls and strengths of the
of life (mental illness, distress and research approaches used, hypotheses
dysfunction) to the significant neglect of the generated for future work as well as questions
positive aspects such as nurturing strengths, that are yet to be asked. The present paper
excellence and positive experiences. In the is one of the first such attempts to provide a
last one decade or so, there has been a scan of the emerging empirical literature in
growing recognition of the long- ranging the field from India.
implications of such a negative bias in the
Method
field of psychological inquiry. In fact, the
advent of positive psychology, as a The approach adopted for search and
movement, may be traced back to Martin selection of relevant articles was as follows.
Seligman’s presidential address in 1998, to The primary source of data was EBSCOhost
10 Positive Psychology Research
electronic database which incorporates the approach of asking participants to write

following databases: PsycINFO, sentences about themselves and a
PsycARTICLES & Psychology and Behavioral paragraph on their personal conception of
Sciences Collection. In the advanced search happiness. The picture of happy life reflected
option, the key word “India” in “anywhere in participants’ current concerns and future
the text” was used in each of the searches goals. Interestingly private self was referred
along with one of the other keywords related to more often than the collective self (Verma
to the topic. The other key words used, one & Sinha, 1993). In 2008, a large scale study
at a time, in combination with “India” were: with six hundred and fifty five children
Wellbeing, happiness, Life satisfaction, attempted to represent children from schools
eudemonia, positive affect, positive mood, in rural, urban as well as metropolitan centers
strengths, growth, posttraumatic growth, and obtain their perspective on conception
resilience and positive psychology. The and determinants of happiness using an
studies obtained following this approach, interview methodology. Majority of the
were examined for relevance before children reported themselves to be happy.
inclusion. The studies that were theoretical/ Being in company of family and friends,
non-empirical in nature or those that successful completion of tasks and studies
pertained to book reviews /commentaries were described as major sources of
were excluded. The studies conducted on happiness. (Srivastava, 2008). Going back
Indian as well as cross- cultural studies with to 1970’s the results of a quasi- experimental
Indian samples were included. A study on 5-years olds (Singh, Sidana, &
supplementary manuals search of three Saluja, 1978) suggested that estimation of
psychology journals from India was also personal happiness followed a simple-
carried out for relevant publications from the additive integrative rule. Surprisingly, the
year 2000 till June 2010. These include the Indian literature is relatively sparse on the
Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied notions of happiness in adulthood in
Psychology, Psychological Studies and Indian cotemporary India. In a qualitative study on
Journal of Clinical Psychology. This was to happiness indicators in the poor; children’s
minimize the risk that the relevant studies in education, wellbeing and security in life turned
the last one decade are missed out due to out to be the most important indicators
the limitations of keywords –driven electronic whereas psychological wellbeing and health
search. In addition the authors manually consciousness were rated as low in
searched the abstracts of articles published importance in this sample (Pandey, 2006).
in the Journal of the Indian Academy of Values & happiness
Applied Psychology between 1991 and 2005
and those in the Indian Journal of Clinical Values that individuals live by in given
Psychology, between 1970 and 2000. The culture; have a bearing on their notions of
studies were content analyzed for their happiness as well as the pursuit of happiness
similarities in terms of focus and were and well being. The literature search threw
grouped under various headings as up about half a dozen relevant studies. A
described below. study conducted in the sixties (Mukherjee,
1967) highlighted cross- cultural differences
Folk notions of happiness in values in college students. The pattern of
There are a small number of studies that results indicated that happiness along with
have attempted to uncover lay notions of autonomy, power and health was viewed as
happiness. One of these was on a sample of more desirable in the American sample of
hundred ten college students. It involved an students while simple living, social conformity,
Seema Mehrotra 11
constraint and faithfulness in relationships that these women were upholders of a moral
were valued more in their Indian counterparts. order that valued self control, service to
In another cross cultural comparison of Asian others and duty to the family rather than
Indians and US elderly, it was revealed that liberty, equality and social justice.
factors such as religiosity, faith, service to Socio-demographic correlates of
others, family ties and luck were considered wellbeing
as important for life satisfaction by the Indians
whereas their American counterparts A large proportion of studies in this
attached importance to values of hard work, category are the ones that focus on life
personal abilities, travel, recreation and social satisfaction of older adults in India. Several
status (Fry & Ghosh, 1980). A study in 1980’s of them have compared institutionalized
(Bhushan & Ahuja, 1980) linked socio-metric elderly with those living in their families.
status of students with their values. It was Across studies, the variables that have
reported that happiness along with friendship emerged as significant for the wellbeing of
and inner harmony were the most highly rated older adults include social network size, living
terminal values in children with high socio- status, marital status, age, education, income,
metric status. In a cross- cultural examination number of living children, re-employment
of overall life satisfaction of children and its status and presence of physical and
relationship to their values (Coenders, Casas, psychological problems etc. (Mishra, 1992;
Figuer & González, 2005) materialistic, Varshney, 2008; Mathew, 1997; Gomathi,
capacities & knowledge values and Sitharthan, & Anantharaman, 1981). There
interpersonal relationship values consistently are studies that have specifically focused on
emerged through factor analyses across five life satisfaction in the poor, marginalized
cultures (India, Brazil, Spain, South Africa and sections of society. For example, one study
Norway). In a study conducted in 1990’s (Biswas-Diener & Diener, 2009) used
ninety three percent of elderly participants qualitative methodology to explore life
reported their ultimate aim of life to be ‘union satisfaction in participants in slum housing,
with the universal self’ through spiritual pursuit commercial sex workers and the homeless on
(Rangaswami, 1994). A study comparing the streets. The study highlighted the social
Hindus residing in India with Tibetan refuges relationship domain of life satisfaction
highlighted that despite several constraints although the overall mean life satisfaction
and difficult circumstances, life satisfaction in ratings were low. A study on older adults
the latter group was higher and this was indicated that the level of family integration
attributed to the spiritual beliefs that rather than nuclear/joint family variable was
emphasized self contentment and the important for satisfaction in the retired elderly
pleasure of existing in the presence of the (Sharma, Singh & Ghosh, 1996). Studies have
Dalai Lama in the refugees group (Fazel & also reported association of income with life
Young, 1988). Yet another one explored the satisfaction, one of these (Srivastava, 1978)
value base for happiness in married Indian reporting that life satisfaction increased when
women living in a fairly orthodox Hindu income increased despite occupational levels
community (Menon, 1995). It illustrated that being constant. However the top-level and
wellbeing in these participants resulted from middle level executives experienced the
occupying particular family roles in which they highest and lowest levels of anxiety
were the distributive centers of activities , respectively. There is another set of studies
constantly receiving from and giving to those that have focused on women as a group,
above and below in the hierarchy. The especially the role of work-status in the lives
authors inferred based on their observation of women. In a study published in 2007,
comparison of single and dual career families Rai, & Sinha, 2000; Shahnawaz & Juyal, 2006,
revealed that husbands in single career Biswas,2009, Bhargava & Baral, 2009). The
families were happier than those in dual kind of positive outcomes examined include
career families as well as the single or dual morale, sense of accomplishment, bother free
career wives (Patra & Suar, 2007). In another existence, positive affect, life satisfaction,
study (Thakar & Misra, 1995) hassles were commitment, actual performance and work-
noted to be higher in dual career women, but family enrichment. There are a few studies
so were life satisfaction- scores, as on happiness in the context of marriage.
compared to housewives. Working adults Gender role identity, experience of intimacy,
have been shown to exhibit higher wellbeing agreement, empathy, validation, support and
than females without careers (Barnes, 1995). broader socio-cultural context are some of
Working women have been reported to the variables explored in these studies (e.g.
indicate higher life satisfaction and self Dasgupta & Basu, 2001;Sandhya, 2009). A
esteem but also, higher levels of negative few have explored the factors important for
affect than their non-working counterparts happiness using gender perspectives. In one
(Nathawat & Mathur, 1993). Among college of these (Kumar & Rohatgi, 1989) ‘love’ was
students, females were reported to have considered the most important factor by both
higher scores than males on life satisfaction the spouses. Yet another study (Kumar, 1986)
(Dorahy, Schumaker, Simpson & Deshpande, adopted the approach of obtaining data from
1996). The role of education and marital a sample of ‘happy couples’. Through an
status were examined as moderators of interview methodology, it was reported that
wellbeing in a sample of women (Shukla & factors important for husbands were sexual
Shukra, 1986). This study reported no overall satisfaction, understanding, marital attitude,
difference on affect balance scale between faithfulness and importance of giving. For
employed and unemployed women. The wives, these were faith, companionship, and
difference between employed and love, importance of giving and sexual
unemployed single women was greater than satisfaction. The role of work and non-work
that for employed and unemployed married variables in life satisfaction was examined in
women. Highly educated women reported a comprehensive study on dual career
higher positive affect especially when they couples (Sekaran, 1984). The work variables
had paid employment, especially when they examined were career salience, job
were single. involvement, self esteem, time on work and
Work and marital variables income. The non-work variables examined
were multiple role stress, family-work
The search study adopted in the present integration, enabling processes, self esteem
paper brought up several studies on work and hired help. Non work variables emerged
related variables that are associated with as important predictors of life satisfaction. It
positive outcomes. Intrapersonal, was interestingly observed that even for
interpersonal & organizational level variables career oriented wives, the non-work aspects
such as emotional intelligence, work locus of of life explained more variance in life
control, organizational support, employee- satisfaction than the work- variables.
oriented supervision, organizational change,
transformational leadership, human Intrapersonal, interpersonal variables
resources management practices (HRM), and wellbeing
family and supervisory support have been In a study using a mixed method design,
examined as predictors of a host of outcomes family and economic matters emerged as
across studies ( e.g. Jain, & Sinha, 2005; significant factors in life satisfaction of middle
Seema Mehrotra 13
aged adults. But educational level, social determinant of wellbeing. For example, one
position and gender were not contributory. study documented data from pilgrims (Ardha
The authors concluded that satisfaction was Kumbh Mela) who stayed at the pilgrim place
more a product of attitude than the attributes for one month (Maheshwari & Singh, 2009).
a person holds (Lavalekar, 2003). A plethora The findings suggested religiosity to be liked
of within –person variables, apart from the with happiness and life satisfaction. Yet
socio-demographic, work and marital another paper described qualitative data
variables as discussed above, have been obtained from Hindu pilgrims attending one
examined as correlates of happiness and life month Prayag Magh Mela. The positivity of
satisfaction in Indian studies. A few variables the experiences was discussed in term of
that have emerged as significant predictors common collective identity revolving around
are self efficacy (e.g. Rao & Mehrotra 2006), the spiritual meaning of the event (The Prayag
extraversion, lower neuroticism, openness Magh Mela Research Group, 2007). In a
to experience, consciences- ness ((e.g. sample of catholic religious women and Jesuit
Bhattacharya, Singh, Kaur & Neeti, 2006; seminarians in India, faith, maturity and
Sahoo, Sahoo & Harichandan, 2005), secure positive God image significantly and
attachment, ego strength (Mukherjee & Basu, independently contributed to prediction of
2008), optimism (Puri & Nathawat 2008), wellbeing (Positive, negative affect and life
hardiness (Nathawat & Joshi, 1997), meaning satisfaction), apart from personality variables
in life, trait hope and coping repertoire (Mendonca, Oakes, Ciarrocchi & Gillespie,
(Bhatacharya, Das & Basu, 2008). Grit refers 2007). One study reported that long term
to the character strength of perseverance in devotees of Osho cult compared to short term
positive psychology literature. In a study on devotees showed lower negative affect,
undergraduate college students, positive somatic anxiety, muscular tension and higher
affect, grit and negative affect jointly subjective well being (Nathawat & Khan,
accounted for 19% of variance in life 1995).
satisfaction and Grit, negative and positive Goals and activities as determinants of
affect accounted for 11 % of variance in well being
happiness (Singh & Jha, 2008).
There are a few studies that have gone
In a sample of married working women beyond relatively static constructs such as
(Rao, Apte & Subbakrishna, 2003), greater demographics and personality to examine the
use of support seeking as coping styles, less role of dynamic constructs such as intentional
use of denial, absence of multiple role strains, activities and goal pursuits as predictors of
working to be financially independent, subjective wellbeing. Role of social
availability of support were the significant engagement has been highlighted in studies
predictors of wellbeing. In a study on of older adults (e.g. Mishra, 1992) and that
contemporary Indian women, competence, of socio-cultural sports and leisure activities
control over household domain and in industry personnel (singh & Joseph, 1996).
socialization for autonomy predicted A small number of studies have specifically
subjective wellbeing (Varma & Dhawan, examined the linkage of goal pursuit variables
2006). A study by Bhargava, 1995 with wellbeing. One of these published in the
demonstrated that adults’ life satisfaction 1990’s provided data from Indian and
judgments were arrived at by applying an American students (Raina & Vats, 1990) and
averaging rather than additive rule reported that in both the samples, the
(Bhargava, 1995). A few studies have traditional values of being a good wife and
specifically zeroed in on spirituality as a mother were given high importance and that
men were more concerned with prestige goals, expressions, emotion-perception in general,
personal happiness and gains in prestige than expressiveness, distinctiveness etc. along
women. Goal pursuit variables and self with their hemispheric correlates (e.g.
efficacy emerged as predictors of subjective Asthana & Mandal, 2001; Saha,
well being (life satisfaction, positive and Palchoudhury & Mandal, 1983). Affective
negative affect) in a sample of young adults state including positive affect have been
pursuing professional courses (Rao & examined in quasi experimental studies using
Mehrotra, 2006). In addition to other interpersonal contexts. For example, one
variables, perceived importance of goals to study observed that the ingratiator’s ‘other
others’ emerged as a significant predictor of enhancing strategies’ influenced the target’s
life satisfaction. In another study describing positive affect, sense of power and favorable
the development of a goal survey measure; evaluation of the ingratiator (Pandey & Singh,
content of goals, motives for goal pursuit and 1987) . Household structure and expression
styles of goal pursuit demonstrated of affect were examined in a study in the
meaningful associations with indices of 1980’s using observation methodology
subjective wellbeing (Rao & Mehrotra, 2010). (Seymour, 1983). Contrary to the hypotheses,
One study indicated that having money as it was observed that mothers in extended
an aim was negatively correlated with life households expressed higher levels of
satisfaction (Agarwal, 2003). In yet another positive affect with children than those in
interesting study on young adults (Pandey & nuclear households. The reverse was true
Singh 2009), the discrepancies between self- of children. Household status was found to
set and parent-set goals were the focus of have a stronger and more consistent effect
attention. It was observed that increases in on expression of affect than household
the discrepancy between parents and structure. In 2005, a large sample study
offspring on importance attached to life goals (Sadarangani & Bagozzi, 2005) examined the
were associated with decreases in well being association between positive and negative
experienced by the offspring. Also, affect in urban and rural Indian samples by
satisfaction with progress towards goals, using 38 unipolar emotion items to measure
irrespective of whether set by self/parents, six affective states. The results suggest that
was associated with greater happiness. Along the association between positive and negative
similar lines, another study (Darius & Chan, affect varied from independence, to low- to-
1997) compared Indian and US participants moderate negative correlations. A cross-
on impact of own and parental goals (for cultural study utilized experience sampling
themselves) from their own and their parents’ methodology in samples of participants from
perspectives. American’s wellbeing was Japan, India and USA (Oishi, Diener, Napa, &
predicted by discrepancies between own and Biswas-Diener, 2004). The authors
parental ratings of personal goals whereas summarized that though global affective traits
the discrepancies between own and parental exist among nonwestern samples, the degree
goals predicted Indians’ wellbeing. to which situations exert an influence on the
Positive emotions: Perceptions and affective experience varies across cultures.
expressions Yet another study (Scollon, Oishi, Biswas-
Diener, & Diener, 2009) included Indian
Most of the published studies from India participants and examined cultural
that focus on positive emotions are actually differences in recall of frequency of emotions
experimental/quasi experimental studies on which was observed to be related to
processing of emotions. These include experience sampling reports of intensity of
studies that throw light on recognition of facial emotions. There were differences between
Seema Mehrotra 15
cultures on pride vis-à-vis other positive in 2004, conducted focus group discussions
emotions. On the whole, it was noted that a nine months post disaster with fishermen,
general conception of emotional lives housewives, village leaders and young men
influenced memory of emotions. in four affected villages of southern India. The
Positive adaptation in the context of narratives contained patterns that show that
illness response to massive trauma may not
necessarily result in social collapse but may
There are a few empirical studies on also include positive effects and that survivors
factors associated with positive outcomes in valued unique individual, social and spiritual
individuals with various kinds of illnesses. coping more than formal mental health
These studies have been conducted on services (Anto, Titus & Prathap, 2008).
diverse/mixed samples of patients suffering Moving away from collective trauma, a recent
from illness such as cancer, diabetes, cardiac study (Thombre, Sherman & Simonton, 2010)
conditions (Dubey & Agarwal, 2004), asthma, examined cognitive processes theoretically
hypertension (Maqbool & Zainab, 2004), expected to be predictive of posttraumatic
severe neurological disorders (Mathew, Rao growth (PTG) in a sample of cancer patients.
& Gupta, 2009), first episode psychosis Perceived growth was associated with greater
(Banerjee et al., 2008) and those with renal meaning-focused coping (sense-making,
transplant (Pant et al., 1985) etc. These benefit finding) and with reappraisals of world
highlight the positive role of variables such views. However it was unrelated to subjective
as active coping, religiosity, ego strength; appraisals of illness threat/stressfulness. In
sense of perceived control, future orientation; multivariate analyses, reappraisal of
optimism, hope and relationship with family. worldviews emerged as the strongest
There have also been similar studies on family predictor of PTG, highlighting the significance
caregivers of the medically ill. For example, of deliberate cognitive processes in PTG.
the use of religious coping in carers of
relatives with schizophrenia revealed the Measures and methods
importance of the strength of religious beliefs The review indicates that efforts have
apart from the role of problem solving coping been directed at developing culturally
for wellbeing (Rammohan, Rao & appropriate measures of wellbeing. To name
Subbakrishna, 2002). just a few, there are published reports on
Resilience and Growing through crises Quality of life scale (Moudgil, Verma, & Kaur,
1986), a Yoga sutra based tool on QOL
There are just a few studies that have (Pandit, 2008), another QOL measure
explicitly used the constructs of resilience. A specifically for the physically challenged
few of them examined the association of (Yosuf,1994), Life satisfaction Scale ( Kumar
resilience with gender (Tankha & Gill, 2007), & Dhyani, 1998), and psychological well being
probabilistic orientations (Narayanan, 2007) questionnaire (Bhogle & Prakash, 1995).
and field independence (Narayanan, 2009) There are also papers that demonstrate the
in normal samples. There is also a importance of using qualitative methodology
documentation of summary of findings based to fully capture participants’ experiences (e.g.
on studies related to children growing up in Thomas and Chambers,1989) and highlight
difficult circumstances and the factors that the need for sensitivity to the fact that there
buffer vulnerability and support resilience in are commonalities but also differences in
these families and children (Sharma & grassroots’ and researchers’ understanding
Sharma, 1999). A qualitative study on of constructs such as wellbeing (e.g. Tiwari,
individuals exposed to Asian tsunami disaster 2009).
Development of positive traits/strengths mood induction on helping behaviors e.g.

There have been a few studies that have blood donations (Khanna, 1990), the role of
attempted to examine factors that foster the positive affect in perceived usefulness of
development of individual strengths or imagery in problem- solving, (Singh, &
positive traits. Several studies have looked Pande,2007) and the predictive utility of life
at not just correlates of creativity but also the satisfaction in predicting attitudes towards
aspects of socio-cultural environment that retirement (Pinto & Prakash, 1989). Yet
may impact on creative thinking in school another study attempted to address a
years (e.g. Ahmed & Joshi, 1978). Chauhan, provocative question as to whether happiness
(1977) examined the development of may promote emotional intelligence (Khosla
originality in late adolescence. In one & Dokania, 2010).
interesting study the role of schooling Moving beyond subjective wellbeing,
(including even the most primitive form of psychological well being was examined in a
schooling) in accelerating growth of reflective study of women across organizations. Women
and simultaneous cognitive information teachers had the highest psychological
processing, independent of IQ, was wellbeing and those in the industries the
demonstrated in a sample of tribal children lowest (Srimathi and Kiran Kumar, 2010). Self
( Rath, 1990). The development of actualization was noted to be a rare
achievement motivation has repeatedly phenomenon in a sample of professional
attracted research attention. Role of women (Afroz & Mittra, 2003) and in another
background social and economic factors on sample of visually challenged students (Afroz
development of achievement motivation as & Mittra, 2005). However the respondents in
well as the role of variables such as, parental these studies were noted to be high on ‘self
attitude towards independence training, regard’. Yet another set of studies focus on
demands for independence and mastery examining the impact of positive traits and
have been the subject of empirical research other positive variables on outcomes such as
(Hussain, 1990; Tiwari & Misra, 1977). A productivity. Role of multiple psychological
recent study illustrated the role of big five variables e.g., emotional intelligence, self
personality factors as predictors of six virtues efficacy (e.g. Shah & Thingujam, 2008; Gupta
namely wisdom, courage, justice, humanity, & Kumar, 2010; Bindu & Thomas, 2006,
temperance and transcendence. These James, Velayudhan & Gayatridevi, 2010),
personality factors predicted maximum emotional stability, upward striving, (Singh,
variance of 34% in wisdom (Singh & Duggal, 1989), emotional competencies (Jayan,
2009). 2006), interpersonal trust (Singh &
Beyond wellbeing towards other positive Srivastava, 2009), Knowledge sharing culture
outcomes ( Manasa & Srivastava, 2006) has been
explored in this context. A wide range of
Although the bulk of positive psychology outcomes have been examined in these
research from India, parallel to the trend in studies for example, fast (vs. slow) progress
the West, has predominantly focused on life in small scale industrial entrepreneurs,
satisfaction and positive affect as the end- managerial performance, and their ethical
point/outcome variables in and by themselves, behaviors, creativity, coping, organizational
there are noteworthy departures too. There citizenship behaviors, mental health,
are a small number of studies that have leadership styles, Knowledge management
examined the positive consequences/ behaviors as well as the effect of spirituality
implications of wellbeing variables. Examples on intrinsic motivation and goal orientation
of such studies include the role of positive at work (Biswas & Biswas, 2007). One study
Seema Mehrotra 17
demonstrated the role of individualism and Additional cross cultural studies in the
entrepreneurial status on entrepreneurial domain of positive psychology
success measured in terms of profits and Some of the cross cultural studies
turnover (Chattopadhyaya & Ghosh, 2002). utilizing Indian samples have been already
Ego strength as a positive dispositional incorporated in the relevant sections above.
variable has been frequently examined in A few additional ones are described here.
various studies across different samples and Subjective well being of homeless people from
contexts as predictor of diverse positive the streets of Calcutta, California and a tent
outcomes such as job involvement, intrinsic camp in Portland (Oregon) was explored
motivation, morale and productivity (e.g. using interviews and standard measures
Srivastava & Sinha, 1983; Singh & Srivastava, (Biswas-Diener & Diener, 2006). The mean
1981 & 1980) Using a sample of merchant ratings of Life satisfaction were slightly
marine officers, Barnes, 1984, illustrated that negative for the two American samples but
higher ego strength was linked to mobilizing positive for the Calcutta sample. The largest
mental energy for constructive goals, better variation among groups was observed in
work output, withstanding occupational satisfaction with the social domain. The study
hazards, emotional management and highlighted the importance of social and basic
maintenance of morale in seafaring material needs in overall wellbeing of the
profession. Mehra & Mishra (1999) homeless across countries. Hypotheses
demonstrated the role of ‘integration of derived from the self determination theory
personality” (a dimension of mental health) were tested in samples of school going
as a moderator of the relationship between adolescents in India and Nigeria (Sheldon,
intrinsic job satisfaction and occupational Abad & Omoile, 2009). Indian sample
stress in a sample of blue collar industrial reported higher life satisfaction than Nigerian
workers. Social intelligence dimensions as sample. The balance among the three basic
predictors of psychological health were needs (autonomy, competence and
examined in a study by Hooda, Sharma & relatedness) was associated with life
Yadava in 2009. Regression analyses satisfaction independent of the amount of
revealed that seven out of eight dimensions need-satisfaction. Another study on university
of social intelligence predicted one or the students for India and Australia reported no
other of the three dimensions of positive significant differences between the two
psychological health. One of the studies at samples on depression and life satisfaction
the macro level (Papa et al., 2000), examined ( Dorahy, Schumaker, Simpson & Deshpande,
the role of media in bringing about social and 1996). One study examined life satisfaction
behavioral change in a village community of with reference to organizational change
7500 residents. The radio-soap opera “Tinka among employed women from India and
Tinka Sukh” (Happiness in small pleasures) Ethiopia working in different organizations
was examined for its impact through in depth (Ahmad, Lamore & Ansari, 2008). Both the
interviews and focus group discussions during samples showed favorable inclinations
a three year period. One thousand and four towards organizational change. However,
hundred and seventy two residents completed Indian women were described as more prone
questionnaires and several dozens completed to life satisfaction than their counterparts in
interviews. Conversations about the program Ethiopia in the context of organizational
helped create a social learning environment change. Recalled early maternal bonding of
and the program motivated certain listeners young adult women across three languages
to engage in collective actions to solve and two cultures (India and Belgium) was
community problems. .
demonstrated to have an impact on the examined as an outcome in a sample of

current relationships with their mothers and young adult females in an intervention
on aspects of personal life experiences program spread over 36 hours of 18 sessions
including satisfaction (Datta, Marcoen & (Elizabeth, 2006). It was designed to “foster
Poortinga, 2005). Yet another cross- cultural global wellbeing through discovering and
(qualitative) examination of life satisfaction in befriending the goodness that resides deep
Indian and English older adults (Thomas, within and to affirm ones’ positive qualities”.
1989) indicated the former to report higher This study used a controlled group design
life satisfaction. It was surmised that a cultural and follow-up assessments after thirty days.
environment that considers ‘perpetual middle In the background of the plethora of
age as the normative goal of old age’ may literature on the role of lifestyle interventions,
have deleterious impact on life satisfaction one of the studies examined spiritually-based
of the elderly .India formed one of the sites in life style program (Mohan, Prasad & Rao,
a 13-nation international survey on human 2004). It was observed that a majority of the
values and wellbeing over the adult life span participants reported increased sense of
(Butt & Beiser, 1987). Persons over 50 years purpose in life and a need to achieve a higher
obtained higher scores on satisfaction with state of consciousness. Impact of a 15- day
human relationships, with material needs and residential yoga training program (conducted
religiosity whereas those under 25 years by experts) on volunteer adults was examined
scored the lowest. Middle adulthood was in a study with pre-post single group design
marked with highest satisfaction with job (Patwardhan, 2008). Positive changes were
relations. These trends were reportedly more documented on variables such as attention,
or less consistent across cultures and the perception, memory, personality (triguna
authors concluded that the oldest group components) creative thinking, anxiety,
showed most contentment and satisfaction. feelings of wellbeing and overall quality of life.
Intervention studies There are intervention studies on children
It is interesting to note that the most of and adolescents too. Vohra, 2006 examined
the positive intervention studies currently the outcomes of a five month program on
available in the empirical literature from India groups of early and late adolescents, using
have focused on examining the impact of an intervention called “Spiritual values and
yoga and other spiritually rooted intervention positive mental health” module. Pre, post
modules on wellbeing. The few exceptions to analysis, self, peer and parent-ratings and
this trend are described first. Effects of a facilitators’ observations indicated that the
vocational program (spread over 40 days) participants incorporated the values of critical
involving interactive and experiential learning self analysis, forgiveness, altruism, and
in natural settings were examined on the detachment in actions in their daily lives. Role
holistic development of secondary school of vipassana (e.g. Purohit & Sudha, 1999)
students using multiple outcome indices. and Kundalini Yoga (Kumar & Ali, 2003) for
Improvements on physical, cognitive abilities well being of adolescents have also been the
and in social, emotional qualities were noted subject of attention. The utility of adding
(Khire, Rajhans, Ballal & Bhagwat, 2007). A weekly hath yoga instruction in the regimen
study utilized T-group type intervention to of regular exercisers was examined in a study
demonstrate the positive impact of that used a pre-post control group design
experiential learning on well being in a sample (Baldwin, 1999). The volunteers were
of undergraduate students (Srivastava & screened to fulfill specified criteria for
Sinha, 2005). Psychological wellbeing was ‘apparently healthy adults’ ensuring that the
Seema Mehrotra 19
benefits of program are documented for adults and Applied relaxation (Deuskar, Poonawala,
who are healthy and already exercising & Bhatewara, 2006).
regularly. At the end of eight weeks, the yoga Observations and Critique
group showed 8% gain in spinal and
hamstring flexibility and lowered vulnerability The main thrust was to provide a broad
to stress, higher levels of immediate positive mapping of the field rather than exhaustive
-affect gains and better compliance. In coverage and citation of each of the studies
another study, training in hath yoga was found that may be available. The manual search
to be linked to greater personality was limited to three journals and the
congruence (Rani, 2007). Impact of yoga- EBSCOhost was a major tool for data
training has been examined across varied extraction. The studies extracted through
samples in other studies too (e.g. Kumari, EBSCO are subject to the coverage of
Nath & Nagendra, 2007; Vishal & Singh, journals in this database and the permutations
1987). One study using a pre-post design of key words used. The major hurdle in the
reported positive impact of one-week of process of reviewing studies for this paper
residential Preksha meditation program on was about deciding the scope of coverage.
emotional intelligence (Singhvi & Puri, 2008). This issue is linked to the defining the scope
In another study, pre-post single group of the field per se. Positive Psychology is an
design was used with a sample of young non- evolving field which is often described as a
regular meditators to examine the effects of movement with a specific kind of an approach
“Integral Meditation On Peace”. Positive or perspective to human behavior. The
effects were reported on diverse indices ( perspective that characterizes positive
Khubalkar & Maharaj, 2009). An intervention psychology is a focus on the positive side of
program comprising of instructions, human functioning/behavior. It becomes
demonstrations and exercises on pranas- difficult to delineate the boundaries of a field
knowledge, pranayama, aromas and chakras which is defined as much by the approach
(Sreelakshmi & Manay, 2008) reported taken as by the nature of its content. For this
beneficial effects in the form of retaining paper, the approach adopted was to
higher emotional psychic states of well being. concentrate on inclusion of only those studies
Kirlian photography was used for capturing that have measured positive outcomes and
energy fields and EEG recording of alpha not merely absence of negative outcomes.
waves was also undertaken and the results The decade of 2000 has witnessed a
were discussed in terms of “Swasthya” or doubling of the number of studies from the
wellbeing, meaning to be “stationed in one’s 1990’s in keeping with the global trend in the
own self. Sridevi & Rao, 1998, compared momentum of growth in the positive
matched groups of non meditators, psychology literature. The studies cited in this
beginners, short term and long term paper were spread across fourteen Indian
mediatators who practiced TM journals and twenty seven journals published
(Transcendental mediation).Positive from outside India. In addition, a few studies
personality changes were reported to be have been published in books and
associated with the length of meditation- dissertation abstracts. Majority of the studies
practice. There are a few intervention studies reviewed were cross sectional and
that are comparative in nature. Examples quantitative in nature. A few studies did utilize
include comparisons of Vipassana, a qualitative or mixed methods approach.
Transcendental meditation, yoga and There was limited information available on the
Jacobson’s progressive muscular relaxation measures used especially their applicability
(Nathawat & Kumar, 1999) and Yoga Nidra in the Indian context. The sample sizes were
quite variable across studies. In terms of the disadvantaged/advantaged groups.

nature of research questions, testing of Most of the intervention studies are
moderation and mediation was an infrequent about examining a spiritually based
exercise. Several intervention studies used intervention module, especially some form of
a pre-post controlled group design though a yoga. Areas wherein there is a dearth of
few are based on a single group design. Multi- studies include notions of happiness in adults
method and multi source assessment in contemporary India, post-traumatic growth
strategies were used in a few of these studies. and resilience following experience of trauma,
Process research was infrequent in the pool differential predictors of affective and
of studies reviewed. cognitive aspects of wellbeing, positive affect
As far as the nature of outcomes regulation processes, balance between
variables themselves are concerned, positive and negative affect, changing values
subjective wellbeing indices top the list. Most and wellbeing. Long term effects of spiritually
studies focus on prediction of outcomes such based interventions, receptivity to these
as life satisfaction and positive affect. The programs across individuals, role of pre-
bulk of research on subjective wellbeing intervention individual characteristics that
focuses on prediction of life satisfaction, predict outcomes, mechanisms of changes,
especially through socio-demographic sustenance of effects as well as utility of other
variables. Large proportions of studies on kinds of positive/promotive interventions in
positive affect are actually based on need more research attention.
neuropsychological paradigm and are It is interesting to note that a few studies
experimental/quasi-experimental in nature. have gone beyond urban middle class
The studies that document affective samples and examined well being, its lay
experiences and their concomitants through meanings and correlates in rural samples and
experience sampling methodology in natural- marginalized sections of society. As far as the
contexts are very limited in number. Research prediction of subjective wellbeing is
that goes beyond the subjective reports of concerned, there is a move beyond socio-
well being to understanding of psychological demographic and to some extent personality
wellbeing/mental health is relatively sparse. variables towards examining the role of
Also, there are fewer studies that treat dynamic and malleable constructs such as
subjective well being indices for e.g. positive goal pursuits parallel to the shift seen in the
affect or satisfaction as predictor-variables global literature. However this trend is yet to
to examine their role in influencing other kinds take roots. There is also a need for studies
of tangible outcomes such as health, psycho- that highlight the scope of positive psychology
physiological/immune parameters, constructs in the practice of clinical
functioning or performance. The studies that psychology. Cross cultural studies have
focus on factors that foster /nurture the provided rich sources of information on the
development of positive traits are few and universal as well as unique features of the
mostly restricted to studying development of Indian psyche. There is scope for further work
achievement motivation and creativity. The on understanding indigenous constructs and
themes covered across decades seem to be their applications in day to day life in
colored by the dominant socio-cultural contemporary Indian society. This would also
discourse at any given point of time, for provide useful data for designing
example, women and work, dual career interventions by taking in account lay-
couples, wellbeing of the institutionalized perspectives. The research questions in the
elderly and achievement motivation in field have to now move beyond
Seema Mehrotra 21
understanding associations between Abstracts International Section A: Humanities

variables to addressing mechanism of and Social Sciences, 60, 1031.
associations (mediations) as well as exploring Banerjee, I., Majhi, G., Shantna, K., Singh, A. R.,
moderators of relationships between Verma, A.N., & Choudhury, S. (2008). Life and
variables. There is also a need to move need satisfaction among patients with first
beyond replications of findings to consistently episode psychosis. Indian Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 35, 108-114
designing studies that examine hypotheses
that emerge or throw light on issues from Barnes, B. L. (1984). Mental health dimensions
newer angles and connect knowledge across and ego-strength potential. Indian Journal of
Clinical Psychology, 11, 61-65.
studies. This sequential/cumulative building
of knowledge is possible when Indian Barnes, B. L. (1995). Quality of Life Assessment
Scale (QOLAS): A psychological perspective.
researchers have access to Indian research
Indian Journal of Psychometry & Education,
published within and outside India, read and 26, 1-8.
cite Indian research and make consistent
Bhargava, S. (1995). An integration-theoretical
attempts to address gaps from one study to analysis of life satisfaction. Psychological
the next. Studies, 40,170-174.
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Ravikesh Tripathi, Clinical Psychologist and PhD Scholar, Dept of Mental Health
and Social Psychology, NIMHANS, Bangalore-560 029
27

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 27-34.
Emotional Intelligence and Life Satisfaction: Re-examining the

Link and Mediating Role of Affectivity and Personality in India
Nutankumar S. Thingujam
University of Pune, Pune
This study re-examines whether the life satisfaction-emotional intelligence linkage
observed in predominantly individualistic western cultural context is generalizable
in predominantly eastern collectivistic cultural context of India after controlling
for affectivity and personality traits of five factor personality theory. Three hundred
young adult participants responded to the scales of the emotional intelligence,
life satisfaction, affectivity, and personality. Results indicated that life satisfaction’s
correlation with emotional intelligence is generalizable across the cultures but
unlike earlier findings the association is not independent of affectivity or personality
(neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness).
Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Life satisfaction, Affectivity, Personality
Although a of attention has been paid in the incremental validity evidences across studies
recent years to the idea of emotional (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). For
intelligence no one still knows what exactly is instance, overall emotional intelligence
emotional intelligence. Just like in the case measured by this test explained a significant
of general intelligence there are multiple and moderate to large amount of unique
perspectives on emotional intelligence. In variance for positive relations with others and
particular, there are ability and mixed models alcohol use after controlling for personality
of emotional intelligence (Mayer, Salovey, & and cognitive ability (Rossen & Kranzler,
Caruso, 2000) in which the former talks about 2009). The MSCEIT was predictive of social
the integration of emotion and intelligence deviance after personality (openness and
while the latter talks about the integration of agreeableness) and verbal intelligence were
emotional ability and personality traits that are held constant (Brackett & Mayer, 2003).
already well-studied in the field of psychology Emotion regulation ability measured by the
(McCrae, 2000). Ability model of emotional MSCEIT was correlated with several
intelligence as defined by Mayer and Salovey indicators of quality of social interaction
(1997) includes four interrelated dimensions, (interpersonal sensitivity, prosocial
that is, identification, understanding, using, tendencies, the proportions of positive versus
and regulation of emotions. negative peer nominations, and reciprocal
friendship nominations) after controlling for
Ability measure: After several revisions
Big Five personality, verbal and fluid
the latest test available for the measurement
intelligence (Lopes, Salovey, Cote, & Beers,
of these four dimensions of emotional
2005).
intelligence is the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso
Emotional intelligence Test (MSCEIT version Self-report measure: The competing and
2; Mayer et al., 2002). Past research has widely used measures of self-reported
shown that these four dimensions are reliably emotional intelligence include Emotional
measured with convergent, divergent, and Quotient Inventory (EQi; Bar-On, 1997) and
28 Emotional Intelligence and Life Satisfaction
Schutte et al. Emotional Intelligence (SEIS; clarity of feelings component of emotional

Schutte, Malouff, Hall, Haggerty, Cooper, intelligence as measured by a modified
Golden, & Dornheim, 1998). The former has version of Trait-Meta Mood Scale (TMMS;
conceptual correspondence with Five Factor Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai,
theory of personality (McCrae, 2000). The 1995) was positively and significantly
latter is based on the original definition of correlated with satisfaction with life (Palmer,
emotional intelligence as suggested by Donaldson, & Stough, 2002). Palmer et al.
Salovey and Mayer (1990). The EQi and believe that the clarity of feeling subscale is
SEIS are moderately related to each other indexed as perceived ability to understand
but these two are minimally related to the and discriminate between moods and
MSCEIT, so the three scales are measuring emotions. Further, Palmer et al. found that
different aspects of the same person the clarity sub-scale predicted life satisfaction
(Brackett & Mayer, 2003). after controlling for positive and negative
Rationale for the Selection of the affect. In a different study, Thompson, Waltz,
Measure of Emotional Intelligence: Although Croyle, and Pepper (2007) reported that
the MSCEIT seems more promising as a satisfaction with life was positively and
measure of emotional intelligence it was not significantly correlated with all the three
considered suitable for the present Indian subscales of TMMS, that is, attention to
study for few reasons. First, the scoring key feelings, clarity of moods, and mood repair.
in the MSCEIT was decided by either They further found that only the mood repair
consensus of a large sample drawn subscale predicted life satisfaction. Yet, in a
predominantly from the West or expert different study, Extremera and Fernańdez-
opinion of 21 emotion researchers who are Berrocal (2005) found that life satisfaction was
members of the International Society of significantly and positively correlated with
Emotion Researcher. The ethnicity of the clarity of emotions and mood repair subscales
emotion expert is not known. The names of of Trait-Meta Mood Scale, but insignificant and
the characters in many emotion-related items negative correlation was observed with
were non-Indian and all the facial expressions attention to moods. Only the clarity of mood
included were also non-Indian. So, the less subscale predicted life satisfaction. Using a
familiarity of the items in the test contents different measure of emotional intelligence,
among the Indians could lead to low scores Gannon and Ranzijn (2005) reported that life
of the respondents and psychometric satisfaction was found to be positively and
complexities of the test in terms of unsuitable significantly correlated with all the subscales
scoring key, reliability, and validity issues. So, of emotional intelligence, that is, a) emotional
this test was not considered suitable in the recognition and expression, b) understanding
present study. On the other hand, the SEIS of emotions external, c) emotions direct
has been widely used in Indian study and cognition, d) emotional management, and e)
found to be at least internally consistent emotional control; the strongest correlation
across studies (e.g., Joshi & Thingujam, was with the last two subscales. However, only
2009). So, it was decided to use this scale. emotional management subscale predicted
However, the SEIS is not considered as type life satisfaction. In a different approach, life
of intelligence measurement, instead it would satisfaction’s significant and positive
be treated as individual’s perception of correlation with emotional intelligence was
emotional intelligence. reported by Brackett, Rivers, Shiffman,
Lerner, and Salovey (2006). In particular,
Emotional Intelligence and Life Brackett and colleagues found that overall
Satisfaction: Existing literature show that emotional intelligence (perceiving, using,
Nutankumar S. Thingujam 29
understanding, and regulating emotions) as provided evidence that life satisfaction was
assessed by ability test and self-report on the explained by emotional management
basis of the Mayer and Salovey (1997) model dimension of emotional intelligence over and
was found to be positively and significantly above personality traits (Neuroticism,
correlated with life satisfaction. Conscientiousness, and Extraversion) and
It is observed that the relationship some demographic variables. However, no
between emotional intelligence and life one has yet examined the life satisfaction-
satisfaction is positive and generally emotional intelligence linkage in collectivistic
significant although there are mixed results cultural contexts such as India.
in the association at the subscale levels of It was hypothesized in the present study
emotional intelligence. One possible reason that emotional intelligence assessed by the
for the different finding is the use of different Schutte emotional intelligence scale (SEIS;
measures of life satisfaction. Palmer, Schutte et al., 1998) and its subscales
Donaldson, Stough (2002), Extremera and (Ciarrochi, Deane, & Anderson, 2002) are
Fernańdez-Berrocal (2005), Gannon and correlated positively with life satisfaction.
Ranzijn (2005), and Brackett et al. (2006) Further, it was hypothesized that the
used satisfaction with life scale developed by relationship is independent of affectivity and
Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985 personality traits. Findings of this study will
whereas Thompson et al. used a different throw some light in the area of generalizability
scale, Extended Satisfaction with Life Scale of life satisfaction’s relation to emotional
(Alfonso, Allison, Rader, & Gorman, 1996). intelligence across the cultures within the
Similarly, four different emotional intelligence personality perspective, not intelligence
scales were used by the researchers. In perspective.
particular, Gannon and Ranzijn (2005) used Method
Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence
Test (SUEIT; Palmer & Stough, 2001). Sample:
Brackett et al. (2006) used a self-report scale Three hundred participants (Mean age
developed by them for their own study and = 22.95, SD = 2.86) who were in the age range
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence of 18 to 30 years formed the sample for the
Test (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002) while present study. There were 152 male and 148
the rest of the researchers mentioned above female. The participants who were all
used Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey et al., nationalities of India reported a minimum of 3
1995). on a 7-point scale of the level of English
Role of Personality and Affectivity: The proficiency with “7” expressing completely
role of personality and affectivity in emotional fluent and “1” as “not at all fluent”. The mean
intelligence’s linkage with life satisfaction has English proficiency was 5.45 and SD was
examined in some earlier studies mentioned 1.14. The test was administered either in small
above. In particular, Palmer, Donaldson, and groups in the classrooms or distributed
Stough (2002) reported that clarity of feeling’s individually after giving instructions and the
correlation with life satisfaction was filled up questionnaires were returned after
independent of positive and negative affect. one or two weeks.
Extremera and Fernańdez-Berrocal (2005) Measure:
found that clarity of feeling’s correlation with a) Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale
life satisfaction was over and above mood (Schutte et al., 1998): It is a 33-item scale to
states (depression) and personality be responded to on a 5-point scale ranging
(neuroticism). Gannon and Ranzijn (2005)
from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”. d) NEO-Five Factor Inventory (Costa &
Further, four subscales as identified by McCrae, 1992). It is a 60-item inventory to
Ciarrochi, Deane, & Anderson (2002) were be responded to on a 5-point scale ranging
included. The subscales are: perception of from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”
emotion, managing others’ emotions, and the personality dimensions measured by
managing self-relevant emotions, and utilizing this scale are neuroticism, extraversion,
emotions. Higher score indicated higher openness, agreeableness, and
emotional intelligence. conscientiousness. The inventory is widely
b) Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, used in different nations/cultures.
Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985): It is a 5- Results
item scale to be responded to on a 7-point The data were subjected to normal
scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to distribution curve, descriptive statistics, one
“strongly agree”. Higher score indicated way-ANOVA, effect size, and reliability
higher satisfaction with life. It is a widely used analysis. Table 1 provides means, standard
scale and psychometric properties are deviations, F-values, and alpha co-efficient
satisfactory. reliabilities of the variables included in the
c) Positive and Negative Affect Scale present study. Alpha coefficient reliabilities
(PANAS; Watson & Clark, 1994): It is a 20- were adequate for life satisfaction, overall
item scale to be responded to on a 5-point emotional intelligence, perception of emotion
scale ranging from “very slightly or not at all” and managing self-relevant emotions but a
to “extremely” on the basis of to what extent little low for managing others’ emotions and
the respondents have felt the particular affect utilizing emotions. It is also observed that
in general. The scale is divided into two gender differences were found in
subscales, that is, positive affect and negative agreeableness, life satisfaction, overall
affect. Higher score indicates higher amount emotional intelligence and all its subscales
of the affect. Psychometric properties of the except perception of emotions with low effect
scale are satisfactory. sizes. However, there was no gender
difference in the remaining scales.
Table 1. Mean, SD, F values and alphas of the variables used in the present study (n= 152 for male,
n = 148 for female)
Variables Mean SD F value Effect size (eta) Alpha
1. Life satisfaction 23.09 5.87 4.22* .12 .78
2. SEIS 126.92 12.30 7.54** .16 .86
3. Perception 36.39 4.94 2.43 ns —- .74
4. Self-emotion 35.84 4.03 7.61** .16 .71
5. Others’ emotion 34.96 3.97 4.24* .12 .64
6. Emotion utilization 15.97 2.24 10.18** .18 .62
7. Positive affect (PANAS) 38.71 5.77 2.33 ns —- .80
8. Negative affect (PANAS) 20.80 6.66 .37 ns —- .85
9. Neuroticism 21.13 7.18 .34 ns —- .75
10. Extraversion 29.65 5.65 .54 ns —- .66
11. Openness 26.97 5.36 .62 ns —- .59
12. Agreeableness 28.58 4.95 5.00* .13 .53
13. Conscientiousness 32.46 5.52 2.52 ns —- .70
*p<.05 **p<.01
PANAS = Positive and negative affect scale
Table 2. Pearson’s correlations of the variables (N = 286 to 300)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. LS
2. SEIS .15**
3. POE .16** .78**
4. SE .19** .82** .44**
5. OE .09 .81** .50** .59**
6. EU -.00 .70** .36** .56** .49**
7. PA .14** .46** .23** .48** .40** .34**
8. NA -.32** -.14* -.14* -.23** -.00 .05 -.04
9. N -.39** -.15** -.24** -.18** -.00 .04 -.15 .51**
10. E .31** .37** .23** .36** .42** .17** .42 -.23** -.38**
11. O .04 .09 .21** .02 -.04 -.04 -.02 -.12* -.18** -.04
12. A .20** .13* .16** .08 .20** -.09 .14* -.13* -.31** .26** .14*
13. C .33** .33** .24** .35** .28** .17** .39** -.27** -.35** .32** -.01 .28**
*p<.05 **p<.01
LS = Life satisfaction; SEIS = Schutte emotional intelligence scale; POE = perception of
emotion; SE = self-relevant emotions; OE = Managing others’ emotions; EU = Utilization
of emotion; PA = Positive emotions; NA = Negative emotions; N = Neuroticism;
E = Extraversion; O = Openness; A = Agreeableness; C = Conscientiousness
Further, in order to have comparison with under a common construct. Then, partial
other findings reported earlier (e.g., correlation showed that life satisfaction’s
Extremera & Fernańdez-Berrocal, 2005; correlation with overall emotional intelligence
Gannon & Ranzijn, 2005) Pearson’s (pr = .07, p = .23), perception of emotion (pr
correlation was initially carried out with the = .10, p = .10), and managing self-relevant
entire data without dividing into male and emotions (pr = .08, p = .18) did not remain
female groups (Table 2). It is observed that significant after controlling for positive and
the subscales of the SEIS are modestly negative affects. Similarly, life satisfaction’s
correlated, so they tend to go hand in hand correlation with overall emotional intelligence
Table 3. Pearson’s correlations of the variables in the study among the males
and females (n = 144 to 147 for female, n = 147 to 152 for males)
Life satisfaction
Variables Males Females
1. SEIS (Schutte emotional intelligence scale) .07 .21**
2. POE (perception of emotion) .07 .24**
3. SE (managing self-relevant emotions) .12 .23**
4. OE (managing others’ emotions) .09 .07
5. EU (utilization of emotions) -.10 .06
6. PA (positive affect) .03 .24**
7. NA (negative affect) -.26** -.37**
8. N (neuroticism) -.32** -.46**
9. E (extraversion) .31** .30**
10. O (openness to experience) .00 .08
11. A (agreeableness) .17* .20*
12. C (conscientiousness) .29** .36**
*p<.05 **p<.01
(pr = .02, p = .72), perception of emotion (pr has never been used in the earlier studies
= .02, p = .80), and self-relevant emotions where life satisfaction’s correlation with
(pr = .02, p = .73) did not remain significant emotional intelligence was observed. Another
after controlling for neuroticism, extraversion, possible reason could be attributed to the
agreeableness, and conscientiousness. cultural difference as the present study was
Later, gender-wise Pearson’s correlation was conducted in India which is predominantly
computed and found that whatever significant collectivistic culture (Verma & Triandis, 1999)
correlation observed between life satisfaction whereas other studies were conducted in
and subscales of emotional intelligence in the predominantly individualistic cultures (e.g.,
entire data was seen only among the female United States). So, on the basis of the present
group, not among the male group (Table 3). and earlier findings it can be suggested that
Although level of English proficiency was the correlation between emotional intelligence
significantly correlated with life satisfaction (r and life satisfaction could be generalized
=.18, p<.01, N = 299) and perception of across the cultures but it cannot be
emotion (r = .15, p<.05, N = 295) it did not generalized that the life satisfaction-emotional
play a significant role in life satisfaction- intelligence linkage is independent of
perception of emotion linkage as the partial affectivity or personality traits.
correlation remained significant (pr = .15, It is suggested that further similarities
p<.05, N = 291). and differences across the self-rated
Discussion emotional intelligence could be empirically
explored in future research so that correlates
The focus of the present study was to
of emotional intelligence could be generalized
re-examine whether the life satisfaction-
to a great extent. Although all the self-report
emotional intelligence linkage observed in
emotional intelligence scales mentioned in
individualistic western cultural context is
this article (Austin, Saklofske, Huang, &
generalizable in collectivistic cultural context
McKenney, 2004; Brackett et al., 2006;
of India after controlling for affectivity and
Palmer & Stough, 2001; Salovey et al., 1995;
personality traits of five factor personality
Schutte et al., 1998) for understanding its
theory. It was found that life satisfaction was
correlation with life satisfaction are all based
significantly correlated with overall self-
on the ability model of emotional intelligence
reported emotional intelligence and some of
proposed by the same scholars (Mayer &
its subscales, that is, perception of emotion
Salovey, 1997, Salovey & Mayer, 1990) there
and managing self-relevant emotions but
is some conceptual difference between the
these associations did not remain significant
original and revised models. The original
after controlling for either positive-negative
model has three dimensions whereas the
affects or personality traits (neuroticism,
revised model has four dimensions. Besides,
extraversion, agreeableness, and
the self-report emotional intelligence scales
conscientiousness). So, life satisfaction’s
designed on the basis of the ability model
relation with emotional intelligence is not
have different subscales, making it more
beyond affectivity or personality; these
difficult to generalize the findings. Another
findings are somewhat opposite to what other
area that can be explored in future research
researchers reported earlier (e.g., Gannon
is to examine the life satisfaction-emotional
& Ranzijn, 2005). One possible reason for
intelligence linkage with the help of observer
the discrepancy in the finding is that the
rated scales.
present study used self-report emotional
intelligence scale developed by Schutte and Suggestions for application of the
colleagues (Schutte et al., 1998); this scale present research findings are: a) correlates
of emotional intelligence found in NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)

individualistic cultures should be cross- professional manual. Odessa, FL:
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Deller, Biswal, & Mandal, 2009). The present Extremera, N., & Fernańdez-Berrocal, P. (2005).
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satisfaction: Predictive and incremental validity
generalizability of the correlates of emotional
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Gannon, N., & Ranzijn, R. (2005). Does emotional
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Accepted: September 30, 2010
Nutankumar S.Thingujam, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of

Pune, Pune
35

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 35-46.
Personality, Emotional Intelligence and Marital Satisfaction of

Violent and Non-Violent Couples
Tejbeer Kaur and Gurminder Sokhey

Punjabi University, Punjab
The present investigation attempted to examine the differences among
Personality, Emotional Intelligence and Marital Satisfaction of Violent and Non-
Violent Couples. Total Sample comprised 60 couples (30 each violent and non-
violent), randomly drawn from Patiala city in the age range of 25- 45 years, both
working professionally. Psychological measures were used to assess personality
Big five inventory, Emotional Intelligence Scale and Marital Satisfaction (ENRICH
Couple Scales). Significant t-values indicated differences between the two types
of couples on various dimensions of Personality, Emotional Intelligence and
Marital Satisfaction.
Keywords: Personality, Emotional intelligence, Marital satisfaction
The Domestic Violence Act of 1998 describes Straus,1992;Ferraro & Moe, 2003; Mullings,
Domestic Violence as a Physical, sexual, Hartley, & Marquart, 2004). A meta-analysis
emotional, economic, verbal and of 82 couple-conflict studies by Archer’s
psychological abuse; intimidation, (2000, 2002) reported that women were more
harassment, stalking; damage to property; physically aggressive and resorted to
entry into the home without permission; and violence more often than men. Felson and
any other abusive, controlling behavior (Park, Cares (2005) found that men are more likely
Fedler, & Dangor, 2000). Though Physical than women to suffer serious injuries and
Violence has been the commonly accepted actually use less violence in intimate
research standard in the area of domestic relationships. Laroche (2005) reports that
abuse. 83% of men “feared for their life” because
Domestic Violence is quite prevalent they were unilaterally terrorized by their
worldwide. The prevalence and female partner compared to the 77% of
consequences of male violence towards women who were unilaterally terrorized.
women has been well-established but the These datasets have shifted attention
research on violent women is far less- to support the existence of “husband
developed. Some research evidence battering.” Yet male victimization is a widely
indicates that women are more aggressive under-reported phenomenon. For a man to
and violent than men. The first U.S National say that he was abused does not go with the
Family Violence Survey of 1975 found that macho image we have of men as they are
women to be as violent as men. Rates of believed to be aggressors. Hence, male
female initiated violence are equivalent to victimization is not taken seriously, in part
male rates; they include female violence because of the “gender paradigm” and of a
against non-violent males, even when cultural belief that men should be able to
analyzed for level of severity and they have defend themselves or a disbelief in female
serious consequences for males (Stets & violence.
36 Personality, EI and Marital Satisfaction
On the contrary research evidence also violence is a learned response. The

indicates that women are five times more perpetrator may have learned this
likely than men to have been the victims of dysfunctional response from witnessing
domestic violence (Rennison & Welchan, violence in his family of origin. Also, maybe
2000). In a study carried out by Department the attitude prevalent in society expressed
of Health and Human Resources in the U.S, often in the media that males have a right to
about 1.5 million women and more than dominate females.
800,000 men are physically assaulted by an According to Attachment theory
intimate partner (of either gender). This (Carden,1994), the perpetrator may not be
translates into about 47 IPV(Intimate partner able to maintain a relationship of trust and
violence) assaults per 1,000 women and 32 mutuality with his partner because of
assaults per 1,000 men (Tjaden & deficiencies in attachment to significant
Thoenness,2000). It has also been reported parental figures that he experienced as a
that 30% of battered wives had to cease child. This may result in feelings of anger,
regular activities due to the abuse and 50 % anxiety and grief over the failures of these
of women had to take sick leave from work earlier relationships that are carried over and
because of the harm sustained expressed toward his partner in their
(Garcia,Moreno,Jansen,Ellsberg, & Watts, marriage.
2006).
Two more widely held theoretical ways
Domestic violence against women is of viewing partner abuse, are the feminist
also grossly underreported as abused and systems perspectives. Feminist
women do not come forward. perspective asserts that partner abuse is the
Underreporting occurs for several reasons, result of male domination and exploitation
such as society’s acceptance of violence of women. The central issue is that of power,
as normative, lack of confidence in the which rests in the hands of men, and the
efficacy of police, difficulties in obtaining function of this power is to control women,
convictions, shame felt by women who are identified in the literature as patriarchy
victims of violence, dependence on (Hester, Kelley, & Radford,1996).
batterers for economic support, only
incidents of serious violence, or causing The systems perspective of partner
injury and fear of retribution on the part of abuse focuses on the family or marital dyad.
the abusers (Rossman, Hughes & All persons in the system in some way
Rosenburg, 1999). Additional reasons for influence or contribute to the abuse that
underestimation of the phenomenon are, occurs and in turn are affected by the abuse
forgetting as a coping mechanism, fear of (Giles-Sims, 1983; McKeel &
losing one’s children, fear of retribution from Sporakowski,1993). Factors influencing the
the abuser, women learning to view their abusive behavior occurring between
experiences as unimportant, fear of not husband and wife may include substance
being believed and understood, and feeling abuse, stress, ineffective communication
ashamed of the way they are treated by their patterns, having been a victim of violence,
partner (McGee, 2000). and poor impulse control (Finkel-hor &
Dziuba-Leatherman,1994).
Various theoretical perspectives have
tried to explain partner abuse. Social learning Walker (1979,1994) based on her
theory, (Bandura, 1977) maintains that research with battered women, proposed
that male battering can be understood as
Tejbeer Kaur and Gurminder Sokhey 37
occurring in a cycle consisting of three disagreements arise, and tension builds.

stages. The three stages continue to repeat The cycle of violence is about to be repeated
themselves overtime and may become (Dutton,1995; Walker, 1979, 1994).
more intense and frequent unless the couple Other psychologists have also
separates or seeks professional help. The specifically probed into the causes of violent
various stages may occur over different behavior in men and women. Dutton (1995)
lengths of time. attributed dangerous violence to physical or
Stage 1 of the violence cycle is the mental illness. While Gelles (1997) found
tension-building stage, in which the that borderline personality disorder (BPD),
perpetrator engages in minor abusive is marked by a proclivity for intense
incidents with his partner. His wife attempts relationships, fear of abandonment, and
to “keep peace” in the family or diffuse the proneness to rage, to be strongly associated
situation by denying the seriousness of the with male battering of women. Violent men
incidents or by blaming herself or some seem to have deficits in processing social
external factor for in some way provoking information in specific situations- typically,
the abuse. The wife’s behavior they negatively misinterpret their wives’
demonstrates her belief that she is capable behavior, e.g. she pays attention to others.
of controlling the violence for her husband. Such situations induce an inner panic
The initial tension –building stage may last because they hint at rejection. While few
for weeks, months, or years. studies have also reported violent women,
Stage 2 of the cycle is the acute 75% of such women were diagnosed cases
battering incident, in which an external event of Borderline Personality Disorder.
impacting on the couple or something that Holtzworth-Munroe,Meechan,Heeron,
the perpetrator is experiencing may provoke and Stuart (2000) also see the rejection-
loss of control. The incident may be relatively jealously issue as one of the keys to
brief, lasting less than an hour, or it may go domestic violence. Violent men are more
on for several hours. The wife may be preoccupied with the marital relationship and
severely injured as a result of her husband’s have few friends and a narrower focus on
rage. This second stage represents a their wife and dependency on them. The
critical period for the wife if she wishes the thought of wife leaving makes them violent.
cycle of violence to be broken. She must They also screwed-up relationships with
leave the home and seek shelter elsewhere their own parents. They lack the ability to
or to seek professional help for their trust, something that comes out of secure
marriage. early attachment to a parent or other
Following the turmoil of stage 2 is the responsive caregiver. As a result, they fear
calm period, Stage 3, identified as kindness loss, misinterpret neutral situations as
and contrite, loving behavior. Perpetrator threatening; see hostile intent when it
demonstrates contrite behavior for the doesn’t exist. It is clear from the evidence
abuse that occurred: begs for forgiveness, that most treatments don’t help. Probably
gives gifts to partner, cries, and vows they are applied too late, after violence is a
abusive behavior will never again occur. set as a behavioral pattern. Once violence
Despite the perpetrator’s promises, the is used, it becomes reinforced-because it
couple gradually over a period of time slips works. The men get what they want, though
back into stage 1 as life goes on, they may feel bad about doing it.
Marital Violence, Neil Jacobson (1994) eating disturbances, elevated blood

finds, is not just an extreme form of argument. pressure, alcoholism, drug abuse, and low
In arguments they are highly emotionally self-esteem. For some women, fatally
aggressive- they are belligerent, depressed and demeaned by their abuser,
contemptuous, demeaning. They lack there seems to be no escape from a violent
empathy for their partners. Anger is shared relationship except suicide. (“Violence against
by both partners in violent relationships. Women”, WHO Consultation, 1996).
They taunt, demean and hurl contempt at Domestic violence not only mars
each other even in non-violent arguments. women’s self esteem, time off work,
The wives of domestic violence are very feisty. depression but also men perhaps in a similar
Once an argument is started, they don’t back fashion. Though levels of violence against
down. They give negative statements with wives are significantly higher among
negative responses-what psychologists call husband-dominating patriarchal couples than
negative reciprocity. among egalitarian couples (Straus, Gelles, &
Gelles (1995) found that some men who Steinmetz,1980).
lack financial means and alternative All these factors influence quality of
resources might use violence to gain the marital relationship and satisfaction.
dominant position in the family. Unemployed According to Olson and Olson (2000), marital
men were found to be twice more likely to satisfaction with higher relational qualities in
physically abuse wives than employed men couples has a lot to do with sharing egalitarian
are (Steinmetz, 1987). However, MacMillan gender roles.
and Gartner (1999) emphasized that it is
imperative that both spouses, have financial However some researchers are of the
security of being employed in order to view that interpersonal skills are needed to
decrease violence in the relationship. resolve conflict and foster intimacy between
partners which determine successful marital
Research also suggests that the way outcomes. However, these skills form part of
couples function currently could be directly a greater construct, labeled Emotional
or indirectly affected by how their family of Intelligence (EI) which stems from Gardner’s
origin functioned. Families are often referred (1985) theory of social intelligence. This
to as “training grounds for violence” construct seeks to explain why some people
(Gelles,1995) and abuse tends to happen are successful in marital, work and social
between multiple members(Straus,1994). The relationships while others are not and
parent who batters a child is more likely to hit identifying certain innate skills and abilities
his or her spouse as well (Straus,1994). that account for such social competency.
Furthermore, children of abuse can become These skills include the ability to regulate
potential victimizers themselves as adults ones own emotions as well as the expression
(Giles-Sims, Straus & Sugarman, 1995), and of emotion (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004).
are as twice as likely to hit their spouses When these skills are applied to various
(Straus, 1994). situations, they are believed to produce
The impact of violence on women’s successful outcomes. The evidence is
mental health leads to severe and fatal strongest in the display of EI abilities within
consequences. Battered women have a high the interpersonal relationships (Fitness,
incidence of stress and stress-related illness 2001; Mayer, 2001). These same results were
such as post-traumatic stress syndrome, shown to be significant in understanding
panic attacks, depression, sleeping and effective interpersonal behavior in marriage.
Greater marital satisfaction has been personality, EQ and marital satisfaction i.e.
attributed to Emotional Intelligence, when violent couples would be high on neuroticism,
other variables such as intelligence and less conscientiousness, low on EQ, and
personality have been accounted for Marital Satisfaction as compared to non-
(Fitness, 2001; Mayer,2001). This can be violent couples.
understood by analyzing the fundamental Method
skills needed in marital satisfaction, namely,
intimacy and conflict resolution skills. Intimacy Sample:
and conflict resolution both appear to benefit Total sample comprised 60 couples (30
from the ability to listen, empathize and each violent and non-violent couples)
understand one’s partners emotion. Also the randomly drawn from Patiala city. The age
ability to regulate one’s own emotions has range of the subjects was between 25-
shown to prevent conflict. Schutte, Malouff 45years and both professionally qualified.
and Dornheim(1998) found a significant The criterion for the selection of violent
relationship between marital satisfaction and couples was based on their indulging in
EI. physical, verbal as well as psychological
As our discussion demonstrates, female abuse. On the basis of structured interview
perpetrated abuse is as common as male schedule. No prevalence of such abuse in
abuse, often extends to the same degree of the non-violent couples was reported.
severity, can result in serious negative Measures:
outcomes for male and female victims, and Big five inventory (BFI (John & Srivastava,
seems to reflect a common set of background 1991). The inventory is designed to measure
causes. Violence is not a means of problem the Big five dimensions i.e. Extraversion,
solving, although perpetrators often resort to Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,
violence when coping with marital problems. Neuroticism and Openness. It is a short form
Though literature reveals various possible of a multidimensional personality inventory
causes of marital violence such as fear of (44 items total) and items were rated on a 5-
abandonment, proneness to rage, rejection- point scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly)
jealously issue, insecurity, lack of trust, “Family to 5 (agree strongly).
of origin”, Unemployment, Dysfunctional
beliefs etc. In view of the reported literature if Emotional Intelligence scale (Hyde &
any personality or EQ factors are contributing Pethe, 2001). This scale comprises 34 items
to such behavior patterns in both men and and 10 subscales: self-awareness, empathy,
women affecting their marital harmony self-motivation, emotional stability, managing
perhaps they can be analyzed through some relations, integrity, self-development, value-
professional help. Hence some interventions orientation, commitment and altruistic
like counseling or Family therapy can help to behavior. Individuals with high score can be
eradicate the myths to support the dominance considered to have high level of emotional
of men over women and using violence as a intelligence and are likely to be high
method of interpersonal problem solving. performers. Responses are made on a 5-
Thus keeping in view the need of such a point Likert scale; from strongly disagree to
study, the investigators endeavoured to strongly agree.
probe into this area. Marital Satisfaction scale (Olson ,1996).
Hypothesis: This scale comprises 35 items and provides
a global measure of satisfaction by surveying
It was expected that violent couples important areas of the couple’s marriage.
would differ from non-violent couples on
These areas include the marital satisfaction, a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (disagree
conflict resolution, communication and strongly) to 5 (agree strongly).
idealistic distortion .The items were rated on
Results
Table 1a. Mean, SD and t-ratios for various dimensions of personality between violent and
non-violent husbands
Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism
Husbands VH NH VH NH VH NH VH NH VH NH
Mean 24.83 29.73 25.93 35.33 25.33 33.1 26.13 30.56 29.26 19.16
SD 4.31 4.17 2.36 4.07 3.38 3.36 3.31 6.77 3.05 3.69
t-value 4.46** 10.93** 8.907** 3.22** 11.54**
df=58 *p<.05 *p<.01
Table 1b. Mean, SD and t-ratios for various dimensions of personality between violent and
non-violent wives
Extraversion Openness Agreeableness conscientiousness Neuroticism
Wives VW NW VW NW VW NW VW NW VW NW
Mean 23.3 25.63 28.53 34.3 27.76 34 26.7 30.6 24.73 17.86
SD 4.14 4.76 3.71 3.45 3.96 4.49 5.07 6.23 4.33 4.05
t-value 2.02* 6.22** 5.69** 2.29* 6.33**
df=58 *p<.05 *p<.01
The Analysis of the obtained data by the These results are in consonance with
application of t-test revealed significant previous researches. Various theoretical
differences between violent and non-violent approaches in the existing literature have
husbands (Table 1a) and wives (Table 1b) tried to explain the causes of violence such
on various dimensions of personality. as Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory
It was found that violent husbands i.e violence is a learned response. The
scored lower on extraversion (t= 4.46, perpetrator may have learned this
p<.01), openness (t= 10.93, p<.01), dysfunctional response from witnessing
agreeableness =
(t 8.907, p<.01), violence in his family of origin; Attachment
conscientiousness (t=3.22, p<.01) and higher theorists (Carden, 1994), believe that the
on neuroticism (t=11.54, p<.01) as compared perpetrator is not able to maintain a
to non-violent husbands. relationship of trust and mutuality because
of deficiencies (insecurity) experienced as a
Similar trend was found between violent child. On the other hand, Feminist perspective
and non-violent wives i.e violent wives also (Hester, Kelley, & Radford, 1996) asserts that
scored lower on extraversion (t=2.02, p<.05), partner abuse is the result of male domination
openness (t= 6.22, p<.01), agreeableness and exploitation of women, identified in the
(t= 5.69, p<.01), conscientiousness (t= 2.29, literature as patriarchy. System perspective
p<.05) and higher on Neuroticism (t= 6.33, focuses on the family or marital dyad. It
p<.01) as compared to non-violent wives. contributes to the abuse that occurs and in
turn is affected by the abuse. Further, some proneness to experience unpleasant and
factors influences abusive behavior such a disturbing emotions and to have
substance abuse, stress, ineffective corresponding disturbances in thoughts and
communication. actions which may be manifested in
As reported by Gelles (1997), male impulsivity and vulnerability. Such individual’s
battering of women is strongly associated with are more prone to violent and negative
Borderline personality disorder and is marked emotions that interfere with their ability to deal
by a proclivity for intense relationships, fear with their problems and to get along with
of abandonment and proneness to rage. others. Though it’s a dimension of personality
More recently, Jeannette Norman, (2006) on which people vary in degree.
reported that there are some other personality It is also possible, as Hara Estroff Marano
disorders which may be linked with violent (1993) suggest that men who are physically
behaviors especially those with Explosive violent tend to have deficits in processing
personality disorder wherein the individual is social information in specific situations-
unable to control aggressive or violent typically they negatively misinterpret their
impulses and once they act out the wives’ behavior. Hence it seems that people
aggression, the person has a strong sense who are very high on neuroticism (impulsivity
of relief. Some researchers have attributed and vulnerability) or suffering from personality
violent behavior also to Psychotic and disorders may also be high on violent
neurotic disorders. They report that persons behavior.
with paranoid disorder usually have Violence may also be attributed to family
suspiciousness, jealously and envy & they influences, insecure childhood, dysfunctional
have a tendency to blame others. beliefs, and dominated behavior (patriarchal
Vestre (1984) is of the view that society) and all these factors very likely also
individual’s high on neuroticism exhibit trigger marital discord.
Table 2a. Mean, SD and t-ratios for various dimensions of Emotional Intelligence between
violent and non-violent husbands.
SA E SM ES MR
Husbands VH NH VH VH NH NH VH NH VH NH
Mean 9.96 16.33 9.26 16.13 14.26 23.63 7.6 15.3 6.3 13.9
SD 3.93 1.70 2.93 2.12 2.99 2.61 2.71 1.80 2.52 2.34
t-value 9.16** 10.37** 12.89** 12.95** 12.20**
SA- Self Awareness, E-Empathy, SM- Self Motivation, ES- Emotional Stability,
MR- Managing Relations
I SD VO C AB HT
VH NH VH NH VH NH VH NH VH NH VH NH
4.9 11.67 3.37 7.63 3.26 7.63 3.43 8.4 3.86 7.7 66.53 128.5
1.64 1.24 1.38 1.02 1.33 1.21 1.22 1.19 1.54 1.14 11.53 10.64
17.96** 12.47** 13.22** 15.93** 10.89** 21.62**
df=58 p<.05 p<.01 I-Integrity SD-Self Motivation VO-Value Orientation
C-Commitment AB-Altruistic Behavior HT-Husband Total Scores.
Table 2b. Mean, SD and t-ratios for various dimensions for Emotional Intelligence between
violent and non-violent wives
SA E SM ES MR
Wives VW NW VW VW NW NW VW NW VW NW
Mean 11.23 15.9 9.63 15.53 14.3 22.3 6.8 14.1 5.83 13.1
SD 2.88 1.74 3.40 2.16 2.86 2.69 1.95 2.08 2.15 2.64
t-value 7.57** 8.00** 11.08** 14.11** 11.6**
I SD VO C AB WT
VW NW VW NW VW NW VW NW VW NW VW NW
4.96 10.7 3.4 6.96 2.86 7.4 3.13 8 3 7.4 65.1 121.6
1.49 1.46 1.30 1.29 1.13 1.22 1.008 1.33 1.14 1.04 11.71 10.14
14.99** 10.61** 14.88** 15.90** 15.7** 19.97**
df=58 p<.05 p<.01
Significant difference between violent some emotional skills such as expressing
and non-violent couples (Table 2a ) on emotions, identifying and labeling emotions,
various dimensions of emotional intelligence assessing the intensity of emotions, managing
revealed that violent husbands showed emotions, delaying gratification, controlling
deficits in certain areas of EQ like Empathy impulses, reducing stress and knowing the
(t=10.37, p<.01), emotional stability (t=12.95, difference between emotions and actions can
p<.01), managing relations (t= 12.20, p<.01) make you successful in interpersonal
and integrity (t= 17.96, p<.01) as compared relations as well as in any aspect of life.
to non-violent husband. Similar trend was (Dalip Singh, 2006).
found between violent and non-violent wives It appears that within a marriage there
(Table 2b) like Empathy, (t= 8.00, p<.01), is unspoken emotional dialogue whether
emotional stability (t=14.11, p<.01), managing verbal or non-verbal, a complex processing
relations (t= 11.6, p<.01) and integrity occurring every interaction between partners.
(t=14.99, p<.01) as compared to non-violent These factors play a significant role in marital
wives. relations and satisfaction. Couples may
Results reveal that even though the acquire the skills to use and recognize this
obtained scores of violent couples on various form of communication, and in doing so, may
dimensions of EQ are not beyond normal significantly improve the level of marital
range/norms. Yet they were significantly lower satisfaction. It seems, that such skills are
than the non-violent couples in all areas like lacking in individual’s high on violence or
empathy, emotional stability, managing aggressive behavior. Perhaps they are deficit
relations and integrity. Emotional intelligence in certain areas such as managing relations,
is the capacity to create positive outcomes in emotional stability, self-motivation, empathy.
your relationships with others and with And this can also be attributed to them being
yourself. Positive outcomes include joy, high on neuroticism and low on openness and
optimism, and success in work, school, and agreeableness. All these factors are closely
life. Increasing emotional intelligence has associated with emotional intelligence and
been correlated with better results in there is a possibility that all they also
leadership, sales, academic performance, contribute to marital satisfaction as the results
marriage, friendships, and health. Learning reveal.
Table 3a. Mean, SD and for various dimensions of Marital Satisfaction between violent and
non-violent husbands
Martial Satisfaction Communication Conflict Resolution Idealistic Distortion
Husbands VH NH VH NH VH NH VH NH
Mean 28.3 37.6 26.7 34.3 25.53 32.8 17.1 15.43
SD 4.13 2.15 3.01 4.22 2.68 3.20 2.89 2.88
t-value 10.8** 7.98** 9.6** 2.23*
df=58 p<.05 p<.01
Table 3b. Mean, SD and t-ratios for various dimensions of Martial Satisfaction between
violent and non-violent wives
Martial Satisfaction Communication Conflict Resolution Idealistic Distortion Wives
VW NW VW NW VW NW VW NW
Mean 29.13 39.03 28. 36 25.43 33.23 15.73 15.53
SD 2.52 3.01 2.42 4.17 1.69 3.08 2.95 3.95
t-value 5.70** 5.26** 4.64** 3.46**
df=58 p<.05 p<.01
Significant difference between violent ground rules building. Olson (1997) is of the
and non-violent husbands (Table no. 3a) on view that when a couple experiences
various dimensions of marital satisfaction longstanding abuse, they might create
revealed that violent husbands scored lower distorted views of how their relationship
on marital satisfaction (t= 10.8,p,.01), should and can be. It may never be completely
communication (t= 7.98, p<.01) conflict clear whether poor communication and
resolution (t= 9.6, p<.01) and idealistic conflict resolution skills contribute to spouse
distortion (t=2.23, p<.01) as compared to non- abuse, or the presence of abuse hinders their
violent husbands. A Perusal of Table 3b also collaborative consensus building processes.
reveals similar trend was found between However, it is evident that that at least there
violent and non-violent wives i.e. violent wives is a strong association between the presence
scored lower on marital satisfaction (t=5.70, of spouse abuse and the couple’s inability to
p<.01), communication (t= 5.26, p<.01) communicate and to reach agreement to build
conflict resolution (t= 4.64, p<.01) and an egalitarian relationship.
idealistic distortion (t= 3.46, p<.01) as Researchers have also reported that
compared to non-violent husbands. Non-abusive couples are hypothesized to be
These results are in consonance with those in which both partners are high in
previous researches. Larson & Holman assertiveness and self-confidence and low in
(1994), identified three areas of couple dominance and avoidance, while abusive
interaction processes as key factors of the couples tend to create the negative cycle of
couple’s relational quality and stability. These high dominance and avoidance accompanied
factors are communication, conflict with low self-esteem and assertiveness(Olson
resolution, and consensus building. & Olson,1999). Research has shown that
Communication facilitated a couple’s victims of abuse often experience
construction of their unique shared views of psychological distress such as fear, low self-
their relationship through consensus and esteem, depression, guilt and avoidance
(Katz & Arias, 1999; Haj-Yahia, 2000; Olson Forgas, & J.D.Mayer (Eds.), Emotional
& Defrain, 2003). Hence there is a possibility Intelligence in everyday life: A scientific
that all these factors also influence violent inquiry (pp.98-112). Philidephia: Psychology
couples in managing their relations, and they Press
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neuroticism thus creating a negative cycle for Victimization of children. American
Psychologist,49,173-183.
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Gelles, R. J. (1995). Contemporary families: A
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Giles-Sims,J.(1983). Wife Battering, a systems
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Giles-Sims, J., Straus, M. A., & Sugarman, D.
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Received: March 30, 2010
Revision received: Augest 18, 2010
Accepted: September 30, 2010
Tejbeer Kaur, Research Scholar, Punjabi University, Patiala-147001, Punjab

E-mail- [email protected]
Gurminder Sokhey, PhD, Department of Psychology, Punjabi University,
Patiala-147 001, Punjab
47

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 47-52.
Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Psychological

Well Being of Male Police Personnel
Omar H. Dar, S. Alam and Zahoor A. Lone

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
Emotional control is an important part of occupational identity both in terms of
the public’s expectation and demands of their job. In many ways, police officers’
integrity is considered to rest with the “suppression of affect”. So, in this context
emotional intelligence skill, such as above-average communication skills,
reactions appropriate to the presenting situation, and the ability to resolve conflicts
satisfactorily can been listed as desirable characteristics in police personnel.
Keeping the above things in view it was felt necessary to study the relationship
between emotional intelligence and psychological well being of police personnel.
Male police personnel were selected as they constitute the major portion of our
police organization. The sample (N=200) for the present study was taken from
Jammu and Kashmir police. Results revealed that male police personnel are
well placed in terms of both emotional intelligence and psychological well being.
Furthermore, high positive correlation was found between emotional intelligence
and psychological well being.
Keywords: Psychological well being, Work commitment, Environmental mastery,
Self acceptance, Emotional intelligence.
The word police is derived from Latin word police and police of the Soviet-era Eastern
‘politia’ which literally stands for the condition Europe are (or were) called militsiya. As police
of a ‘polis’ or state. In the past it meant a are often in conflict with individuals, slang
system of governance or administration terms are numerous e.g., pond police, as they
(police state) but now it indicates an organized are called in Kashmir valley. Many slang terms
body of civil officers engaged in the for police officers are decades or centuries
preservation of law and order, detection of old with lost etymology.
crime and enforcement of laws. The Oxford Emotional intelligence is the ability to
Dictionary defines the term as a system of perceive emotions, to assess and generate
official organization whose job is to make emotions so as to assist thought, to
people obey the law and to prevent and solve understand emotions and emotional
crime. According to the Encyclopedia knowledge, and to reflectively regulate
International, police are agents charged with emotions so as to promote emotional
enforcing the law and maintaining order. intellectual growth. According to Goleman
Alternative names for police force (1998) “emotional intelligence” refers to the
include constabulary, gendarmerie, police capacity for recognizing our own feelings and
department, police service, crime prevention, those of others, for motivating ourselves, and
protective services, law enforcement agency for managing emotions, well in ourselves and
or Garda Síochána, and members can be in our relationships. Ryback cited in
police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, Wolmarans (2001) describes “emotional
rangers, peace officers or Garda. Russian intelligence” as the ability to use our
48 EI and Psychological Well Being
awareness and sensitivity to discern the one’s existence, and fourthly psychological well
feelings underlying interpersonal being is a relative state of affairs—relative to
communication, and to resist the temptation the situation as well as to the values of the
to respond impulsively and thoughtlessly, but particular culture one belongs to, such as the
instead to act from receptivity, authenticity traditional “Indianness” of avoiding extreme and
and candour. The current definition of maintaining equilibrium, of having good health
emotional intelligence is “the ability to process and practicing self control, self-realization and
emotional information, particularly as it dissolution of the self.
involves the perception, assimilation, Policing, a service-oriented profession,
understanding, and management of emotion” is charged with a critical role in sustaining law
(Mayer and Cobb, 2000). Various models and order in an ever-changing and diverse
have been proposed to understand the environment. The success of police
concept, these are: the emotional intelligence organizations depends for a large part on
ability model by Mayer and Salovey (1997); police personnel’s personality characteristics
(Brackett & Salovey, 2004), Bar-On’s and well being. Trait emotional intelligence
Emotional-Social Intelligence (ESI) model skills, such as above-average communication
(1997; Bar-On, 2006), and the emotional skills, reactions appropriate to the presenting
competencies model focused on the situation, and the ability to resolve conflicts
workplace (Goleman, 1998). satisfactorily have been listed as desirable
Psychological well being in simple terms characteristics in police officers (Gettinger,
can be understood as the state of being well, 1981; Lumb & Breazeale, 2002; Tannehill &
happy or prosperous, welfare. Psychological Janeksela, 1984). Still, there is a dearth of
well being is a subjective term means different literature pertaining to emotional intelligence
thing to different people. Psychological well- as it relates to police officers (Aremu, 2005).
being is constructed out of three components: More recently, Lord and Schoeps’ (2000)
(1) Life-satisfaction (2) Positive affect and (3) study was aimed at identifying psychological
low Negative affect, the judgments of attributes of community-oriented police
psychological well-being are irreducibly officers. The findings identified 22 attributes
subjective and that the meaning and content considered critical by one large metropolitan
of the term are seen to fluctuate, depending police department for effective community-
on who is using it and why it is being used. oriented officers. These attributes
Myers and Diener (1995) in their paper entitled emphasized problem solving, decision
“Who is happy?” define high psychological making, and the ability to learn new
well-being as frequent positive affect, knowledge, all attributes closely related to trait
infrequent negative affect and a global sense emotional intelligence. Helliwell (2003) using
of satisfaction with life. Based on the above a wide range of sampling techniques and
discussion an operational definition of assessment methods confirms that social
psychological well-being may include the relationships are a very important
following: Firstly it may be understood as a determinant of happiness and subjective well-
scientific sounding term for what people usually being of the employees. Further well-being
mean by happiness. Secondly, it refers to what was found to have direct relationship with
people think and feel about themselves i.e., employee’s performance. Slaski and
the cognitive and affective conclusions they Cartwright (2003) conducted a study on
reach when they evaluate their existence. emotional intelligence training and its
Thirdly, it involves the individual’s entire implications for stress on health and
condition i.e., social, and spiritual aspects of performance of policemen and they found that
Omar H. Dar, S. Alam and Zahoor A. Lone 49
training resulted in increased emotional Method

intelligence, improved health and psychological Participants:
well being. It ultimately led to the improved
efficiency. Ricca (2003) examined the A sample of 200 male police personnel
relationship between emotional intelligence, were selected (N= 200) from Jammu and
negative mood regulation, and burnout among Kashmir police and the sample was purely
police officers. Regression analysis supported purposive in nature.
the main hypothesis which predicted an inverse Measures:
relationship between emotional intelligence, as Emotional intelligence Scale developed
measured by the EQ-i, and burnout. Results and standardized by Singh (2004) was used.
further supported a positive relationship The scale consists of sixty statements with five
between emotional intelligence and negative alternative responses. The items of Emotional
mood regulation. Emotional intelligence has intelligence scale were grouped under five
also been studied with: job satisfaction categories namely, Self Awareness, Self
(Muhammad, 2006), personality (Day & Regulation, Motivation, Social Awareness and
Associates, 2005) and stress (Slaski & Social Skills. The subjects have to weight
Cartwright, 2003) etc. The survey of the statements in 5,4,3,2 &1 for describe me
relevant literature gives an idea about the moderately well, described me a little and not
importance of emotional intelligence on work at all described me respectively. High score
place in general and specifically for police indicates high level of Emotional Intelligence
personnel. No doubt the importance of and low score indicates low level of emotional
Emotional Intelligence has immense impact on intelligence. The author has reported the scale
employees behavior it has been studied in as highly reliable and valid.
relation to: job satisfaction (Muhammad, 2006),
adaptation to occupational culture (Bar-On, Psychological Well Being Scale developed
2000), negative mood regulation, and burnout by Ryff (1989) was used. This scale measures
(Ricca, 2003) etc. It has been demonstrated six dimensions of psychological well being viz.,
to correlate with various organizational (i) autonomy, (ii) environmental mastery, (iii)
outcomes such as job performance, personal growth, (iv) positive relations with
organizational commitment, and organizational others, (v) purpose in life, and (vi) self
citizenship behaviors (Cote & Miners, 2006; acceptance. The scale consisted of 54 items
Martin, Jones, & Callan 2005; Zukerman & (6x9-item scale). The responses vary from
O’Loughlin, 2006). Now, we can say with Strongly Disagree (1), Disagree Somewhat (2),
conviction that there are no direct studies of Disagree Slightly (3), Agree Slightly (4), Agree
emotional intelligence and psychological well Somewhat (5), to Strongly Agree (6). There
being on police personnel in India. Therefore, were 28 negative items in the scale whose
it was felt worth to study the relationship scoring was done in the reverse order. The
between Emotional Intelligence and reliability and validity coefficients of the scale
Psychological Well Being of police personnel. were r = 0.82 & r = 0.77 respectively.
Objective: Results
To examine the relationship of emotional It can be inferred from the descriptive
intelligence and its facets with psychological statistics in the Table-1 that male police
well being and its constructs. personnel are well placed in terms of both
emotional intelligence (mean = 187.01,
SD= 51.70) and psychological well being
(mean= 172.04, SD= 42.02).
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of variables Emotional intelligence is positively

Variables Mean S.D correlated to psychological well being
(r=.867<0.05) and it’s all the dimensions viz.,
Self Awareness 38.41 12.20
Self Regulation 37.20 11.98
autonomy (r= .678<0.05), environmental
Motivation 37.70 12.03 mastery (r= .725<0.05), personal growth
Social Awareness 37.05 12.39 =
(r .781<0.05), personal relations
Social Skills 36.64 12.10 (r=.670<0.05), purpose of life (r=.589<0.05),
Total Emotional self acceptance (r=.716<0.05) and vice versa
Intelligence 187.01 51.70 as depicted from Table-2.
Autonomy 27.25 7.84 Discussion
Environmental Mastery 29.24 9.07
Personal Growth 32.18 12.13 The findings of the study indicate that
Personal Relations 27.55 9.72 emotional intelligence and its facets are
Purpose of Life 27.98 9.46 positively correlated with psychological well
Self Acceptance 27.85 8.99 being and its constructs. Therefore, our
Total Psychological findings are in confirmation with the findings
Well being 172.04 42.02 of Ricca (2003) who examined the
relationship between emotional intelligence,
Table 2. Inter Correlation between Variables
Autonomy Environmental Personal Personal Purpose Self Total
Mastery Growth Relations of Life Acceptance PWB
Self
Awareness .584* .605* .737* .605* .500* .626* .767*
Self
Regulation .669* .612* .681* .568* .510* .644* .765*
Motivation .554* .626* .728* .607* .506* .639* .768*
Social
Awareness .599* .699* .641* .631* .552* .670* .785*
Social Skills .594* .665* .660* .548* .535* .584* .746*
Total E.I .678* .725* .781* .670* .589* .716* .867*
*p<.05
well being and burnout among police officers. out successful in their relationships. This
The results of his study supported a positive ultimately results in high psychological well
relationship between emotional intelligence being. After attaining high psychological well
and well being. being male police personnel feel happy about
The results reveal the fact that themselves and want to live their lives on
emotionally intelligent male police personnel those high notes. So, they keep on exhibiting
are able to understand the emotions of others emotionally intelligent behaviour but in real
and are able to mould their own behaviour terms and situations it may not work due to
according to the need of the hour. It in turn one or another reason. We should not forget
gives them a sense of control, autonomy and the workload, stressful situations, extended
motivates them to repeat that behaviour in duty hours, and emergency call etc. of police
the future. They start accepting themselves personnel. Inspite of these facts police
as they are because of their enhanced self personnel discharge their duties effectively.
and social awareness. It increases their self It is due to their high emotional intelligence
regulation and social skills; hence they come and psychological well being.
Omar H. Dar, S. Alam and Zahoor A. Lone 51
This high emotional intelligence and given the role of police to understand the real
enhanced psychological well being comes problems faced by the police.
handy and useful for the police organization References
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is important to suggest certain Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test
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provided to those police personnel who are emotional intelligence: Common ground and
working at baseline. Because these police controversy . Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science
Publishing.
personnel are bound to obey and implement
the command and order of their officers. To Cote, S. & Miners, C. T. H (2006). Emotional
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Gettinger, S. (1981). Psychological testing of
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competence training. Hence, at least such Police Chief, 1, 29-40.
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Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional
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Helliwell (2003). Emotional intelligence. Science
can also be improved by a appointing
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Lord & Scoeps (2000). Community oriented
participation is also important in smooth
policing: A systematic approach to policing
functioning of police as, the number of police (3rd ed.). NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
personnel is not in proportion to public.
Lumb, R. C., & Breazeale, R. (2002). Police
Through this the work load of police can be
officer attitudes and community policing
minimized sometimes the public should be implementation: Developing strategies for
durable organizational change. Policing and Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything or is

Society,13, 91-106. it? Explorations on the meaning of
Martin, A.J., Jones, E., & Callan, V.J. (2005). psychological well-being. Journal of
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Psychology, 14, 263-289. Slaski & Cartwright (2003). Job satisfaction,
Mayer & Cobb (2000). Emotional intelligence. organizational commitment, turnover
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Emotional developments and Emotional and task analysis: An effective tool for
Intelligence; educational applications (pp. manpower development and curriculum
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Muhammad, D.R. (2006). The relationships Journal of Police Science and
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intelligence quotient predicts level of Harper’s Magazine,11, 16-21..
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International; Section B; The sciences and enhancement by social comparison. A
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happy?” Psychological science, 6,10-19.
Ricca (2003). Fairness and effectiveness in Received: September 21, 2010
policing: The evidence. Washington, DC: Revision received: November 22, 2010
National Academy Press. Accepted: November 29, 2010
Omar H. Dar, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh
Zahoor A. Lone, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh
S. Alam, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh
53

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 53-59.
Depression in Institutionalised and Non-Institionalized Elderly
S. Venkatesan
All India Institute of Speech and Hearing, Mysore.
Anupama Ravindranath
Sri Venkateswara Unversity, Tirupati
This cross sectional study seeks to map the ground trends of depression in
institutionalized and non-institutionalized elderly in association with connected
socio-demographic variables. A demographic data sheet and 28-item General
Health Questionnaire was used to carry out individual interviews among the
elderly. The results indicate satisfactory psychometric qualities for the GHQ-28
in this tested sample for reliability and inter-correlations of its sub-scales. The
findings paint a rather grim picture of the most typical hypothetically affected
senior citizen of this sample as one who is a widowed institutionalized female
hailing from low socio economic status group with complaints of felt anxiety
and sleeplessness along with severe depression. This contrasts the much better
counterpart of the non-institutionalized aged familial male, preferably with the
spouse, from a high socio economic status, who scores consistently better
scores on all health dimensions as measured in this study. The results are
discussed in the light of the need and their implications for improving the quality
of life of the institutionalized elderly in the contemporary Indian society.
Keywords: Geriatric Depression, Institutionalized Elderly, Quality of Life
India is gradually turning into a graying nation. found on any of the depression scales. On
With increased life expectancy, there is more BDI, the older group reported more somatic
number of citizens above 60-65 age range complaints than the younger group.
now than at any other time before in the history Psychological complaints were reported
of the country. Depressive symptoms are equally by young and old groups. Women
reported as prevalent over the age of sixty reported more depressed items on MMPI-2
five (Ganatra, Zafar, Qidwai, & Rozi, 2008). and a greater number of symptoms of physical
Although depression in elderly is common, malfunctioning than men for both age groups.
the ageing process itself is unlikely to be the No age by sex interaction reached levels of
cause of their depression. Studies have significance.
shown that people who have lived over ninety According to available literature, the
were no more likely to be depressed than concept of ‘quality of life’ comprises several
young adults (Lepine & Bouchey, 1998). dimensions (Spilker 1990, Bowling, 1992).
Bolla-Wilson and Bleecker (1989) examined The most commonly evaluated are its
the effects of age (young less than or equal physical, psychological and social
to 60 years, old greater than 60 years) and dimensions. The physical dimension refers
sex on Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), to the individual’s physical condition as a
Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI)- consequence of disease or treatment. The
Scale 2 (Depression), and Geriatric social aspect reflects the person’s satisfaction
Depression Scale (GDS). No age effects were
54 Depression in Elderly
with participation in social roles and social Method

activities. The psychological facet refers to Sample:
emotional evaluation of a particular situation.
This is frequently expressed as measures of A cross sectional survey design
anxiety and depression (Blalock, Devellis, combined with purposive sampling technique
Brown, & Wallston, 1989; Krol, Sanderman, & was used in this investigation. The overall
Suurmeijer, 1993). In the present study, sample consisted of 120 elderly or senior
following the lines of Goldberg and Hillier citizens. The operational definition of elders
(1979), Sanderman and Stewart (1990) and in this study refers to individuals between age
Krol et al (1994) the psychological group of 60-75 years. Half of the included
component of quality of life is proposed to be sample was derived from registered ‘homes
considered as an outcome measure for the for senior citizens’ with a minimum stay-in
quality of life and well being of the elderly. period of three months. The other half of the
sample was elders residing in their natural
Institutionalized living for the elderly is homes either by themselves, with their
increasingly becoming the order of the day. spouse and/or children. Elders who were bed
The stigma attached to the elderly being left ridden, temporary guests in the households
to the custody of ‘homes for aged’ is gradually of their friends or relatives, or those who
waning. Still, the thought or word invokes required assistance in their activities of daily
mixed feelings or reactions. It is viewed with living were excluded from the study.
hate and loathing as it symbolizes ‘horrors of
poverty, disgrace, loneliness, humiliation, Tools:
abandonment and degradation’ (Epstein, A socio-demographic data sheet
1929). Many of the institutions are viewed as exclusively prepared for the purpose of this
rendering sub-standard care. Many factors study was used to gather information on the
can contribute to greater depression in the age, gender, residence, education, socio-
institutionalized elderly. The setting, behavior economic status, and other family details of
or routines of the attending staff, abuse or the respondents. In case of institutionalized
neglect, restrictions on mobility, privacy or elderly, additional details were taken on length
personal possessions, etc are some of stay in the residential setting. To assess
institutional factors that are alleged to the psychological aspect of quality of life of
contribute towards depression symptoms in the elderly respondents, the 28-item version
the elderly. However, studies in this direction of General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28)
are few and far in between in our country was used (Goldberg, 1981). It can serve as
(Satapathy et al., 1997; Kumar & Khetarpet, an indicator of psychological well being
1993; Rajkumar, Rangarajan, Padmavathi & (Goldberg & Hillier, 1979; Goldberg &
Swaminathan, 1988; Venkobarao & Williams, 1988; Sanderman & Stewart, 1990;
Madhavan, 1982; Venkobarao, 1981). Krol et al., 1994). As a self report instrument,
Therefore, it was the aim of this study to it is designed for detection and assessment
ascertain the degree or extent of reported of individuals with an increased likelihood of
symptoms of depression in institutionalized current psychiatric disorder (Mc Dowell &
and non-institutionalized sample of elderly Newell, 1987; Goldberg & Williams, 1988).
persons in relation to associated variables The original questionnaire consists of 60
like gender, marital status, available social items from which shorter versions of 30, 28,
supports, socio-economic status, etc. 20 and 12 items were developed. The GHQ-
28 scale was derived by factor analysis of
the original 60-item version and prepared
S. Venkatesan and Anupama Ravindranath 55
mainly for research purposes. The GHQ-28 expert on a 4- point rating scale viz., extreme
incorporates four sub scales: somatic agreement (4), quite a bit (3), a little (2) and
symptoms, anxiety and insomnia, social not at all (1). The Kappa coefficient for
dysfunction and severe depression. The agreement between translated versions was
existence of the four sub scales permits estimated at 0.87. All analysis was performed
analysis within the sub scales and this is an by using SPSS/PC (Nie et al., 1973).
additional advantage of this scale over the Results and Discussion
other versions (Bowling, 1992). In GHQ-28,
the respondent is asked to compare his recent The results of the study indicates a mean
psychological state with his or her usual state. well being score for overall population (N: 120)
For each item four answer possibilities are of institutionalized and non-institutionalized
available (1-not at all, 2-no more than usual, elderly is 5.00 (SD: 5.49). This means that
3-rather more than usual, 4-much more than the well being of the respondents in this
usual). In this study the Likert scoring sample are affected.
procedure (1,2,3,4) is applied and the total Gender
score ranges from 28-112. The higher the In terms of gender variable, elderly males
score, the poorer is the psychological well (N= 47; Mean= 4.02; SD= 4.45) report less
being of the patient. The psychometric problems in well being than elderly females
properties of GHQ are severally established although these differences are not statistically
(Goldberg & Hillier, 1978; Banks, 1983; significant (N=73; Mean= 5.63; SD= 6.01) (F=
Vieweg & Hedlund, 1983; Goldberg, 2.490; p< 0.117) (Table 1). Hale and Cochran
Oldehinkel & Ormel, 1998). (1987) examined gender differences in health
In this study, a variation in scoring was attitudes among the elderly. Illness or loss of
introduced. Each item was scored 0 if the health was found to be associated with higher
response choice was ‘not at all’ and ‘no more levels of anxiety, depression and other forms
than usual’; and, scored 1 if the response of psychological distress-especially more
choice was ‘rather more than usual’ and ‘much pronounced for males than females. The
worse than usual’. The maximum score gender differences were attributed to the
possible on this questionnaire is 28. Any score
Table 1. Distribution of GHQ Scores in
equal or more than five for an individual is relation to various variables
deemed a positive case or as being affected.
Variable N Mean SD Probability
Further, a score was also derived from all the
Overall 120 5.00 5.49
all four sub-scales and total score on the
GHQ-28. In this inquiry, the questionnaire was Male 47 4.02 4.45 F: 2.490;
given as self-report instrument to Female 73 5.63 6.01 P: 0.117
respondents who could read and respond on
their own. For others, each test item was read Institutional60 6.62 5.99 F: 11.348;
and marked on their behalf. In case of Familial 60 3.38 4.43 P: 0.001; S
subjects unable to understand English, its
Kannada version was given. The Kannada Married 54 3.44 4.59 F: 6.684;
version of the tool was prepared using Single 19 3.83 3.01 P: 0.002; S
standard translation-retranslation methods by Widowed 47 7.11 6.47
requesting an expert faculty to translate the
items from English to Kannada before re- Low 32 7.31 5.99 F: 4.442;
translating into English once again. The final Medium 64 4.45 5.26 P: 0.014; S
English version was matched by another blind High 24 3.38 4.56
Table 2. Domain Wise Distribution Of Mean & SD GHQ Scores
Variable Cronbach’s Alpha Inter-item Correlation Residence Probability

Institutionalized Non-Institutionalized
Mean SD Mean SD
Somatic Symptoms 0.81 0.43 1.15 1.58 0.83 1.26 T: 1.211; df: 118; p: 0.228
Anxiety & Insomnia 0.89 0.52 1.92 2.05 1.18 1.80 T: 2.081; df: 118; p: 0.040; S
Social Dysfunction 0.74 0.34 0.97 1.30 0.72 1.08 T: 1.147; df: 118; p: 0.254
Severe Depression 0.84 0.40 2.63 2.50 0.67 1.42 T: 5.301; df: 118; p: 0.001; S
Total 0.92 0.29 6.62 5.99 3.38 4.43 T: 3.363; df: 118; p: 0.001; S
Table 3 Inter-correlations between the GHQ-28 subscales and total scale

Variable Somatic Anxiety Social Severe
Symptoms & Insomnia Dysfunction
Depression
Somatic Symptoms -
Anxiety & Insomnia 0.63 -
Social Dysfunction 0.46 0.57 -
Severe Depression 0.40 0.54 0.53 -
TOTAL 0.83 0.89 0.72 0.71
(p: <0.001 for all correlation coefficients)
greater likelihood of males holding Mean=6.62; SD=5.99) (F=11.348; p<0.001).
maladaptive or dysfunctional beliefs about the In a related western study, the elderly living
causes or consequences of ill health. Also in a nuclear family system were found 4.3
note that the life time prevalence of times more likely to suffer from depression
depression between sexes shows that 5-12 than those living in a joint family system
% of men and 10-25 % of women experience (Taqui, Itrat, Qidwai & Qadri, 2007). The
depression. The discrepancies on the scoring specific type of test items wherein
of GHQ-28 scale due to gender are not institutionalized elders report problems
surprising. According to Goldberg and include anxiety related symptoms like
Williams (1988) the scoring on GHQ-28 is not sleeplessness, constant feeling of strain,
influenced by age, marital status and living feeling edgy, scared and panicky for no
situation, as opposed to gender. Women reason and so on.
usually score higher on GHQ-28 scale than
Zemore and Eames (1979) obtained BDI
men. So far, the results of correlation scores from 48 elderly who had been residing
analyses and figures of internal consistency
in homes for the aged for more than one year,
support the presumption about adequate 31 elderly residing in the community and
psychometric properties of the scale in this
waiting to enter an old-age home, and 424
sample. young adults enrolled in a fist-year
Area of Residence: psychology course. The residents of old-age
With respect to area of residence, elders homes reported no more symptoms of
from home or staying with their families (N=60; depression than the waiting-list controls, a
Mean= 3.38; SD= 4.43) reported fewer finding that provides no support for the
problems and hence better well being scores hypothesis that the institutional nature of old-
than institutionalized adults (N= 60; age homes increases depression in the
elderly. Both institutionalized and non- Socio Economic Status:

institutionalized aged reported more somatic With respect to SES, elders from lower
symptoms of depression than the young strata (N= 32; Mean= 7.31; SD= 5.99) report
adults, but no greater cognitive or affective greatest problems related to subjective well
symptoms of depression. These results were being as compared to those from middle
interpreted as providing no support for the strata (N= 64; Mean= 4.45; SD= 5.26) and
widely belief that the aged are more those from high layers (N= 24; Mean= 3.38;
depressed than any other age group. Finally, SD= 4.56) respectively. These differences in
it was argued that somatic complaints can be reported subjective well being of the elder
valid indicators of depression in the elderly if respondents are found to be statistically
normative differences between young and old significant. (F= 4.44; p<0.014). The specific
are taken into account type of test items wherein institutionalized
Marital Status: elders from low SES report problems include
The marital status of the elder appears poor health, feelings of stress and strain, fear
to be a major variable in influencing their of getting a bad temper, etc.
reported well being status as evidenced by Domain Wise Analysis:
higher scores for widowed respondents A domain wise analysis of the results was
(N= 47; Mean= 7.11; SD= 6.47) than single undertaken in this study to chiefly determine
elders (N= 19; Mean= 3.83; SD= 3.01) and the specific areas of subjective well being
married elders (N=54; Mean=3.44; SD=4.59) especially in relation with institutionalized and
(F= 6.684; p<0.002). Thus, marriage and a non-institutionalized elders (Table Two). The
living spouse appears to be the source for results show statistically significant
greater social support and hence better differences between the two groups in the
subjective well being in elders of this sample. overall scores (t: 3.363; p: 0.001) as well as
The specific type of test items wherein especially in the domains pertaining to
especially widowed institutionalized elders ‘anxiety and insomnia’ (t: 2.081; p: 0.040), and
report almost double the score in problems severe depression (t: 5.301; p: 0.001). The
related to severe depression symptoms specific type of test items wherein
including hopelessness and helplessness, institutionalized elders report moderate to
ideas of worthlessness, and use of leisure. severe anxiety related problems include
Bellin and Hardt (1958) studied the feeling of worry over sleep, continual sense
relationship between marital status and of strain, nervousness or high strung, sense
mental health disorders among the aged. of panic or being on the edge, being bad
Steuer, Bank, Olsen, and Jarvik (1979) studied tempered, etc. Apart from this, the other
the relationships between depression, domain wherein the elder respondents report
measured by Zung Self-Rating Depression severe subjective problems relate to
Scale (SDS), somatic symptoms based on depressive symptoms like ideas of
self-reports, and health based on medical worthlessness, hopelessness, lack of worth
evaluations in 60 depressed older persons in living, suicidal ideas and/or wishing dead
(median age 64.5 years) in relatively good respectively.
physical health. No relationship was found Reliability-Validity
between health ratings and depression
scores, but a significant association emerged The internal consistency figures, inter-
between a Somatic Symptom subscale, item correlations means and standard
specifically the single item of fatigability, deviations derived on this sample are shown
physicians’ ratings of health, and depression in tables 2 & 3. The Cronbach’s alpha
scores.
correlation coefficients of reliability of the sub epidemiological studies depression scale in

scales vary around 0.80 (range: 0.74-0.89) arthritis populations. Arthritis Rheum, 32, 991-
and internal consistency of the total scale is 7.
0.92. This implies that the scales are not Bolla-Wilson, K ., & Bleecker, M.L. (1989). Absence
independent of one another. The correlation of Depression in Elderly Adults. Journal of
coefficients between the sub scales and Gerontology, 44, 53-55
GHQ-28 total scale ranges between 0.71 Bowling, A. (1992). Measuring Health: A Review of
(severe depression) to 0.89 (anxiety and Quality of Life Measurement Scales. Milton
insomnia) indicating unidimensionality of the Keynes. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
scale. These findings are in line with figures Epstein, A. (1929). The Challenged of the Aged.
quoted by Goldberg and Hillier (1979) and New York: Alfred A Knopf.
support the assumption that anxiety is a core Ganatra, H.A., Zafar, S.N., Qidwai, W., & Rozi, S.
phenomenon of psychological distress (2008). Prevalence and Predictors of
Depression among an Elderly Population of
(Goldberg and Williams 1988, Sanderman &
Pakistan. Aging and Mental Health, 12, 349-
Stewart 1990, Krol et al. 1994). The mean
56.
inter-item correlations, which can be
Goldberg, D.P., & Hillier, V.F. (1979). A scaled
regarded as indicator of homogeneity of the
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scale is rather high. The highest is for Psychological Medicine, 9, 139-145.
subscale anxiety/insomnia (i-i=0.52).
Goldberg, D, & Williams, P. (1988). A User’s Guide
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Questionnaire (GHQ). International Journal of Somatic Symptoms of Depression among
Health Sciences, 1, 195-202. Young Adults, Institutionalized Aged and Non-
Satapathy, R., Kar, N., Das, I., Kar, G.C., & Pati, institutionalized Aged. Journal of Gerontology,
T. (1997). A study of major physical disorders 34, 716-22.
among the elderly depressed. Indian Journal
of Psychiatry, 39. 278-281. Received: December 29, 2009
Spilker, B. (1990). Quality of Life Assessments in Revision received: April 30, 2010
Clinical Trials. New York: Ravens Press. Accepted: October 10, 2010
S. Venkatesan, PhD, Professor in Clinical Psychology, All India Institute of

Speech and Hearing, Mysore: 570 006 (Karnataka).
Email: [email protected]
Anupama Ravindranath, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Sri
Venkateswara University, Tirupati
60

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 60-68.
Parental Styles and Depression among Adolescents
Mandeep Sharma, Novrattan Sharma and Amrita Yadava

M.D.University, Rohtak
The present study was planned to examine the relationship between parental
styles and depression among adolescents. The sample of the study involved
100 adolescents (males=50, females =50) between the age range of 14 and 16
years and one of their parent thus making the total sample of 200. The
adolescents were assessed with Children Depression Inventory whereas parents
were administered Parenting Authority Questionnaire-R, to check parental style.
The data were analyzed by using Pearson’s Product Moment method of correlation
and t –test .For mean comparisons, the sample of parents was classified into
two extreme groups’ i.e High vs. Low (Mean ± 1 S.D.) on the basis of their
scores on parenting style and depression scores of their wards were compared
The results showed that (i) Authoritarian Parenting Style has significant positive
correlation with depression, (ii) Permissive Parenting style has significant
negative correlation with depression. (iii) There is a significant difference between
males and females on measures of depression. (iv). The two extreme groups
(high vs. low) showed significant differences on their depression levels.
Keywords: Depression, Parenting Styles
Depression is one of the most widespread Other studies (Fombonne, 1998;
mental disorders among adolescent’s Lewinsohn, Rohde, & Seeley, 1998) found
population, second only to alcohol abuse that approximately 8-10% of adolescents
(Kringlen, Trgersen, & Cramer, 2001) in scored above the cutoff for clinical
Western society and the scenario is not so depression on self report measures.
bright in Asian societies. Depression is an Depression in adolescents is increasing at
affective, or mood disorder. It is an illness an alarming rate and statistics on adolescent
that immerses its sufferers in a world of self depression are sobering. Depression is the
blame, confusion and hopelessness. It is an main problem faced by the mental health
illness of the mind and the body. Some could professionals as an independent disease and
argue that depression is a way of coping with it is a major associated factor in other
life’s pressures (Schwartz & Schwartz, 1993). problems like suicide, substances abuse and
Depression in adolescents has just recently common cause of school failure and school
been acknowledged as a problem (NIMH, dropout among adolescent (Birmaher et al.,
2000; Nunley, 2001). Depressive symptoms 1996). Studies have indicated that depression
are often viewed as normal adolescent in adolescents affect approximately 35-40%
behavior or moodiness. Adolescents with of the adolescent population. Most alarmingly
depressive symptoms have difficulty among adolescents, one among five may
expressing how they feel and may use other suffer from depression (Ruston, Forcier, &
means of expression such as acting out, Schectman, 2002).
which often is interpreted as misbehavior Depressions in adolescents usually
(NIMH, 2000). cause more social and interpersonal
Mandeep Sharma, NovRattan Sharma and Amrita Yadava 61
difficulties that directly lead to self related child and non-directive parents i.e permissive
problems (Sharma, Yadava, & Sunita, 2001). parents. Permissive parents allow the “child
To escape from the pain of depression, some to regulate his own activities as much as
youth’s experiment with drugs or alcohol or possible, avoid the exercise of control”
become sexually promiscuous (Hankin et al., (Baumrind, 1966). Such parents place few, if
1998). Berms (1995) observed that twice as any demand on their children, allowing
many women as men report depressive children, “complete freedom to make life
symptoms in the course of their lives. During decisions without referring to parents for
the age period from 25 to 45 years, married advise “ (Hickman, Bartholomae, & Mckenry,
women have a particularly high rate of 2000).
depression, while unmarried women in this Authoritarian Parents are highly
age bracket have a much lower rate which is demanding and directive, but not responsive.
more similar to the rate for men (Paykel, Authoritarian Parents with clearly defined
1991). This difference may reflect the greater rules that they expected their children to
stress for married women from both heavy follow without questioning or even discussion.
child care responsibilities and support They are as the really strict parents,
provision for extended families, in addition to authoritarian parents hold high expectations
job stress. Low income and economic need for children and believe that parents are and
are additional stressor that affects women should be, in complete control. According to
more often then man, and may be related to Baumrind (1996) these parents “shape,
the higher rate of depression for women council and evaluate the behavior and
(Beekman, Copeland, & Prince, 1999). Not attitudes of the child in accordance with a set
only this, depression among married couples of standards of conducts, usually an
also becomes one of the casual factors for absolute, standard, which values obedience
depression among adolescents via parenting as a virtue and favors punitive, forceful
styles of their mother and father. measures to curb the child . Authoritarian
Parenting Style: Categorizing parents parents are obedience and status oriented,
according to parental demandingness and and expects their orders to be obeyed without
responsiveness creates a typology of four explanation (Baumrind, 1991).
parenting styles i.e. Indulgent (Permissive), Authoritative Parents are both
Authoritarian, Authoritative and Uninvolved demanding and responsive. These parents
(Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Each of these are an integration of the other two parenting
parenting styles reflect different naturally styles, setting clear rules and expectations
occurring patterns of parental values, but also encouraging discussion and give and
practices and behaviors and a distance take, especially as their children get older and
balance of responsiveness and are able to take more responsibility for them.
demandingness. Such parents “remain receptive to the child’s
Indulgent Parents are more responsive view but take responsibility for firmly guiding
than they are demanding. They are the child’s actions, emphasizing reasoning,
nontraditional and lenient, do not require communication and rational discussion in
mature behavior, allow considerable self interactions that are friendly as well as
regulation and avoid conformation. tutorial and disciplinary” (Baumrind,
(Baumrind, 1991). Indulgent parents may be 1996).Authoritative parents “monitor and
further divided into two types: democratic impart clear standards for their children’s
parents, who thought leniently, are more conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive
conscientious, engaged and committed to the and restrictive. Their disciplinary methods are
62 Parental Styles and Depression
supportive, rather than punitive. They want Some other studies (Ayvazian, 1996;
their children to be assertive as well as socially Dwairy, 2004) found significant associations
responsible, and self regulated as well as between parenting style and depression. It is
cooperative.” found that positive correlation exists between
Parenting Style and Depression: authoritarian parenting style and depression.
It is observed that authoritarian style lead to
In the last two decades, research has higher level of depression among children
provided strong evidence of association and adolescent whereas negative correlation
between parenting styles and variations in has been found between permissive parenting
adolescent’s outcomes (Baumrind, 1991; style and depression. Adolescents show
Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, & Dornbusch, lesser experiences of depression where
1991; Laskey & Cartwright, 2009; Steinberg, parents apply permissive parenting style.
Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, Dwairy (2004) studied relationship between
1994). As originally conceptualized by three parenting styles (authoritarian,
Baumrind (1967) parenting typologies consist authoritative and permissive) and the mental
of authoritative, permissive, authoritarian and health of adolescents. Mental health
disengaged parenting styles which affect the problems are found to be associated more
overall behavior of the child. Magnussen with authoritarian and less with authoritative
(1991) found that both adolescents and and permissive parenting style. Other studies
parental over-control are associated with (Dearing, 2004; Fenton, 1998; Liu- Yih-Lan,
higher level of depressive symptoms. 2003; Mckenna, 1999) found similar results
Reiss et al. (1995) examined the effect in parenting styles and measure of
of different parenting styles on adolescent’s depression among adolescents. There
depression and antisocial behavior and seems to be marked increased possibility for
compared it with the influence of adolescent’s depression when parents do not
environmental influences alongwith genetic have warmth, caring and affection for their
influences. Ayvazian (1996) investigated adolescents.
whether parenting style is related to child The present study aimed at
motivation, level of depression, problem understanding about adolescent’s
behavior and self esteem. The investigators depression is related with different parenting
found that there exists positive relationship styles. The major objectives are:-
between parenting style and level of
depression and problematic behavior of the 1. To study the relationship of
child. Jackson and Schemes (2005) depression with parenting style among
conducted a study in which authoritative adolescents.
parenting was found to be associated with 2. To analysis the mean differences on
positive outcomes for children and measures of depression between
adolescents. In their study, university students adolescents, categorized according to high
who perceived their parents as authoritative and low parenting styles (authoritarian,
showed higher self esteem, lower depression authoritative and permissive).
and better universal adjustment during the 3. To study the difference between
student’s transition into, and throughout, males and females on measures of
university. These relations were mediated by depression.
student level of optimism. In another study
they found that high school students perceive In the present research the following
their parents as authoritative were high on hypotheses were purposed:
self efficacy and low on depression.
1. Authoritarian and Authoritative blame, loss of appetite, insomnia,

parenting style would have positive interpersonal relationship and school
association with depression whereas adjustment. The internal consistency of the
Permissive parenting style will show negative CDI was also sufficient as Cronbach alpha is
correlated with depression among .79.
adolescents. Parenting Authority Questionnaire-
2. Adolescents with High and low (PAQ-R), (Rittman et al., 2002)-PAQ-R is a
parenting styles would be differ significantly parental self report version of the original
on scores of depression. PAQ, intended to use with parents of children.
3. Female participants would show The PAQ-R consists of 30 items, 10 items
greater depression than male participants. each for three scales representing
Authoritarian, Authoritative and Permissive
Method parenting styles. Items are rated on a 5 point
Sample: Likert type scale ranging from I “strongly
A total sample of 200 respondents disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”. One month
including 100 parents and 100 adolescents test-retest reliability for 22 mothers was .61
(50 males and 50 females) who were studying for Authoritative, .87 for Authoritarian and .67
in IX and X standard. The age range of the for permissive subscales. Data were also
adolescent’s sample was from 14 to 16 years. gathered from another sample and One
The sample was selected by using stratified month test retest reliability were found to be
random sampling procedure from various .54, .88, .74 for Authoritative, Authoritarian
schools of two districts of Haryana. All the and permissive subscale, respectively.
schools were having same educational Procedure:
affiliation and catered to the needs of low to In the initial stage, the participants were
middle socio economic status students. contacted in their respective classes and their
Students were contacted in their respective willingness to participate in the study was
classes through their class teachers while obtained. The subjects were administered
data of parents was obtained through their Child Depression Inventory. Parenting
wards. Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) was
Tools: administered on one parent of the
Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) - adolescents through them only. All the
(Kovacs, 1981)-CDI is a 27 item self report subjects were assured that their responses
inventory for measuring the level of would be kept confidential and would not
depression among children and adolescents. affect their overall performances in the
Scale has items related to sadness, self school.
Results and Discussion

Table 1. Relationship between Depression and Parenting styles
Variable Depression Authoritarian Authoritative Permissive
Parenting Style Parenting Style Parenting Style
Depression – .27** – .16 – .30**
**p< .01
Table 1 shows the relationship between questionnaire. On permissive variable, results

depression and all three types of parental show marked differences between the groups.
styles (Authoritarian, Authoritative and The low group of permissive parenting style
Permissive) among adolescents. The has higher mean as compared to high group
Authoritarian Parenting style was found to be of permissive parenting style counterparts.
positively associated with depression(r= .27) The obtained t value is 2.21 on this variable
whereas Permissive Parenting Style was which is significant at 0.05 level. The results
negatively associated(r= -.30). The results indicate that high Authoritarian and low
clearly demonstrate that the adolescents who permissive parenting style is having higher
are having highly authoritarian parents are degree of depression in adolescents as
having high level of depression, whereas compared to low and high on these two
highly permissive parents induce lower level parenting patterns. Thus, the second
of depression among adolescents, these hypothesis is verified.
findings are in line with those obtained by Table 3. Mean, SD and t value between male
Heaven, Newbury and Mak (2004); Laskey and female on depression scores
and Cartwright,(2009; Magnussen (1991);
Females Males t-value
Shah and Waller (2002) thus , the first
hypothesis is verified. Mean SD Mean SD
Parenting Style is considered as an 13.68 5.12 8.75 5.76 4.45**

important variable among adolescents in **p< .01
relation to depression. To see the impacts of Table 3 presents the mean and SD of
parenting style on depression, two groups males and females and t-value for their
(Low and High on particular parenting style) depression score. A perusal of the table
were formed and compared with each other shows that the mean of males and females is
to see the depression level among 8.75 and 13.68 respectively. The t-value is
adolescents. The sample was classified into 4.45 which is significant at 0.01 level which
two extreme groups (Mean ± 1 SD) on the indicate that depression level is higher in
basis of their scores on parenting style. females as compare to male adolescents
Means of the two groups (high vs. low) were (Berg et al., 2007).
compared by using t-test.
The present study was an attempt to see
The variable Authoritarian Parenting the relationship between depression and
Style has shows significant differences in measures of parenting styles. It is pertinent
Table 2. The mean depression scores are to note that results of the study appear to
6.21 and 13.66 respectively for low group and lend substantial support to the hypothesis
high on authoritarian parenting styles. The formulated. Significant associations are found
obtained t-value is 3.32 which is significant between three parenting style and measures
at 0.01 level. A careful inspection of the table of depression. Correlation between
shows non significant differences on authoritarian parenting style and depression
authoritative, a variable of Parenting Authority
Table 2. Mean, SD and t value between Parenting based High and
Low Groups on Depression
Parenting Styles Low Group High Group t-value
Mean SD Mean SD
Authoritarian 6.21 6.22 13.66 6.28 3.02**
Authoritative 14.81 4.02 12.11 4.88 1.42
Permissive 12.5 2.67 7.27 6.34 2.21*
**p< .01 *p<.05
is positive. It indicates that more the similar results in parenting styles and
authoritarian parenting style, the higher the measure of depression among adolescents.
level of depression. But correlation between There seems to be marked increased
permissive parenting style and depression is possibility for adult depression when neither
negative, that is more permissive parenting parent experiences warmth, caring and
style, the lesser experiences of depression affection among adolescents. It is found that
among adolescents. No significant correlation high authoritarian parenting style leads to
is found between authoritative parenting style higher level of depression as comparison to
and depression. Radziszewska, Richardson, low authoritarian parenting style which is
Dent, and Flay (1996) and Aunola , Stattin, associated with low depression among
and Nurmi (2000) found that authoritative adolescents. Authors found that that low
parenting style was related to lower levels of permissive parenting style lead to higher level
adolescent depressive symptoms, and that of depression as comparison to high
the highest levels of depressive symptoms permissive parenting style among
were related to unengaged parenting style. adolescents. Ayvazian (1996) found that
Previous studies have established a clear American families which adopted authoritarian
relationship between authoritative parenting, parenting style had higher level of depression
parental care, parental monitoring and in their children. Dwairy (2004) and Pettit,
adolescent depression (Garber, Robinson, & Bates, and Dodge (1997) studied relationship
Valentiner, 1997); Greaven, Santor, between three parenting styles (authoritarian,
Thompson, and Zuroff (2000); Ge, Best, authoritative and permissive) and the mental
Conger, and Simons (1996); Radziszewska, health of adolescents. Thus, Present study
Richardson, Dent, & Flay (1996). shows that parenting styles have an impact
Radziszewska, et al., (1996) found that on adolescent depression, so parent’s
authoritative parenting style was significantly involvement in the treatment of adolescent
related to lower levels of depressive depression should also be considered.
symptoms, and unengaged parenting style Educating parents on how their behaviors can
with the highest level of depressive contribute to and/or help to diminish
symptoms. Studies that examined the adolescent depression.
relationship between parental care or warmth Conclusion
and adolescent depression (O’ Byrne, In present study, authors found
Haddock, & Poston, 2002; Rey, 1995; surprising results in regarding to parenting
Robertson & Simons, 1989) have consistently style and depression. The depression score
found a negative relationship. That is, higher of both high and low authoritative parenting
parental care or warmth is related to lower styles, which is considered to be the optimal
rates of adolescent depression. A negative parenting style were the maximum. While that
relationship has also been reported by of the low authoritarian and high permissive
O’Byrne et al (2002). Heaven, Newbury, & Mak parenting style group were the least. These
(2004) reported more overprotection from results indicated that high Authoritarian and
parents predicted higher rates of depression low permissive parenting style is having higher
in adolescents. degree of depression in adolescents as
A number of studies (i.e. Ayvazian compared to low and high on two parenting
(1996); Dwairy (2004); Dearing (2004); patterns. In today’s time, children do not want
Fenton (1998); Joshi, Sharma and Mehra any interference from their parents. They
(2009); Liu- Yih-Lan (2003);Laskey and want to take their own decisions and
Cartwright (2009) and Mckenna (1999) found demands full freedom in life. As these results
are in contradiction with earlier findings, ethnicities : Exceptions are the rule.
further research in this area is needed to Developmental Psychology, 25, 555-575.
clarify the relationship between parenting Dwairy, M. (2004). Parenting styles and mental
style and depression especially in the present health or Palestinian-Arab-Adolescents in
day Indian youth. Israel. Transcultural Psychiatry, 4, 233-252.
Fenton, B.T.(1998). Familial correlates of anxiety
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Over-time changes in adjustment and Accepted: November 24, 2010
Mandeep Sharma, Project Fellow, UGC-(SAP -DRS-II), Department of
Psychology, M.D.University, Rohtak
Novrattan Sharma, PhD, Professor, Dept. of Psychology, M. D. University,
Rohtak
Amrita Yadava, Professor, Dept. of Psychology, M. D. University, Rohtak
A new Book....
Recent Studies in School Psychology
Editor: Dr. Panch. Ramalingam, published by Authorspress, New Delhi
“This is an excellent resource showing the breadth and depth of the knowledge base in
both research and practice of school psychology in India”.
- William (Bill) Pfohl,
President,
International School Psychology Association (ISPA), USA.
In recent years various dimensions of school education are examined from the perspective of
equity, access and relevance, keeping in view the national requirements of education for all.
Hopefully, the present work is a serious academic attempt towards recent studies in school
psychology.
This Book Recent Studies in School Psychology is need of the hour to train the teachers in
school psychology. The school psychology has undergone tremendous growth in the Western
countries for the last 25 years, current and future perspectives of school psychology meet the
challenges and needs of children in schools. This book goals are as follows: (i) explore the
possibilities of current and future demands for school psychology and how the psychologists
can meet those demands in India; (ii) conceptualize the theory and practice of school psychology
in the face of children, and (iii) develop a base to use school psychology resources to maximize
the benefits to children, families, and schools. The editor is grateful to the authors who have
contributed to this work in a considerable measure. This book will be useful to school
psychologists, teachers, students, governmental policy makers and common men and women
in India and other parts of the world.
69

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 69-77.
Coronary – Prone Behaviour Pattern, Stressful Life Events,

Optimism and Subjective Well-being as Risk Factors for
Coronary Heart Disease
Navdeep Kaur and Hardeep Lal Joshi
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra.
Many studies have provided clear and convincing evidence that psychosocial
factors contribute to the causation of coronary heart disease (CHD). Coronary
heart disease is associated with a large number of psychosocial factors. The
present study was conducted to investigate the role of coronary – prone behaviour
pattern, presumptive stressful life events, optimism, and subjective well-being
in pathogenesis of coronary heart disease. Coronary Scale (CS), Ercta-A,
Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale, Subjective Well-Being Inventory (SUBI),
and Optimism Scale were administered on 118 participants (56 CHD Patients
and 62 Healthy Controls). The age ranged between 40 and 80 years. Data were
processed for Discriminant Function Analysis and One way Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA). Analysis of variance showed that patients with Coronary Heart Disease
and the normal group were significantly different in personality type along with
perceived ill health. Discriminant Analysis clearly revealed a linear combination
of coronary scale and two subpart of subjective well-being i.e. transcendence
and social support which account for considerable degree of variation between
coronary heart disease and normal controls.
Keywords: Coronary Heart Disease, Stressful Life Events, Behaviour Pattern
Several psychosocial variables have between patients with coronary heart disease
been identified as putative risk factors for and healthy subjects (Barefoot, Beckham,
coronary heart disease, including stress, Peterson, Haney, & Williams, 1992; Byrne,
emotional disorders, personality traits, 1996; Denollet, 1996; Sanderman & Ranchor,
depression, and poor social support (Krantz 1997). The Type-A behaviour pattern (TABP)
& McCeney, 2002; Kubzansky, Davidson, & which is characterized by excessive
Rozanski, 2005). Recent epidemiological competitiveness drive, impatience, hostility
studies have confirmed that psychosocial and vigorous speech characteristics,
factors are associated with increased risk of identified by two Cardiologists Friedman &
developing coronary heart disease (CHD), a Rosenman (1959) is widely considered as the
major cause of death and disability worldwide major conceptualization of the coronary-
(Kuper, Marmot, & Hemingway, 2002; prone personality. Another conceptualization
Williams, 2008; Williams, Steptoe, Chambers, of the coronary-prone personality has been
& Kooner, 2009). Personality characteristics provided by Grossarth-Maticek and co-
and behavioural patterns are significantly workers. (Grossarth-Maticek et al.1985;
associated with the higher risk of developing Grossarth-Maticek and Eysenck, 1990).
coronary heart disease. Several previous They reported findings in support of a
studies have reported personality differences predictive role of personality in the onset of
70 Coronary – Prone Behaviour Pattern
deadly disorder like CHD and cancer. While people who had heart attacks also
some prospective studies found that Type-A experienced more stressful life events than
behavior was associated with the incidence their matched controls. Recently Rafanelli et
of CHD (Rosenman et al., 1975; Haynes, al. (2005) studied the role of stressful life
Feinleib, & Kannel, 1980; Kornitzer, Kittel, De events and depressive disorders as risk
Backer, & Dramaix, 1981), others failed to factors for acute coronary heart disease.
replicate this association (Barefoot et al., Results reported patients with acute coronary
1989; Matthew & Haynes, 1986; Shekelle, heart disease reported significantly more life
Gale, & Norusis, 1985). Some recent events than control subjects. In addition to
epidemiological studies have reported Type personality type, there are other personal
–A Behaviour to be an independent predictor factors that are associated with the higher
of CHD (Cole, Kawachi, Liu, 2001; Gallacher, risk of developing coronary heart disease.
Sweetnam, Yarnell, Elwood, & Stansfeld, One of these factors is the attitude that people
2003). On the other hand, some other studies have toward the things that happen to them
of Type- A behaviour as a risk factor for in life. Research on people who have
progression of CHD have produced received angioplasty (Helgeson, 2003)
inconsistent findings (Ikeda et al., 2008; indicated that those who had a more positive
Mitaishvili & Danelia, 2006). The findings of outlook about themselves and their future
studies on Type -A have been very were less likely to experience a recurrence
contradictory. of cardiovascular disease. In a comparative
Stress is also widely believed to be an study, Giltay (2004), over the follow up period
important determi-nant of heart disease. of 9.1 years (1991 to 2001), reported that
People who have had heart attacks named participants reporting high levels of optimism
stress as the cause of their disorder had a 55 percent lower risk of death from all
(Cameron, Petrie, Ellis, Buick, & Weinman, causes, and a 23 percent lower risk of
2005). Stress can serve as a trigger for heart cardiovascular death and concluded that the
attacks for people with coronary heart disease trait of optimism was an important long-term
(Kop, 2003). Large number of investigations determinant of all-cause and cardiovascular
has suggested a role of stressful life events mortality in elderly subjects independent of
in uncovering an individual’s vulnerability to socio-demographic characteristics and
acute CHD (Cottington, Matthews, Talbott, & cardiovascular risk factors.” Recently, Tindle
Kuller, 1980; Mayou, 1979; Myers & Dwar, et al. (2009) found that Optimistic women,
1975; Reich, 1983). “A life event represents compared to pessimistic women, had a 9
a discrete change in an individual’s social or percent lower risk of developing heart disease
personal environment, which should be and a 14 percent lower risk of dying from any
external and verifiable rather than internal or cause after more than eight years of follow-
psychological.’’ Studies conducted with Indian up. Like other psychosocial factors, subjective
population have shown that stressful life well-being is also associated significantly with
events had occurred more frequently CHD. Rose, Sivik, and Delimar (1994)
amongst the CHD patients than in normal determined associations between
controls (Singh & Misra, 1987; Singh, Jain, cardiovascular risk factors and subjective
Singh, Gupta, & Kishore, 2003). In order to experience of psychological general well-
evaluate risk factors for coronary heart being with special reference to gender-related
disease, (Rosengren et al., 2004) in the differences. Subjective experience of
interheart study tested people from 52 psychological well-being was significantly
countries around the world and reported that correlated with cardiovascular risk factors
Navdeep Kaur and Hardeep Lal Joshi 71
among both men and women. There were, ERCTA-A Scale: It was a screening
however, marked differences between the instrument for measuring Type-A behaviour
genders. Pattern, designed by Sutil and Corbacho
Method (1998) initially developed for Spanish
population. It comprises of 8 items with a 5-
Sample: point response scale. Alpha coefficient of
The present study was conducted on a reliability –internal consistency for ERCTA-A
sample of 56 Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) is .68.
Patients along with 60 normal controls. Most Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale
of CHD patients were inpatients who were (PSLES): It was a stressful life events scale
hospitalized in ICU for 72 hours, and rest of developed by Singh, Kaur, and Kaur (1984)
the sample included outpatients. The age for use with Indian population. It consists of
range of the sample was from 40 years to 80 51 items. It consists of two time scale; (a) life
years. The sample consisted of participants time (b) past one year. PSLES-Life Time scale
from all walks of life. Only those patients were measures stress level of an individual for
included who gave written consent to stressful events occurred in life-time period
participate in the study. and PSLES-Past one year which measures
Instruments: stress level of an individual for stressful events
in time period of past one year. The scale is
Subjective Well-Being Inventory (SUBI): rated according to decrease in severity of
The SUBI is a 40 items self report measure perceived stress, however in practice it is
developed by Nagpal and Sell (1985) to recommended that scale should be
measure feelings of well being or ill being as administered in reverse order.
experienced by an individual or a group of
individuals in day to day life of concern. The Optimism Scale: It was taken from
inventory measures 11 dimensions of Seligman’s book, “Learned Optimism’’ (1990).
It contains 32 items. It intends to measure a
subjective well being. However the factor
person’s explanatory style (a term used by
structure of the SUBI has been found showing
Seligman for the manner learned in childhood
stability in contents of factors over different
and adolescence, in which we explain our
Indian samples. The mean score on normal
setbacks to ourselves) on two dimensions
adult Indian samples is 90.8 with a standard
termed as permanence and pervasiveness.
deviation of 9.2.
Permanence consists subscales permanent
Coronary Scale (COR): It was good (PmG) and permanence bad (PmB).
constructed by Marusic et al. (2002) from Pervasiveness also consist two subscale
EPQ items (Eysenck Personality pervasiveness good (PvG) and
Questionnaire 1975 version) that measures pervasiveness bad (PvB). Each subscale
proneness to coronary heart disease. It contains eight items. Hope score can also be
contains 8 items: 6 from neuroticism scale, obtained by these four subscales.
one from defensiveness scale, and one from Results
extraversion scale. It is useful for detecting
those who are at higher risk to develop In order to meet the objectives of the
coronary heart disease. Alpha coefficient for study, the data was subjected to Pearson
the coronary scale was sufficiently high (0.77 correlations, one way ANOVA and
for patients with ischemic heart disease and discriminant analysis. Table 1 shows
0.76 for controls). intercorrelation matrix. The careful inspection
of Table 1 shows that Measures of Optimism positively correlated with Cor (r = .28, p <
Scale are correlated negatively with .05).It may be interpreted that people with
Measures of Subjective Well-Being. coronary heart disease are having Type-A
Permanence Good (PvG), a measure of Behavioural Patterns. Measures of
optimism is correlated negatively with Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale
Confidence in coping (SWB4), a measure of (PSLES) are correlated negatively with
subjective well being (r = - .30, p < .05) which measures of subjective well-being. PSLES-
is significant at .05 level. Pervasiveness Bad Life time is negatively correlated with
(PvB) is correlated negatively with General Confidence in coping (r = - . 28, p < .05),
well being –Negative Affect (r = - .36, p < .01) Family group support (r = - .32, p < .05),
that is significant at .01 level of significance. Social support (r = - .28, p < .05), Primary
PvB is also correlated negatively with group concern (r = - .32 < .05) which is
Confidence in coping (r = - .31, p < .05), significant at .05 level of significance. It is also
Transcendence (r = - .33, p < .05), Primary negatively correlated with General well-being-
group concern (r = - .30, p < .05) at .05 level positive affect (r = - .36, p < .01) which is
of significance indicating that pessimistic significant at .01 level of significance. It
people are likely to have feeling of joy, energy, indicates that as the life stress increase the
interest in life, their pessimism don’t have bad confidence in coping decrease. CHD Patients
effect on their subjective well being. who have faced more stressful life events in
However having good confidence in their lives for life time period used less coping
coping, adequate mental mastery and high specially related to problem and showed low
on their possession of spiritual qualities. mastery over critical conditions. However
Coronary Scale is negatively correlated with those who have experienced more stressful
measures of Subjective Wellbeing i. e. life events for whole life time received less
Primary group concern e. (r= -.38, p< .01) family support as well as social support. It
inadequate mental mastery (r = - .43, p <.01), indicates that people who have faced more
perceived ill-health (r= - .35, p < .01), stressful life were not enjoying healthy life.
Deficiency in social contacts (r = - .35, p < They were not reporting their lives as
.01) and General well-being - negative Affect functioning smoothly and joyfully. Overall
(r =-.35, p<.01) which is significant at .01 level perception of their life was not reflecting
of significance. Coronary scale is positively feelings of well-being.
correlated with PmG (r =.28, p<.05) which is PSLES-Life time is positively correlated
significant at .05 level of significance. It shows with Pervasiveness Good (r = .32, p < .05),
that heart patient those who have neurotic Pervasiveness Bad (r = .32, p <.05),
personality traits as emotional liability and measures of Optimism. CHD patients those
instability in emotions have adequate mental who have been victim of stressful life events
mastery, adequate sleep, and good at social for life time period are likely to be pessimistic.
contacts and have positive outlook towards PSLES-Past one year is negatively correlated
life. with General well-being - Negative Affect(r =
ERCTA-A has positive correlation with - .37, p < .01) indicates that CHD patients
Expectation - Achievement congruence which those who faced more stressful life events
is significant at .05 level of significance(r = for past one year were reflecting feelings of
.28, p < .05) which indicates that subjects with well-being. And after experiencing stress for
Type-A Personality have positive relation with short time period, they are reporting their lives
neuroticism dimension of personality. It is also functioning smoothly and joyfully.
Table 1. Correlation among measures in CHD patients

PmG PvG PvB COR ERCTA PSLES1 PSLESLT
SWB1 -.30* -.36**
SWB2 .28*
SWB3 -.31* -.28*

SWB4 -.30* -.33*
SWB5 -.32*
SWB6 -.28*
SWB7 -.30* -.38** -.32*
SWB8 -.43**
SWB9 -.35**
SWB10 -.36** -.35**
SWB11 -.35** .32*
PmG .28* .32*
COR .28* .29*
*p< 0.05 **p<0.01
SWB1 = General well-being-positive affect; SWB2 = Expectation-achievement congruence; SWB3 =
Confidence in coping; SWB4 = Transcendence; SWB5 = Family group support; SWB6 = Social support,
SWB7 = Primary group concern; SWB8 = Inadequate mental mastery; SWB9 = Perceived ill-Health; SWB10
= Deficiency in social contacts; SWB11= General well-being-negative affect; PmG = Permanence good;
PvG = Pervasiveness Good; PvB = Pervasiveness Bad; COR = Coronary Scale; ERCTA = ERCTA Scale;
PSLES-1 = Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale-Past one year ; PSLES-LT = Presumptive Stressful Life
Events Scale-Life Time.
One-Way Analysis of Variance was 3 of 22 variables measured in the study

applied to find out the differences on contribute significantly to the prediction of
measures of Coronary-prone behaviour group membership i.e. Coronary heart
pattern, Stressful life Events, Optimism and disease patients and normal controls. Among
Subjective Well-being among CHD patients these three variables, the significant
and normal controls. It shows that CHD difference has been found between CHD
patients and normal controls differ patients and normal controls on coronary
significantly on Coronary scale (F= 11.334, scale which is significant at .01 level of
p < .001). They also differ significantly on significance. Another two variables are the
Perceived-ill health, a variable of subjective components of the subjective well being. The
well- being (F= 6.275, p <. 05) Wilks Lambda coefficient is decreasing with
In order to examine whether a set of the entry of additional variable up to third step.
certain variables tapping coronary-prone It is pertinent to mention here that lower
behaviour pattern, presumptive stressful Lambda value is an indication of greater
events, type-a behaviour pattern, subjective discrimination by the variables in equation. If
well being and optimism differentiate between the value of Lambda is exactly 1.00 the
CHD patients and normal group, the data variables does not make any differentiation
were subjected to Discriminant Analysis. To between the groups. The Lambda coefficients
find the most potent predictors of the group at each step are .91, .88, and .84,
membership, the stepwise method of respectively, for coronary scale, social
Discriminant Analysis was employed support, transcendence.
(Tabachnick & Fiddle, 1989). The results of The coronary scale being the major
stepwise discriminant analysis indicates that contributor to the group discrimination
entered the equation at step one. The F-value Patients with Coronary heart disease showed
of its discriminant function equals to 11.3(df significant differences with normal controls.
= 1/116), which is significant at .001 They showed significant differences on
probability. Therefore coronary behaviour psychosocial variables such as coronary-
pattern may be regarded as most potent prone behaviour pattern, subjective well
discriminant among CHD patients and normal being. One way analysis of variance
controls. The second important variable with Discriminant Functional Analysis found
regard to discrimination between the groups marked difference between CHD patients and
is Social Support, which entered in the normal aspects with regard to subjective well
equation at step two. The F-value of the being as well as coronary-prone behaviour
contribution of this variable in equation is 7.89 pattern. With coronary-prone behaviour
(df 2/115) which is significant at .001 difference was found on trait neuroticism.
probability level. Transcendence entered the Though no significant difference was
equation at step three. It contributes Lambda revealed between CHD patients and normal
coefficient of .23 with F-value of being 7.06 controls with regard to Type - A behaviour
(df 3/114), its contribution is also significant pattern. Two variables of subjective well being
at.001 probability level. The efficiency of the i. e., Social Support and Transcendence have
three variables entered in the equation is appeared to be the major variables that
clearly evident from the predicted group differentiates between CHD patients and
membership in CHD patients and normal normal ones. Discriminant Functional
groups. It is clear from the predicted Analysis has proven very useful in identifying
frequencies given in the Table-2 that out of the cluster of variables which differentiate
56 cases of CHD group, 40 were correctly between CHD and normal controls. Like
identified as CHD patients by the discriminant Discriminant Functional Analysis, One way
analysis defined by three variables on the Analysis of Variance found significant
same pattern. 42 out of 62 cases in normal differences on Coronary-prone behaviour
group were identified as normal. The pattern and Perceived-ill health, a variable
percentage of correct identification of cases of subjective well- being. It can be concluded
is about70% in the overall sample. that coronary-prone behaviour pattern and
Table 2. Predicted Classifications of CHD subjective well-being are the main factors
patients and Normal population which differentiates between CHD patients
CHD Normal % and normal controls. In this sense, it provides
CHD 40 20 71.4% empirical support to the findings of earlier
workers ( Denollet, 1998; Rosengren et al.
Normal 16 42 67.7% 2004; Westlake & Dracup, 2001).
Total 56 62 69.5% Earlier prospective studies have
Discussion revealed a negative correlation between the
The findings of the present study are level of social support and coronary heart
revealing and interesting in many respects. disease. Social Integration (SI) is associated
The present study was aimed at examining with decreased prevalence of myocardial
relationship among coronary heart disease, Infarction (MI), angina pectoris (AP), and total
personality traits and psychosocial factors. coronary heart disease (Reed, McGee, Yano,
The data proved that both the groups had & Feinleib, 1983). Similarly, individuals who are
significant differences on the variables not well integrated within a network of social
studied in the present research work. ties, or who perceive low levels of social
support, are more likely to experience follow-up study of 1467 patients with coronary
negative CHD outcomes (Blazer 1982; Welin, artery disease. American Journal of Cardiology,
Tibblin, & Svardsudd, 1985). Transcendence 64, 427-432.
is described as feelings of subjective well- Bekelman, D. B., Dy, S. M., Becker, D, M.,
being derived from values of a spiritual quality. Wittstein, I. S., Hendricks, D. E., Yamashita,
Studies have found that spirituality may play T. E., & Gottlieb, S. H. (2007). Spiritual Well-
Being and Depression in Patients with Heart
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Blazer, D. G. (1982). Social support and mortality
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stressful life events scale (PSLES) – A new men and women. Journal of Epidemiology and
stressful life events scale for use in India. Indian Community Health, 63, 986-991.
Journal of Psychiatry, 26, 107 – 114.
Williams, R. B. (2008). Psychosocial and
Singh, H., Jain, S., Singh, R., Gupta, M. biobehavioral factors and their interplay in
S., Kishore, K. (2003). Life and past one year coronary heart disease. Annual Review of
stressful events in coronary artery disease. Clinical Psychology, 4, 349-365.
Indian Journal of Medical Sciences. 56, 172-
176.
Received: May 31, 2010
Singh, S. B. & Misra, S. (1987). Stressful life events Revision received:September 03, 2010
and Myocardial infarction. Indian Journal of Accepted: October 10, 2010
Navdeep Kaur, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Kurukshetra

University, Kurukshetra - 136 119
Hardeep Lal Joshi, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology,
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra - 136 119
78

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 78-85.
Impact of Pranakarshan Pranayam on Anxiety:

An Empirical Query
Hemadri Kumar Sao, Santosh Kumar Vishvakarma
Dev Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar
Surendra Kumar Sia
Pondicherry University, Puducherry
Impact of pranakarshan pranayam on anxiety along with two anxiety related

parameters -galvanic skin resistance (GSR) and alpha-electroencephalogram
(EEG) was investigated in order to assess its efficacy as an inexpensive
therapeutic technique. A sample of 68 participants (40 to 60 years of age) was
drawn from the regular visiting devotees of Shantikunj, Hardwar (India). These
participants were divided into two groups (experimental and control) through
randomization. Both groups consisted of 34 subjects each. Experimental group
was subjected to regular half an hour practice of paranayam for the period of
three months. Sinha’s comprehensive anxiety test was used to measure anxiety.
Galvanic skin resistance (GSR) and alpha EEG (electroencephalogram) brain
waves were also investigated for the validation of results. Data was analysed by
using student t-test. Clinically significant results were found at .01 levels. Results
imply that pranakarshan pranayam can be very effective as a therapeutic
technique against anxiety.
Keywords: Pranakarshan pranayam, Anxiety, Galvanic skin resistance, Alpha
brain waves
Anxiety is a psychic condition of heightened where immediate danger exists and may
sensitivity to some perceived threat, risk, peril result in physical harm (Goldstein, 1940).
or danger. It is an emotion characterized by Anxiety is also a normal response to situation
apprehension and anticipation of future that poses a threat to self-esteem or
danger or misfortune accompanied by a psychological well being (LeDoux 2000).
feeling of dysphoria or somatic symptoms of Pathological anxiety occurs in situations
tension (American Psychiatric Association where there is no real physical or
2000). The perceived danger may be either psychological danger or when the emotional
an internal or an external fear. The reaction is disproportionate in intensity to the
physiological manifestation of anxiety such as actual danger (Spielberger & Rickman, 1990).
elevated blood pressure, cardiac discomfort Beck, Laude, and Bohnert (1974) believed
(e.g. palpitations, tachycardia etc Gorman, that anxiety results from a misperception of
Fyer, & Gliklich, 1981), diaphoresis, danger or an unrealistic heightened
dizziness, dry mouth, irregularities in expectation of harm. The degree of the
breathing (hyperventilation), musculoskeletal anxiety is directly proportional to the
disturbances (e.g. restlessness, tremors, anticipated severity of the adversity and the
weakness) may present as symptom of degree to which the individual cognitively
activation of the autonomic nervous system. distorts this fears. Whatever the theorists may
Anxiety is a normal reaction to a situation say about anxiety, but all are convinced that
Hemadri Kumar Sao, Santosh Kumar Vishvakarma and Surendra Kumar Sia 79
apprehension and anticipation of future Anxiety is an emotional consequence

danger and somatic symptoms of tension are of stress and several studies have been
inevitably involved in it. shown the potentially effective strength of
Now a day, nobody is abstained or yogic techniques in reducing physiological
refrained from the negative effects of anxiety. and psychological signs (Everly, 1989) of
It is not only influencing the people of all age stress both in normal persons (Telles,
range who are known to be burdened with lot Nagarathna, Nagendra & Desiraju, 1993) and
of responsibilities in different dimensions of in those with abnormally high level of stress
their life but also affecting even children, (Raghuraj & Telles, 1997). It would be a better
teenagers and aged. To get rid of it people proposition to find or design anxiety relief
are becoming drug addicts, alcohol technique based upon ancient text or
dependent and chain smokers (Ponnuduri, presently available yoga scriptures. As
Somasundaram, Indira, & Gunasekar, 1984; mentioned earlier, anxiety is a kind of mental
Channabasavanna, Michael & Murli, 1985; tendency characterized by unstoppable
Mehta, Joseph, & Verghese, 1985). Use of continuous reoccurring apprehensive
such substances leads them to an altered negative thoughts along with its physiological
state of consciousness in which they feel responses such as heightened arousal level,
relaxed but become unaware about their increased rate of heartbeat and respiration.
reality. Ultimately it ruins their health in every So before making attempt to completely
aspect (physical, mental, and spiritual) of it. extinct anxiety from its roots, first it would be
necessary to inhibit the continuously
So there is a strong need to find out an reoccurring apprehensive negative thoughts.
effective solution for it. Several attempts have
been made in this regard in terms of scientific Further, by regulating heightened
research. Various drugs and techniques have arousal level, increased rate of heart beat
been discovered and designed but their and respiration, anxiety responses could be
treatment approaches have been found to prevented. It has now been proved that
be one-dimensional or otherwise unholistic. breathing pattern and respiration rate are
Some drugs are used to reduce anxiety but related to emotional state of a person. If by
can have several unhealthy side effects. any means respiration rate could be
Some psychological techniques are found controlled then consequently feeling of
easy to follow but their therapeutic efficacies anxiety could be controlled. In this regard,
may not be long term in nature. Some technique of pranayam may be assumed to
techniques which are considered to be be appropriate since it could regulate the
effective are mostly economically expensive respiration. According to Maharishi Patanjali
and demand lot of expertise, training and -”Tasminsati swanspraswansyorgativixedah
competencies. In this respect there is a need pranayamah” (Patanjali yoga darshan, 2/49)
to find out a holistic approach which would means controlling procedure of the natural
be simultaneously therapeutically effective, rate of respiration and extension of breathing
inexpensive and easy to follow; which could duration is called “pranayam”. Apart from it,
be easily incorporated by the people of every to replace negative thoughts associated with
age in their daily routine of life and has at anxiety, feeling clarity in thoughts is required.
least dual ability of influencing the This comes through the awakening of ‘viveka’
psychological and physiological response of - an ability to make disctinction between right
anxiety affected person in terms of enhancing and wrong, good and bad, appropriateness
relaxation and positive well being. and inappropriateness. Viveka could be
achieved by practice of pranayam.
80 Impact of Pranakarshan Pranayam
According to Maharishi Patanjali – of life) is full of light and energy pervades it.
“Tatahxiyateprakashavarnam” (Patanjal yoga Prana akin to clouds of hot steam shining in
darshan, 2/52) - means practice of pranayam sun light are flowing towards us from all
facilitates awakening of viveka by removing directions. And within this Prana we are
the sheaths of panchklehsas over the chitta seated contentedly, peacefully and joyfully.
(mind). Avidya (ignorance), Asmita (ego- II. From both nostrils start inhaling and
Identity), Raga (attachment), Dwesha meditate on the fact that we are imbibing within
(jealousy) and Abhinvesha (fear of death or the body clouds of Prana principle. Just as a
threat to one’s existence) are described as bird and snake enter their nest and hole in
panchkleshas. the same way scattered Prana flow around
We assume that “Pranakarshan” us is entering our body via the nose. Thus it
pranayam technique would be appropriate for is also entering our brain, chest, heart,
the management of anxiety because in this stomach and all other organs.
procedure, desire, feeling and sankalpa III. When you inhale deeply stop it from
(willpower) are involved along with the getting exhaled for sometime and feel
regulation of respiration rate. It has the mentally: “The Prana I have inhaled is now
strength of auto suggestion and cognitive pervading every pore of my body. Just as
restructuring in psychological view. In all when we pour water on mud it soaks the water
pranayams, there is controlled regulation of so too our bodily parts are like dry mud and
breathing. But in Pranakarshan Pranayam, water as Prana is being soaked by our entire
alongwith controlled breathing, there is body. Further our body is also fully imbibing
cognitive restructuring and mental imagery. consciousness, divine light, strength, zest,
Mental imagery is quasi-perceptual conscious enterprise, patience and valor that are
experience (Thomas, 2005). This is an conjoined to Prana”.
integral part of Pranakarshan Pranayam,
which we can understand, when we go IV. Try and stop exhalation (after inhaling
thorough its procedure.This pranayam air) as much as you are comfortable and then
technique was specifically designed by Pandit slowly exhale this air. At that time mentally
Shri Ram Sharma Acharya who was the think: “After imbibing the essence of Prana
founder of Shantikunj and Brahamvarchas in every pore of our body dirty air is being
Research Centre, Haridwar, India. According emitted out of our body. It is like throwing away
to him, the success of pranakarshan remnants after butter is churned from
pranayam depends upon the degree of buttermilk. All mental taints and distortions are
sankalp shakti (willpower) used by its being emitted via exhalation of this air and
practitioner. The practice method of this like black smoke it is throwing out all
pranayam is very easy to follow. unwholesome imprints of the psyche”.
Procedure for Pranakarshan Pranayam: V. After exhaling fully let the air remain
outside for sometime i.e. life without air for
The developer of this pranayam Pandit sometime and think: “Since all the taints of
Shri Acharya has advocated the following my mind have been exhaled I will shut all
simple steps for practice- doors on them. Now these distortions have
I. In the early pre dawn hours after run away miles from me”.
performing daily ablutions sit cross legged This cycle has to be repeated again and
facing the eastern direction. Place both hands again, approximately for thirty minutes. Since
on the knees. Close your eyes. Meditate on each cycle will be around of three minutes,
the fact that in the entire sky Prana (vital force within half an hour, an individual can complete
almost ten cycles. However, since enough independent variable and anxiety level as
scientific research has not been carried out dependent. Ten cycles of pranakarshan
on this pranayam before, attempt has been pranayam was taken as the level of
made through the present study so as to test independent variable. Approximately three
its efficacy in reduction of anxiety. The effect minutes were determined for each cycle of
of pranakarshan pranaym on galvanic skin pranayam.
resistance (GSR) and alpha electro Participants:
encephalogram (EEG) has also been
investigated to validate the research findings. Sixty eight participants within the age
Since GSR and EEG brain waves manifest range of 40 to 60 were selected from the
the mental state of a person and relationship regular visiting devotees of Shantikunj
of GSR and EEG brain waves with mental Hardwar. Among the participants 40 were male
states has been already established (Tansey, and rest 28 were female. The devotees who
Michael, Kenneth, Tachiki, and Jennifer 1993) have been constantly feeling anxiety for last
these were included for the validation of the 15 days were asked to participate in this study
results related to anxiety in the study. The for the welfare of mankind and to gain
following hypotheses were formulated : knowledge about a new inexpensive effective
anxiety reducing technique. They were
H1. There would be a significant explained about the importance of this
reduction in the level of anxiety in the scientific research work. This motivated them
participants of ‘pranakarshan pranayam’ a lot and they voluntarily took part in the study.
group as compared to the participants of ‘no
pranayam’ group. Tools:
H2. There would be a significant increase Sinha’s Comprehensive Anxiety Test
in the galvanic skin resistance of the (SCAT): This tool was used for the
participants of ‘pranakarshan pranayam’ measurement of anxiety. It contains 90 items
group as compared to the participants of ‘no of manifest anxiety. It requires 15 to 20
pranayam’ group. minutes to fill. Scoring is simple. Percentile
norms and categorical norms for
H3. There would be a significant increase interpretation of final score are given. Levels
in the alpha EEG brain wave frequencies of of anxiety are classified in five categories –
the participants of ‘pranakarshan pranayam’ That is very low anxiety, low anxiety, normal
group as compared to the participants of ‘no anxiety, high anxiety and very high level of
pranayam’ group. anxiety. The split half reliability coefficient is
Method 0.92 and temporal stability coefficient is 0.85
Design: for this tool. Concurrent validity coefficient is
0.62.
Experimental group and control group
design was followed for this study. The GSR-Biofeedback instrument model no.
participants were divided in to two equal size ‘GBF-2000’ This instrument was developed
matched upon their gender and age; and then by MEDICAID, Chandigarh was used to
randomly assigned to Experimental measure galvanic skin resistance. It shows
(Pranakarshn Pranayam group) and Control the skin resistance in numerical units as well
group (No Pranayam group). Participants of as through visual display. It could display the
experimental group were subjected to state of anxiety and stress by using three
pranayam practice, while those of control coloured bars of light red yellow and green.
group were not asked to do any practice. Red light bar depicts increasing anxiety while
Pranakarshan pranayam was taken as yellow bar shows the normal and green shows
the decreasing level of anxiety and stress.
Alpha-EEG bio feedback instrument whereas the control group was not asked to
model no. ‘EBF-5000’ This instrument was do any kinds of pranyam practice.
also made by MEDICAID, Chandigarh was Participants of both groups were asked not
used to measure the frequency of alpha to have any beverage like alcohol and
waves in hertz. It could display the state of narcotic drugs which could lose their
alpha waves in numeric as well as in visual conscious control. They were also asked not
form by using visual display. Electrodes and to practice any aerobic exercises, perform
specifically made gel material are part of it mantra japa (recitation) and Yagya. Practice
and used. of pranakarshan pranayam was done every
Procedure: day in the morning before seven o’clock in
the morning.
Step 1 – Participants were invited for
voluntary participation in this scientific Step 6 - After three months, the same
research. The objectives of the experiment psychological test and bio feedback
were explained to them. instruments were again re-administered to the
participants of both the groups to collect the
Step 2 – Sinha’s Comprehensive anxiety data.
test was administered to all participants to
measure anxiety. Also their frequency of Step 7 – Data was analysed by using
alpha waves and skin resistances were student t-test. Mean and Standard deviation
measured by using Alpha EEG and GSR bio- of both the groups computed and compared
feed back instruments. for the test of the significance of the
differences between the means of groups.
Step 3 – Participants were divided in to
two equal size matched upon their gender and Results
age. That is why in both the groups there are Mean and standard deviation of anxiety
20 male and 14 female participants. In both level of the participants of experimental and
the groups, the participants are almost control group are shown in Table 1. It indicates
equally distributed on age varying from 40 to the effect of pranakarshan pranayam on
60 years. anxiety level. It shows that difference between
Step 4 – Groups were randomly assigned the means of both groups was found
to ‘pranakarshan pranayam’ group and ‘No statistically significant, t(66) = 9.39, p < .01.
pranayam’ group. On average, as can be seen in Figure 1,
pranakarshan pranayam group participants
Step 5 – The experimental group (M = 24.12, SD = 4.42) got significantly
(pranakarshan pranayam group) was enough reduction in their anxiety level
exposed to half an hour regular practice of compared to ‘no pranayam’ group participants
pranakarshan pranayam for three months, (M = 33.88, SD = 4.07).
Table 1. Comparision of Experimental and Control Group over Anxiety
(n=68)
Mean SD t(66)Exp Vs Control
(Post Trial)
Pre Post Pre Post
Experimental (34) 33.85 24.12 13.09 4.42

9.39**
Control (34) 33.03 33.88 12.63 4.07
**p< .01
Figure 1. Mean anxiety level comparison in

experimental and control group Figure 3. Mean comparison of EEG wave
frequency (in hertz) between experimental
and control group
Mean and standard deviation of galvanic
skin resistance rate of the participants of
experimental and control group are shown in
Table 2. It indicates the effect of pranakarshan
pranayam on GSR. It shows that difference
between the means of both groups was found
statistically significant, t (66) = 7.60, p < .01.
On average, as can be seen in Figure 2,
Figure 2. Mean galvanic skin resistance rate pranakarshan pranayam group participants
comparison between experimental and (M = 268.41, SD = 24.59) got significantly
control group enough improvement in terms of increase in
their GSR compared to ‘no pranayam’ group
participants (M = 212.32, SD = 35.28).
Table 2. Mean, SD of Experimental and Control Group over GSR (Ohms) (n=68)
Mean SD t(66)Exp Vs Control
(Post Trial )
Pre Post Pre Post
Experimental (34) 218.56 268.41 38.76 24.59
7.60**
Control (34) 222.38 212.32 37.07 35.28
**p< .01
Table 3. Mean, SD of Experimental and Control Group over EEG wave
frequency (in hertz)
Mean SD t(66) Exp Vs Control
(Post Trial)
Pre Post Pre Post
Experimental (34) 14.23 11.50 2.38 2.01
6.08**
Control (34) 14.50 14.38 2.42 1.89
**p< .01
Mean and standard deviation of galvanic Table 3. It indicates the effect of pranakarshan
skin resistance rate of the participants of pranayam on frequency of brain waves (in
experimental and control group are shown in hertz). It shows that difference between the
means of both groups is statistically level can be interpreted in relation to these

significant, t(66) = 7.60, p < .01. On average, parameters also. It is well known that the
as can be seen in Figure 3, pranakarshan galvanic skin resistance is inversely
pranayam group participants (M = 11.50, SD proportional to skin conductance. It means
= 2.01) got significantly enough improvement as the GSR increases skin conductance
in terms of increase in their alpha wave decreases. In this study GSR was measured
frequency compared to ‘no pranayam’ group by using GSR bio feedback instrument which
participants(M = 14.38, SD = 1.89) is connected to the human body by placing
Discussion electrodes on any two finger tips apart of two
centimetres. Conduction of body current is
Significant decrease in the anxiety level inhibited only when there is sweetening in the
of the participants of the ‘pranakarshan palm. Since the excessive sweetening in the
pranayam’ group as compared to ‘no palm without any physical environmental
pranayam’ group was found after three month influence is considered as the symptom of
duration of the intervention. Significant anxiety so here in the present study the
improvement in terms of increase in GSR and significant increases in the galvanic skin
alpha wave frequency was also found in the resistance is indicative of anxiety relief.
participants of pranakarshan pranayam
group compared to ‘no pranayam’ group after Similarly the significant increase in the
the same duration. These results imply that EEG brain wave frequencies in the
the practice of pranakarshan pranayam could participants of pranakarshan pranayam
significantly decrease the anxiety level group also implies the same thing. There are
experienced by most of the people and mainly four kinds of brain waves- alpha, beta,
simultaneously increase the galvanic skin delta, theta which are seen through
resistance and frequency of alpha waves. electroencephalogram and indicative of
Anxiety is an abnormal disorder in which there different kinds of mental conditions. Among
appears continuous fearful flow of irrational these brain waves alpha wave is a high-
negative thoughts. It activates the sympathetic amplitude EEG wave with a frequency of 8-
nervous system of the body and increases 12 hertz, characteristic of relaxed
the arousal level, nervousness, heartbeat and wakefulness. This wave, also called alpha
breathing rate. Indirectly we can say they that, rhythm, usually appears when a person’s
if this sympathetic system can be controlled eyes are closed. Beta waves are low-voltage
and the bases concerning the irrational EEG wave with a frequency of 13-30 hertz,
thoughts can be modified, anxiety level of any usually occurring in a state of arousal. Anxiety
individual can be reduced effectively. We is also strongly correlated to arousal. In the
assume that, since Pranakarshan Pranayam condition of anxiety arousal level goes high
involves controlled breathing as well as up and in a relaxed state it goes down. It
cognitive imagery, it can take care of implies that anxiety can be interpreted in
sympathetic nervous system as well as terms of beta wave frequency. In present
sources of distorting thoughts. study results shows that the EEG beta brain
waves were present in the participants of both
Galvanic skin resistance and EEG wave the groups before intervention of
frequencies are known to be related to mood pranakarshan pranayam. However after
states (especially with the arousal level) of three months, beta waves were present only
human beings and anxiety is a kind of state in the participants of control group whereas
of mind in which arousal level goes high. high amplitude alpha brain waves with the
Therefore the improvement in the anxiety average frequency of 11.5 hertz were found
in the participants of pranakarshan pranayam disorders in a rural area of Tamilnadu’, Indian

group. Therefore It could be concluded that Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 153-158.
three months practice of pranakarshan Ponnudurai, R., Somasundaram, O., Indira, T.P.
pranayam can be applied to the patients of & Gunasekar, P. (1984). Alcohal and drug
anxiety for anxiety relief and to achieve a state abuse among interners. Indian Journal of
of relaxed wakefulness. Psychiatry, 26, 128-132.
Raghuraj, P., & Telles, S. (1997). Muscle power,
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An epidemiologic study of psychiatric Accepted: October 30, 2010
Hemadri Kumar Sao, PhD, Associate Professor, Dev Sanskriti

Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar, Uttrakhand
Santosh Kumar Vishvakarma, PhD, Lecturer, School of Yoga and Health,
Dev Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar,
Surendra Kumar Sia, PhD, Reader, Department of Applied Psychology,
Pondicherry University, Puducherry - 605 014
86

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 86-97.
Gender Differences in Depressive Symptoms: The Role of Daily

Hassles, Coping Styles, Social Support and Personal Mastery

Gargi College, New Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi
The present study examines gender difference in depression and the relationship
of these symptoms with the characteristic coping styles, appraisal of daily
hassles, sense of personal mastery and perceived social support. 30 male and
30 female subjects from the community were selected. Standardized
questionnaires such as Center for Epidemiological Studies - Depression scale,
The Daily Hassles scale, Ways of Coping checklist, Personal Mastery scale,
Emotional Support scale and Scale of Social Participation were used to collect
data. Findings revealed a significant difference in the extent of depressive
symptoms between gender with females scoring higher scores. Female subjects
also showed a significantly higher use of wishful thinking strategy indicating
emotion focused coping styles. Also, they perceived more number of daily
hassles in the domains of health, household responsibilities, inner concerns
and time pressures. No significant gender difference emerged on the dimension
of perceived social support. Age and working status of women were not found to
be related to the coping style, experience of daily hassles, mastery or extent of
perceived social support.
Keywords: Coping styles, Daily hassles, Personal mastery, Depression
Women experience depression more often of control and mastery, thus lessening the
than men, whether depression is indexed by duration and severity of symptoms, while the
levels of depressive symptoms or by ruminating style common in women can serve
diagnosed unipolar depressive disorders to perpetuate feelings of depression.
(Kessler, McGonagle, & Swartz, 1993; Nolen- Although adaptive in one sense, the coping
Hoeksema, 1990, 1995). Over the course of style of men makes them vulnerable to
a lifetime, depression occurs in approximately destructive activities, such as alcohol abuse.
20 percent of women compared with 10 One risk that remains greater for men than
percent of men (Weissman & Oldson, 1995). women is the likelihood of contemplating
One important theory maintains that men and suicide. Women are more apt to attempt
women in general tend to respond differently suicide, but men are more likely to complete
to depressive feelings (Nolen-Hoeksama, the act.
1990). Women are included to dwell on their Hassles are irritants that range from
sadness, to turn inward in an attempt to minor annoyances to fairly major pressures,
correct the problem. Men, on the other hand, problems or difficulties in everybody’s life.
may be more apt to engage in activities, such According to Kraaij, Arensman and Spinhoven
as sports or work, to distract themselves from (2002), Ravindran, Griffiths, Meralia, &
the emotional pain. These different ways of Anisman (1996), both major depression and
responding to depressive symptoms affect the dysthymia were associated with increased
severity and duration of depression. Men’s reports of minor stressors (daily hassles),
activity oriented approach provides a sense feelings of loneliness, and reduced uplifts.
Sangeeta Bhatia and Shohag Dey 87
Daily hassles and negative life events for men experienced other strains more often,
males were significant factors related to such as sexual harassment and the threat of
suicidal ideation in a longitudinal study by violence also contribute to women’s burden.
Mazza and Reynolds (1998) on depression These strains correlated with higher levels
and suicide in adolescence. of depressive symptoms, suggesting that
According to the Stress theory of these strains do contribute to women’s
depression, stress is a causal factor of greater vulnerability to depressive symptoms
depression. Ongoing hassles are important compared with men. Spurlock (1995) reported
source of psychological stress in everyday a risk five times greater for women following
family life, in work settings, and in other crises involving children, housing and
contexts. Moreover, how persons construe or reproduction. There was no gender
appraise the personal significance of their difference in risk for crises involving finances,
encounters with the environment will work and marital relationship. The greater
determine what is psychologically stressful to effect was a consequence of differential
them. A person’s appraisals reflect sensitivity to events, as a result of role
environmental circumstances as well as differences, rather than women experiencing
personality characteristics, such as goal more events. In a study by Kraaij et al (2002),
hierarchies and beliefs about the self and it was found that almost all negative life
world, and other factors may result in special events had a modest but significant
sources of vulnerability to stress. According relationship with depression. The total
to Billings and Moos’ (1981) Integrative number of negative life events and the total
Framework, these daily hassles or micro number of daily hassles had the strongest
environmental stressors, along with other relationship with depression. According to
personal stressors, are appraised as harmful Mazza and Reynolds (1998), daily hassles
or negative (primary appraisal) and beyond and negative life events for males and social
control of the individual (secondary support and depression for females are
appraisal), such that it disrupts adequate significant factors related to suicidal ideation.
coping, results in depression. A study by Ravindran and colleagues (1996)
found primary dysthymia to be associated with
Although the existence of a gender increased minor stressors (daily hassles),
difference in depressive symptoms is well and reduced uplifts.
established (Bertakis et al., 2001), the
reasons for this gender difference are not Franks and Faux (1990) report that
clear and well documented. A variety of degree of depression would be significantly
psychological, social/developmental, correlated with feelings of powerlessness or
personality and biological explanations for lack of personal mastery. Halbreich and Kahn
women’s greater vulnerability to depressive (2001) gave biological explanations for the
symptoms have been offered. According to female excess of mood disorders and studied
Nolen-Hoeksema and Davis (1999), the the role of estrogen in the etiology and
chronic strains reported by many women treatment of mood disorders. Periods of
were the grinding annoyances and burdens hormonal fluctuations or estrogen instability
that come with women’s lower social power. have been associated with increased
Women carried a greater load of the vulnerability to depression among susceptible
housework and child-care and more of the women.
strains of parenting than men. Women felt According to Lazarus and Folkman
less affirmed and appreciated by their (1984), coping skills are factors that moderate
partners than men. Women as compared to the effects of stress. Problem focused coping
88 Gender Differences in Depressive Symptoms
manages or resolves the event or situation; hassles, socio-economic status, lot status,
that is, finds a solution, in contrast, emotion social climate, oppression) or both. In the
focused coping manages the emotional case of depressed individuals, they may not
reaction to stress and reduces the threat that have sufficient personal and environmental
it poses to the person. Research has shown resources, or they may often appraise the
that individuals who use approach coping stressors as potentially negative in nature
have better psychological adjustment, while (primary appraisal) and feel passive and a
avoidance coping may be effective in reducing sense of being unable to act and control the
the distress in the short run (Lazarus & situation (secondary appraisal acquired
Folkman, 1984). Although certain types of through unpleasant experiences and traumas
coping have been related to depression, it is that the individual tried unsuccessfully to
not clear whether specific coping strategies control, bringing on a sense of helplessness).
lead to depression or whether depressed In response to this resulting stress, they
persons choose these strategies. Sahn and engage in inadequate and non-adaptive
Mishra (1995) reported a significant positive coping often in the form of emotion focused
relationship between family stress and strategies that maybe effective in reducing
acceptance and between society related the distress in the short run, but are not very
stress and self-blame whereas Robbins and beneficial in long term psychological
Tanck (1992), Billings and Moos (1984) adjustment and often associated with decline
studied appraised tangibility of a stress or as in the sense of personal mastery, and
a modifier of the relationship between coping development and exacerbation of depression.
and depression and conclude that coping Research Questions:
responses directed toward problem solving
and affective regulation were associated with (i) To what extent do male and women
less severe dysfunction, whereas emotional subjects vary in their severity of depressive
discharge responses, more frequently used symptoms?
by women, were linked to greater dysfunction. (ii) What daily events are appraised as
The present study is tentatively based stressful?
on the Integrative Framework as given by (iii) What is the nature of coping
Billing and Moos (1984). According to this strategies, perceived social support and
framework, personal and environmental extent of personal mastery deployed by those
resources interact with the stresses, which exhibiting depression?
may be personal and/or environmental in (iv) How are the variables of coping
nature, get further mediated by the appraisal styles, perceived daily stress, level of mastery
process and the coping abilities of the and extent of support related to the subject’s
individual, resulting in either depression or age, gender, work status and severity of
normal functioning. depressive symptoms?
Attributional style, social skills, self- Method
concept, and sense of mastery (personal
resources) enable a person to appraise the Sample:
stressors as benign and cope with them in The sample comprised 60 subjects,
an effective manner, thereby leading to an selected from the general population. 30
adaptive personal functioning. The stressors male subjects and 30 female subjects in the
may be, by nature, personal (such as poor age group of 25 to 55 years were selected
health, life responsibilities, such as parent or for this study; and the sampling used was
spouse) or environmental (such as daily purposive and incidental. All the subjects were
residents of urban Delhi, married, belonging stressor and indicate whether they used each
to middle socio-economic class and their of these responses by making a rating on a
education varied from graduation and above. multipoints scale. A total of 42 items are rated
With respect to work-status, all the 30 male on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = never, to 4 =
subjects were working, whereas within the always). Ratings for items are summed
group of female subjects, 17 were working according to the dimension it measures.
and 13 were non-working. Thus, total raw scores are obtained for each
Measures: of the five dimensions separately.
Center for Epidemiological Studies – Personal Mastery Scale (Pearlin &

Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977): Schooler, 1978): It consists of seven items
It is a 20-item scale measuring the presence regarding the ability to control events and life
and severity of depression in adults residing chances being under one’s control or that of
in the community. The items selected from the world around (i.e., fatalistically ruled),
the previously developed scales, represent feeling helpless in dealing with problems of
major components in the clinical syndrome life, how much control of the future they had,
of depression such as depressed affect, and what they thought they could do in their
feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness, lives. The respondents rate the items from 1
and affect. The items are scored 0 to 3 across “seldom” to 4 “always”. The rating were
all items, with a resulting range of scores from recorded such that a higher rating indicates
0 to 60. A score of 16 or more was considered a greater mastery. The score is the sum of
indicating depression. the ratings, with a range of 7 to 28.
The Daily Hassles Scale (Lazarus & Assessment of Social Support

Folkman, 1989): It consists of 117 items used The present study examines two aspects
to measure the frequency and severity of a of perceived social support-emotional
person’s transactions with the environment support, and the extent of social participation
that are considered by the person to be by subjects to examine both the structural
stressful events. The scale presumes that and functional aspects of subjects’ social
how persons construe or appraise the support.
personal significance of their encounters with (i) Emotional Support Scale (Antonucci
the environment will determine what is & Akiyama, 1987): The scale measures the
psychologically stressful to them. Factors are functional support that refers to the availability
distributed in eight areas, namely, of support to meet certain needs as well as
Environmental, Financial responsibility, structural components that refer to the
Future security, Health, Household existence of social ties and is operationalized
responsibilities, Inner concerns, Time by measures of the composition of one’s own
pressures and Work. Respondents rate the network. Administration of the emotional
items from 1 “none or did not occur” to 4 support scale involves asking the
“extremely often” on a 4-point Likert scale. respondents to list up to the 10 persons in
The score is the sum of the ratings, with a their network who were important to them.
range of 117 to 468. Next, they indicated whether each person
Ways of Coping Checklist (WCCL) – provided them with the following four types
Revised (Vitaliano et al., 1985): It consists of of emotional support (each coded as yes = 1
a series of predicates, each of which portrays or no = 0): someone in whom they confide; a
a coping thought or action that people engage source of reassurance when feeling
in when under stress. Respondents are uncertain; someone to talk with when upset,
required to focus on a current serious nervous or depressed; and someone to show
them respect. A total score of emotional Results

support is obtained by summing the Results showed a significant difference
availability of these four types of support from in the depressive symptoms of the female and
all members in the network. The score has a the male subjects, with females being
range of 0 to 40. Emotional support significantly higher than males (Table 1). No
supplements measures of functional support significant differences were seen in
and also accounts for available support depression of subjects with respect to the age
outside the family context. of the subject or in relation to the working
(ii) Social Participation (Li, Seltzer & status of the female subjects.
Greenberg, 1997): Social participation as a In the present study, it was hypothesized
structural support measure has also been by that significant different coping strategies will
found past research to have a main effect on be used by the more depressed group as
psychological well-being. Social participation compared to the group with lesser depression
is indicated by the frequency of social . Females, the more depressed group, used
activities engaged in by the subjects, such significantly more wishful coping strategy than
as spending time with friends and relatives, male subjects (Table 2), thus verifying our
going to a temple, and participating in hypothesis. No significant differences were
recreational groups. Respondents rate the found in the nature of the other coping
frequency of participating in five types of strategies used by the subjects with respect
social activities from 1 (never) to 5 (more than to their gender. However, females indicated
once a week). These include spending social more use of avoidance, problem focused, and
time with relatives, with people with whom the social support seeking strategies than males.
respondent works, or with friends and No significant differences and correlation
neighbors; attending social event at a were found in the nature of coping strategies
religious place (temple); and participating in adopted by the subjects with respect to their
a group recreational activity. The sum of the age or work status in the case of female
rating of the types of social activities was used subjects.
to indicate social participation. A higher score
indicates that the respondent is more Personal mastery and events perceived
frequent participant in her social environment. as stressful were not related to the gender,
The possible range of social participation is age or work status . With respect to the
from 5 to 25. different factors constituting daily hassles,
Table1. Mean, SD on different variables of gender, age and work status (N = 60)
Variable Total Gender Age Work Status

M F t <40yrs. >=40yrs. t Non-Working Working t
(n = 30) (n = 30) (n = 27) (n = 33) (13) (17)
Depression X 18.4 16 20.8 20.41 16.76 19.38 21.86
SD 8.66 8 8.76 2.25* 8.96 8.18 1.65 7.9 9.46 0.77
Mastery X 14.85 14.6 15.1 14.44 15.18 14.85 15.29
SD 3.16 4.51 2.47 0.53 2.03 4.52 0.78 3 2.05 0.49
Daily Hassles X 181.63 173.13 190.13 190.15 174.67 186 193.29
SD 42.01 45.74 36.72 1.59 43.37 40.18 1.43 29.11 42.23 353
Emotional Support X 19.58 17.83 21.33 19.09 20 23.08 20
SD 9.65 10.28 8.8 1.42 8.59 1054 0.37 8.68 8.91 0.95
Social Participation X 13.2 12.73 13.67 13.44 13 13.77 13.59
SD 3.76 3.42 4.07 0.96 14.17 3.44 0.45 3.77 4.4 0.02
* p<.05
Table 2. Coping strategies as a function of subjects’ gender, age and females’ work status
Avoidance Blamed Self Problem Focused Seek Social support Wishful Thinking
Characterstics N Mean SD t Mean SD t Mean SD t Mean SD t Mean SD t
Total 60 16.23 4.12 5.07 1.9 31.43 8.21 10.32 3.54 13.2 4.79
Male 30 15.93 4.66 5.1 2.02 30.33 8.48 9.47 3.77 11.73 5.17
-560 0.135 -1.039 -1.898 2.47*
Female 30 16.53 3.56 5.03 1.81 32.53 7.92 11.17 3.14 14.67 3.94
Age
<40 years 27 16.33 3.29 5.44 2.12 30 6.85 10.04 3.44 13.85 5.03
0.169 1.402 -1.229 -0.55 0.952
>= 40 years 33 16.15 4.74 4.76 1.68 32.61 9.11 10.55 3.67 12.67 4.6
Work Status (females)

Non Working 13 16.46 4.14 4.46 1.85 30.15 7.12 10.77 3.3 14.31 3.97
0.095 1.55 1.468 0.599 0.43
Working 17 16.59 3.18 5.47 3.18 34.35 8.22 11.47 3.08 14.94 4.02
*p<.05
Table 3. Factors of daily hassles as a function of subjects’ gender, age and work status
Chara N Environment Financial Reponsibilities Future Security Health Household Responsibilities Inner Concern Time Pressures Work
cterstics Mean SD t Mean SD t Mean SD t Mean SD t Mean SD t Mean SD t Mean SD t Mean SD t
Total 60 14.3 6.8 10.85 3.2 6.83 2.3 15.83 4.9 19.38 7.44 15.05 4.9 15.7 4.47 9.88 3.27
Male 30 15.37 8.41 10.63 3.02 6.9 2.23 14.37 4.38 16.87 4.87 13.53 4.54 13.97 4 10.1 4.1
1.221 0.521 0.24 2.413* 2.764** 2.504* 3.239** 0.51
Female 30 13.23 4.56 11.07 3.41 6.77 2.06 17.3 5.01 21.9 8.7 16.57 4.84 17.43 4.29 9.67 2.2
Age
<40 yrs 27 14.15 4.41 10.96 3.01 7.52 2.24 16.41 5.73 19.63 4.82 16.22 5.73 16.33 4.83 10.07 2.89
.155 0.245 2.334* 0.819 0.23 1.704 0.994 0.406
>= 40 yrs 33 14.42 8.33 10.76 3.4 6.27 1.89 15.36 4.12 19.18 9.11 14.09 3.93 18.18 4.15 9.73 3.58
Work Status (in females)

Non
Working 13 14.54 4.7 10.31 2.81 5.85 1.52 18 4.17 19.92 3.57 18 3.81 15.69 2.87 8.92 1.98
1.392 1.068 2.289* 0.663 1.092 1.445 2.049* 1.666
Working 17 12.24 4.32 11.65 3.79 7.47 2.18 16.76 5.31 23.41 11.05 15.47 5.35 18.76 4.78 10.24 2.25
91
*p<0.05 **p<0.01
female subjects significantly appraised more security (they often experience troubling
of health, household responsibilities, inner thoughts about their future and the inflation
concerns and time pressures as hassles of prices of common everyday goods) Their
(Table 3). other chronic strains include various
Subjects who were working significantly environmental issues of pollution, traffic,
appraised more of future security and time increasing crime rates and noise levels.
pressures as hassles than non-working The major hassles appraised by female
female subjects. With respect to the age of subjects in this study included time pressures
the subjects, subjects who were less than 40 such as having many responsibilities and
years of age significantly appraised more of things to do, and not enough time to do things
future security as stressful than those who they feel are needed, inner concerns about
were older. Further, significant correlation was the meaning of their lives and their inability
found between subjects’ appraisal of health, to express themselves, future security such
household responsibilities, inner concerns as having troubling thoughts about their
and time pressure factors of daily hassles with future, household responsibilities leading to
gender (Table 4). This study also identified inadequate amount of rest, work pressures
the ten most frequent daily hassles for the resulting in insufficient rest, health concerns
present sample (Table 5), to determine the about family members and environmental
source of stress. These include concerns concerns such as increasing pollution.
about pollution, traffic, noise, crime, health In relation to age, significant correlation
of family members, person’s own inner was found between age of the subjects and
concerns, thoughts about one’s future, future security factor of daily hassles. Work
responsibilities, lack of time and sleep. status of the females correlated significantly
Analysis of these hassles show that people with future security and time pressure factors
are as concerned and affected by the of daily hassles. It was also found that there
environment they live in as by other personal was a strong correlation between appraisal
and more immediate situations. of hassles and severity of depression in the
The major source of hassles for men in subjects (Table 6). The results of the present
this study related to stressors at their work study also show the difference in perception
place. Unchallenging work, worries about job of the emotional support and extent of social
changing decisions coupled with concerns participation was not significant with respect
about getting ahead and future and financial to gender and work-status, though, female
Table 4. Interrelation among subjects’ appraisal of different factors of daily hassles
with depressive symptomatology, perceived social support, coping strategies and
mastery level
Daily Hassles DP SP ES AV BS WT PF SS PM
Environmental .318* .284* -0.13 0.095 0.065 -0.137 0.092 0.015 0.168
Financial Responsibilities .380** -0.01 -0.235 0.217 0.32 0 -0.089 -0.81 0.247
Future Security .368** -0.004 -0.08 0.122 0.132 0.124 -0.003 -0.053 0.164
Health .309* .367** -0.6 -0.68 -0.122 0.131 -0.118 0.249 0.182
Household Responsibilities .421** 0.214 -0.038 0.096 -0.123 0.178 0.094 0.247 0.236
Inner Concerns .591** 0.135 -0.011 0.015 0.18 0.184 -0.147 0.213 0.214
Tim Pressures .547** 0.132 0.02 0.197 0.068 0.137 0.133 0.174 0.184
Work .430** 0.126 0.078 0.1 0.247 -0.17 -0.79 0.044 0.034
*p < 0.05 ** p < .01
DP: Depression, SP:Social Participation, ES:Emotional Support, AV: Avoidance, BS: Blame Self
PF: Problem Focused, SS: Seek Social Support, PM: Personal Mastery
Table 5. Ten most frequent hassles (N=60) social support with depression, which keep
S.No. Item some women caught in a cycle of passivity
%Endorsing and despair. Data from international studies
(in descending order) shows that women are about twice as likely
1 Pollution 56.67 as men to be depressed, regardless of
2 Traffic 46.67
3 Health of a family member 41.67
culture, national origin, or socioeconomic
4 Troubling thoughts about future 40 group ( Kessler, McGonagle, & Nelson,1994;
5 Concerned about the meaning of life 36.67 Meltzer, Gill, Petticrew, & Hinds ,1995). No such
6 Noise 33.33 data are documented in India.
7 Too many responsibilities 33.33
8 Not enough time to do things you In the present study, the significant
need to do 33.33 difference in the depressive symptoms in men
9 Crime 33.33 and women can be explained as a result of
Table 6.Ten most frequest hassles in males the interplay of the different psychosocial
factors such as appraisal of stress, nature of
(N=30)
coping styles, social support buffer and sense
S.No. Item %Endorsing
of mastery in their everyday lives. As explained
1 Pollution 60 by Billings and Moos (1984) in their
2 Traffic 56.67 integrative framework, the findings of this
3 Concerns about getting ahead 40 study may be attributed to both the personal
4 Crime 36.67 resources as well as the environmental
5 Noise 36.67 resources in the individual’s life. Both these
6 Troubling thoughts about future 36.67
resources interact with the stressors, which
7 Health of a family member 36.67
8 Rising price of common goods 30 are personal and/or environmental in nature,
9 Unchallenging work 26.67 further mediated by the appraisal process and
10 Worries about decisions to change the coping abilities of the individual, resulting
jobs 26.67 in either depression or normal functioning.
subjects perceived higher levels of emotional This style may be related to sexual abuse in
support as compared to male subjects. Thus, childhood as well as over-protectiveness,
these results show that women experience harsh discipline and perfectionist standards.
significantly more depression than men. Also, The rates of childhood sexual assault are
frequency of daily hassles such as future between 7 and 19% for females and between
security, time pressures, work, household 3 and 7% for males (Cutler & Nolen-
responsibilities, health, inner concerns, Hoeksema, 1991). Also, sex-stereotypical
financial responsibilities, environmental; use socialization practices are common in India,
of coping strategies based on avoidance and where parents are often overprotective of
wishful thinking and extent of personal their daughters, show differential treatment
mastery are significantly related to in the form of harsh discipline and
depression. conservatism and the marriage of the girl
child is a matter of transcendent concern for
Discussion
the family. In the society where the girl child
The results of this study suggest that is considered a burden, girls receive more
the robustness of the gender difference in negative feedback on their intellectual ability
depression may be due to the relationship and failure is attributed to the lack of ability.
among appraisals of daily events as stressful Boys, on the other hand, are shown how to
(hassles), particular coping styles, extent of do things for themselves, are rewarded for
personal sense of mastery and availability of achievement and competence, are
encouraged to be action oriented and expectations and responsibilities, women

attribute failure to task difficulty or other experience stress, conflict and frustration.
events or persons. Girls are taught to be Moreover, women carry a greater load of the
passive and dependent, whereas boys are housework and childcare and more of the
taught to be independent and achievement strain of parenting than men. Lack of
focused. affirmation in close relationships, role burden,
These childhood socialization practices housework inequities, child-care inequities,
have their inevitable consequences on other other parenting strains and concerns about
aspects such as social skills deficit. finances, health and neighborhood, thus act
Depressed people often exhibit disrupted as daily hassles leading to the exacerbation
social skills, which make it difficult for them to of the stress. For these women, role overload
obtain positive reinforcement from their may increase the risk of becoming depressed.
relationships with other people. At the same According to Spurlock (1995), women
time, their poor social skills make it difficult to are more likely to experience multiple roles,
avoid negative outcomes in social often several at a time, for which different sets
relationships. The inability to produce positive, of responsibilities are designated. The
and avoid negative social outcomes multiplicity and overlapping of roles provoke
precipitates episodes of depression. Also, the conflicts and stress. Bird (1999) studied the
family-of-orientation experiences associated impact of the amount of household labor
with depression in such women are performed and its division within the
characterized by high rates of marital distress household on men’s and women’s depression
and parenting problems. Negative self- levels, adjusting for prior mental health status
concepts contribute directly to depression and tested two alternative explanations of the
and also interact with stressors to contribute contributions of household labor and the
to depression. In India, women merge their division of household labor to gender
self-identity with that of their natal family differences in depression: differential
before their marriage and with her husband’s exposure and differential vulnerability. The
family after marriage. As such, when conflicts results indicated that men’s lower
arise in these relationships or the contributions to household labor explain part
relationships end, they find themselves of the gender difference in depression where
helpless. Women in such situations may women were performing household labor
develop a negative self-evaluation schema beyond the point of maximum psychological
of their worthlessness and self blame, benefit. Inequity in the division of household
coupled with negative views of the world and labor had a greater impact on distress than
their future, and use cognitive biases such does the amount of household labor.
as arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, The findings of the present study with
overgeneralization, magnification and respect to the nature of coping strategies are
minimization, thus leading to depression. in line with the study by Stanton, Danoff-Burg,
For women who are working, they often Cameron, and Ellis (1994), who reported that
find themselves “sandwiched” more between women used significantly more emotional
the responsibilities at home and managing processing and expression in response to
their careers with its inherent responsibilities. stressors than did men. Though women
This can be seen in the higher means on engage in more problem focused coping than
depression obtained by women who are men do (difference not significant), they at
working as compared to their non-working the same time use significantly higher wishful
cohorts. In their attempt to carry out these thinking coping strategy – a mode of emotion
multiple roles along with the multiple focused (escape-avoidance) coping, that
may be effective in reducing the distress in low sense of mastery) can work both ways —
the short run though not very beneficial in manipulating affect can change thinking, that
long term psychological adjustment (Lazarus is, depression could cause negative thoughts,
& Folkman, 1984). and negative thinking can cause and worsen
The significant use of wishful thinking by depression (Lewinsohn, Hoberman, Teri, &
women, the more depressed group, are Hautzinger, 1985).
reflective of their simplistic and unrealistic According to Nolen-Hoeksema and
solution efforts to deal with problem. Women Davis (1999), women may accept family and
engage in wishful thinking to get temporary work strains as “the way things are” and find
relief for the crisis situations they face. This ways to live with them. In such times, they
short-term coping technique is not very may also shift their attention to aspects of
effective often resulting in a fateful sense of their lives that they can control, thus
helplessness. As a result of such non- maintaining a general sense of control over
productive flawed coping they prevent their lives. Also, at the same time some women
themselves from addressing the actual may search for some understanding of why
cause(s) of their predicament. Over time, the their lives are not going as they wish, why
persistent use of flawed wishful thinking they feel frustrated and distressed so much
coping techniques actually leads to additional of the time, what they can do to convince
(and sometimes more drastic) difficulties. Due their partners to share in the work of the home
to the partial or whole irresolution of the and child care (happily), and how they might
problem(s) due to repeated use of wishful be better appreciated by their partners and
thinking, the problem(s) accumulate till the families. This searching may be manifested
point is reached when they feel extremely as wishful thinking that we saw more often in
helpless. According to the learned women than in men. At the intersection of
helplessness theory of depression, as the interpersonal communication domain and
women unsuccessfully attempt to control the the domain of general personal relationships,
unpleasant experiences and traumas of their rejection may result because of the emotional
lives, by engaging in wishful thinking and contagion (the depressed make other people
hence, avoid solving the problem, in a feel sad, distressed and hostile) and
productive way, ideally through problem loneliness, finally resulting in depression
focused strategies, their passivity and sense (Segrin, 2001).
of being unable to act and control their own Research has shown that the protective
life, brings on a sense of helplessness, and effects of social ties on mental health are not
soon leads to depression. uniform across groups in society. According
It can also be inferred from the results to Fuhrer, Stansfeld, Chemali, and Shipley
that the extent of perceived sense of personal (1999), gender differences in social support
mastery can result in depression. The tend to suggest that women have larger social
justification for such finding may be attributed networks and both give and receive more
to the fact that prior to becoming depressed, support than men. Nevertheless, although
future depressives do not always subscribe social support has been identified as
to irrational beliefs, have lower expectations protective of mental health, women have
for positive outcomes or higher expectancies higher rates of psychological distress than
for negative outcomes. As a result they do men. But, they found that women have a
not perceive themselves as having less larger number of ‘close persons’ than men
control or mastery over the events in their although men have larger social networks.
lives. Moreover, the relationship between Social connections may paradoxically
depression and negative thinking (leading to increase levels of mental illness symptoms
among women with low resources, especially Bertakis, K.D., Helms, L.J., Callahan, E.J., Azari,
if such connections entail role strain R., Leigh, P. & Robbins, J.A. (2001). Patient
associated with obligations to provide social gender differences in the diagnosis of
support to others (Kawachi & Berkman, depression in primary care. Journal of Women’s
Health and Gender based Medicine, 10, 689-
2001). According to Bullers (2000),
98.
demanding social ties have the strongest
Billings, A.G. & Moos, R.H. (1984). Coping, stress
association with depressive symptoms, and
and social resources among adults with unipolar
that this relationship is much stronger for depression. Journal of Personality and Social
women than for men. Psychology, 46, 877-891.
Since the present study is cross- Billings, A.G. & Moos, R.H. (1981). The role of
sectional, hence longitudinal research is coping responses and social resources in
required to further understanding regarding attenuating the stress of life events. Journal of
how depression develops and diversifies with Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 877-
various developmental stages, transitional 891.
changes and life events in an individual’s life. Bird, D.G. (1999) Gender, household labor and
It is imperative to identify the vulnerable psychological distress: the impact of the
population- those who feel “sandwiched” amount and division of housework. Journal of
Health and Social Behavior, 40, 32-45.
between caring for young children and caring
for sick or older family members. Also, to Bullers, S. (2000). The mediating role of perceived
control in the relationship between social ties
contextualize ‘role salience’ and focus on role
and depressive symptoms. Women’s Health,
enhancement rather than role-burden.
31, 97-116.
Depressive disorders in women may be more
Cutler, S. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991).
closely tied to severe traumas such as sexual
Accounting for sex differences in depression
or physical abuse than to everyday strains. through female victimization: Childhood sexual
Future studies are required to address this abuse. Sex Roles, 24, 425-438.
area of research. Further, planning Franks, F. & Faux, S.A. (1990). Depression, stress,
interventions oriented toward enhancement mastery and social resources in four ethno-
of personal coping skills that are more cultural women’s groups. Research in Nursing
problem-focused and lead to increased self- and Health, 13, 283-292.
awareness and improved social support, thus Fuhrer, R., Stansfeld, S.A., Chemali, J. & Shipley,
enabling the individual to deal effectively with M.J. (1999). Gender, social relations and
stressful situations and help her function mental health: prospective findings from an
more efficiently. Visiting mental health occupational cohort (Whitehall II study). Social
professionals entails a stigma in some Science and Medicine, 48, 77-87.
cultures, therefore, educating the public to Halbreich, U. & Kahn, L.S. (2001). Role of estrogen
understand the nature of problems, recognize in the etiology and treatment of mood disorders.
the signs of incipient conditions and know the CNS drugs, 15, 797-817.
resources available to deal with them is a Kawachi, I. & Berkman, L.F. (2001). Social ties
major task for researchers working towards and mental health. Journal of Urban Health,
alleviating distress. 78, 458-67.
Kessler, R.C., McGonagle, K.A., & Nelson, C.B.
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“Thanks for sharing that”: Ruminators and their
Sangeeta Bhatia, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, Cargi College

(University of Delhi), Siri Fort Road, New Delhi – 110 049
Shohag Dey, M.A Psychology, Delhi University, Delhi - 110008
98

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 98-105.
Cognitive Functioning in Children: The Role of Child Abuse,

Setting and Gender
Sushma Pandey
D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur.
The study aimed to investigate the role of child abuse, residential setting and
gender in cognitive functioning of children. Child Abuse Checklist was used to
identify abused and non-abused groups of children. Memory Span Test and
Culture Fair Intelligence Test were used to assess the levels of working memory
and intelligence in children. Results revealed that child abuse caused adverse
impact on cognitive functioning of children. Working memory and intelligence
level were found inferior in abused children as compared to non-abused
counterparts. Urban children scored higher on cognitive measures than rural
children. Gender effect was found partially significant. Though, girls were found
inferior on working memory, however, on level of intellect boys and girls did not
differ significantly. The roles of contextual variations and parental treatment of
children in the course of cognitive development is discussed.
Keywords: Child Abuse, Cognitive Functioning, Working Memory, Intelligence.
Cognitive processes in relation to contextual and developmental impairments (Hurlock,

variables have been widely investigated 1984; Pandey, 2007).
(Berry, 1976; Mishra, Dasen, & Nirula, 2003; Child abuse is a generic phrase which
Misra & Tripathi, 1980; Pandey, 2007; includes all behavior patterns, which are in
Tripathi, 1988). Cognitive processes include some way injurious to the emotional or
basic perceptual, memory processes to more psychological well-being of child below 18
complex thinking, reasoning, problem solving, years of age. This problem intensely attracted
creating, language and intelligence (Flavell, social scientists and practitioners, following
1985; Matlin, 2004). Cognitive psychologists a seminal paper on the battered child
endeavored to explore how development of syndrome in 1960, by Henary Kempe,
these cognitive processes has taken place Silverman, Steel, Drogemueller, and Silver
from maturational to socio-cultural context. (1962). Later on, Child abuse was considered
(Piaget, 1974; Vygotosky, 1978). an international emergency and in 1974, U.S.
Researchers have identified the pervasive Congress passed, ‘The Child Abuse
role of eco-cultural factors in the development Prevention and Treatment Act (i.e. PL 93-
of cognitive functioning (Berry et al., 1986; 247)’. This act defines child abuse as, “the
Mishra, Sinha & Berry, 1996). Other studies physical and mental injury, sexual abuse,
have also evinced that unfavorable family negligence or maltreatment of the child, under
circumstances and abusive treatment by the age of eighteen by a person who is
parents and caregivers result in responsible for child’s welfare, which indicates
developmental failure and poor adaptation the child health and welfare is threatened
(Pandey, 2005; 2007).The lack of secure and thereby”. A more comprehensive definition
consistent basis for relationship with adults, was also given by psychologists. According
placed children at greater risk of child abuse to Finkelhor and Korbin (1988), “child abuse
Sushma Pandey 99
is the portion of harm to children that is solving and motor skills (Fantuzzo, 1990;
proscribed, proximate and preventable”. Hasket, 1990). Similarly, DePaul and
The form of abuses differs nation to Arruabarrena (1995) evinced that physically
nation yet, four types of abuses are found abused children were found low achievers
common around the globe. These are: Child and exhibited more learning disabilities.
physical abuse, neglect, sexual and Wodarski et al. (1990) evinced that neglected
psychological/emotional abuse. The children showed deficits in academic skills,
etiological factors of child abuse are language abilities, intellectual abilities and
numerous including psychological problem-solving skills. Other studies have
disturbances in parents, abuse eliciting also proved the impact of maltreatment on
characteristics of children, dysfunctional academic achievement, cognitive and
patterns of family interaction, stress inducing intellectual functioning of children (Pandey,
social forces and abuse promoting cultural 2005; 2007). Apart from this, language deficits
values.(Belsky,1980; Finkelhor & Korbin have been found in both receptive and
1988) In a major research study, Pandey expressive areas including more limited
( 2005) investigated social dynamics of child synaptic expression, functional
abuse and its psychological consequences communication and self related language
in eastern districts of U.P. Researcher evinced (Azar, 1997; Fisher et al., 1997; McFaydon &
that various forms of abuses are present at Kitson, 1996; Fantuzzo, 1990; Coster et al.
alarming rate in different strata of society. 1989). Cognitive functioning is also seriously
However, forms of abuses differed in affected by experiences of sexual abuse.
accordance with caste, community, socio Researchers identified that sexually abused
economic status and occupational children exhibit numerous cognitive problems
characteristics of family. Physical assaults, viz.; academic problems, intellectual delay,
sexual harassments and educational neglects lower level of intellect, receptive and
were found higher in low socio economic expressive deficits, less creative and flexible
status, caste/ community, and labor class in problem solving and deficits in language
families, whereas, psychological abuse and comprehension and verbal abilities
emotional neglects were found at high level (Einbender & Friedrich, 1989; Hunter,
in middle and upper class families .Child Goodwin, & Wilson, 1992; Rust & Troupe,
abuse caused damaging effect on personality 1991). Similarly, cognitive functions have
development, as well as cognitive, been found to be associated with
motivational and behavioral functioning of psychological abuse. The conditions include:
children (Pandey, 2005). low intelligence level, decline in mental
competence, lack of impulse control, impaired
Researchers have identified several learning, academic problems, low
long term and short term consequences of achievement level and impaired development
child abuse on overall developments of of moral reasoning and poor academic
children. (Wodarsky, Kurtz, Gaudin, & performance (Crittendern, Claussen, &
Howing,1990; Wolfe & Manion,1984). Sugarman, 1994; Egeland & Erickson, 1987;
Impairments in cognitive functioning of Hughes & Graham-Bermann, 1998). In a
children suffering from various forms of study, Pandey (2005) found that rural and
abuses have been identified widely. Studies abused children scored low on various
report that physically abused children domains of creativity. However, gender
displayed poor on a variety of the measures difference was identified only on originality,
of verbal acquisition, verbal language, elaboration and flexibility dimensions of
memory and communication abilities, problem creativity test. In another study, Pandey
100 Cognitive Functioning in Children
(2007) showed that abusive treatment by society boys are given more freedom and
parents damaged cognitive skills i.e., opportunity to learn skills than girls (Pandey,
perceptual differentiation ability and 2005). Thus, it was expected that boys would
categorization ability in children. display better on both measures of cognition
Studies have also evinced the influence than girls.
of residential setting on cognitive functioning Method
of children. Rural children have been found Design:
inferior on various cognitive tasks (Mishra,
2001; Misra & Tripathi, 1980; Pandey, 2005; The study is based on a 2x2x2 factorial
2007). Researches evinced that acculturative design with two levels of Abuse (Abused –
influences due to urban contact lead to Non abused) x Residential setting (Rural –
increase in the performance of perceptual Urban) x Gender (Boys – Girls).
and cognitive tasks (Mishra et al., 2003; Participants:
Sinha & Mishra, 1988). Although, better A total of 120 children age ranged from
performance on cognitive task as a function 8 to 15 yrs, mean age (M = 12.5 yrs.) enrolled
of urban background seems to be common, in grades 4 th to 8 th from rural and urban
however, the aspects of task which are residential background, participated in this
influenced by rural-urban familial background study. The study was conducted in rural and
and abusive treatment by parents are not yet urban areas of Gorakhpur District. The
clear. Against this backdrop, the study aimed screening of abused and non abused
to investigate the impact of child abuse, children was done with the help of two
residential setting and gender on cognitive strategies;(1) Reporting by neighbors,
functioning of children. Following hypotheses schoolteachers, health professionals and
were formulated. It was hypothesized that: significant others then, (2)-Child abuse
1. Child Abuse would have unfavorable checklist was applied to determine the extent
effect on cognitive functioning of children. and forms of abuses. Stratified random
Therefore, abused children would be found sampling technique was used for the selection
inferior on working memory and the level of of participants.
intelligence. Various forms of abuses would Measures:
contribute negatively in both forms of
cognitive skills. Since abusive parents interact Child Abuse Checklist (CAC): The CAC
less often with their children and their developed and standardized by Pandey
interaction involves excessive control and (2002). It has 105 items related to physical
demands, causing deficiencies in abused (32 items), sexual (8 items) and psychological
children (Lambright & Yamamotto, 1965; abuse (35 items) and neglect (30 items). The
Pandey, 2007; Wolfe, 1984) CAC has 3 point scales ranging from “Often”`
(3) to “Never” (1). The scores could range
2. The type of residential background from 105 to 315. It measures the frequency
would influence the development of cognitive and intensity of various forms of abuses and
skills. Rural parents often fail to stimulate abuse as a whole. Its retest reliability has been
cognitive potentials of children timely, estimated at .89. Against expert rating, it
whereas, urban environment provides rich correlated significantly (r = .45).
environment essential for cognitive
development. Cognitive Measures:
3. The level of cognitive functioning (i) Memory Span Test: It was used
would vary among boys and girls. In our (Pandey, 2002) to assess the level of working
Sushma Pandey 101
memory in children. Three sets of 7 numbers in terms of comparative, correlational and

varying 3 to 9 digits were devised (Pandey, regression analyses.
2002). After the presentation of each digit, Results
children were asked to recall the number.
Correctly recalled items denoted the memory It is apparent that the different groups
span of children. of children varied significantly on both
measures of cognitive process. ANOVA
(ii) Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT): revealed significant effect of abuse, F (1, 108)
In order to assess the intellectual capacity, = 43.20, p<.01, for working memory. The
CFIT (R.B. Cattell, 1972) was used. The test abused children were found inferior on
measures general intelligence across the working memory (M= 3.5) as compared to
culture. It consists of task requiring basic non-abused children (M = 4.55). The
cognitive skills involving complex significant main effect of residential retting,
conceptualization. The age of children ranged F (1,108) = 21.45, p<.01, evinced that the
from 8 to 15 years, thus, 2nd and 3rd scales of ability of working memory was found poor in
the test were used. The administration of the rural (M= 3.65) as compared to urban
test was done in accordance with the counterparts (M= 4.39). The main effect of
procedure given in the manual. The gender was found significant F(1,108)=
participant’s score was the number of correct 13.46, p<.01, which revealed that boys
solution done by him/her. showed superior working memory (M = 4.31)
Procedure: as compared to girls (M = 3.73). It is also
On the basis of preliminary survey, reveal that the level of intellect varied
investigator visited to study setting, Children significantly in different groups of children.
were contacted either in the school or at home The significant main effect of abuses, F
and they were requested to participate in the (1,108) = 63.91, p<.01, evinced that abused
study. After getting their consent, Personal children displayed poor on intelligence test
Data Sheet (PDS) was distributed to obtain (M = 67.66) as compared to non-abused
information about their personal and familial children (M = 79.24). The main effect of
backgrounds. Afterwards, they were given residential setting was also significant,
child abuse checklist and were requested to F(1,108) = 25.93, p<.01, which indicated that
respond on this checklist. Children were rural children showed low intelligence (M =
divided into abused and non abused groups 69.76) as compared to urban children (M =
on the basis of median score (Mdn. =156),on 77.14).
CAC. Above median scorers (158+) were ANOVA results revealed that the abuse
identified as abused children and those who x setting interaction effect was significant,
scored below 154 on CAC were considered F(1,108) = 4.98, p< .05 for intelligence which
as non abused children. Apart from this, indicates that the difference on intelligence
secondary data and parent’s interview were level between rural and urban children was
also considered in finalizing the cases of low in case of abused group of children,
abused and non abused children. Again in however in case of non-abused group, a
the second session of the study, children were clear-cut variation was found between rural
administered cognitive measures i.e., and urban children. It appears that child
Memory Span Test and Culture Fair abuse has caused adverse effect on cognitive
Intelligence Test. As soon as, children ability of both settings of children.
completed their responses on both measures, Correlational analysis was done to ascertain
data were collected and scored according to relationships between various forms of
defined rules. Scores were treated statistically abuses and both measures of cognitive
functioning. Results revealed that child abuse as a whole contributed 2% variance,

abuse was found negatively correlated with however, the composite contributions of
cognitive functioning. Working memory was abuse, along with psychological abuse,
found inversely related with physical abuse physical abuse, and educational neglect were
(r = - .38), psychological abuse, (r = - .37), identified 21% variance in working memory.
abuse as a whole (r = - .39), emotional neglect The results of multiple regression
(r = - .34), physical neglect (r = - .29), analysis (SWMRA), displayed in Table 1,
educational neglect (r = - .39) and neglect further revealed that child abuse and neglect
as a whole (r = - .38). Child abuse was also contributed negatively in the intelligence
found negatively related with level of intellect. level. Neglect as a whole contributed
More specifically, intelligence was found maximum negatively (â = - .38, R2 = .38),
negatively correlated with abuse as a whole followed by psychological abuse (â = - .21,
(r = - .28), physical abuse (r = - .26), R2 = .41). Though independently, neglect as
psychological abuse (r = - .27), emotional a whole explained maximum negatively 15%
neglect (r = - .22), physical neglect (r = - variance and Psychological abuse predicted
.18), educational neglect (r = - .25) and only 2.1% variance, however, the composite
neglect as a whole (r = - .23). A close perusal contributions of Psychological abuse
of correlation results suggested going for alongwith neglect were 17% variance in the
stepwise multiple regression analysis to intelligence level of children. Findings, thus,
determine percent contributions of predictors evinced that child abuse and neglect have
in criterion variables. contributed negatively in the proper
Results displayed in Table 1, evince that development of cognitive abilities in children.
working memory was negatively explained by Discussion
four factors i.e., educational neglect, physical
abuse, psychological abuse and abuse as a Results of the study evinced the adverse
whole. Educational neglect contributed consequences of child abuse on cognitive
maximum negatively (â = - .39, R2 = .15) functioning of children. Abused children were
followed by physical abuse (â = - .22, R2 = found far inferior in working memory and level
.18), psychological abuse (â = - .14, R2 = .19) of intellect as compared to non abused
and abuse as a whole (â = - .77, R2 = .46), counterparts. Similarly, rural children displayed
(p<.01). Though, independently, educational poor on measures of working memory and
neglect contributed maximum 15% variance, intelligence as compared to urban children.
child physical neglect explained 3%, Although, working memory was found superior
Psychological abuse explained only 1% and in boys than girls but, gender difference was
Table 1. Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of Cognitive Functions, i.e., Working

Memory and Intelligence on to the various forms of Child Abuse
Predictors R R2 R2 change â F
Memory Span
Educational Neglect .39 .15 .15 - .39 59.77**
Physical Abuse .43 .18 .03 - .22 36.81*
Psychological Abuse .44 .19 .01 - .14 26.18**
Abuse as a whole .46 .21 .02 - .77 21.92**
Intelligence
Neglect as a whole .38 .15 .15 - .38 56.57**
Psychological Abuse .41 .17 .02 - .21 32.80**
**p<.01 *p<.05
Sushma Pandey 103
non significant on the level of intellect. Present Present findings also showed that on both
findings are supported by numerous empirical cognitive measures rural children were found
and theoretical evidences. inferior as compared to urban children. Other
The predicting roles of child abuse, eco- researches also evinced that rural setting lacks
cultural context and poor parenting in the opportunities and enriched environment for
development of cognitive processes have been stimulation needed for developing cognitive
systematically explored by researchers skills whereas, acculrative influences due to
(Erickson, et al., 1984; Fantuzzo, 1990; Mishra, urban setting lead to promote cognitive abilities
Dasen, Niraula, 2003; Pandey, 2007). Studies ( Berry et al., 1986;Mishra et al; 2003;Pandey,
reported that psychologically abused children 2005; 2007). In a study, Niraula and Mishra
performed poorly as compared to non-abused (2001) examined the development of memory
children on a number of cognitive tasks including for objects and their spatial location among rural
object memory, academic achievement and and urban boys and girls of Newar community.
intelligence (Chan, 1994; Erickson, Egeland, & They found a developmental trend in memory
Painta 1989;). In a study, Pandey (2005) for object, however, environmental setting and
showed that child abuse impeded the proper gender exerted role in the performance of
development of creativity in children. children. Other studies have also confirmed that
Researcher (Pandey, 2007) further rural children were found far inferior on
investigated and identified that abusive cognitive functioning i.e., creativity, perceptual
treatment by parents impaired the development differentiation, verbal organization and levels
of cognitive skills i.e., perceptual differentiation of intellect (Donga, 1989; Pandey, 2005, 2007;
and categorization of verbal tasks. Abusive Tripathi, 1988). Gender effect was found
parents showed high expectation and were partially significant. Boys displayed better
found less satisfied with achievement of their working memory as compared to girls. In our
children. Cognitive functioning is also retarded society boys are given better opportunity and
by experiences of sexual abuse (Hunter et al., freedom to learn skills than girls. Contrary to
1992). Many studies have proved that cognitive this, majority of girls of rural background and
deficiencies were associated with psychological low – middle class families are deprived of such
abuse (Crittenden et al., 1994; Hughes & opportunities and facilities and therefore, are
Graham-Bermann, 1998). found inferior on some cognitive abilities as
compared to boys (Nirula & Mishra, 2001;
Findings of the present study alongwith Pandey, 2005, 2007).
other researches evinced that parental abusive
treatment retarded the development of Present results can be interpreted on the
cognitive functioning, since abusive parents basis of Socio-Cultural theory of Vygotosky
develop poor relational bond with their children (1978). The more pressure of stimuli in the
and their interaction involve high expectations environment is not sufficient for the
causing damaging impact on development of development of the whole set of cognitive skills,
cognitive abilities (Pandey, 2007; Wolfe & however, the complex cognitive behaviors
Manion, 1984). The results of this study can develop in the course of social interaction and
be supported by Attachment theory (Bowlby, contact with significant others who are more
1980) which indicates that failure to form a capable and skilled members of family or
secure attachment in early life may contribute society. Those who lack such interactions, fail
to problems in adulthood in the forms of inability to learn a large number of activities in the
to develop close personal relationship. The absence of social stimulation. Present study
insecure pattern of attachment was found high evinced that abusive family context and rural
in abused and neglected children (Hurlock, residential background fail to provide adequate
1984). social stimulation for the proper development
of cognitive skills, since abusive parents Coster, W.J., Gersten, M.S., Beeghly, M. &
interact less with their children or their Cicchetti, D. (1989). Communicative functioning
interaction involves excessive restrictions and in maltreated toddlers. Development and
high expectation causing impairments in the Psychopathology, 25, 777-793.
normal development of children. Thus, to Critenden, P.M., Claussen, A.H. & Sugarman, D.B.
enhance cognitive skills in high risk children (1994). Physical and psychological
maltreatment in middle childhood and
(abused and rural children), their parents and
adolescence. Development and
family members should be suggested to create Psychopathology, 6, 145-164.
opportunities for social stimulation and
De Paul, J., & Arruabarrence, M.I. (1995). Behavior
encouragement to children to take initiative and
problem in school aged physically abused and
exercise innovative and diverse patterns of neglected children in Spain. Child Abuse &
activities in daily life routines. Present results Neglect, 19, 409-418.
supported that eco-cultural variables also play Donga, K.M. (1989). A study of memory and
significant role in the development of cognitive affecting variables of students studying in
skills (Berry et al., 1986; Mishra et al., 2003; standards. VIII to XII. Ph.D. Edu. Saurashtra.
Pandey, 2007; Vygotosky, 1978). Egeland, B., & Erickson, M. (1987).
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Ecology, acculturation and psychological Received: June 6, 2010
Revision received: July 16, 2010
Sushma Pandey, PhD, Associate Professor, Dept. of Psychology, D.D.U.

Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur-273009, Email: [email protected]
106

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 106-113.
Construct Validity of Reading Motivation Questionnaire
Debdulal Dutta Roy

Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata
The article reports results of two consecutive studies designed to extend
knowledge about construct validity of reading motivation and to examine its
utility in the prediction of academic achievement. In first study, data were collected
from 881 students of primary education through reading motivation questionnaire
with seven domains . Correspondence analysis reveals two latent traits (intrinsic
and extrinsic) of reading motivation. In the second study, reading motivation
questionnaire was administered to 200 students and their academic performances
in schools were collected. Results reveal inverse relation between latent traits.
Composite scores of intrinsic reading motivation were positively and those of
extrinsic reading motivation were negatively correlated with academic
performance.
Development of any theoretical construct used for extracting latent traits or factors.
requires examination of construct validity. Correspondence analysis instead of usual
Construct validity is a necessary condition for factor analysis provides information about
theory development and testing. It pertains latent traits through correspondence map.
to the degree of correspondence between Correspondence map provides extent of
constructs and measures. The extent to closeness among sets of variables. Close
which the questionnaire measures a locations occur when the variables are
theoretical construct for which the interrelated with each other. The higher the
questionnaire has been developed is called inter correlations, the higher the
construct validity. High construct validity correspondence as variances of variables
indicates higher accounting of variances from occupy same places on the map. Therefore,
the same construct by the sets of variables based on extent of locations, one can assume
measured by questionnaire. latent traits or factors. Study 1 tends to
Every variable is likely to reflect a variety explore latent traits of reading motivation.
of constructs as well as purely random error. Validation of latent traits was examined using
The following equation illustrates this fact convergent and discriminant properties of
(Judd, 1981) : reading motivation when latent traits were
correlated with academic performance in
Y=C1+C2+…………………..Cn+E study 2.
Where Y refers to measured variable, Reading motivation
the set of C refers to a set of unmeasured
theoretical constructs that contribute to Reading motivation is the process to put
variation in Y. And E refers to the random error more effort on reading activity. This is framed
or simply ‘noise’ in the measurement of Y. with one’s appraisal of relationship between
Factorial, convergent and discriminant reading and the reading outcomes. For
validities are three basic techniques to example, a child is motivated to read when
assess construct validity. Factor analysis is he experiences his mastery over reading. In
Debdulal Dutta Roy 107
literature, before the work of Wigfield and for application (rApp), (iii) mastery over
Guthrie (1995), reading motivation has been reading (rAch) (iv) reading for pictures or font
studied in the broad area of academic style (rAes or aesthetic)., (v) reading for
motivation. Waugh (2002) identified several affiliation (rAff), (vi) reading for recognition
models of academic motivation in the (rRecog), and reading for avoiding
literature, each emphasizing different aspects, punishment (rPunish). It is assumed that first
some of which are interrelated. These models four represents motivation to read for own
are arousal and anxiety model, needs model satisfaction and later three represents
, achievement and social goal model, motivation to read in order to satisfy others.
behavioural motivation model involving A multiple choice questionnaire with forty-two
rewards, reinforcement and intrinsic items had been developed to assess one’s
motivation, attribution theory, self-regulated preference to different reading motives (Dutta
learning model perceived self-efficacy model Roy, 2003). Current study examines construct
that relates personal beliefs to actions to validity of reading motivation questionnaire.
achieve , personal investment model involving Study 1
tasks, ego, social solidarity and extrinsic
rewards. By reviewing self-efficacy model of Objective of this study was to explore
Schunck (1991), Schunck and Zimmerman latent traits of reading motivation
(1997), task model of Eccles et al. ( 1983), questionnaire.
reading attitude model of Alexander and Latent traits indicate underlying relation
Filler, (1976), reading interest model of among interrelated variables. This is
Schiefele (1996), Wigfield and Guthrie important for theory development.
(1995) developed one questionnaire Methods
measuring seven reading motives. (i) reading
curiosity (the desire to learn about a particular Sample:
topic of interest to the child ) , (ii)reading Sampling was done in two stages- (a)
challenge (the satisfaction of mastering or selection of sample schools from from four
assimilating complex ideas in text), (iii)reading school types- Government, Government
importance (subjective task values) , (iv) aided, corporation and Missionary schools
reading involvement (the enjoyment of under the West Bengal Board of Primary
experiencing different kinds of literary and Education (b) selection of sample students.
informational text), (v) competition in reading For selection of sample schools lists of
(the desire to outperform others in reading) , government, Government aided, Kolkata
(vi) recognition for reading (the gratification corporation and Missionary schools were
in receiving a tangible form of recognition for collected from different sources -Calcutta
success in reading) and (vii)reading for District Primary School Council, Calcutta
grades (the desire to be evaluated favorably Municipal Corporation and Police stations of
by the teacher). Wigfield and Guthrie different areas. Data were collected from 3
validated reading motivation construct by Government schools, 5 schools financially
correlating it with breadth of reading (Wigfield aided by the Government of West Bengal, 7
& Guthrie, 1997). In India, Dutta Roy and Paul schools of Kolkata corporation and 3
(2002) using content analysis of interview missionary schools under the West Bengal
responses from Indian children in primary Board of Primary Education. In sampling,
schools has noted that individual prefers to attention was paid to the equal representation
read for seven reasons. These are (i) reading of schools across north, south, east, west
for acquiring knowledge (rKnow), (ii) reading and central Kolkata. Finally 881 data were
108 Reading Motivation Questionnaire
collected from 234 students of Government, coefficients of 7 subtest scores varied from
230 of Government aided, 202 of corporation 0.69 to 0.97. 5 subtest scores were above
and 215 of Missionary schools. Thus simple 0.90. Item-total correlation was used to
stratified random sampling was followed in assess content validity of each subtest using
sampling the students from 4 strata - 5 zones 516 samples. All coefficients were significant
of kolkata (North, South, Central, East, and at 0.01 level (Dutta Roy, 2003).
West) X 4 school types ( Government, Analysis of data:
Government-aided, Corporation and
Missionary schools) X 2 grades (grades III and Initially, data quality of 7 subtests was
IV) X 2 genders (boy and girl). examined through box whisker plot. Next
correspondence analysis (CA) was used to
Instrument: determine extent and nature of
Reading motivation questionnaire or correspondence or association among the
RMQ (Dutta Roy, 2003) includes 42 questions subtests. It is assumed that when research
measuring 7 reading motives – rKnow, rApp, variables are internally consistent, they lie
rAch, rAes, rRecog, rAff, rPunish. Scoring is very close to each other in the
based on subjects’ preference to number of correspondence map. Latent trait of the
alternative answers for each category of questionnaire was explored by the analysis
variable. For each variable, maximum possible of close association among subtests.
score is six and the minimum possible score Significance of associations is tested by chi-
is zero. Some items of the questionnaire are square analysis. CA provides a joint plot of
given below: points representing both the rows and
1. Suppose, after promotion to a new columns of the table. In CA, instead of trying
class you are offered to read two books with to compare rows using proportions a smaller
two different titles. Which one will you like to number of coordinates are created so that
read first? each successive coordinate axis accounts for
a decreasing portion of the total association
(a) Learning of mathematics through between the rows and columns as
daily activities. represented by the familiar Pearson Chi-
(b) Study of animals of different square statistics. This reduction is also noted
countries. in principal component analysis. CA is often
2. Suppose, on one day you were absent called as PCA for categorical data. The first
in school. Next day you ask your friends to coordinate accounts for the largest part of
give their copy. You get two copies. Which the total association, the second for the next
one will you like to read first? largest part and so on like PCA.
Correspondence analysis (CA) is an
(a) A newly covered copy with good exploratory technique to investigate
handwritings. magnitude and the substantive nature of
(b) The copy of your best friend. association between the row and column
Test-retest reliability of RMQ was categories of cross tabulation rather than to
examined by using paired t-test and product confirm or reject hypothesis about the
moment correlation between scores of 7 sub underlying process which generates the data
tests using 70 students of same school within (Greenacre and Blasius, 1994). It is the
interval of 8 months. Results noted 83% of technique to display row and column variables
item means in both sessions did not differ of a two – way contingency table graphically
significantly. And product moment correlation as points on a corresponding lower
dimensional vector spaces. According to

Andrews (1978) graphical display of data is Box & Whisker Plot
comprehensible to human minds, thus 1.2
uncovering structure of the data and 1.0
detecting departure, if any, from the structure. 0.8
CA follows certain steps as (I) testing 0.6
independence between row and column 0.4

variables by chi-square analysis. Significance
of chi-square represents that CA provides a 0.2
“strong model” of the row column 0.0

Min-Max
dependence; (II) assigning weights (mass) to -0.2
25%-75%
Median value
APPT KNOWT AFFT RCT AEST HARNT ACHT
the row and columns variables by dividing
total row or column frequencies by the total
sample size. This mass has important role in Figure 1 Box-whisker plot of subtests of the
plotting the points on axis; (III) extracting reading motivation questionnaire
factors from row and column variables by Correspondence analysis:
principal component analysis. Factor
Frequency data of input table (Table 1)
extraction helps in identifying a sub-space of
were used for correspondence analysis
lower dimensionality which comes close to the
through STATISTICA’99. Rows were names
points presented by column and also row
of 7 subtests and columns were frequencies
variables; (IV) graphical presentation of the
of total scores on each subtest. Scores were
points of row and column variables on low
categorized into 7 columns from score 0 to
dimensional plane, usually two dimensional
score 6. Initial analysis shows strong model
planes. Since CA follows principal component
of row and column dependence (Chi-square
analysis of a set of row and column variables,
(36) = 3041.4, p<0.00001) suggesting
it is expected that CA possibly would provide
dispersion of scores across subtests. Table
more information about data structure,
2 shows that all the variables of reading
especially closeness of row and column
motivation can be explained in terms of two
variables than simple frequency or
broad dimensions accounting for 97.93% of
percentage analysis of data.
total variances.
Results
If we assume category 3 as the cut-off
Box whisker plot: point to study high (category 4 to 6) and least
Figure 1 shows no outlier in the preferred (category 0 to 2) reading
distribution of 7 tests suggesting good data motivation variables. It is noted that 57%, 78%,
quality. Medians of three subtests namely and 72% of responses are in the high
rAppt, rKnow and rAch fall almost same lines category for rAch, rAppli and rKnow
suggesting similarity in the responses to three successively. On the other side, 47%, 63%,
variables. Second, locations of their medians 82% and 42% responses are in the low
are above the other four variables. This category for rAes, rAff, rPunish and rRecog
suggests high preference to the above three successively. This suggests that students feel
for reading. Though it has been assumed that motivation to read for application and
rAes is related to first three subtests, results knowledge and to avoid punishment and loss
show that it’s median is not at per with them. of love more than other motivating factors.
Table 1: Frequency and percentage distributions of Reading Motivation Variables across Scoring
categories
Correspondence map (Figure 2) exhibits two more preference to intrinsic reading motives.
broad clusters of reading motives. First
cluster includes rAch, rKnow, and rApp 2D Plot of Row and Column Coordinates; Dimension: 1 x 2
whereas second cluster includes rRecog, Input Table (subtests x categories of total scores): 7 x 7
Standardization: Row and column profiles
rAes, rAff, and rPunish. Since first three
Dim e nsi on 2; E i ge nva lue : .0 80 61 (1 6.7 4% o f In ertia)
0.5
SC_3rRecog
variables represent motivation to read for own
0.4
0.3 rAes
SC_2
sake, this is called intrinsic reading motivation. 0.2

0.1
rAch
SC_4
rAff
Second cluster represents reading for other’s 0.0

-0.1
sake. This is called extrinsic reading
rKnow
SC_5
rApp
-0.2
motivation. Table 2 shows that all the variables -0.3

-0.4
SC_6
SC_1
rHarm
of reading motivation can be explained in -0.5 SC_0
-0.6
terms of two broad dimensions -0.7
Row.Coords
Col.Coords
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Intrinsic reading motives were more Dimension 1; Eigenvalue: .39112 (81.20% of Inertia)
close to high scoring categories - S_4, S_5,

S_6 than the variables of extrinsic reading Figure 2. Correspondence map of Reading
motives. This supports earlier findings about motivation
Table 2. Eigen values and Inertia for all Dimensions

SingularValues Eigen-values Percent of inertia Cumulative percent Chi-square
1 0.63 0.39 81.20 81.20 2469.50
2 0.28 0.08 16.74 97.93 508.99
3 0.08 0.01 1.30 99.23 39.55
4 0.05 0.00 0.42 99.65 12.81
5 0.04 0.00 0.32 99.97 9.62
6 0.01 0.00 0.03 100.00 0.96
Discussion intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation.

When theoretically assumed constructs Intrinsic cluster consisted of r Know, rApp,
are internally consistent they form cluster. rAch denotes motivation to read for own sake
Reading motivation questionnaire includes 7 and extrinsic cluster consisted of rAes, rAff,
constructs - rKnow, rApp, rAch, rAes, rAff, rRecog and rPunish denotes reading
rRecog and rPunish. Correspondence motivation for other’s sake. Extracting two
analysis reveals two clusters named as clusters as assumed suggest factorial validity
of reading motivation questionnaire. rAes within their discussion on evaluating test

belongs to extrinsic reading motivation cluster validity. They stressed the importance of
though it is assumed as the content of intrinsic using both discriminant and convergent
reading motivation cluster. This separation validation techniques when assessing new
may be due to its own extrinsic properties,i.e., tests. Wigfield and Guthrie (1997) noted that
book reading for fonts or pictures. Results an intrinsic motivation composite predicted
also revealed that children preferred intrinsic amount and breadth of reading more strongly
to extrinsic reading motives. Out of three than extrinsic motivation composite. Study 2
contents of intrinsic motivation cluster, aims at correlating reading motivation with
children prefer more rKnow and rApp. And academic performance of students to examine
out of 4 contents of extrinsic motivation its convergent and discriminant validity. It is
cluster, children least preferred rPunish. This assumed that the more intrinsic reading
finding is important in designing reading motivation is correlated positively with
motivation strategies for children. Convergent academic performance, the more is the
and discriminating validities are useful to convergent validity. On the other hand, the
validate extracted factors with available more extrinsic reading motivation is
theories. Study 2 examined these by correlated negatively with academic
examining correlation between two constructs performance, the more is discriminant validity
and their relation with academic performance. of the questionnaire. This assumption is due
Study 2 to prior theories of reading motivation (Eccles
et al., 1983; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Nell, 1988;
Objective of this study was to examine Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997).
convergent and discriminant validity of two
latent traits extracted in the study 1. In Method
estimation of convergent validity, attention is Reading motivation questionnaire or
paid to examine whether extracted factor is RMQ (Dutta Roy, 2003) was administered to
correlated with theoretical measure or not. 200 students of classes III (50 boys and 50
For example, intrinsic reading motivation is girls) and IV (50 boys and 50 girls) . Their
supposed to be correlated with academic first language was Bengali and second
performance as the due to own desire when language was English. They just started letter
a child reads, his breadth of knowledge recognition in case of Second language but
increases. And breadth of knowledge is they could read and write stories with simple
related to academic performance (Stanovich sentences in first language. In arithmetic,
& Cunningham, 1992). Likewise, in estimating they could solve problem sums with simple
discriminant validity, attention is paid to sentences. Their last examination marks in
understand whether the extracted factor is different subjects were obtained for
uncorrelated with different theoretical assessment of academic achievement.
concepts or not. It describes the degree to Results and Discussion
which the operationalization is not similar to
(diverges from) other operationalizations that Initially, composite scores of intrinsic
it theoretically should not be similar to reading motivation were estimated by adding
Campbell and Fiske (1959). Another the scores of rAch, rKnow, and rApp. Likewise,
approach in estimation of discriminant validity by adding scores of rRecog, rAes, rAff, and
is examination of negative correlation rPunish, composite scores of extrinsic reading
between extracted factors and theoretical motivation were calculated. Finally, composite
measure. Campbell and Fiske (1959) scores were correlated with examination
introduced the concept of discriminant validity marks of Bengali (first language), English
(second language) and total marks. Table 3 other hand, they find high task values in
shows that both intrinsic and extrinsic reading learning first language and mathematics.
motivation are negatively correlated with each Finding high task values, they possibly feel
other. This supports the basic assumption flow experience (Csikszentmihalyi,1978) ,
that the students concerned with intrinsic losing track of time and self-awareness when
reading motivation do not want to read for becoming completely involved in an activity
extrinsic motivating factors and vice versa. such as reading a book resulting high score
Extrinsic motivation inhibits high marks in in the examinations of first language and
examination. Possibly due to this reason, arithmetic.
extrinsic reading motivation was negatively General Discussion
correlated with examination marks in different
subjects. This negative correlation suggests The research has examined both
discriminative validity of the questionnaire. On conceptual and measurement issues arising
the other hand, intrinsic reading motivation from the development of construct of reading
is positively correlated with examination marks motivation. The findings suggest that reading
suggesting high convergent validity. motivation has two broad latent traits as
intrinsic (reading for own sake) and extrinsic
Table 3. Correlation matrix of reading motivation and examination marks (n=200)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6
1.Extrinsic 1.00
2.Intrinsic -0.91** 1.00
3.Bengali -0.38** .41** 1.00
4.English 0.10 -0.04 0.22** 1.00
5.Arithmetic -0.33** 0.36** 0.79** 0.28** 1.00
6. Total -o.25** 0.30** 0.83** 0.65** 0.88** 1.00
**p<0.01
This is noted that neither intrinsic nor (reading to satisfy others) reading motivation.
extrinsic reading motivation is related to Intrinsic reading motivation is positively
marks in 2 nd language. Results can be correlated with school examination
understood through task components theory performance and extrinsic is negatively
of Eccles et al (1983) defined different related. Furthermore both are inversely
components of task values, including interest correlated with each other suggesting both
value (defined as how much the individual convergent and discriminating validity.
likes the activity), attainment value (defined Second, study highlights
as importance of the activity), and utility value correspondence analysis in extracting latent
(the usefulness of an activity). No significant structure of variables like principal
correlation of English marks with both intrinsic component analysis. CA also provides the
and extrinsic reading motivation suggests that information that maximum variances of
students do not find any interest and interest reading motivation was explained by two axis
value in learning English. They assume that of correspondence map.
they can solve regular problems in life by first
Third, pattern of relation of two latent
language. So they feel little attainment value
constructs with academic performance gives
in scoring English or 2nd language. On the
insight as how to teach students for sciences:Recent developments and

development of intrinsic reading motivation. applications. New York.: Academic press.
Results show that student performs Judd,C.M. (1981). Estimating the effect of social
interventions. Cambridge: Cambridge Press.
better in the examination when he is
intrinsically motivated to read. Schiefele, U. (1996). Topic interest, text
representation, and quality of experience.
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Dutta Roy, D. & Paul, M. (2002). Reading Waugh,R.F. (2002). Creating a scale to measure
motivation of children in grades III and IV, motivation to achieve academically: Linking
Indian Educational Review, 38, 43-51. attitudes and behaviours using Rasch
measurement. British Journal of Educational
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Questionnaire For Assessment Of Reading
And Writing Motivation Of Boys And Girls Wigfield,A. & Guthrie, J.T. (1995). Dimensions
Of Grades III And IV. Project report submitted of Children’s motivations for reading : An
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GA: National Reading Research Center.
Eccles,J.S.,Adler,T.F., Futterman, R., Goff,
S.B.Kaczala, C,M., Meece,J.,& Midgley, Wigfield,A. & Guthrie, J.T. (1997). Relations of
C.(1983).Expectancies, values and academic children’s motivation for reading to the amount
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Correspondence analysis in the social Accepted: November 22, 2010
Debdulal Dutta Roy, PhD, Psychology Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute
Kolkata
114

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 114-124.
Development and Validation of Perception of Parental

Expectations Inventory
S. Sasikala and S. Karunanidhi

University of Madras, Chennai.
The present study made an attempt to develop and validate an inventory to

assess perception of parental expectations of adolescent students. Items for
this inventory were generated based on review of literature, focus group
discussions with parents and adolescents, personal interviews with parents,
consultation with experts in the field of parent child related issues, teachers
and Principals’ of schools. After item generation, content validity and inter item
reliability were established. An exploratory analysis was carried out using data
collected from 518 adolescent students studying in 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th standard.
Four factors were extracted namely Academic expectations, Personal
expectations, Career expectations and Parental ambitions and 30 items were
retained based on their factor loadings (>.30). By using test-retest method
reliability was established and construct validity was established through factor
analysis.
Adolescents’ mental, emotional and social offspring through expectations irrespective of

developments are significantly influenced by their child’s ability and interest.
parents (Belsky, 1990; Burbach & Borduin, The nature and structure of the Indian
1986; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Shaffer, parents not only encourage parents to have
1996). According to expectancy value investment and expectations for their
theories, people judge the instrumentality of offspring; children have also been educated
possible options, weigh their costs and to obey and fulfill their parental expectations
benefits, and then select the course of action and needs (Bond, 1986; Chen, 1999; Hsu,
with highest expected value (Vroom, 1964). 1981; Shek & Chen, 1999; Yang, 1988). Many
Instead of exploring the possibilities for their parents believe that transmitting a sense of
offspring’s highest expected values, parents high expectations to children is one way to
persuade by imposing their aspirations and infuse them with confidence, self-esteem, and
expectations on them through their personal standards of merit and value. But,
involvement, monitoring, discipline and most of the time these expectations are
support. Parental expectations are wishes unrealistic and unattainable. High expectation
about their offspring’s academic performance to succeed can be crushing; in some cases it
and career ambitions. Due to the can be detrimental too. Parents often clamp
expectations, parents are stressed during down and put more pressure on the
rearing of adolescents. During this time, adolescent to conform to parental standards
parents may reevaluate their occupational (Santrock, 2007). Many studies reported the
achievement, deciding whether they have met relationships between parental expectations
their youthful aspirations of success (Collins and psychological adjustment, psychological
& Laursen, 2004). If the parental wishes are distress and academic performance in foreign
not materialized, they impose it on their
S. Sasikala and S. Karunanidhi 115
countries such as U.S.A., Taiwan, China, etc. demanding because of technological

(Belsky, 1990; Burbach & Borduin, 1986; Lin, advancement and globalization. Due to
1999; McKenna, 1999; Wang & Heppner, globalization, people are expected to manage
2002; Agliata & Renk, 2007; Kobayashi; diversity at work place. Consequently,
2005). adolescents are expected to revolve
Parental expectations are considered as according to the economic spheres which
one of the important cultural factors affecting make their education system very demanding
the academic achievement of adolescents in and exclusive. Demands and expectations
Indian context. Most of the daily newspapers from the school students influence behavior,
carry information on how students struggle emotions and other aspects of their life. In
with parental expectations in India during their addition, adolescent students also tend to
annual examinations. Parental Expectations face more problems and challenges in the
may be necessary for better performance of society, getting admission into reputed
an adolescent, however many studies colleges, competition between schools,
reported the negative consequences such as competing with different sectors of
adjustment problems, psychological distress, community, high levels of competition for
behavior problems etc. Agliata and Renk professional courses driven by societal
(2007) reported that college students are trends to name a few.
experiencing lower levels of self-worth and Parental expectation depends upon the
adjustment when higher expectation culture the adolescent belongs to. Indian
discrepancies are present between culture insists parents to focus on the child’s
themselves and their parents. According to welfare due to which they act over protective
one study, expectations are one of the basic and are worried about their offspring’s
sources of academic stress in middle and education and future prospects. The Indian
high school Asian students (Ang & Huan, parent believes in societal comparison where
2006). the success of their wards are compared and
Zhan (2005) found that parent judged in par with the offspring of neighbors,
expectations partially mediated the relatives and friends. Eventhough the
relationship between assets and children’s education sectors, government body, and non
educational performance showing the government organizations are aware of the
importance of parental expectations on consequences of parental pressure and
education of the children after controlling for current education system, no serious steps
family income and other parent are initiated to eradicate or reduce the
characteristics. Oishi and Sullivan (2005) consequences when they are pressurized
revealed that American college students have with unrealistic aspirations.
fulfilled parental expectations to a greater The Indian adolescent student faces too
degree than Japanese college students. Most many problems in relation to education. In
importantly, the cultural difference in well- addition they are also instigated by the
being was mediated by perceived fulfillment parental pressure, demands and expectations
of parental expectations. Wang and Heppner to excel in academics. These kinds of
(2002) found that a better predictor of demands and expectations could be fulfilled
psychological distress is the perception of by a few students only; whereas other could
oneself living up to parental expectations, not do so. This may be the major cause for
rather than parental expectations, per se. the increased prevalence of behavior
In recent years, it is observed that the problems and psychological disorders among
education system in India has become more Indian children and adolescents (Srinath et
116 Perception of Parental Expectations Inventory
al, 2005; Pillai, Andrews, & Patel, 2008). Method

Hence, it is important to assess parental Steps involved in test construction
expectations on various aspects of
adolescents. There is no valid tool to assess Test developer states the objectives of
the parental expectations of adolescents that the test and specifies the population for whom
takes into account the cultural constraints and the test is intended. After spelling out the
disparity. objectives and target population of the test,
the following steps are carried out to develop
A measure of parental expectations will and validate the tool of Perception of Parental
be valuable in the field of educational Expectations Inventory. 1. Planning, 2. Item
psychology, social psychology, community generation, 3. Screening of the items and
psychology and developmental psychology. Pilot study, 4.Reliability, 5.Validity,
Such kind of measure can be used as a 6.Normative information
preliminary diagnostic tool in educational
settings to identify the unrealistic expectations 1. Planning
of parents and thereby help the adolescents The main purpose of the development
to manage and cope up with parental of this inventory was to identify and explore
aspirations. The school counselors can the unique and exclusive expectations of the
explore the extent of fulfillment or unfulfillment parents of adolescent students in India. This
of parental expectations by adolescents scale was developed based on the Parental
using the tool of parental expectations. The Expectations Inventory developed by Wang
major reason for school related problems and Heppner (2002). Wang’s Parental
such as suicide, school dropout, depression, Expectations Inventory consists of three
anxiety, distress, etc among adolescents scales namely Perceived Parental
seems to be due to the discrepancy between Expectations, Perceived Self Performance
parental expectations and fulfillment/ and Living up to Parental Expectations and
unfulfillment of parental expectations by each comprises of three factors which include
adolescents. The results of the tool can be Academic performance, Personal maturity
used to organize awareness and education and Dating concern. Academic performance
programme for the parents to hold realistic and Personal maturity were very much
desire for their offspring. Therefore, this study relevant for Indian culture. Dating concern
aims to develop a tool to assess the was the only factor which was found to be
perception of parental expectations by inappropriate for the adolescent student in
adolescents, where perception of fulfillment India. Hence, on the basis of the tool
and unfulfillment of parental expectations by development procedure followed by Wang
adolescent students are also measured. and Heppner (2002), the researcher decided
Objectives: to develop a tool appropriate to the Indian
culture.
1. To develop a tool to assess
perception of parental expectations and 2. Item generation
perception of fulfillment of parental The researcher generated the items
expectations. related to Parental Expectations with the
2. To identify the factors of perception information gathered through focus group
of parental expectations. interview with 20 students of high school and
higher secondary in three different sessions
3. To establish reliability and validity for (each session comprising of not more than
the Perception of Parental Expectations eight students) and one focus group interview
Inventory.
with parents of high school and higher ambition based expectations, Health
secondary schools and a few other items were expectations, Social expectations, Career
taken from the Parental Expectations expectations, Religious expectations,
Inventory (Wang & Heppner, 2002). Financial expectations, Peer related
During the focus group discussion with expectations, Values expectations.
the adolescent students, open ended 3. Screening of the items and Pilot study
questions related to adolescents’ To ascertain if the items generated,
achievement and reasons for their success adequately represents the identified area, to
or set back were asked and their feelings and check the content and to see the relevance
responses were recorded by the test of the items, content validity was carried out
developer. The open ended questions also in which five raters were chosen namely two
consisted of the pressure they receive from faculty members, a research scientist, a
their parents and the ambitions of their teacher, and one counselor. They were
parents for them. The focus group discussion asked to place each item into one of the five
with the parents was related to the aspirations’ categories namely, Academic expectations,
about their offspring. Interview with the Personal expectations, Social expectations,
psychologists and pediatricians was carried Career and Other expectations (Health,
out on the basis of the problems faced by Financial, Religion, Parental ambitious
the adolescent students and the causes for expectations etc). The experts were asked
the psychological, behavioral, emotional and to check the simplicity, clarity, relevance,
psychosomatic problems. Two parents of the appropriateness, and to identify any
school toppers were also interviewed to know repetition of items. Based on the consensus
the type of parental expectations they had given by the five experts, only 70 items were
on their offspring. The focus groups were agreed upon by all the experts as appropriate
conducted in such a way that participants for the study under the areas specified by
were asked to discuss their experiences of the test developer. Hence, 70 items was
parental expectations, the type of selected to be administered to the adolescent
expectations they have experienced, and students during the pilot study.
how those expectations has impact on their
well being both physically and psychologically. A pilot study was done among one
hundred and seventy five adolescent
Based on the focus group interview, 100 students studying in 10 th, 11 th and 12 th
items were generated on parental standard from the city schools of Chennai
expectations. The items were simple, clear, (45% boys, 55% girls). The adolescent
relevant and not double barreled. Two students’ were asked to give their response
response category to be filled by the in two response category namely a) How far
adolescent students were created using a five your parents expect from you? and b) How
point rating scales to assess a) How far your far you can fulfill it? After finishing the
parents expect from you? (Perception of inventory they were requested to write their
Parental Expectations, PPE) and b) How far Parental expectations to check the adequacy
you can fulfill it? (Perception of Fulfillment of of the items in all areas. The responses given
Parental Expectations by adolescents, for open ended question did not provide any
PFPE). additional items. The collected data were
Initially ten areas of parental tabulated and subjected to inter item
expectations were labeled namely Academic correlation using Cronbach’s alpha. The
expectations, Personal expectations, Parental alpha coefficients for the two scales were
0.87 and 0.89 are PPE and PFPE Parental expectations by adolescents. The
respectively. Further, the means of the items Kaiser criterion yielded a total of 14 factors
were examined to identify items that received with eigen values more than 1.0 across the
skewed responses. In order to remove the PPE and PFPE. A scree test plots the
skewed responses, few items were omitted components in the X axis and the
based on their extreme means (more than corresponding eigenvalues in the Y axis. As
4.0 or less than 2.0). Items that had item total one moves to the right, toward later
correlation less than .30 and standard components, the eigenvalues drop. When the
deviation very less nearing to 0 were also drop ceases and the curve makes an elbow
deleted. After the pilot study a total of 46 items toward less steep decline, Cattell’s (1966)
were retained. The Cronbach’s alpha were scree test suggests dropping all further
.90 and .91 respectively for PPE and PFPE components after the one starting the elbow.
for the 46 items. As too many factors may not give an
After establishing inter item reliability, the appropriate result, a Scree test was done
data were collected among 550 adolescent which indicated four factors.
students of Chennai city schools to identify Although these constructs were
the factors related to parental expectations. conceptualized as being related to each
Out of 550 data that were collected only 518 other, both orthogonal and obligue rotation
adolescent students’ data were used for were done to examine the factor structure.
analysis as the other 32 data were found to Results obtained after oblique rotation and
be incomplete. The collected data were used orthogonal rotation were identical, but results
to develop constructs and to identify the of orthogonal rotations were selected as the
factor structure of the Perception of Parental four factors in orthogonal rotation yielded
Expectations Inventory. An exploratory factor most interpretable result. The eigen values
analysis was conducted to explore the factor for each scale (after four factor orthogonal
structure through maximum likelihood method rotation) were given in table 1. A general
analysis. Kaiser criterion was examined to guideline was adopted to retain items that had
determine the appropriate number of factors factor loadings greater than .30 not just on
for Perception of Parental Expectations (PPE) one scale but across two scales on PPE and
and Perception of Fulfillment of Parental PFPE. Thus 30 items were finally retained
expectations by adolescents (PFPE). Both from 46 items.
Kaiser criterion and Scree test (Cattell, 1966) The first factor named “Personal
were used to determine the appropriate Expectations” (PE) consisted of 10 items and
number of factors for Perception of Parental factor loadings of the items in this factor
Expectations and Perception of Fulfillment of ranged from .31 to .59.
Table 1. Eigen values and rotation sum of squared loadings for PPE and PFPE
Factor Eigen Rotation sum of Eigen Values Rotation sum of
Values(PPE) squared loadings(PPE) (PFPE) Squared loadings(PFPE)
1 10.06 3.77 10.68 3.75
2 2.30 3.38 1.88 3.39
3 1.89 3.16 1.66 2.95
4 1.53 2.66 1.46 2.77
PPE – Perception of Parental Expectations;
PFPE – Perception of Fulfillment of Parental Expectations
Table 2 Summary of items and their factor loadings for each factor on PPE and PFPE
scales of Perception of Parental Expectations Inventory
Factors and Items Factor loadings
Personal Expectations PPE PFPE
2. My parents expect me not to make them ashamed by my behavior. 0.42 0.35
12. My parents expect me not to create any problems in school and at
home. 0.59 0.46
13. My parents expect me to be well mannered. 0.52 0.38
15. My parents expect me not to get involved in unnecessary activities. 0.51 0.45
16. My parents expect me to believe in almighty. 0.33 0.39
18. My parents expect me to know the value of money. 0.45 0.38
19. My parents expect me not to argue with adults. 0.48 0.40
23. My parents expect me to be polite. 0.40 0.31
26. My parents expect me to inform them while I am away from home. 0.39 0.45
28. My parents expect me to control / manage my bad temper. 0.34 0.41
Academic Expectations
7. My parents expect me to manage my time in a useful manner. 0.43 0.37
8. My parents expect me to be a top ranker. 0.35 0.37
20. My parents expect me to learn professional skills also. 0.33 0.32
21. My parents expect me to get the maximum marks in examinations in
all the subjects. 0.53 0.50
25. My parents expect me to work hard. 0.40 0.33
27. My parents expect me to study more during examinations. 0.45 0.54
29. My parents expect me to perform better than others academically. 0.51 0.47
30. My parents expect me to share my knowledge with others. 0.42 0.52
Career Expectations
3. My parents expect me to study hard to get a well paid job. 0.46 0.50
9. My parents expect me to be financially secure in future. 0.41 0.52
11. My parents expect me to get good marks to join job-oriented courses. 0.39 0.41
22. My parents expect me to choose a career that the society appreciates. 0.36 0.51
24. My parents expect me to gain knowledge other than studies. 0.42 0.33
Parental Ambitions
1. My parents expect me to honor them by fulfilling their wishes. 0.40 0.47
4. My parents expect me to share the financial burden of the family in
future. 0.40 0.38
5. My parents expect me to accept their choice of academic field for me. 0.58 0.37
6. My parents expect me to focus on my studies than on sports and extra
curricular activities. 0.40 0.33
10. My parents expect me to pursue their choice of career for me. 0.58 0.36
14. My parents expect me to reach home before the specified time. 0.47 0.50
17. My parents expect me to follow their advice. 0.51 0.35
PPE – Perception of Parental Expectations;
PFPE – Perception of Fulfillment of Parental Expectations
The second factor labeled “Academic (CE) which has 5 items with factor loadings
Expectations” (AE) comprised of 8 items with ranging from .33 to .52. The final factor is
factor loadings ranging from .32 to .54. The labeled “Parental Ambitions” (PA) which has
third factor labeled “Career Expectations” 7 items is a very important factor that
distinctly emerged after the factor analysis. appropriateness and identified any repetition
The factors loadings on this factor ranged of items. The factor analysis also provided
from .33 to .58. The factor loadings on all the construct validity for the existence of a
four factors of PPE and PFPE are shown in multidimensional assessment of PPE and
Table 2. An inter correlation of all the four PFPE.
factors on both the scales range between .28 6. Normative and Descriptive information
to .60, all at p<.001. Thus, it suggests that all
the four factors of both the scales are The means and standard deviation for
interrelated but still represent distinct factors each of the four factors on PPE and PFPE
because factors are moderately related to respectively are indicated in table 3. The
each other and not highly correlated. mean for PPE and PFPE scales indicated that
students endorsed items substantially above
4. Reliability the midpoint. Higher scores on PPE and PFPE
Inter item reliability factors reflect higher levels of perception of
Inter item reliability was established using parental expectations and perception of
Cronbach’s alpha. The coefficients of two fulfillment of parental expectations. The scale
scales namely PPE and PFPE were .90 and also assesses unfulfillment of parental
.91 respectively. expectations by adolescent students.
Unfulfillment of parental expectations by
Estimates of Internal consistency adolescent students (UPE) is calculated by
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the four finding the difference between total score on
factors for each of the two scales namely perception of parental expectations and
perception of parental expectations (PPE) perception of fulfillment of parental
and perception of fulfillment of parental expectations. Higher scores on the UPE
expectations (PFPE) were as follows: PPE - factors indicated higher levels of unfulfillment
.78, .76, .65, .71; PFPE - .76, .75, .66, .65 of parental expectations by adolescent
respectively. These estimates of reliability students.
suggest that internal consistency is Table 3. Mean and SD of all four factors on
acceptable. PPE and PFPE scales
Test-retest reliability
To examine the stability of the PE AE CE PA
instrument, estimates of test- retest reliability No of
for the PPE and PFPE were obtained after a items 10 8 5 7
PPE Mean 42.9 35.06 21.61 26.02
14 days interval among 50 students studying
SD 6.4 4.79 3.30 5.69
in 8th, 7 th and 9th standard. The reliability
PFPE Mean 38 30.71 19.66 25.20
coefficients were as follows: PPE: .83, .79,
SD 6.53 5.08 3.52 4.91
.68, 72; PFPE: .77, .73, .67, .71. The results
PPE – Perception of Parental Expectations; PFPE –
indicated that estimates of test – retest
Perception of Fulfillment of Parental Expectations;
reliability for the three scales indicated a PE – Personal Expectations; AE – Academic
moderate to high level of stability in a 2- weeks’ Expectations; CE – Career Expectations; PA –
period. Parental Ambitions
5. Validity Results and Discussion
Content validity was established by The results of this study on psychometric
getting consent from the experts’, where they approximates proved the utility of Perception
rated the items on simplicity, clarity, relevance, of Parental Expectations Inventory to assess
the perception of parental expectations, parental unfulfilled wishes and also their
fulfillment and unfulfillment of parental values that are expected from their offspring.
expectations by adolescents. The factor The items which were categorized as social,
analysis explored four factors pertaining to health, finance, values expectations did not
perception of parental expectations and four emerge in the factor analysis, however, these
factors related to perception of fulfillment by items were loaded in either personal, career
adolescents. However, unfulfillment of or academic expectations. While comparing
parental expectations could be calculated by this Parental Expectations Inventory with other
finding the difference between total score of available tools on parental expectations many
PPE and total score of PFPE. The initial distinguished cultural variation could be seen.
validation and reliability proved the In a study carried out by Wang and Heppner
appropriateness and the level of internal (2002), they have developed a tool on
consistency followed by inter item reliability. parental expectations and identified three
The correlation between the four factors factors namely Academic performance,
indicated a good level of internal consistency Personal maturity and Dating concern. In the
between the factors. present study it was observed that a few items
At first instance, inter item reliability were identified relating to interpersonal
showed skewed responses, but based on total relationship of adolescent students with the
item correlation and extreme means items opposite gender. But since these items had
were deleted after which the scores were very low factor loadings they were deleted
normally distributed for all the four factors in from the inventory. It is a known fact that Indian
both the scales. The factor analysis provided parents’ generally doesn’t appreciate or
construct validity for the existence of a encourage dating behavior among
multidimensional assessment of Parental adolescent students, henceforth that
Expectations. During the content validation, dimension did not emerge as a factor.
experts categorized the items as academic Further, a study by Li (2001) identified
expectations, personal expectations, career five dimensions of parental expectations
expectations, social expectations, and other namely Cultural Expectations, Career
items were parental expectations related to Aspirations, Acculturative Attitudes, Life
health, religion, finance etc. However, after Experiences and Minority Ideology by using
the factor analysis four factors emerged qualitative interviews with the Chinese
namely Personal Expectations, Academic parents who had immigrated to Canada.
expectations, Career expectations and These dimensions on acculturative attitudes,
Parental ambitions. Personal Expectations cultural expectations and minority ideology
measures the expectations of Indian parents clearly reflect the cultural variation and the
of their offspring related to obedience, respect nature of immigrant parents. Career
for others, maturity, overall discipline, expectations is the only factor that has
responsibility etc. Similarly, Academic emerged probably due to commonality of
Expectations includes items related to Asian culture in the present study. It is found
parental expectations of their offspring’s that parental ambitions emerged as a unique
academic aspiration, achievement and factor in the present study. This could be
performance. Likewise, Career Expectations understood based on the cultural
deals with items related to parental phenomenon prevailing in India. Being a
expectations about their offspring’s life collectivistic society, people share their goals
ambitions and future career. Finally, items in and interests of the group with more
Parental Ambitions measures are related to importance over those of individual members.
(Triandis, 1995). Similarly, the decisions, involvement and interest in getting better
behavior, and self-definition of individuals employment for their offspring. They desire
within such a tradition are expected to reflect better quality of living for their offspring.
the needs, values, and expectations of the These cultural values, beliefs, etc are
larger group (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; reflected in the personal, academic and
Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, career expectations of parents on their wards
1988). Moreover, family is considered as one and imposing parental ambitions on their
of the primary unit of an individual wherein offspring’s.
they provide support and involvement during Future research
crisis as well as while deciding one’s
education, career, marriage etc. Moreover, Perception of Parental Expectations
Indian parents’ sacrifice many things for their Inventory would provide many important
offspring’s education and career. Due to this, directions for future research in education,
parents expect their offspring to fulfill their society, family, community etc, and other wide
dreams and unfulfilled wishes in their life. range of research areas. First, additional
Hence, parental ambitions emerged as a psychometric validation such as confirmatory
distinct factor in the present study. factor analysis, convergent and divergent
validity could be carried out to provide
Studies on parental expectations and its refinement to the tool. Further, discriminant
consequences were carried out in foreign validity can be estimated by administering the
countries such as U.S.A, Canada etc. tool to different group of individuals based
Generally, in those countries after 18 years, on their socio economic status, gender and
adolescents are independent from their other socio demographic factors. Second,
parents and hold responsibility for their norms can be established to the current tool
success in academics and career. The which would help the researcher in identifying
exceptional feature of India is the the high, low and optimum level of parental
dependence of adolescents’ on their parents expectations of different age group. Third,
in every aspect. India is known for the family future research could be carried out in
system which binds all the members of the identifying the negative influence of high and
family and lives together as a joint family even low levels of parental expectations on children
after their offspring’s marriage. Due to this and adolescents. Finally, it would also help
prevailing culture over a period of centuries, in exploring the consequence of parental
providing good education and knowledge expectations in relation to child’s intelligence,
becomes the primary responsibility of the coping ability, self efficacy and personality.
parents. To fulfill these duties, most parents
spend a lot of money, time, energy, love and Conclusion
care to make their offspring economically The study reports on the assessment of
secure and sound for the future. They also perception of parental expectations which
expect the child to acquire high status in the also measures fulfillment and unfulfillment of
society. The older generation derives parental expectations by adolescent students.
happiness from their relative societal status Four factors have been identified through
based on their wealth, and additional factor analysis namely academic
happiness in raising their grand children. expectations, personal expectations, career
Such culture curtails the uniqueness and expectations and parental ambitions. The
creativity of the individual especially among present inventory found to be highly reliable
adolescents. Parents act as the goal setters, and valid. This inventory not only assesses
motivators, trainers etc, due to their the range of perception of parental
expectations but also more importantly it college students: The role of perceived
identifies unfulfillment of parental discrepancy and culture in psychological
expectations by adolescent students as well. distress. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital
Dissertations. Retrieved from ProQuest
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125

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 125-131.
Mental and Emotional Impact of Divorce on Women
Bharti Sharma
Shri Krishna Hospital, Gokal Nagar, Gujarat
Divorce dampens women’s self esteem and divorced women reportedly undergo
very significant amount of strain. The present study has examined the effect of
passage of time on mental and emotional health of divorced women of varied
age groups. The participants of the study were 50 divorced women in the age
group of (20-30) and 50 in (30-40) age group. Assessment of impact of divorce
was carried out within a month of grant of divorce and after 1 year post divorce.
The emotional health was assessed using the Eight State Questionnaire (8SQ).
The mental health of the divorced women was measured through Mental Health
Inventory (MHI) and a semi structured interview schedule was used for post
divorce experiences. Content analysis was applied on material from the interview
schedule .It is found that divorced women experience better mental health with
the passage of time .Also, the younger women experience less emotional/mental
strain as compared to the older women. These findings have vital implications
for understanding societal structure and its changing concerns.
Keywords: Anxiety, Depression, Distress, Hypertension, Psychiatric care, Self-
Destruction, Temperament.
Divorce is the “legal dissolution of a socially opting to be parted amicably or through court
and legally recognized marital relationship (Goldstein, 2008)
that alters the obligations and privileges of The divorce rates have increased
the two persons involved. It is also a major considerably during the recent years not only
life transition that has far-reaching social, in developed but developing countries as
pathological, legal, personal, economic, and well. It has been often overlooked but it has
personal consequences” (Price & Mc Kenry, certainly changed the family structure due to
1988). In general terms it is considered as its pervasive destructive effects on the society.
the ending of a marriage. A breakup in In context of Indian society in the last few
relationship is certainly the most terrible decades divorce has become a handle to
situation for a person that results into an challenge the establishment of a family in a
emotional setback. The mental health routine manner bringing severe impact on
indicators which are affected by divorce relate emotional and mental health of an individual
to depression, anger, low self-esteem, and especially women. Since women are
anxiety. The person concerned may blame considered as the binding force in the family,
himself/herself for such a mishap. No doubt, they are believed to be responsible for
adapting to divorce can be a strenuous whatever wrong is done. It has been argued
process despite seeking relief of termination that women invest more in the family, take
of a problematic marriage. Many a times larger responsibility for the marriage, and
continuing in an abusive and unsatisfying therefore perceive divorce as a greater failure
marriage has had greater effect on the than do men (Kurdek, 1990; Hung, Kung, &
psyche of spouses and children rather than Chan 2004).
126 Mental and Emotional Impact
Although Booth and Amato (1991) and say that amicable separation within the first
Lorenz et al., (1997) show that the level of year of marriage has increased by 30 percent
psychological distress was significantly higher since 2000.The reasons of divorce may
for individuals immediately after divorce than range from sexual incompatibility,
in the following years, Mastekaasa (1995) temperamental differences, independent
found no difference in psychological distress thinking, extramarital relationships, and
whether the divorce took place 0 to 4 or 4 to change in career orientation of women. An
8 years earlier, and concludes that divorce extensive study of the working of family courts
implies “permanent strain” in the individual in urban India by Mumbai based legal activist
(Avison, Ali, & Walters, 2007). It has been Flavia-Agnes indicates, 3400 couples filed for
reported that only 20 percent of individuals divorce in Mumbai alone in 2004. The
indicated that their lives had improved, while women’s attitude towards family and marriage
in 70 percent of cases, the individuals were is changing. Job opportunities for women
in the same or worse emotional and social have multiplied now, giving them economic
conditions in20 years after divorce independence and an option to choose out
(Gallagher, 2002). Divorced adults are more of bad marriage. In India researches have
susceptible to severe emotional and been done on divorce though they are less
psychological problems plus early death from in number as compared to the west.
an assortment of causes, than for married In the present study, an effort has been
individuals (Christensen, 1992). made to understand the plight of women, to
A study has reported that those who explore how they take the burden of divorce.
were unhappy but married were more likely Marital status is considered to be an
to be happy five years later than those who important variable associated with both
divorced (Waite & Gallagher, 2000). Men and emotional and mental health. From the earlier
women both suffer a decline in mental health studies, it is not clear whether the ill mental
following divorce, but researchers have and emotional health is a consequence of
reported that women are more greatly affected divorce. Therefore, a longitudinal perspective
(Marks & Lambert, 1998). Some studies have on divorce and mental and emotional health
found that women’s psychological well-being may be useful in understanding the
is more negatively affected by a divorce association between the two factors involved
(Kurdek, 1990; Siu-Kau, 1999; Williams & which cannot be easily identified from cross
Dunne-Bryant, 2006). Divorced or separated sectional data. The present study was
women undergo inpatient or outpatient designed to investigate the effect of time on
psychiatric cares at the rate of five times more divorced women’s mental and emotional
than married women (Bloom, White & Asher, health in relation to variation in age.
1979). There is also a tendency to reject Method
depressive symptoms as something socially
and culturally acceptable, whereas significant Participants:
distress associated with these events could In the municipal corporation of Jaipur, a
be harbingers of psychiatric illness often purposive sample of 50 divorced women in
requiring attention (medical or otherwise). the 20-30-age bracket (inclusive of 30) and
(Trivedi, Sareen, & Dhyani, 2009). 50 divorced women in 30-40-age bracket
Divorces are not new in India but new is were taken as the participants in the study.
their growing number, based on different Their status of divorce was taken into
reasons and the diminishing stigma around consideration and only those women were
them. Family counselors in India as reports considered whom their spouses deserted and
Bharti Sharma 127
not where divorce was taken with mutual collected to know about the implications of
consent. And only those cases were included divorce.
where the divorce had been granted within a Procedure:
month. All the participants belonged to middle
income group. Subjects were informed about The subjects in both the groups were
the nature of the study and their consent to given the devices twice, once within a month
fill the questionnaires were taken. of grant of divorce and once after a year of
divorce. Although the participants were given
Tools: as much time as needed, both the tests took
The Eight State Questionnaire (8SQ) one hour to administer.
designed by Curran and Cattell (1976) and Results
Mental Health Inventory (MHI) by Jagdish and
Srivastava (1983) were used to assess the As is evident from Table-1, the t-scores
impact of divorce on emotional and mental for all the eight emotional states and mental
health of women respectively. The health are significant, showing that with
questionnaires were given post divorce to passage of time, the severity of divorce
explore the changes. The 8SQ consists of lessens. Table-2 shows that t-values become
96 items. It comprises of eight emotional significant at .05 levels for Anxiety,
states: Anxiety, Stress, Depression, Depression, Regression, and Extraversion
Regression, Fatigue, Guilt, Extraversion, and while insignificant for Stress, Fatigue, Guilt,
Arousal. On a four-point scale, the subject and Arousal as well as for mental health. This
had to indicate her feelings. The MHI was shows that the subjects started showing the
used to assess the mental health of divorced signs of change. Subjects still feel stressed
women. The inventory consists of 56 items and guilty about what has been done to them.
related to the six dimensions (positive self An interesting phenomenon is seen in
evaluation, perception of reality, integration extraversion where the change is in a reverse
of personality, autonomy, group oriented direction; women actually start interacting with
attitudes & environmental mastery), with four people and are no longer caring for what
options provided. Subjective data was also others say as shown by their responses.
Table 1. Values of different emotional states and mental health in younger

women in II testing and I
S.No Emotional State I testing Mean II testing Mean SD t-value

1. Anxiety 30.48 27.36 2.76 5.54**
2. Depression 30.68 28.56 2.56 4.04**
3. Stress 27.24 26.36 1.79 2.40*
4. Regression 29.12 27.32 3.73 2.36*
5. Fatigue 26.28 25.12 2.74 2.07*
6. Guilt 30 28.84 2.47 2.30*
7. Extraversion 12.4 13.52 2.08 2.64*
8. Arousal 16.24 15.24 2.37 2.07*
MHI 168.24 165.52 6.47 2.06*
**p<.01, *p<.05
Table 2. Values of different emotional states and mental health of older

women in II testing and I
S.No. Emotional State I testing Mean II testing Mean SD t-value
1. Anxiety 31.16 29.2 3.47 2.76*
2. Depression 31.72 30.4 2.57 2.49*
3. Stress 30.84 30.72 2.08 .282
4. Regression 27.8 26.76 2.34 2.18*
5. Fatigue 29.32 28.04 3.49 1.80
6. Guilt 31.8 31.08 2.60 1.36
7. Extraversion 3.4 4.36 2.03 2.32*
8. Arousal 9.48 9.04 2.94 .73
MHI 195.76 194.04 5.46 1.55
Table 3. Differences in emotional and mental health of older and

younger women in I testing
S.No. Emotional State I Group Mean II Group Mean t-value
1. Anxiety 31.16 30.48 .93
2. Depression 31.72 30.68 1.12
3. Stress 30.84 27.24 5.04**
4. Regression 27.8 29.12 1.84
5. Fatigue 29.32 26.28 5.15**
6. Guilt 31.8 30 1.02
7. Extraversion 3.4 12.4 8.03**
8. Arousal 9.48 16.24 6.88**
MHI 195.76 168.24 1.37
Table 4. Differences in emotional and mental health of older and

younger women in II testing
S.No. Emotional states I Group Mean II Group Mean t-value
1. Anxiety 29.2 27.36 1.22
2. Depression 30.4 28.56 .79
3. Stress 30.72 26.36 6.99**
4. Regression 26.76 27.32 .37
5. Fatigue 28.04 25.12 4.17**
6. Guilt 31.08 28.84 2.63*
7. Extraversion 4.36 13.52 8.40**
8. Arousal 9.04 15.24 6.14**
MHI 194.04 165.52 5.02**
In Table-3, significant difference between differences between older and younger
both the groups can be seen in Stress, women for the II testing can be seen on Stress,
Fatigue, Extraversion, and Arousal whereas Fatigue, Guilt, Extraversion, Arousal, and
no significant difference in Anxiety, mental health whereas no significant
Depression, Regression, and Guilt was difference can be seen on Anxiety,
observed. This shows that younger women Depression, and Regression. The anxiety
are far better able to deal with divorce, and depression level is not very much
however, older women feel more depressed different in both the groups of women; here
and also guilty after taking divorce. Significant one important observation to be mentioned
Bharti Sharma 129
is that the younger women are less guilty after arousal levels when compared in first and
divorce as compared to older women. duration of one year due to lingering of impact
Discussion of divorce. They develop a feeling that they
are somehow responsible for the divorce no
The present study examines the matter how much they try to divert themselves
relationship between divorce and its mental to various other activities. However, the
and emotional impact with passage of time impact of divorce lessens as time passes, but
and its differential effect on different age a positive increase in Extraversion is found.
groups. The data suggest that both the Women at the time of divorce decrease their
groups i.e, older and younger, experience social network but as they start understanding
enormous amount of anxiety and depression. or accepting reality, they become more and
These findings are consistent and reinforce more open and start behaving in a similar
earlier studies, which have suggested that manner as they used to behave prior to
divorce is a stressful experience and puts an marriage. Further, associations have been
immense amount of strain on divorced detected between adjustments made after
women. In this study some interesting divorce and social relationships. Women rely
associations are seen between divorce and on support from friends and family members
the age at which it is taken. In India, the impact if available to cope with the psychological
of divorce is more troublesome because of stress of divorce.
the collectivist pattern of society. The break-
up in relationship is traumatic for the women The effect of divorce on women has
since they feel they are defying the norms mental and emotional implications which
set by the society. Nevertheless the effect is shatter a women’s self-esteem. It influences
more severe in Indian women because of the women’s ability to become a positive role
social stigma and greater economic hardship model. She feels frightened considering
associated with it. Qualitative analysis herself alone and worthless with none to
suggests that the harmful effects of divorce support or comfort her. Booth and Amato
on mental health decreased over time. One (1991) indicated a rise in stress before
of the possible explanations for the findings divorce, which is reduced later. Increased
of the present study could be the changing psychological distress associated with divorce
pattern of the society and the latter is not was found to decrease over passage of time;
putting much strain on women who are taking/ although it was seen to persist for some time
getting divorce. Fine emotional as well as after the initial separation. Psychological
mental health can further be assigned to the distress may occur during the period
fact that the women are more educated now; immediately after partnership split (Hope,
they can control their lives with better support Rodgers, & Power, 1999). From a large
of their family members as the latter is number of potential life events, divorce has
generally associated with the mental state. been rated as one of the most stressful, with
a large general impact on the life situation of
Since the younger group is better placed those who experience it (Dohrenwend,
as compared to the older group emotionally, Krasnoff, Askenasy, & Dohrenwend, 1978;
the health of the former is better than that of Holmes & Rahe, 1967; Gahler, 2006).
the latter. This may be attributed to their Furthermore, divorced women are likely to be
thinking pattern as they think that age is on exposed to economic hardship (Johnson and
their side, they feel less anxious and Wu, 2002; Lorenz et al., 1997). Divorce is
depressed as time passes. However, there is frequently accompanied by feelings of
not very much difference in their fatigue and helplessness, anger, depression, guilt,
loneliness and other negative emotions many of them want to discuss it with others,
(Booth & Amato, 1991). Divorcees have been the sample was small. This study has
shown to exhibit substantially higher considered only the impact of divorce and not
admission rates in psychiatric clinics and the characteristics of the partnership with the
hospitals than individuals in intact couples, sole purpose that mutual consent divorce has
and they more often suffer from anxiety, not been considered. The analyses presented
depression, anger, feelings of incompetence, in this study have observed some interesting
rejection and loneliness (Gahler, 2006; relationships between impact of divorce on
Kendlar, Hettema, Butera, Gardner, & mental and emotional health on one hand and
Prescott, 2003). the age at which it was taken on the other.
Various studies have suggested that the References
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simply being in a relationship. Woman whose Family Structure, Stress, and Psychological
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Received: January 12, 2010
Revision received: April 30, 2010
Bharti Sharma, PhD, Clinical Psychologist, D1-6, staff Quarters, Shri Krishna
Hospital, Gokal Nagar, Karamsad, Gujarat-388325 E-mail:bharatis@
charutarhealth.org
132

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 132-139.
Achievement Motivation and Parental Support to Adolescents
Neha Acharya and Shobhna Joshi

Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
The parental support exerts most direct influence upon the acquisition of
achievement motivation. Thus the present investigation provides an important
perspective of the relationship between achievement motivation and parental
support. The present study was undertaken to investigate the relationship between
achievement motivation and parental support, and to examine the gender
differences in parental support. The sample for the present study consisted of
500 adolescents in the age group of 16 to 18 years from Varanasi city who were
enrolled in class 11th and 12th Deo Mohan achievement motivation scale and
family support scale were used to assess achievement motivation and parental
support, respectively. The results indicate a positive correlation between
achievement motivation and parental support. Girls are sensitive to parental
support as compared to boys. Achievement motivation is related to success in
life, life satisfaction and quality of life. The study revealed that parental support
for their children seems to have a strong influence on achievement motivation.
The results of the study are generally positive and have an important implication
for educators and parents. In particular, parents should support educational
activities of their children to enhance their academic motivation.
Parents play a key role in shaping students’ of education, parental expectations,

aspiration and achievement (Beyer, 1995; encouragement and support.
Eccles & Harold, 1993; Hossler & Stage, Parents play an important role in the
1992; and Paulson, 1996). Family factors educational motivation of their children. They
such as parent’s level of education, parental provide necessary facilities and educational
expectations, and parental support for their environment which results in better
children seem to extent some influences on performance in school. Parents approve and
adolescents’ achievement motivation (Beyer, appreciate activities related to education and
1995). Achievement Motivation can be remove any difficulty felt by their wards. This
defined as a concern for excellence in type of behavior of parents is known as
performance as reflected in competition with parental support. In other words parental
the standards set by others or over unique support refers to the guidance,
accomplishment or long time involvement communication and interest shown by the
(McClelland, 1953). It is the basic ingredients parents to promote their wards’ progress in
necessary for one’s success in life. There has school .Student progress is facilitated when
been extensive research on the influences parents give frequent verbal support and
on students’ achievement motivation. praise, regular feedback for school work and
Psychological research has identified multiple talk directly about school work and activities.
factors which play an important role in Parents also enhance academic
predicting adolescents’ achievement achievement of their children by teach them
motivation. These factors are parental level problem solving and negotiation skills. All the
Neha Acharya and Shobhna Joshi 133
above supportive behaviors of parents help involvement tended to have children with
children to learn and achieve. (Christenson higher grades and test scores Studies also
& Peterson, 2007) demonstrated that positive effects of parental
Parental support plays an important part support on achievement motivation are
of adolescent’s educational aspiration similar for the parents of entire income level
(Hossler &Stage, 1992). Parental support also group (Henderson & Mapp, 2002).
seems to be related to predisposition toward A study related to home environmental
post secondary education. Parental support influences on students’ achievement,
for their children is positively correlated with identified the following characteristics of
children’s grades, IQ scores, educational academic guidance and support as positive
aspiration educational attainment and and significant correlates of academic
achievement motivation. Beyer (1995) and achievement viz.,(a) frequent
Clark, (1990) described some factors which encouragement of children for their
improve students’ performance in school. schoolwork, (b) parental knowledge of
These factors are parents’ and teachers’ strengths and weaknesses in children’s
frequent verbal support to students, praise school learning and supportive help when
to student’s skill performance, progress and needed (e.g., knowledge so supervision of
efforts, and care about them and their school homework is smoother or supplemental
performance. Talking with children about tutoring is provided), and (c) availability of a
schoolwork and school functions of the quiet place for study with appropriate books,
children were identified by Peng and Lee references materials, and other learning
(1992) as one of the important family materials (Kellaghan, Sloane, Alvarez, &
variables that showed the strongest Bloom 1993). Knowledge of the child’s
relationship with students’ achievement. schooling as been documented as a positive
Similarly, parents who are involved (both at correlate of students’ school performance
school and at home), with their children’s (Baker & Stevenson, 1986).
schooling, enhance student, achievement Researches explored some difference in
(Comer, 1984; Henderson & Berla, 1994). parental support with high academic
Parental support for learning and achieving and low academic achieving
interventions programs of school are also student. In a study Clark (1983) found that
associated with students’ achievement parents of high achieving students displayed
(Jordan, Snow, & Porche, 2000). Family a greater sense of responsibility in helping
involvement that is linked to students’ learning their children to gain general knowledge and
has a greater effect on achievement than literacy skills and initiated more contacts with
general forms of involvement such as school personnel than did the parents of low
volunteering and decision making achieving students. In another study, Clark
(Christenson & Sheridan, 2001). It was also (1993) also explored that parent of high and
found that the more family support to their low achieving students engaged in similar
children’s learning and educational progress behaviors. Both the parents of high and low
(both in quantity and over time), the more achieving students; talked to their children
their children tend to do well in school and about homework, and monitored completion
further their education after graduation of classroom assignments. But the parents
(Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Marcon, 1999; of high achieving students were more
Miedel & Reynolds, 1999; Sanders & Herting, involved in home learning activities and spend
2000). Studies demonstrated that parents’ more time in supporting their homework.
involvement was positively associated with Again it was concluded that all parents were
grades and test scores. Parents with high enacting some positive behaviors that
134 Achievement Motivation and Parental Support
contributed to student success but the education). Regardless of income and family
parents of academically successful, students background, students’ expectations for further
apparently give a wide variety of additional schooling were affected by parental support..
supportive behaviors to their children. Thus, the more students perceive parental
Several researches on parental support involvement and support, the farther they
explored some important and relevant expect to go in school. Enhancing learning
variable related to children learning and opportunities at home, specifically related to
progress in school i.e., (1) encouraging postsecondary options, has demonstrated
children’s learning and progress in school, positive outcomes for 12th graders
including maintaining a supportive learning irrespective of family backgrounds (race,
environment,(2) helping with homework, (3) parental education, income). Students are
discussing the value of good education and more likely to enroll in a challenging academic
possible career options, and (4) staying in program, earn more credits toward
touch with school staff about the youth’s graduation, and make higher test scores
progress (Amato & Ochiltree, 1986; Baker & when parents express high expectations,
Stevenson, 1986; Eagle, 1989; Mitrsomwong keep discussing about attending college,
& Hawley, 1993; Stevenson & Baker, 1987). and help students prepare for college
(Catsambis, 1998). The most effective types
Studies explored that the type of parental of parental involvement are aimed at advising
support differs according to grade level, and guiding teens’ academic decisions for
parents’ involvement in home, reinforcement future endeavors rather than supervising
for positive behavior and performance in students’ behavior (e.g., making contact with
school enhances children’s self-esteem and the school, excessive monitoring, focusing
grades, especially for preschoolers and only on high school graduation). Parental
elementary students .In a similar study Ziegler communication and home support for
(1987) found that students’ achievement was learning has an effect on students’
enhanced by parents’ participation. The type postsecondary enrollment and education
of participation differed for elementary and plans, the more students perceive parental
secondary level students. Parent’s involvement and support, the farther they
participation in reading and literacy enhanced expect to go in school. Thus the purpose of
elementary students’ achievement whereas the present study was to ascertain the
parent’s awareness of their children school relationship between achievement motivation
work, regular communication with teachers, and parental support and to examine the
and reinforcement for schoolwork, made gender differences in parental support.
greater achievement gains for middle and
high school students. Hypothesis:
In a number of studies it was found that It was hypothesized that achievement

perceived support from parents predicted motivation would be positively correlated with
adolescents’ academic goal orientations parental support and girls would be perceived
(Wentzel, 1998). Parental communication and significantly higher support from parents than
home support for learning has an effect on boys.
students’ postsecondary enrollment and Method
education plans. Trusty (1999) explored that Sample:
if students’ believed their parents
communicated with them and supported their The sample for the study consisted of
learning in eighth grade, they were more plans 500 (250 male and 250 female) adolescents,
to continue their high school (higher in the age group of 16 to 18 years, who were
enrolled in class 11th and 12th in different both the samples. The table further indicated
schools of Varanasi city. that academic and emotional support are
Tools: significantly positively correlated with general
interest area of girls’ achievement motivation
The achievement motivation was but not for the sample of boys. Financial
measured by Deo-Mohan achievement support and motivational support are also
motivation scale developed by Deo and significantly positively correlated with general
Mohan (1985). The scale consists of fifty interest area of girls’ achievement motivation.
items related to academic motivation of This table does not prove the significant
adolescents. The parental support was relationship in the sample of boys. The table
measured by family support scale developed also revealed that academic, emotional,
by Rajneesh (2004). The scale consists of motivational, financial and other supports are
45 items related to five dimensions of family also not significantly related with achievement
support to adolescents’ i.e. academic support, motivation in dramatics area of achievement
motivational support, emotional support, motivation for both the samples. Academic,
financial support and other kinds of support. emotional and other supports are also not
. The reliability of the two scales is .91and.94 significantly related with achievement
respectively. motivation in sports area of achievement
Result and Discussion motivation for both the samples. Motivational
The analysis of the table 1 indicated that support is significantly positively correlated
perceived academic support is significantly with achievement motivation in sports area
positively correlated to achievement for boys (r=.14) and but not for girls(r =.12).
motivation in academic area for girls (r=.28) Financial support is significantly
and boys(r= .30). Emotional support is also positively correlated with achievement
significantly positively correlated with motivation in sports area for girls(r=.21) and
academic area of achievement motivation for but not for boys(r=.05). This result implies that
the sample of girls(r
= .28) and adolescent’s achievement motivation is
boys(r= .28).Similarly motivational, financial directly associated with parental support. This
and other supports are significantly positively study investigated the influence of parental
correlated with achievement motivation in support on adolescent’s achievement
academic area of achievement motivation for motivation. As predicated that the
Table 1. Summary of correlation analysis between achievement motivation and
parental support (N=250)
Academic General interest Dramatics Sports
Academic Girls .279** .139** -.044 .056
support Boys . 299** .015 .033 .115
Emotional Girls .257** .151** .029 .090
support Boys .227** -0.02 .041 .083
Motivational Girls .306** .185* .021 .124
support Boys .334** .051 .100 .144*
Financial Girls .237** .198** .074 .212**
support Boys .149** -.060 .159 .075
Other Girls .285** .107 030 .093
support Boys .221** .021 .111 .046
**p>.01,*p>.05
adolescents’ perceived parental support were girls. Ainsworth and Bowlby’s(1991) research
directly associated with the adolescents’ also revealed that children felt secure only
achievement motivation. Thus, the result of when they had parents to care and support
this study are consistent with that of Hossler, them. Adolescents (both boys and girls)
Schmit and Vespero(1992) who established became curious with the world, more confident
that parental support was an important factor to learn and motivated to achieve, if they had
associated with adolescents” achievement a secure base to return to in times of insecurity
motivation. This finding is also consistent with and uncertainty. Therefore, having a secure
Sadjapad, Strong and Suwanna (2001) who base with a parent to return to the times of
demonstrated that parental support was uneasiness allow the children to be more
predicator of achievement motivation. confident and comfortable in exploring new
Similarly Maya (2001) also found that situations.
parental support was positive correlated with Table 2. Correlation coefficient of
achievement motivation of adolescents and achievement motivation and academic
was strongest predictor of achievement support of Girls (N=250) Boys (N=250)
motivation. In a recent study Chen (2005) has Achievement Academic support
also investigated that parents, teachers and Motivation r z r z Diff.
peers perceive that academic support has the Academic 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.31 0.22
strongest influence on child’s achievement. General
These results support from a number of earlier
interest 0.14 0.14 0.02 0.02 1.33
investigations which have implicated the role
Dramatics -0.04 -0.04 0.03 0.03 0.78
of parental support in achievement of
adolescents. During the developmental Sports 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.12 0.67
process, adolescents tend to seek out their **p>.01,*p>.05
parents for advice and emotional support Table 3. Correlation coefficient of
(Fuligni & Eccles, 1993; Fuligni et al. 2001). achievement motivation and emotional
The table 2 demonstrated that there is support of Girls (N=250) Boys (N=250)
no significant difference between correlation Achievement Emotionalsupport
of achievement motivation and academic motivation r z r z Diff.
support for the sample of boys and girls. Academic 0.26 0.27 0.23 0.23 0.44
Children are motivated to achieve and appear General
to do their best. When parents are warm and interest 0.15 0.15 -0.02 -0.02 1.89
supportive, spend generous amounts of time Dramatics 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.11
with children, monitor children’s behavior, Sports 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.11
expect children to follow rules and encourage **p>.01,*p>.05
open communication. In line with present Table 4. Correlation coefficient of
finding Ainsworth and Bowlby’s (1991) have achievement motivation and motivational
support of Girls (N=250) Boys (N=250)
also presented the importance of parental
care and support in a child’s security which Achievement Motivation support
is related to students’ adjustment and school motivation r z r z Diff.
performance for both boys and girls Academic 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.22
General
adolescents.
interest 0.19 0.19 0.05 0.05 .1.55
Similarly the table 3 also shows that Dramatics 0.02 0.02 0.10 0.10 0.89
there is no significant difference between Sports 0.12 0.12 0.14 0.14 0.22
correlation of achievement motivation and **p>.01,*p>.05
emotional support for the sample of boys and
The table 4 also revealed that there is increases the security in the adolescents
no significant difference between correlation while lower support indicates risk for financial
of achievement motivation and emotional stress in them.
support for the sample of boys and girls. Table 6. Correlation coefficient of
Similarly study by Unger, McLeod, Brown, and achievement motivation and other support
Tressell (2000)also found that less support of Girls (N=250) Boys (N=250)
from the family was associated with decreased Achievement Financial support
level of desire or motivation in adolescents. Motivation r z r z tvalue
This finding was then followed by the Academic 0.24 0.24 0.15 0.15 1.00
discussion that the student’s grades and self- General
concept were negatively affected by the lack interest 0.20 0.20 -0.06 -0.06 2.88**
of parental support for male and female Dramatics 0.07 0.07 0.16 0.16 1.00
adolescents. Sports 0.21 0.21 0.08 0.08 1.44
Table 5. Correlation coefficient of **p>.01,*p>.05
achievement motivation and financial It was clear from the table 6 that there is
support of Girls (N=250) Boys (N=250) no significant difference between correlation
Achievement Other support of achievement motivation and other support
Motivation r z r z Diff. for the sample of boys and girls. Consistent
Academic 0.29 0.30 0.22 0.22 0.89 with the present finding researchers suggest
General that there are three sources of potential
interest 0.11 0.11 0.02 0.02 1.00 influence on academic success of
Dramatics 0.03 0.03 0.11 .011 0.89 adolescents. First is the parents’ modeling of
Sports 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.44 academic performance attainment, second
**p>.01,*p>.05 parental verbalization of support for such
The table 5 shows that there is no performances and third parents’ structuring
significant difference between correlation in of conditions for children’s academic success.
academics ,dramatics and sports area of Parental encouragement, support, direct
achievement motivation and emotional instruction at home and good communications
support for the sample of boys and girls but with school improves students’ school
there is significant difference between achievement (Mau, 1997).
correlation of achievement motivation and Conclusion
financial support for the sample of boys and
girls. Girls’ achievement motivation in general The finding of the study reveal that there
interest area is more influenced by financial is a positive correlation between achievement
support than boys. Consistent with the motivation and perceived parental support
present finding, studies revealed that which leads to conclusion that parental
receiving money from parents for good grade support helps the students to internalize
actually motivate the children for high educational values. When parents show an
achievement. Similarly financial support from interest and enthusiasm for what their
parents predicted the academic children are learning, they provide a support
achievement and extrinsic or external system at home that facilitated the child’s
motivation of the adolescents.. (Deci & academic learning and reinforces the value
Ryan,1985). More perceived financial support of schooling. By providing such emotional
from parents protect adolescents from support, parents establish a foundation for
financial stress and greater availability of socializing children’s motivation to learn.
financial help in problematic condition Parents communicate the importance of
education. Students are motivated when they
observe that their parents take an active ofminesotaextension.http://wwwextension.

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Received: April 9, 2010
08. Revision received: October 2, 2010
Neha Acharya, Research Scholar, Dept. of Psychology, Banaras Hindu

University, Varanasi
Shobhna Joshi, PhD, Assistant Prof. Dept. of Psychology, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, Email: [email protected]
140

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 140-148.
Transformational Leadership and Innovative Work Behaviour
Bishakha Majumdar and Anjali Ray

University of Calcutta, Kolkata
The study focuses on the nature of the transformational leadership styles and
also the relationship between transformational leadership and innovative work
behaviour of branch managers of the public and private-sector banks of Kolkata.
Data was collected from 120 male branch managers of Kolkata (60 from public-
sector banks and 60 from private-sector banks), using the General Information
Schedule, Transformational Leadership Questionnaire and Innovative Work
Behaviour Scale. Responses to these tools were processed for t-test, ANOVA
and correlational analysis. The results show that branch managers of the public
and private-sector banks reveal uniform patterns of moderately high
transformational leadership. Irrespective of the type of bank, the innovative work
behaviour of the branch managers vary in terms of their levels of transformational
leadership. Also, the two dimensions are positively correlated. Idea promotion,
a dimension of Innovative Work Behaviour, is facilitated more by the public-
sector work setting than by the private-sector setting.
Keywords: Transformational Leadership, Innovative Work Behaviour, Financial
Institutions
Globalization increases global connectivity, to pay dividend to the shareholders and

integration and interdependence in social, retain some surplus to improve its own capital.
economic, technological, cultural political and Since the independence of the country, the
ecological spheres. Central to the globalized most important thing which has happened to
interpretation is a conception of the global the Indian banking scene is the nationalization
change involving a significant transformation of the 13 major commercial banks in 1969.
of the organizing principles of social life and Later, ownership of six more banks transferred
world order. As organization is the man’s to the government. Nationalization of banks
society, it is possible for the organization not led to huge growth in branch network and
only to do the required transformation but employment and also to bringing new
also be able to accept the need for business like loans to farmers and small
transformation. business industry into the banking arena.
Commercial banking in the modern In the 1990s, the process started by
sense in India goes back to more than two which the government diluted its holding in
hundred years. The main business of banking most public-sector banks, including the
consists of taking loans (deposits) and lending largest, viz. State bank of India. Thus, instead
money (credit/advance). What makes of one shareholder, the banks had to take
economic sense for a bank is to ensure that care of numerous individuals and institutions
there is an excess of the interest it earns over - the shareholders who would demand
the interest it pays to the depositors. The dividend payment and rise and market value
excess should cover the staff cost and all of the shares held by them. In the 1990s
establishment expenses, and still have surplus again, a number of private sector banks
Bishakha Majumdar and Anjali Ray 141
entered the arena. ICICI Bank, one such new banks featured among the top 500 global
entrant, is now the second largest commercial financial brands in 2009 – more than tripling
bank in India. the Indian tally from 6 in 2007 and making
Accordingly, after 1990, major changes India the biggest riser in the league table.
have been taking place in the banking sector (Dobhal & Pande, 2009).Some attribute this
because of globalization. The main objective success to the fact that the emerging markets
of the bank is to create conditions in which are less exposed to the global crisis (Haigh,
all who need funds for productive and viable 2009).
purposes would be able to approach the bank Though this progress is a function of
for furthering social and economic activities. several factors, it largely depends on the
Previously bankers were operated in the world quality of leadership in Indian banks – both
of beneficially regulated markets and at the strategic and at the operational level.
comfortable cartels which restricted Hence the present research attempts to study
competitions, reduced risk and virtually the nature of leadership, more specifically
guaranteed attractive profits. But the present leadership in the transformational process,
world of banking has been influenced by three at the operational level in the Indian banks,
forces: deregulation, technology and growing and to determine the extent to which it is
customer sophistication (Middleton, 1994). transformational – anticipating future trends,
In order to cope with this situation, Indian inspiring followers to understand and
banks are currently in desperate need to embrace a new vision of possibilities,
identify and select personnel who will be able developing others to be leaders and building
to think and verify the rationality of demands the organization or group into a community
and consequences of the transformational of challenged and rewarded learners
process, limits of creative urges as well as (Anderson, 1998).
motivated learning, helping and team building The challenge before Indian banks is to
in the change and developmental process. improve on customer centricity and service
The enormity of the importance of banks in excellence. There is also need for innovations
the global economy makes it essential that in products and services like microfinance
banks are led by effective leaders, who are and micro-housing (Unnikrishnan, 2008). In
transformational in their approach – strong short, it is essential to innovate to secure
on values, inspirational and intellectually long-term survival, profitability and growth (de
stimulating. This may ensure that institutions Jong, 2007). Hence there is need that the
that provide stability to the economies, leaders are measured to possess appropriate
characterized by unforeseen expansion, rapid traits of innovative work behaviour for idea
changes and unpredictability, remain stable generation, idea realization and idea
and useful themselves. implementation. Along with these two
In recent times, the branch banking personal attributes, all executives, managers
system has been totally revolutionized by and officers are required to cope with the
computerization, Any Time Money facility, e- situational crisis and develop effective
banking, easy transferability of funds between problem solving strategies to avoid the risk
branches, etc. The banks have, it can be said, and failures.
successfully managed the changes. In a year Of course, due to the nature of the
when the global financial landscape changed organizational system, the leadership styles
irretrievably with the worldwide meltdown, of the managers may be different in public
Indian banks surprisingly came out strongly and private sector institutions. Public sector
– relatively unscathed and stable. 19 Indian institutions are generally seen as more
142 Leadership and Innovative Work Behaviour
conservative, less risk-taking and more concept as providing a way to bridge the gap
oriented towards social banking than their between group dynamics and the leadership
counterparts – the private sector institutions. demonstrated by the world’s movers and
Accordingly we were interested to provide shakers (Bass, 1992).
database and insight into whether Transformational leadership is perhaps
globalised and competitive market banking best described in terms of its four
still allows the difference in management style components, popularly called the ‘Four I’s’
to continue or the responses of both the (Avolio, Waldman & Yammarino, 1991; Bass,
categories of the banks to the problems have 1990; Patterson, 2008): Individualized
attained a degree of similarity. As a step in Consideration, Intellectual Stimulation,
this direction, we attempted to study the Idealized Influence and Inspirational
nature of the transformational leadership style Motivation. Rafferty and Griffin (2004)
of the bank managers of public and private identified five focused sub-dimensions of
sector banks with respect to the selected Transformational Leadership including vision,
personality attributes. We have presented an inspirational communication, intellectual
overview of the conceptualizations and stimulation, supportive leadership and
theories regarding the main variables in the personal recognition. Further investigation
following section. provided initial support for the five
Leadership has been called one of the dimensions.
most observed and least understood Conger (1999) reported that
phenomena on earth (Toteja, 1999). Burns transformational leaders were found to have
(1978) reported the documentation of as the ability to formulate a compelling vision
many as 130 definitions of the word. It has concerning the group’s ideal future, have the
been explained as a focus of group ability to shift the group members’ focus from
processes, as personality and its effects, as self-interest to collective interest and make
the art of inducing compliance or as an public demonstrations of their dedication to
instrument of goal achievement (Robbins, a cause. Transformational leaders show their
1993). Leadership is the interaction between group-mindedness by making more
two or more members of a group that often references to the collective history, the
involves a structuring or restructuring of the collective interest and collective efficacy than
situation and the perceptions and do the non-transformational and non-
expectations of the members……it occurs charismatic leaders (Shamir, Arthur & House,
when one group member modifies the 1994) and tend to show dedication to the
motivations and competencies of others in the group and the mission (Kark, Shamir & Chen,
group (Bass, 1990). A leader is a person who 2003). Bono and Anderson (2005) found that
exhibits the key attributes of leadership – managers who scored high on
ideas, vision, values, influencing others and Transformational Leadership tend to score
making tough decisions (Slocum & Hellriegel, high on emotional intelligence (Bass, 2002)
2007). and hold central position on organisational
The first mention of transformational advice and influence network, and informal
leadership appeared in Downton’s Rebel social networks.
Leadership (1973); later it appeared Transformational Leadership has a
independently in James Burns’ 1978 book significantly greater impact than Transactional
Leadership. The formal theory of Leadership on a variety of subjective and
transformational leadership was developed objective organizational outcome measures,
in the 1980s by Bernard Bass, who saw this including job satisfaction, motivation,
performance of followers. It has been found For the purpose of the present research,
to lead to lower levels of stress & burnout we defined innovative work behaviour,
amongst staff, more collaborative, innovative, following Janssen (2000) and Kanter (1988),
harmonious teams, better financial as the self-reported level of three different
performance of organisations, and better behavioural tasks, namely, idea generation,
performance in public sec0tor organisations idea promotion and idea realization. These
(Bass & Avolio, 1996). Mary (2005) reported job-related components are recognized as
that Transformational Leadership style and important personal level factors related to
democratic (versus authoritarian) innovation in the workplace (Kanter, 1988;
organisations were correlated with successful Amabile, 1996; Scott & Bruce, 1994):
leadership outcomes. Further, perceived Idea generation: it refers to the pattern
Transformational Leadership style of activities undertaken by the managers for
significantly increases the frequency of the generating novel and useful ideas, critical
subordinate’s information enquiry from thinking, searching for new methods and
superiors in a complex organisational setting techniques etc., in the bank.
(Madzar, 2005) and enhances organizational
commitment among employees (Luksic, Idea promotion: it concerns those
2006). variables which are related to the social
activities of the branch managers for
Innovation is a necessity in the world of acquiring approval, spreading awareness and
business today. The fiscal, industrial and generating support for the innovation.
market scenarios are changing rapidly, both
in the affluent western nations and in the Idea realization: it involves the
developing economies. As a consequence, application of innovative ideas by branch
innovation is no longer reserved for managers in the organizational setting.
organizations and people doing scientific and These three factors are considered to
technical work (Smith, 1993). Business firms, combine additively to determine the nature
including banks, need to continuously of the innovative work behaviour of the
innovate – renew and improve their offerings branch managers.
– to survive in the competition and ‘secure While an individual’s innovative work
long-term survival, profitability and growth’ (de behaviour can exist independent of his/her
Jong, 2007). leadership potentials, it appears that
Innovative work behaviour may be possessing transformational leadership
defined as the individual’s behaviour to qualities i facilitates innovative work behaviour
achieve the initiation and intentional in individuals. Innovative work behaviour
introduction (within a work role, group or implies that individuals go beyond the scope
organization) of new and useful ideas, of their job requirements to be innovative of
processes, products and procedures (Farr their own free will. Hence it calls for a visionary
& Ford, 1990). In a recent research on stance and openness to ideas. It also
innovative work behaviour and leadership, de includes the type of behaviours needed to
Jong (2007) states that the concept of implement improvements that will enhance
innovative work behaviour is restricted to personal and / organizational business
intentional efforts to provide beneficial and performance (de Jong, 2007). This calls for
novel outcomes. It entails both the initiation inspirational communication, building a
and implementation of innovations. shared vision as well as some amount of
calculated risk-taking. In addition, it
necessitates a certain amount of formal varies in terms of their level of

authority to initiate and implement changes. transformational leadership (high and low).
In the light of the above observations, Method
we find it reasonable to expect that Sample:
transformational leaders are likely to emerge
successful innovators at the workplace and We collected the data from the branch
display innovative work behaviour – both for managers of 60 public-sector banks and
self-enhancement and for developing the branch managers of 60 private-sector banks
potentials of their subordinates and of the in Kolkata. The banks and their respective
organization as a whole. branches were randomly chosen from among
the public –sector and private-sector banks
The present investigation focuses on the in Kolkata.
transformational leadership style and related
personal attributes of the frontline leaders at Measures:
banks – since the attitude and commitment Transformational Leadership
of these leaders determine the fate of the Questionnaire: developed by Sashkin (1997),
bank (Ramakrishnan, 2009). According to this 24-item tool measures six basic leader
Fodgen (2001), frontline managers should be behaviour patterns as well as a set of
developers and sharers, have superior emotional responses usually associated with
marketing skills, and be credible, transformational leadership. The reliability of
approachable and visible. The branch the scale was computed to be 0.732. The
manager’s activities may be influenced by the item-total correlations ranged from 0.36 to
nature of the institution to which he /she 0.68, indicating that the scale is internally
belongs. Public sector banks are those who consistent.
havemore than 50% of their shares held by Innovative Work Behaviour Scale:
the Government of India. These have lower developed by Janssen (2000), this 9-item
per capita business handling and relatively scale measures self reported level of three
lower scales of pay for their employees than different tasks, namely, idea generation, idea
their counterparts in the private sector. Private promotion and idea realization. The reliability
sector banks are those that have more than of the scale was computed to be 0.704. The
50% of their shares held by private individuals item-total correlations ranged from 0.35 to
and concerns. 0.79, indicating that the scale is internally
Hypothesis I: The level of consistent.
transformational leadership of the branch Results
managers in the public-sector banks and that
of the branch managers in the private-sector There was no significant difference
banks in Kolkata reveal dissimilarities. existed among the Branch Managers of
Public-sector Banks (N=60) and the Branch
Hypothesis II: Irrespective of the type of Managers of Private Sector Banks (N=60) with
bank (public and private), the nature of the respect to their transformational leadership
innovative work behaviour of the branch styles. Hence we accepted Hypothesis I, i.e.,
managers varies in terms of their levels of the level of transformational leadership of the
transformational leadership (high and low). branch managers in the public-sector banks
Hypothesis III: The nature of the and that of the branch managers in the
interrelationship between the two variables – private-sector banks in Kolkata reveal
transformational leadership and innovative dissimilarities.
work behaviour of the branch managers –
Table 1. Mean, SD and t-values of the scores obtained in each domain of the
Transformational Leadership Questionnaire by the Branch Managers of Public-sector
Banks (N=60) and Private Sector Banks (N=60).
Domain Mean(Public) SD(Public) Mean(Private) SD(Private) Value of ‘t’
Attention 17.77 1.92 17.47 1.66 0.52
Meaning 17.36 1.54 17.23 1.89 0.22
Trust 17.67 1.69 17.67 1.89 1.13
Self 17.83 1,53 17.67 1.92 1.12
Risk 17.63 2.199 17.7 1.56 1.116
Feelings 17.4 1.83 17.61 2.16 0.62
Transformational
Leadership 104.63 8.66 101.33 13.9 0.601
*p>0.01
For the verification of Hypothesis II, we
collected the data by administering the
Innovative Work Behaviour Scale. We
determined the nature of the dissimilarities
in the level of Innovative Work Behaviour of
branch managers with high levels of
transformational leadership and that of
branch managers with low levels of
transformational leadership by using the
statistical technique of ANOVA. The F ratio
indicating variation in innovative Wrok Figure 2: The Levels of Idea Generation, Idea
Behaviour as a result of variation in levels of Promotion and Idea Realization of Branch
Transformational Leadership is 131.91 (p > Managers with High and Low Levels of
0.01). With regard to domainwise scores, the Transformational Leadership
F-ratios for the domains of Idea Generation,
Idea Promotion and idea Realization are 9.9, Hence we accepted Hypothesis II, i.e.,
17.34 and 31.9 respectively (p>0.01). The irrespective of the type of bank (public and
relationship is presented in figures 1 and 2 private), the nature of the innovative work
behaviour of the branch managers varies in
terms of their levels of transformational
leadership (high and low).
For the verification of hypothesis III, the
sets of scores for the two variables, namely,
transformational leadership and innovative
work behaviour were processed for the inter-
correlation matrix. The significance of the
difference between the correlation values was
Figure 1: The Levels of Innovative Work tested using t- test. The results are shown in
Behaviour of Branch Managers with High and table 2:
Low Levels of Transformational Leadership
(High TRF and Low TRF)
Table 2. Inter correlations of Transformational leadership and innovative work

behaviour for different levels of transformational leadership (high TRF and low TRF)
Variables High Level of Low Level of R difference
Transformational Leadership Transformational Leadership
Innovative work
behaviour 0.81 0.28 1.963*
*p>0.05
Table 2 shows that the difference significantly different (Table 1). The pattern
between the inter correlations of of homogeneity in scores indicate that the
transformational leadership and innovative globalization of markets, technological
work behaviour for different levels of advancement, and innovative changes in the
transformational leadership was significant. new age banking (all affecting both the public
Hence, we accepted Hypothesis III, i.e., the and the private sector banks equally) demand
nature of the interrelationship between the almost uniform levels of transformational
two variables – transformational leadership leadership and similar patterns of job
and innovative work behaviour skills of the activities in the public and the private sector
branch managers – varies in terms of their financial institutions. Moreover, in India the
level of transformational leadership (high and banking sector (public and private alike) is
low). under the strict controls imposed by the
Discussion Reserve Bank of India. This is likely to work
Transformational leadership is a form of as a leveling factor and necessitate similar
leadership which one or more persons patterns of behaviour from the branch
engage with others in such a way that the managers of both the public and the private
leaders and the followers raise one another sector banks, especially in the domain of Risk.
to higher levels of motivation and morality Regarding Hypothesis II, the F ratios
(Burns, 1978). Transformational leaders (significant at the 0.01 level) highlighted that
provide individualized consideration and the level of Innovative Work Behaviour of the
intellectual stimulation to their subordinates, branch managers varied significantly with the
helping them to look at the old problems in level of transformational leadership of the
new ways- thereby changing their awareness branch managers (high and low) . The
of issues and inspiring them to put out extra findings are consistent with previous research
effort to achieve group goals (Robbins, in this field – notably, with the findings of Jung,
1993). Chow, and Wu (2003) –a positive relationship
The nature of the central tendency has been found between transformational
values (mean) and dispersion values (SD) for leadership and innovative endeavour. The
scores of the two sample groups (branch findings are consistent with previous research
managers of public and private sector banks in this field – notably, with the findings of
in Kolkata) for scores on the components of Howell and Higgins (1990) – charisma,
and for the total score on Transformational inspirational motivation, and intellectual
Leadership Style, showed slight differences. stimulation serve to differentiate emergent
The t-test results indicated that the level of informal leaders who take the role of product
Transformational Leadership between of champions, involving technological
branch managers in the public sector banks innovations, from those who do not play this
and the private sector banks was not role.
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Bishakha Majumdar, Project Fellow, DRS I (SAP), UGC,

Department of Applied Psychology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata
Anjali Ray,PhD, Professor, Department of Applied Psychology,
University of Calcutta, Kolkata
149

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 149-156.
An Analysis of Individualism-Collectivism Across Northern India
Shalini Duggal Jha and Kamlesh Singh

Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
The study explored the occurrence of cultural orientation in terms of individualism
– collectivism across northern India. The four places identified for the purpose of
this study differed on the level of urbanization according to the Census of India
and comprised of a metro city (Delhi), a city at the state level (Chandigarh), a
town (Rohtak) and many villages like Bohar, Kutana, Nandal and Rithal in the
state of Haryana. Results revealed that there were no significant differences on
individualistic cultural orientation across location groups. However, for collectivistic
cultural orientation it was observed that at higher urbanization levels, collectivism
level was lower (F= 41.41, p<0.001). The present research also found that in
most cases females had significantly higher scores on both individualism and
collectivism as compared to males ensuing that females have an overall larger
spectrum of cultural orientation.
Keywords: Cultural orientation, Individualism, Collectivism, Urbanization
Cultural orientation is a topic of vast research Schwartz (1990) described collectivistic

and has been studied on various dimensions societies as being communal societies
including individualism-collectivism Hofstede characterized by mutual obligations based on
(1980) defined individualism as a focus on ascribed statuses. In these societies, social
rights above duties, concern for oneself and units with common fate, common goals and
immediate family, an emphasis on personal common values are centralized; the person
autonomy and self fulfillment and the basing is simply a component of the social, making
of one’s identity on one’s personal the in group the key unit of analysis (Triandis,
accomplishment. According to Schwartz 1995).
(1990), individualistic societies are Reference of individualistic and
fundamentally contractual, consisting of collectivistic cultures may give rise to the
narrow primary groups and negotiated social impression that members of any society are
relations with obligations and expectations uniformly collectivistic or individualistic, but
focusing on achieving status. Thus this is not the case (Kashima, 1987; Sinha &
individualism is a worldview that centralizes Tripathi, 1994). It was observed by Kagitcibasi
personal goals, personal uniqueness and (1990) that collectivistic and individualistic
personal control and places on the periphery tendencies can coexist and this is likely to be
the social (Sampson, 1977; Hsu, 1983; manifested in various cultures. Also, findings
Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler & Tipton, from various studies have shown the shifting
1985; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Kagitcibasi, trend towards individualism with economic
1994; Kim, 1994; Triandis, 1995). development, urbanization and adoption of
The core element in collectivism in market economy (Gupta & Panda, 2003).
contrast to individualism is the assumption that Even in traditional collectivistic societies,
groups bind and mutually obligate individuals individualistic tendencies within a traditional
(Oyserman, Coon & Kemmelmeier, 2002). society become dominant with economic
150 Analysis of Individualism-Collectivism
growth and affluence, development of a highly can lead to micro cultures is the level of
urbanized middle class, social mobility affluence in the environment in which people
(Hofstede, 2001), introduction of modern live. One factor that has a bearing on this is
technologies (Stinchombe, 1965; Triandis, the level of urbanization. Urbanization
1973), market capitalism, competition and ultimately represents a convergence of
exposure to mass media (Beteille, 1977). specific population, environmental, economic,
With respect to Indian culture on cultural, and political forces with their
Hofstede’s (1980) postulated bipolar psychosocial consequences (Marsella,
dimension of collectivism-individualism, Indian 1998). Mishra (1994) found that less
culture was found to be inclined more towards developed and less urbanized settings with
the collectivist end. Others (Triandis & lower levels of education tended to foster
Bhawuk, 1997; Verma, 1999) have collectivist behavior. Sinha, Sinha, Verma, &
substantiated this position. Some of the highly Sinha (2001) also reported that more
endorsed characteristics indicating that developed and urbanized places were
Indians are personalized in relationships, associated with a mix of collectivist and
status conscious, power and prestige individualist behavior and intentions.
oriented, and emotional, are some of the So, differences within geographical
typical ones that are frequently attributed to locations in India in terms of collectivism and
them (Sinha, 1990) and hold more weightage individualism appear to be becoming
as compared to their being individualists. prominent. While, under the influence of
However another perspective advocates the intense global marketing (e.g., McDonalds,
coexistence of the two dimensions among Nike), communication (e.g., BBC, MTV), and
Indians. For example, Tripathi (1988) migration/travel the world may be becoming
observed that the Indian form of collectivism more and more similar in terms of values
is unique as it contains a strong streak of (Oishi, Hahn, Schimmack, Radhakrishan,
individualism. Similarly, Sinha and Tripathi Dzokoto, and Ahadi 2005), but in regions
(1994) also reported that Indians are both within India where the penetration of these
collectivists and individualists at the same forces may not be so strong, the differences
time and Verma (2001) found that college in terms of values etc. may be more
students were collectivistic in social pronounced. This research thus aims to study
interactions and individualistic in personal what kind of cultural orientation in terms of
matters. Similarly, Sinha, Sinha, Verma and individualism-collectivism exists in the minds
Sinha, (2001) noted that Indians combine of Indians in the current social context. It was
both orientations in a complex way that the hypothesized that individualism – collectivism
bipolarity of individualism and collectivism is would show significant differences across
not able to explain. location/ places of residence and between
Demographic variables also have a male and female participants.
bearing on the kind of cultural orientation Method
possessed. The type of city/ country that an Participants:
individual lives in irrespective of his/her
ethnicity affects the above mentioned A total sample of 400 students was taken
variables. An individual may be from a city from various colleges in the different
but through the process of acculturation or locations/places of residence that differed on
assimilating into one’s cultural background the level of urbanization. In North India, four
one may learn the set of norms expected in a levels of locations/ places of residence were
particular culture. An aspect of salience that identified on the basis of urbanization levels.
Shalini Duggal Jha and Kamlesh Singh 151
According to Census of India (2001a.), the were identified in all these places and a few
definition of urban area includes , All statutory were chosen randomly. Male and female
places with a municipality, corporation, college students were then chosen randomly
cantonment board, or notified town area from these colleges and put in the categories
committee etc., A place fulfilling the following decided. For example, data collected from the
three criteria simultaneously, A minimum students, who commuted daily from villages
population of 5,000, At least 75% of male around Rohtak for pursuing their under
working population engaged in non graduation, were part of the village category;
agricultural pursuits; and a density of data collected from students who were from
population of at least 4000 persons per Rohtak town and other notified urban areas
square kilometer. A town with a population of (as mentioned above) were put in the small
100,0000 and above is called a city town category and so on. The sample
Using this as a basis, four different consisted of 100 participants (50 male and
locations at each level were chosen randomly. 50 female) from each location. The range of
These included villages in district Rohtak and age was 17-24 years. Mean age and SD =
Rohtak town at the villages and small town at 19.16 ± 1.16 years.
district level respectively, both taken from the Measures:
state of Haryana. The union territory of The individualism–collectivism scale
Chandigarh (state capital of Haryana) was (Triandis, 1995): It is a 32-item measure of
taken as a city at state level and the union collectivism and individualism. Originally it
territory of Delhi (national capital) was taken provides a score on 4 dimensions namely
as a metropolitan city. According to the vertical individualism, vertical collectivism,
Census of India (2001a.) pronounced urban horizontal individualism and horizontal
characteristics of the union territory of Delhi collectivism. 8 unique items are used to
are evident through the fact that 93.6% of assess each dimension. For the purpose of
the population in Delhi is residing in urban this research, the 16 items for vertical and
areas. According to Census of India (2001b.) horizontal collectivism were combined to
union territory of Chandigarh is essentially provide a comprehensive score of
an urban territory where 9 out of 10 (89.7%) collectivism and the 16 items of vertical and
of persons are urban by residence. horizontal individualism were added to provide
Rohtak from the state of Haryana was a comprehensive score on individualism. For
taken up for study in this research. According collectivism some of the typical items in the
to, Census of India (2001c) the state of scale are (e.g. If a coworker gets a prize, I
Haryana is predominantly rural as seen from would feel proud; I would do what would
the fact that 71.1% of the population lives in please my family, even if I detested that
rural areas. The more urban areas like activity), and for individualism these are (e.g.
Rohtak town with a total population of 294,577 one should live one’s life independently of
Maham with a total population of 18,174, others; it is important to me that I do my job
Kalanuar, with a total population of 16,853, better than others). Respondents are asked
and other notified urban areas were taken to to rate the extent of their agreement to these
comprise ‘Rohtak Town’ and villages like items across a 9-point Likert-type scale
Bohar, Garhi, Majra, Kutana, Nandal and ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 9
Rithal were taken to comprise ‘villages around (strongly agree). Scores on each of the sets
Rohtak’. of 16 items are added to give two total scores
As the next step, colleges with courses for individualism and collectivism. The
like B.A., B.Com., B.Sc. and B. Tech. courses constructs were found to have high internal
consistency in the current study (á = 0.70 collectivism as compared to male students.

individualism, á =0.87 collectivism). To test significance between place of
Results residence and its interaction with gender, four
Table1 shows means and standard (places of residence) x two (gender) MANOVA
eviations for the dimensions of cultural was conducted. There was a significant
orientation across locations/ places of difference in collectivism based on place of
residence and across gender. There were no residence (F= 41.41, p<0.001). In the
significant differences found between male interaction between location/ place of
and female students on cultural orientation residence and gender, a significant difference
in the villages and small town. In the sample was found on individualism. Post hoc tests
from Chandigarh, females were found to be were carried out using Tukey’s HSD. The
significantly higher on collectivism (t= 2.40, results also reveal the differences between
p<0.05). In Delhi, females were higher on both places of residence using Tukey’s HSD (p<
individualism (t= 3.24, p<0.01) and 0.05). It was found that students from the
collectivism (t=2.50, P<0.05). For the overall villages and Rohtak were significantly higher
sample also, females were found to be on collectivism as compared to students from
significantly higher (t= 3.44, p<0.001) on the Chandigarh and Delhi.
Table 1. Cultural orientation- differences between male and female students across places
of residence
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001; for Delhi, Chandigarh, Rohtak and villages: n males= 50, n females
= 50; for total: n males= 200, n females = 200
Discussion
Table 2. Comparison between location/
places of residence based on cultural This research work tried to explore and
orientation: post hoc tests understand how cultural orientation varies
Cultural Place of Subsets across regions in North India with respect to
orientation residence urbanization. It was observed that for
Individualism Villages 94.14 individualism, there was no difference among
Rohtak 98.13 locations/ places of residence. With respect
Chandigarh 98.97 to collectivism, villages and Rohtak were
Delhi 99.36 significantly higher as compared to
Collectivism Chandigarh and Delhi. Looking at the
Chandigarh 105.82 difference gender wise, it was seen that on
Delhi 108.10 individualism, females scored higher in Delhi
Rohtak 125.70 and on collectivism, females were significantly
Villages 130.92 higher in the Chandigarh, Delhi and overall.
*p<0.05
Interaction effects between gender and Sinha and Tripathi (1994) found that Indian
location were seen for individualism. This culture is neither predominantly individualist
implies that even though individualism is nor collectivistic but incorporates blends of
present in all locations and no differences are both.
obtained in its level of occurrence, collectivism In other research that reported similar
has higher presence in villages and Rohtak. findings, Verma (2001) found that Indian
Also females show a greater orientation students preferred to be collectivistic in social
towards collectivism overall. interactions and in matters concerning the
So, the complex plurality of individualism pleasure of friends and seniors and in
– collectivism in Indian thoughts and behavior maintaining family ties. In situations with direct
as suggested by Radhakrishnan and Moore reference to their personal and individual
(1954) appears to hold true in the current causes, they preferred to take an
research work as well. However, according individualistic stance. Kapoor, Hughes,
to Bharati (1985), the new does not always Baldwin, and Blue, (2003) also found results
replace the old, nor does it cause any that while Indians rated themselves as being
discomfort in the minds of Indians. Earlier more collectivistic, they also rated themselves
research that supports these findings as more dramatic and more individualistic.
includes work by Sinha, (1988) who noted that Similarly, Ghosh (2004) found the existence
the Indian Psyche is characterized by high of both types of orientations among Indians
tolerance for dissonance and disparate students. More support was seen in Naidoo
elements can exist without synthesis. Further and Mahabeer’s (2006) research work who
he stated that collectivism in Indian behavior found that Indians favored integration of
is a manifestation of the Indian psyche and is ancestral collectivistic and western
expressed as a blend of both tendencies. It individualistic values, expressed selectivity to
is a kind if individualistic collectivism. western values, and wanted to embrace
It was also observed that among females western education, careers and opportunity
in Delhi, there was both higher individualism but wanted to retain core collectivist family
and higher collectivism as compared to males. values.
An interesting observation by Tripathi (1988) In the current research work no sample
appears to complement this finding. He group showed only individualistic tendencies.
observed that the Indian form of collectivism Collectivism was present across locations.
is unique as it contains a strong streak of This finding is supported by a similar study
individualism. He observed that in Indian conducted by Sinha Vohra, Singhal, Sinha,
society individualism and collectivism are like and Ushashree (2002), on individualism and
figure and ground and depending upon the collectivism in India that was conducted in 5
situation one rises into the foreground and locations that differed in terms of
the other recedes into the background. He infrastructural facilities. They found that better
said that the situation and characteristics of facilities lead people to combine individualistic
the person determine the boundary of the self tendencies with collectivistic behavior or use
which can be extended in which case the collectivistic means to realize individualistic
individual acts in an individualistic fashion. In ends and that people refrained from being
another situation the boundaries of the self totally individualistic.
may get totally merged with the in-group to Similarly, in the current research it was
produce collectivism. seen that collectivism was higher in the
The coexistence of the two orientations villages and Rohtak. Also, individualism was
was also reported by Dalal (1988). Similarly, seen to be higher among women in Delhi.
This could be attributed to greater collectivistic behavior. The observed

urbanization and impact of globalization in differences in individualism-collectivism are
these places. Similar results were found by thus caused by a group’s economic
Roland, (1988) who discovered a strong circumstances and people living in poverty
streak of individualized self among the are more likely to pool whatever scarce
urbanized educated Indians which he argued resources are available than those living
was the product of urbanization, under more prosperous circumstances
westernization and industrialization. It can be To sum up the findings on individualism
said that urban life offers residents a broader – collectivism as seen in this research, both
and more varied mix of intellectual and cultural orientations are shown to exist among all
stimulation, economic opportunity and sample groups. However collectivist
personal choice in pursuing various social orientation was seen more among the student
roles and relations and moral options sample groups from the villages and Rohtak
including options for money, opportunity, as compared to the other two places. Also
freedom, excitement, diversity, intellectual individualism was seen to be higher among
stimulation, improved public utilities and the sample group of female students from
services, transportation facilities, accessibility Delhi. Gender variation was also seen with
to health care services and multicultural females showing higher collectivism scores
(Marsella, 1991). than male students. It can be said that the
Findings similar to the current research hypothesis regarding cultural orientation for
were reported by Mishra (1994) who found significant differences across location/ places
that the younger, urban and more educated of residence and for gender were partially
participants tended to be less collectivistic proved.
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Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, E-mail: [email protected]
Kamlesh Singh, PhD, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian
Institute of Technology, Delhi, E-mail: [email protected]
157

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 157-162.
Information Technology (Internet):

Effects on Social Participation and Well-Being of Users
Radhey Shyam and Amit Bhoria

Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak. Haryana
Use of internet is rapidly increasing in the developing countries like India. Evidence
concerning the social and psychological effects of the internet is mixed. Present
study examined the effect of internet use on social participation and well-being
of users. A sample of 120 internet users selected from various cyber cafes,
organizations and houses in Rohtak, Gurgaon (Haryana) and Chandigarh, through
personal contact. Age of subjects ranged from 17 years to 32 years. To achieve
the objectives of the study an ex-post facto study design was used. First of all
internet addiction scale was administered to 120 internet users. The subjects
were divided in three groups viz, high addiction, moderate addiction and low
addiction on the basis of their scores on the test. The subjects in all the three
groups were then administered checklists for assessing the effect on social life
and well-being. The design for second phase of the study was a multigroup
design. In addition to the elementary statistics i.e. mean, standard deviation
(SD), the data were analyzed following inferential statistical tests i.e. t-test and
one way analyses of variance. Duncan’s post-hoc test was used for group
comparisons. Results revealed that internet use has significant adverse effect
on social participation and well-being of the users.
Keywords: Internet, Social participation, Well-being.
Our world today has changed a great deal in the form of an international computing/
with the aid of information technology. Things telecommunication networks, known as the
that were once done manually or by hand Internet and it has potential to change human
have now become computerized and requires culture and civilization as did others, e.g.
a single click of a mouse to get a task telephone in the early part of 20th century and
completed. Information technology now television in 1950’s and 1960’s. Internet can
touches almost every aspect of life and has rightly be termed as the world information
become the backbone for backbone, which is currently estimated to be
telecommunications, finance, governance, increasing at a rate of 25% per month (Suri
health care, and education (Gattiker & Kelly, & Chhabra,2002).
1997; United Nations, 1999). Information Internet has exerted a powerful impact
Technology is the latest medium for on the lives of the people at large. People
comprehending the facts and expressing can use computers and internet in many
ideas. This miraculous discipline has blessed different ways and for diverse purpose
the modern world with a wonderful tool to including entertainment, education,
unearth hidden knowledge, gather scattered information retrieval and communication
information and search for new wisdom. It (Wallace,1999). The main reason people use
helps one getting enriched and enlightened
the internet is to communicate with other
in all brands of knowledge, without much
people over e-mail and the principal reason
trouble, a little effort brings great results.
why people send e-mail messages to others
(Ahmed, 2003). This new technology come
158 Effects on Social Participation and Well-Being
is to maintain interpersonal relationships engagement and social participation in the

(Hampton & Wellman 2001). The primary United States and attributed it to the internet.
motives for using the internet include Nie and Erbring’s (2002) reported that
information seeking (Katz & Aspden, 1997) internet use heavily influenced people’s social
and fulfilling interpersonal needs life as well as other activities. Specifically, the
(Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000), seeking more time people spent online, the more likely
information about health (Bernhardt, Mcclain it was that they spent less time with family
& Parrott, 2004). While we are admiring the and friends, talking with family and friends on
conveniences and advantages brought by the phone, attending events outside home.
the internet, there is growing concern about Siwach (2006) also reported harmful effect
problematic internet use and whether this can of internet on personal and social life of the
lead to an addiction. In psychological field, users. Some people ignore their work, study,
the concept “Internet addiction” has been and other social responsibilities due to
used to explain uncontrollable and damaging excessive use of Internet (Thatcher &
use of the internet, (Sally,2006). Internet Goolam, 2005). Internet has negative impact
addiction disorder (IAD) is the term first on friendships and family relationship and
proposed by Goldberg (1996) for increase loneliness, depression and
pathological, compulsive internet usage. aggression (Yaberra, 2004). Dependents
Young (1998) has described a syndrome were found to delay other work and lose of
called ‘Internet Addiction’, which consist of sleep due to late night logons (Nalwa &
spending an inordinate amount of time on the Anand, 2003; Bulck, 2004). Some other
internet and inability to control online use. researchers didn’t find that the Internet use
There is controversy in the research literature would lead to decrease of psychological well-
about whether use of the internet increases being -being” seems to be too liberal, but
or decreases user’s social participation and reported negative relationship between
the psychological and health benefits people Internet use and psychological well-being
generally receive from this participation? (Subrahmanyam, Kraut, Greenfield, & Gross,
Some researcher claim that using the internet 2000; Weiser, 2001; Whitty & Mclaughlin,
leads to the emergence of new social circle 2005). There are few studies which failed to
and the development of deep and long- find harmful effects of internet use. Yet
lasting social relationship on-line ( Mckenna, findings of the available researches were
Green, & Gleason, 2002), and augment suggestive of the importance of such studies.
involvement in existing communities by Therefore considering the relative paucity of
providing new social spaces for such studies, present study was designed to
communication (Wellman, Haase, Witte, & assess the effect of internet use on social
Hampton, 2001). participation and well-being of users.
Several studies have reported that Objectives:
internet has adverse effect on social life and i. To study the effect of internet on the
well-being of the users e.g. Kraut, Patterson, social participation of users.
Lundmark, Kiesler, Mukophadhyay, and ii. To study the effect of internet on the
Scherlis (1998) reported that greater use of well-being of the users.
the internet was associated with decline in
participants communication with family Hypotheses
members in the household, decline in the size To achieve the objectives of the study
of the social circle and increase in their the following hypotheses were formulated
depression and loneliness. Putnam (1995) i. Internet will have significant adverse
also reported a broad decline in civic impact on the social participation of the users.
Radhey Shyam and Amit Bhoria 159
ii. Internet will have significant adverse family, 5 items (item number 5,6,7,8,9) were
impact on the well-being of the users. relating to friends, 5 items (item number
Method 10,11,12,13,14) were relating to social
participation. For item number 1,3,6,10,12,
Design: there were five response categories (0-15
To achieve the objectives of the study minute,15-30 minute, 30-60 minute, 60-120
an ex-post facto study design was used. minute, and more than 120 minute) and the
Sample: score ranged from 1 (0-15 minute) to 5 for
(more than 120 minute). For item number 2,9
In present study a sample of 120 internet and 11 there were six response alternative
users was selected from various cyber cafes, (1-2 days, 3-4 days, 5-6 days, 7-8 days, 9-
organizations and houses in Rohtak, 10 days, more than 10 days). And scores
Gurgaon and Chandigarh (India) through ranged from 1 (1-2 days) to 6 (more than 10
personal contact. Age of subjects ranged from days) and for item number 4, 13, and 14 there
17 years to 32 years. Internet addiction scale were 5 alternative (Very low, low, uncertain,
(Young, 1998) was administered to 120 much very much) and the scores ranged from
participants. On the basis of scores all the 1 (very low) to 5 for (very much). For item
subjects were divided in three groups’ viz. Low number 7 and 8 there were seven response
internet users (N= 21), moderate internet alternative (1-day, 2-day, 3-day,4-day, 5-day,
users (N=74), and high internet users (N=25). 6-day and Daily) and the scores ranged from
Tools: 1 (1day) to 7 for (Daily). For item number 5
Internet Addiction Scale (Young, 1998): there were five response option (0-1, 2-4, 5-
It was used for assessing internet addiction. 8, 9-12, more than) and the score ranged
It consists of 20 items. It is a self reporting from 1(0-1) to 5 for (more than). The scores
five point scale i.e., (1) not at all, (2) rarely, of 14 items were added to get a composite
(3) occasionally, (4) often, (5) always. Scores score for impact on social participation. Low
ranged from 1 to 5, score-1 for not at all, 2 scores indicate greater adverse effect on
for rarely, 3 for occasionally, 4 for often and personal life and social participation.
5 for always. Total score may range from 20 Results and Discussion
to 100. On the basis of scores the users can Table-1 revealed that the mean score
be categorized in the following three on family participation before starting internet
categories: Minimal users (scores 20 to 39), use was 13.05 (SD= 2.39) and 11.17
Moderate users (scores 40 to 69), and (SD= 2.68) after starting internet use. The t-
Excessive users (scores 70 to 100). value for differences between two means was
P.G.I. General Well-being Measure: It 8.03 which was found to be significant at .01
was developed by Verma and Verma (1989). level. Mean score on friendly activities was
It consists with 20 items to be endorsed in 13.75 (SD=4.95) before starting internet use
Yes (Ö ) or No (X) format. A score of 1 is given and 10.65 (SD= 4.19) after starting internet
for ‘Yes’ and 0 for ‘No’ response. The scores use. The t-value was found to be 7.92 which
range 0 to 20, high score indicate better well- was significant at .01 level. Obtained mean
being. before starting internet use was 12.73 (SD=
A check list for assessing impact of 2.88) and after internet use was 11.31
internet use on social participation: It was (SD=2.81) on social participation variable. It
prepared with 14items which were related to was found to be significantly different (t= 6.87,
the impact of internet use on the social df= 119, p<.01). The respondents scored
participation of the users. There were 4 items significantly (t= 11.47, df = 119, p<.01) high
(item number 1,2,3,4,) relating to impact on score on well-being before starting internet
Table 1. Mean and SD of scores on Family Participation, Friendly

and Social Participation and Wellbeing, and t values of users for
before and after internet use (n=120)
Variable Categories Mean SD ‘t’
Family Before internet use 13.05 2.39 8.03**
Participation After internet use 11.17 2.68
Friendly Before internet use 13.75 4.95 7.92**
Activities After internet use 10.65 4.19
Social Before internet use 12.73 2.88 6.87**
Participation After internet use 11.31 2.81
Well-being Before internet use 16.43 2.87 11.47**
After internet use 14.05 3.42
**p<0.01
use (Mean= 16.43, SD= 2.87) than that of on social participation. Results revealed that
after starting internet internet use (Mean= the mean score of three groups differ
14.05, SD=3.47). It indicates that internet had significantly (F= 6.07, df = 2, 117, p<.01). It
a significant and adverse effect on well-being indicates that there is a significant difference
of the users. in three categories on social participation.
Post-hoc comparisons revealed that the low
To check the impact of internet use on
internet users group had significantly higher
family participation, friendly activities, social
score on social participation than the group
participation and well being of high, moderate
of high internet users. Similarly the average
and low users, one way ANOVA with Duncan’s
internet users also scored significantly higher
post-hoc test was computed. Results
on social participation than the high internet
revealed that the low users group obtained a
users. However, the low internet users and
mean of 13.04 (SD= 1.98), average internet average internet users did not differ
users group got a mean of 11.17 (SD=2.58) significantly in their scores on social
and high internet users group obtained a participation.
mean of 9.60 (SD= 2.53) on family
participation. These mean score of three Mean and SD of high, average and low
groups differ significantly (F= 10.99, df = 2, users categories on well-being. The high
117, p<.01). It indicates that there is a users group obtained a mean of 11.08 (SD =
significant difference in three categories on 2.49), average internet users group got a
family participation variable. Post-hoc mean of 14.43 (SD= 3.21) and low internet
comparisons revealed that the low internet users group obtained a mean of 16.23 (SD =
users group had significantly higher scores 2.84) on well-being. Results revealed that
on family participation than the group of these mean score of three groups differ
average users and high internet users. significantly (F=18.22, df = 2, 117, p<.01). It
Average internet users group had indicates that there is a significant difference
significantly higher scores on family in the well-being of three categories of users.
participation than high users but lower scores Post-hoc comparisons (Table-2) using
from low internet users group. Duncan’s test revealed that the low internet
users group had significantly higher scores
Results shows that the low internet users on well-being than the group of average users
group got a mean of 11.87(SD= 2.32), and high internet users. Average internet
average internet users group obtained a users group had significantly higher scores
mean of 11.7 (SD = 2.66), and high internet on well-being than high users but lower scores
users group got a mean of 9.64 (SD = 3.10) from low internet users.
Radhey Shyam and Amit Bhoria 161
Findings of the study revealed that the broad decline in civic engagement and social
internet use has had significant effect on the participation in the United States and
user’s life. About twenty one percent of the attributed it to the internet. Nie and Erbring’s
sample falls in the high internet users (2002) reported that Internet use heavily
category and these are the person who have influenced people’s social life as well as other
significant life problems associated with the activities. The more time people spent online,
use. It is more than the five percent incidence the more likely it was that they spent less time
reported by Singh, Shyam and Siwach (2003) with family and friends, talking with family and
taking sample from metropolitan and friends on the phone, attending events
suburban areas from India and ten percent outside home. In an Indian study on a small
by Wallace (1999) taking population from sample Siwach, (2006) also reported harmful
European sample, however it is less than sixty effect of internet on personal and social life
eight and thirty percent reported respectively of the users. Some people ignore their work,
by Young (1998) and Brenner (1996). It is study, and other social responsibilities due
not that the percent of people having life to excessive use of internet (Thatcher &
problems associated with internet, rather it is Goolam, 2005). Internet has negative impact
the increasing trend which reflect the on friendships and family relationship and
seriousness of problem. increase loneliness, depression and
As far as the effect of internet use on aggression (Yaberra, 2004). Some
social participation (family participation, researcher reported negative relationship
friendly activities and social participation) and between internet use and psychological well-
well-being of the users is concerned the being (Subrahmanyam, Kraut, Greenfield,
findings of the study revealed that there was and Gross, 2000; Weiser, 2001; Whitty &
a significant adverse effect. It was found that Mclaughlin, 2005).
there was a significant difference between two Though significant, yet the results of the
phases (before internet use and after internet study need to be generalized cautiously as
use) on family participation, friendly activities the sample included was taken incidentally
and social participation. Significant reduction and the tool used for effect on social
was found in the time devoted to family participation was not a standardized tool and
activities, friendly activities and social therefore the findings need to be verified on
activities due to internet use. When we talk a larger sample. Despite the limitations, the
about the well-being, finding of the study study points towards the harmful effect of the
show the adverse effect of internet use on technology and we must think of the ways and
the well-being of the users, low internet users means to counter these well in advance.
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Radhey Shyam, PhD, Professor, Department of Psychology, Maharshi
Dayanand University,Rohtak.Haryana, Email:[email protected]
Amit Bhoria, M. Phil. student, Department of Psychology, Maharshi Dayanand
University, Rohtak. Haryana, Email: [email protected]
163

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 163-168.
Personality Correlates of Loneliness
Shreya Nayyar and Bhupinder Singh

Barkatullah University, Bhopal
The present attempts to investigate the relationship of loneliness with some
important personality dimensions of young adults. For this purpose, a sample
of 100 students, 50 males and 50 females with mean age 22.2 years and SD
0.66, were administered revised UCLA –Loneliness Scale. 60 students (30 males
and 30 females) who had a high score on loneliness were further assessed on
the measures of Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire (Revised), Rotter’s
internal-External Scale, and IPAT- Anxiety Scale Questionnaire. It was broadly
conjectured that there would be significant relationships between loneliness
and extraversion, neuroticism, anxiety and locus of control. Data was processed
using correlational analysis. The results obtained provided support to the
hypotheses proposed in the study.
The pervasiveness of loneliness as a theme deficient in some important way, either

in poetry, fiction and drama attests to its qualitatively or quantitatively; can be linked
importance in human experience. Countless to anxiety, reduced social competence, and
authors have offered passing insights and suicide risk (Cacioppo, Hawkley, Crawford,
also provided illuminating descriptions of Burleson, & Kowalewski, 2002). Mijuskovic
feelings of loneliness, and agony associated (1977) viewed loneliness as a universal
with loneliness. condition of man who is intrinsically alone and
To date, the experts have not agreed lost. The definition used in most of the recent
upon definition of loneliness. There is, research and used as basis for the popular
however, a general consensus among UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell, Peplau &
researchers about the inevitability of Cutrona, 1980) has emphasized cognitive and
loneliness (Medora & Woodward, 1986). emotional components. The cognitive aspect
Thomas Wolfe (1941), an American novelist, is the person’s conclusion that he or she has
in his book ‘The Anatomy of Loneliness’, fewer or less initial social relationships than
writes “The whole conviction o f my life now desired or expected. Furthermore, this
rests upon the belief that loneliness, far from conclusion is associated with negative
being a rare and curious phenomenon, emotional tone ranging from mild discomfort
peculiar to myself and to a few other solitary to intense pain (Fromm-Reichmann, 1959).
men, is the central and inevitable fact of Thus, there is a general consensus among
human existence”. researchers that when speaking of loneliness,
what becomes immediately evident in the
In general, loneliness is a psychological individual is a forlorn subjective experience
mode caused by the weakness of personal of emptiness and loss. The nostalgic longing
communication and socialization skills (Arnett, for closeness with the people he or she loves
2007). Loneliness, a common psychological is a typical trait for every young adult.
problem, is typically defined as the
unpleasant experience that occurs when a Over the past two decades, social,
person’s network of social relationships is economic, and demographic changes have
164 Personality Correlates of Loneliness
altered the life course trajectories of young 19 years participated in the study. Results
people between their late teens and twenties. showed loneliness to be positively related to
There have been changing trends in the state related and trait related anxiety, an
transition to adulthood and roles of individuals external locus of control, depression, self-
especially during early adulthood. Though the consciousness and social anxiety and
period of young adulthood may vary across negatively related to self reported
various cultural groups, it is generally attractiveness, likeability, happiness and life
regarded as the age of instability; the most satisfaction. Lonely adolescents were also
self-focused age of life; the age of feeling in- willing to take social risks. Upmanyu,
between, in transition; and the age of Upmanyu, and Dhingra (1992) studied
possibilities, when people have an loneliness among adolescents in relation to
unparalleled opportunity to transform their personality and cognitive measures.
lives and establishing occupations,. During Loneliness correlated positively and
these years, young people become less significantly with hopelessness and negatively
dependent on their parents and become with locus of control and extraversion. The
gradually an adult. In addition, they must relationship revealed that male adolescents
develop the social skills. These with internal locus of control, less social
developmental tasks may bring “loneliness” contact and higher amount of hopelessness
which is very influential on emerging adults’ were significantly more lonely.
daily life in its wake. Thus, the review of literature reveals that
Seligson (1983), however, referred to there are quite a few studies available which
loneliness as, “one of the least satisfactorily explore the relationship between loneliness
conceptualized psychological phenomenon” and personality traits in adolescents. But
and explain the paucity of research in this loneliness in young adulthood has not been
area by the failure of the scientific community studied extensively. There are only a few
to recognize loneliness as a separate and studies which investigate the relationship
unique psychological entity. Loneliness has between emerging adults’ loneliness and
been linked to poor social skills (Deniz et al, personality traits. Suh, Diener, Oishi, and
2005), poor interpersonal relationships, low Triandis (1998) found the two of the Big Five
self-esteem (Peplau & Perlman, 1982), dimensions, neuroticism and extraversion to
shyness (Jones, Rose & Russell, 1990), and be most related to adults’ loneliness. Cheng
poor social adjustment (Jones and Carpenter, and Furnam (2002), in their study, found that
1986). Lonely participants have shown to be psychoticism was a direct predictor of
less extraverted (Hojat, 1980; Russell et al, loneliness. In a study, Xueqing (2008)
1980), to be more anxious, depressed and examined 281 female impoverished students
neurotic (Shepherd and. Edelmann, 2005; and 145 non-impoverished students.
Russell et al, 1980; Hojat, 1982). Lonely Correlative analysis showed significant
people experience subjective distress negative correlation between extraversion
because they perceive themselves as being and loneliness, while a significant positive
alone and cut off and they evaluate their correlation between psychoticism, neuroticism
social relationships as deficient. This leads and loneliness. Atak (2009) in his study
to high levels of anxiety and finally to examined association between Big Five
alienation from society. personality traits and loneliness among
Moore and Schultz (1983) examined Turkish Emerging adults. Correlational
loneliness in adolescents. 45 male and 54 analysis showed that three Big Five
female adolescents in the age range of 14- personality dimensions which are neuroticism
Shreya Nayyar and Bhupinder Singh 165
(positively) and Extraversion and Tools:

Agreeableness (negatively) are moderately Revised UCLA-Loneliness Scale
correlated with emerging adults’ loneliness. (Russell, Peplau & Cutrona, 1980): It is a 20-
Regression analysis showed Extraversion, item instrument designed to measure self-
Agreeableness and Neuroticism are most reported experiences and behaviours
important predictors of emerging adults’ theoretically related to loneliness. The scale
loneliness. includes 10 positively worded items and 10
Our society’s emphasis on self fulfillment negatively worded items. Respondents
and achievement, the importance we attach indicate on a 4-point scale ranging from never
to close relationships and a decline in stable (1) to often (4) how often each statement is
close relationships, are the reasons true for them. The scale yields a single score
loneliness is common today. Loneliness and reflecting self-report of current loneliness.
personality traits are, thus, important study Russell et al (1980) reported a good reliability
areas of psychology literature. As a result, (>.90) for the test. Upmanyu et al (1992), in
the present study modestly looks into the a study with adolescent sample, reported
relationship of young adults’ loneliness with Cronbach alpha of .90.
some important Eysenckian personality Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-
dimensions, anxiety and locus of control. Revised (Eysenck, Eysenck & Barrett, 1975).
On the basis of theoretical analysis and It comprises of four dimensions, namely,
relevant review of literature, it was psychoticism(P), extraversion (E), neuroticism
hypothesized that: (N) and lie scale (L). The test-retest
1. There will be a negative relationship reliabilities of EPQ-R are quite favourable,
between loneliness and extraversion; lying between .80 to .90.
2. There will be a positive relation Internal-External Scale (Rotter, 1954): It

between loneliness and neuroticism; is a forced choice questionnaire consisting
of 29 items having two options each. The
3. There will be a positive relation scale includes six filler items and remaining
between loneliness and psychoticism; 23 items assess the extent to which subjects
4. There will be a positive relation believe reinforcement is contingent on
between loneliness and anxiety; and individual’s action. Test retest reliabilities
5. There will be a positive relationship range from .49 to .61 for 2 months and .60 to
between loneliness and external locus of .83 for 1-month intervals (Rotter, 1966).
control. IPAT Self Analysis Anxiety Scale
Method Questionnaire (Cattell & Scheier, 1963): It
comprises of 40 items distributed among five
Sample: anxiety-measuring factors according to each
A sample of 100 students, 50 males and personality components’ centrality as a
50 females, in the age group of 22 to 24 years source or expression of anxiety. The five
participated in the study. The mean age of dimensions measured in the test are
the group was 22.2 years with a SD of 0.66. defective integration (Q3), ego weakness (C),
The sample was randomly selected from the paranoid insecurity (L), guilt proneness (O),
different departments of Panjab University, and frustration tension (Q4). Each question
Chandigarh. has three alternative answers. Any single item
contributes to only one of the five
components.
Results and Discussion Individuals high on loneliness manifest

The results depict a significant negative feelings of unworthiness, guilt, proneness to
correlation of -0.28 (p<.05) between emotionality, tension, irritability and jitteriness.
measures of loneliness and extraversion. Such individuals score high on frustration
Lonely people may have less rewarding tension. Thus, this interferes with
interpersonal contacts and interactions with interpersonal relations and lead to a relational
others and may have less extensive social deficit. In a study, Long and Martin (1998)
networks from which they receive support. found that anxious personalities were more
Therefore, extraversion may influence likely to be lonely. Moore and Schultz (1983)
loneliness negatively by allowing more examined loneliness at adolescence and the
effective use of social support as a coping results showed loneliness to be positively
strategy (Caspi, 2000). Atak (2009) in his related to state and trait anxiety, self
study found a significant correlation of -0.18 consciousness and social anxiety.
Table 1. Correlation between Personality dimensions, Anxiety and Locus of control

E N P External TotalAnxiety Q3 C L O Q4
Locus of
Control
Loneliness -.28* .37** .18 -.23* .42** .34** .49** .26* .35** .39**
* p<.05; ** p<.01
between extraversion and loneliness. Many Results further show that there exists a
researches reveal that lonely participants positive correlation of 0.18 between loneliness
have shown to be less extraverted (Hojat, and psychoticism. Psychoticism refers to
1982; Russell et al., 1980). behaviour that is impersonal, hostile and anti-
Neuroticism is significantly associated social. A high scorer on psychoticism is
with loneliness, yielding a correlation described as an isolated and solitary
coefficient of 0.37 (p<.01) between individual, who is hostile to others, is
neuroticism and loneliness. The general aggressive even to loved ones and who
nature of neuroticism is assessed as sufficiently lacks in feeling and empathy. High
emotional instability, inadaptability, apathy and aggression is likely to repel or
depressive moods, weak dependable force away those individuals who are capable
attitudes, guilt proneness, worry and lack of of providing social support. It, thus, leads to
optimism. People who score high on a feeling of relational deficit. Cheng and
neuroticism, thus, may be expected to Furnam (2002), in their study, found that
describe higher level of loneliness. As regards psychoticism was a direct predictor of
this expectation, it was found that people loneliness.
higher in neuroticism experienced more Loneliness has also been found to be
negative emotions in a longitudinal study significantly correlated with anxiety. The
(Deiner & Deiner, 1995). In a study correlation between loneliness and total
conducted by Atak (2009), a significant anxiety is 0.42 which is significant at .01 level.
correlation of 0.28 was found between The correlation of loneliness with different
neuroticism and loneliness. Suh, et al (1998) dimensions of anxiety scale questionnaire
also found one of the Big Five dimensions, (defective integration, ego weakness,
that is, neuroticism to be most related to paranoid insecurity, guilt proneness, and
adults’ loneliness. frustration tension) ranges from 0.26 to 0.49.
Shreya Nayyar and Bhupinder Singh 167
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Shreya Nayyar, Department of Psychology, Barkatullah University,

Bhopal.Email: [email protected]
Bhupinder Singh, PhD, Department of Psychology, Barkatullah University,
Bhopal.
169

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 169-178.
Love Types, Psychological Well-Being and Self-Concept
Bahman Kord Tamini, Fereshteh Bakhshi Bojhd, and Sepideh Yazdani

University of Sistan and Baluchestan.
The present study examines the relationships of love dimensions, well-being
and self-concept of Sistan and Baluchestan University employees. The sample
size of this research consists of 138 employees (88 male and 50 female) that
were selected at random. The Triangular Love Scale, Psychological Well-Being
Questionnaire and Self-concept Scale were applied to collect the data. The
results revealed that there was found a significant positive correlation between
personal growth and commitment, and also autonomy had a positive significant
with passion, but negative and significant correlation was emerged between
positive relationship with others sub-scale and passion. Moreover, results
illustrated that feeling of shame and guilt sub-scale had positive and significant
correlation with intimacy, passion, and commitment dimensions. Abilities, self-
acceptance, present, past and future, and total scores of self-concept
significantly were correlated with commitment dimension. The results of One
Way ANOVA illustrated that young employees obtained more scores on intimacy,
passion and commitment dimensions in comparison to middle age employees
and also young employees showed higher mean scores in comparison to adult
employees on commitment dimension.
Keywords: Love Types, Well-Being, Self-Concept.
Psychologists introduce the love as a basic Branscombe, Byrne and Bhardwaj, 2010).
and positive emotion, but they are not in Sternberg (1986) provided a triangular model
agreement with a common viewpoint about of love and he believes that each love
its concept and types. Cultural psychologists relationship is composed of three basic
more emphasized on love and there is seen dimensions that are present in varying
some cultural differences about the concept degrees in different couples. One dimension
of love and moreover love meaning varying is intimacy, the closeness two people feel and
from a historical era to another age. Freud the strength of the bond that holds them
defines the psychological health as ability of together. The second dimension, passion, is
adoration and work, and according to Maslow based on romance, physical attraction, and
need to adoration is not only a response to interest in sexual matters. The third
deficiency, it is rather a process that arouse dimension, commitment refers to cognitive
via impulses to lead self-actualization (Dietch, factors like the decision that you love and
1978; Rafienia, & Asghari, 2007). “According want to be with the other person by having a
to Shaver, Morgan & Wu (1996) love is one commitment to maintain the relationship on a
of the most famous subjects in our songs, lasting basis (Baron, Branscombe, Byrne &
movies, and everyday lives. Most people in Bhardwaj, 2010).
many different cultures accept love as a
Psychological well-being is a relatively
familiar human experience. Love is an
complex concept with a variety of components
emotional reaction that seems as basic as
and it can be measured in terms of positive
anger, sadness, happiness, and fear” (Baron,
170 Psychological Well-Being
psychological symptoms (such as being able Marshall (2010) revealed that men’s
to enjoy things and to let go of worries) or identification with mainstream Canadian
satisfaction with life, but increasingly culture was related with their own and with
multidimensional scales are used which their partner’s greater intimacy, at least in part
include concepts such as autonomy, self- because of their greater egalitarianism. Vice
acceptance and relations with others (Ryff & versa, women’s identification with mainstream
Keyes, 1995; Tennant et al., 2007). The Canadian culture was related with their
dimensions of well-being are: autonomy, partners’ lower intimacy. Moreover, women’s
environmental mastery, personal growth, identification with Chinese heritage culture
positive relations with others, purpose in life was related with their greater commitment,
and self-acceptance. All of these factors can and some evidence suggested that this was
be considered as key components that make because of their greater gender role
up the definition of psychological well-being traditionalism. Philippe et al. (2010)
(Rathi & Rastogi, 2007). demonstrated that harmonious passion was
The origins of self-concept theory, and positively associated with the quality of
consequent research, are reputed to have interpersonal relationships within the context
been formalized by James in 1890 (Bracken, of the passionate activity, whereas an
1996; Hattie, 2000; Tamini, Khan & obsessive passion was unrelated to it. Results
Mohammadyfar, 2009). “James is regarded also showed that positive emotions
in history for his development of the idea or experienced at work fully mediated the
philosophy of the ‘self’ and the development relation between harmonious passion and
of the ‘self’ into a cohesive theory (Bracken, quality of interpersonal relationships.
1996)”. “James hypothesized that there is a Obsessive passion was not associated with
hierarchical order to the ‘self’ starting at the positive emotions. Some of the researchers
lowest tier with the ‘material self, followed by explored the relationship between romantic
the ‘social self’ with the ‘spiritual self’ being involvement status, actual/ ideal self-
the last tier (Bracken, 1996)”. discrepancy and psychological well-being.
Findings demonstrated that romantically
May be love is very important in our lives involved individuals reported closer to their
especially it has some effects on our ideal selves than who were not romantically
psychological health and moreover might involved. The reduced self-discrepancy
increase the level of our self-confidence, self- reported by romantically involved individual
concept and self-esteem. Many researchers was related to their experiencing higher levels
showed that love or romantic relationship has of psychological well-being in comparison to
obvious effect on psychological states and romantically uninvolved individuals. Both
results of studies demonstrated that love has groups rated their actual selves, closeness
an impact on interpersonal relationships, to their ideal selves, and psychological well-
moreover, it promotes well-being and self- being. Furthermore, romantically involved
image. Fricker and Moore (2002) suggested individuals tended to report higher
that the Eros love-style had a direct positive psychological well-being (Campbell,
effect on relationship satisfaction and an Sedikides, & Bosson, 1994). King and Noelle
indirect positive effect on relational (2005) revealed that subjective well-being
satisfaction via sexual satisfaction, while ludus and ego development were related with
and avoidant attachment both exhibited direct intimacy imagery. Kim and Hatfield (2004)
negative effects on relationship satisfaction, examined the relationship of love types and
and indirect negative effects on relationship subjective well-being among Korean and
satisfaction via sexual satisfaction. In a study American students. It was found out that
Bahman Kord Tamini, Fereshteh Bakhshi Bojhd, and Sepideh Yazdani 171
passionate and companionate love are Some of the researches suggested that
related to subjective well-being i.e. life there is a gap in happiness with regard to
satisfaction was more strongly predicted by gender, in a study Stevenson and Wolfers
companionate love than by passionate love, (2009) showed that there was emerged a
no culture and gender difference was found gender gap in happiness in which women in
in this overall relationship, but gender the 1970s reported higher subjective well-
difference was found in the extent of the being than did men. These declines have
relationship between companionate love and continued and a new gender gap is emerging-
life satisfaction, and between passionate love one with higher subjective well-being for men.
and emotional experiences, respectively. Researchers demonstrated that women
Researchers found out that individuals have under 45 tend to be happier than men; but
reduced self-concept clarity after a breakup. older women are less happy. Inglehart (2010)
This reduced clarity can contribute to found out that in a pooled sample of 146,000
emotional distress. The loss of the relationship respondents from 65 societies, among the
has multiple psychological consequences, youngest group, 24 percent of the men and
including the tendency for individuals to 28 percent of the women describe themselves
change the content of their selves and the as very happy; but among the oldest group,
feeling that their selves are subjectively less only 20 percent of the women describe
clear and even smaller (Slotter, Gardner & themselves as very happy, while 25 percent
Finkel, 2010). Paul and Fischer (1980) found of the men do so. Farooqi and Tamini (2010)
out that the high self-concept group scored found out that female students significantly
higher than the low self-concept group in obtained higher mean scores on life
intimacy, internality, and acceptance of black satisfaction, spirituality, happiness and
identity. Conway-Turnera (1992) revealed optimism, personal growth positive
that sub-factors of intimacy such as affection, relationship with others, autonomy and well-
friendship and a sense of empathy to be being than male students.
positively associated with self esteem. Aron, Based on a review of studies of self-
Paris and Aron (1995) showed that falling in concept, Marsh (1990a) found that males
love leads to an increase in self-efficacy and have significantly higher physical ability,
self-esteem. A lot of researches have shown physical appearance, and math self- concepts
that love as psychological phenomena for all age groups ranging from
predicting happiness, satisfaction and preadolescence through early adulthood,
positive emotions. In a study Rafienia and whereas females have higher verbal self-
Asghari (2007) examined relationship concept scores. A study conducted by Liu and
between types of love and subjective well- Wang (2005) and obtained result showed that
being among married students and the results there was a significant main effect for gender,
revealed that intimacy love had a significant with female students having significantly
positive relationship with life satisfaction and higher perceived academic effort (academic
significant negative relationship with negative self-concept subscale) than their male
emotions but passion love was not counterparts. Researchers showed that low
significantly related to subjective well-being self-concept clarity was independently
dimensions. Moreover, results demonstrated associated with high neuroticism, low self-
that in female sample higher intimacy love esteem, low conscientiousness, low
had relationship with higher positive emotion agreeableness, chronic self-analysis, low
and lower negative emotion but it did not internal state awareness, and a ruminative
emerge in male sample. form of self-focused attention. Consistent with
theory on Eastern and Western self- 7. Is there any significant difference on

construal, Japanese participants exhibited well-being and its sub-scales with regard to
lower levels of self-concept clarity and lower age level?
correlations between self-concept clarity and 8. Is there any significant difference on
self-esteem than did Canadian participants self-concept and its sub-scales with regard
(Campbell et al., 1996). Tamini, Khan and to age level?
Mohammadyfar (2009) conducted a cross-
cultural study entitled self-concept and Method
personality type among Irani and Indian bank Sample:
employees, obtained results showed that on The sample consists of 138 employees
health and sex appropriateness and from Sistan and Baluchestan University (88
worthiness the mean scores of Indian bank male and 50 female). The age ranges
employees were higher than Iranian bank between 20 and 50 years and they were
employees, but Iranian bank employees selected at random.
obtained higher mean scores on abilities,
beliefs and convictions, and sociability than Tools:
their Indian counterparts. Love Dimensions Scale: This scale was
Results of different studies illustrated constructed by Sternberg (1997) to assess
that love has a strong relationship with health the dimensions of love. This scale includes
especially happiness, satisfaction with life and three components namely, Intimacy, Passion
psychological well-being and also love and Commitment. This scale has 45 items and
increases the level of self-esteem and some each to be rated from strongly agree (5) to
dimensions of self-concept, so the present strongly disagree. For intimacy, the
Study explores the relationship of love, well- reliabilities are at all at least 0.90. For passion,
being and self-concept among employees of all at least 0.80. For commitment, all but one
Sistan and Baluchestan University. (the exception is 0.79) are over 0.80 and
overall scale reliabilities are 0.95 or over with
Research Questions: one exception, which is 0.93. In the present
1. Is there any significant correlation research the reliability for intimacy 0.908, for
between love dimensions and well-being? passion 0.904, for commitment 0.947 and the
2. Is there any significant correlation overall reliability of this scale by Cronbach’s
between love dimensions and self-concept Alpha coefficient method was found 0.962.
scale? Psychological Well-being Questionnaire: It
3. Is there any significant difference was developed by Zanjani-Tabassi (2004) to
between female and male employees on love assess the psychological well-being of
dimensions? students. This questionnaire has 77 items
that each item is to be rated from strongly
4. Is there any significant difference agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). This
between female and male employees on well- questionnaire includes 6 sub-scales namely:
being and its sub-scales? satisfaction with life, spirituality, happiness
5. Is there any significant difference and optimism, personal growth, autonomy and
between female and male employees on self- positive relationship with others. The whole
concept and its sub-scale? reliability of this research is 0.94 and this
6. Is there any significant difference on coefficient for sub-scales is ranged from 0.90
love dimensions with regard to age level? to 0.62 (Tamini, 2005). In the present
research the overall reliability of this
questionnaire by Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient Worthiness, Present, Past & Future, Beliefs
method was 0.878. and Convictions, Feeling of Same & Guilt,
Self-concept Scale: It was developed by Sociability and Emotional. Reliability of the
Rastogi (1979) and this scale has 51 items scale by split-half method following
and the items rating from strongly agree to Spearman-Brown Prophecy formula was
strongly disagree. This has 10 constructs found to be 0.87. In the current study the
namely, Health and Sex Appropriateness, reliability of the scale by using Cronbach’s
Abilities, Self-confidence, Self-acceptance, Alpha method was 0.878.
Results
Table 1. Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Psychological Well-being Sub-scales and
Dimensions of Love among Employees (n=138)
Table 2. Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Dimensions of Love and Self-concept

Sub-scales among Employees (n=138)
The results of table-1 show that there is correlation was found out between autonomy
a significant positive correlation between and passion(r= 0.20, p<0.05), but results
personal growth and commitment (r= 0.20, showed negative and significant correlation
p<0.05), and also a significant positive between positive relationship with others and
Table 3. Mean, SD and t Value of Male and Female Employees on Love Dimensions (n=138)
passion(r=-0.298, p<0.01). As shown in table- and future (r=.214, p<0.05), and total scores
1 there was not found out any significant of self-concept scale (r= .248, p<0.01) had
correlation between other sub-scales of well- significant correlation with commitment
being and three dimensions of love. dimension. But results did not emerge any
As seen in table-3, there is no emerged significant correlation between other sub-
any significant difference between female and scales of self-concept and dimensions of
male employees on intimacy (t= 0.699, love.
p>0.05), passion (t= 0.926, p>0.05), and The results of table-4 shows that there
commitment dimensions (t=0.707, p>0.05). is no any significant difference between male
The results of table-2 show that feeling and female employees on satisfaction with life
of shame and guilt sub-scale had positive and (t= 1.315, p>0.05), spirituality (t= -1066,
significant correlation with intimacy (r= .330, p>0.05), happiness and optimism (t= 1.329,
p<0.01), passion(r= .223, p<0.05), and p>0.05), personal growth (t= 1.119, p>0.05),
commitment dimension (r= .320, p<0.01). positive relationship with others (t= -0.227,
Eventually the results of Pearson correlation p>0.05), autonomy (t= 0.616, p>0.05), and
revealed that abilities (r=.205, p<0.05), self- total scores of well-being (t=0.828, p>0.05).
acceptance (r= .249, p<0.05), present, past
Table 4. Mean, SD and t Value of Male and Female Employees on Well-Being and its sub-
scales (n=138)
Table 5. Mean, SD and t Value of Male and Female Employees on Self-concept and its
sub-scales (n=138)
As it is observed from Table-5 that p>0.05), worthiness (t= -0.482, p>0.05),

Female employees scored higher on self- present, past and future (t= 0.576, p>0.05),
confidence sub–scale as compared to Male believes and conflictions (t=-0.907, p>0.05),
employees, both groups are statistically feeling of shame and guilt (t=-0.001, p>0.05),
different on self-confidence sub-scale emotional (t=0.335, p>0.05), and total scores
(t= 2.010, p<0.05), indicating that Female of self-concept (t= 0.166, p>0.05).
employees had more self-confidence than For responding to the sixth question of
Male employees, but Male employees scored this research One Way ANOVA test was
higher on sociability sub-scale as compared applied and results revealed that there was
to Female employees, they are statistically significant difference at least between two
different on sociability sub-scale (t= -2.057, groups on intimacy [F(2.135=3.293, p=0.04)],
p<0.05), indicating that Male employees were passion [F(2.135= 3.764, p= 0.026)], and
more sociable than Female employees. commitment dimensions [F(2.135= 7.120,
Eventually results did not reveal any p= 0.001)]. For clarification of these
significant difference between Female and differences Tukey Post Hoc test was run and
Male employees on health and sex results illustrated that Young employees (20-
appropriateness (t= 0.556, p>0.05), abilities 30 years old) obtained more scores on
(t=-0.179, p>0.05), self-acceptance (t=0.795,
intimacy, passion and commitment between personal growth and commitment,

dimensions in comparison to Middle age and also a significant positive relationship was
employees (41-50 years old) and also young found between autonomy and passion, but
employees showed higher mean scores in results revealed a negative and significant
comparison to Adult employees (31-40 years relation between positive relationship with
old) on commitment dimension. others and passion. There was no significant
To respond to the seventh question of relationship between other sub-scales of well-
this research One Way ANOVA test was being and three dimensions of love. The
applied and results revealed that there was results of this study have coordination with
not emerge any significant difference among the research of Campbell, Sedikides and
three age levels on satisfaction with life Bosson (1994); King and Noelle (2005) and
[F(2.135= 0.769, p>0.05)], spirituality Kim and Hatfield (2004). It seems that love
[F(2.135= 0.077, p>0.05)], happiness and base on commitment increase the personal
optimism [F(2.135=0.648, p>0.05)], personal growth. In an indigenous culture like Sistan
growth [F(2.135= 2.638, p>0.05)], positive and Baluchestan (Iran) individual who have
relationship with others [F(2.135= 0.450, higher personal growth tend to be committed
P>0.05)], autonomy [F(2.135= 2.303, to their partner and moreover, this type of
p>0.05)], and Total scores of well-being culture emphasizes more on loyalty.
[F(2.135= 0.797, p>0.05)]. Independency might have impact on passion
love and moreover, independent individuals
For responding to the eighth question prefer to have romantic relationship with other
of this research One Way ANOVA test was base on passion and sex, while individual who
applied and results revealed that there was have positive relationship with others do not
significant difference at least between two age prefer this type of love.
level of employees on sociability sub-scale
[F(2.135= 4.874, p= 0.009)], Tukey Post Hoc The results of current study are in
results showed that Adult employees (31-40 conformity with the research of Conway-
years old) obtained more scores on this Turnera (1992); Aron, Paris and Aron (1995).
dimension in comparison to Middle age Obtained results from this study
employees (41-50 years old). But results did demonstrated that feeling of shame and guilt
not demonstrate any significant difference had positive correlation with three dimensions
among three age levels on health and sex of love, our knowledge about this issue is
appropriateness [F(2.135= 1.090, p>0.05)], incomplete and we cannot obviously explain
abilities [F(2.135= 0.327, p>0.05)], self- the causes of it, so it is suggested that next
confidence [F(2.135= 2.402, p>0.05)], self- studies clear this ambiguity. Individual who
acceptance [F(2.135= 1.343, p>0.05)], have commitment to their partner receive
worthiness [F(2.135= 0.824, p>0.05)], more positive feedback from their partner and
present, past and future [F(2.135= 2.725, moreover they have trust each other.
p>0.05)], believes and convictions There was no emerged any significant
[F(2.135= 0.560, p>0.05)], feeling of shame difference between female and male
and guilt [F(2.135=2.059, p>0.05)], emotional employees on intimacy, passion, and
[F(2.135= 0.398, p>0.05)], and total scores commitment dimensions. It seems that gender
of self-concept [F(2.135= 0.312, p>0.05)]. cannot determine type of love among
Discussion employees. But despite of gender, age has a
great impact on type of love i.e. young
The results of this study showed that employees (20-30 years old) obtained more
there was a significant positive relationship scores on intimacy, passion and commitment
dimensions in comparison to middle age and having strong social relationship with others,
adult employees. In fact sense of falling in while sociability after this age would decrease
love begins from late of puberty and in the and people tend to be more conservative.
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179

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 179-184.
Interpersonal Differences: Implications for Organizations
NK Natarajan, Dinesh Nagar

Services Selection Board, Bhopal Barkatullah University, Bhopal
Deepa Ayachit
Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Management, Bhopal
In the present investigation done in the Indian context, it was found that
interpersonal scores did not differ very significantly in most groupings except in
case of gender where significant differences were observed in both the scales of
Inclusion only. Surprising and against common belief, there were no significant
differences observed based on caste distinction. However, based on place of
upbringing, people from rural and semi-urban upbringing scored higher in the
scale of Inclusion Wanted. Interactions of gender, caste and place of upbringing
highlight that the male subjects of lower caste from rural and semi-urban
upbringing were found to demand inclusion in group activities and seek attention
in the organization. They may also express affection as a means to attain
inclusion in the group. On the other hand, female subjects of the lower caste
brought up in urban areas were found to Express Inclusion. The paper discusses
the findings in light of the socio-cultural changes that are taking place in the
Indian society.
Sullivan (1953) redefined personality as an While researchers such as Leary (1957)

interpersonal phenomenon. He viewed and Kiesler (1996) focused on two-
‘personality’ as a relatively stable pattern of dimensional (Dominance–Submissiveness)
interpersonal behaviors arising from interpersonal model, there has been
interactions with others. He argued that considerable disagreement as to the
interpersonal skills and the sense of identity components of positive and negative
develop from human interactions. Empathy emotional aspects of interaction. Schutz
is a central component of socialization, as a (1958) advanced the Fundamental
skill for evaluating others’ needs and abilities. Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO)
An individual who fails to master the system. According to him, interpersonal
distinctions among social identity, power, and behavior is directed towards the satisfaction
love is at substantial risk for the development of three specific interpersonal needs: control,
of relationships. As fields of research, inclusion, and affection. ‘Control’ reflects the
interpersonal relations (emphasizing person’s dominance in the interaction - an
dimensions of interaction among individuals) individual elevated in ‘Control’ tends to direct,
is maturing as alterative, yet complimentary, lead, or manipulate the relationship; those
foci of individual differences (Mahoney & persons low in Control tend to emit patterns
Stasson, 2005). Increasingly therefore, of behavior that facilitate others to initiate
organizations are now looking at this dominance. ‘Inclusion’ addresses the issue
dimension more critically at the time of of personal significance in an interaction. A
personnel selection. Yet there are hardly any person elevated in inclusion is recognized as
published research works in the Indian positively or negatively significant in an
context. interaction. The third dimension is ‘Affection’,
180 Interpersonal Differences
a measure of the positive or negative affection and wanted affection. They also
emotional aspects of a relationship. established interpersonal differences based
Individuals elevated in affection are on geography and suggested that the
emotionally bound to the relationship; those difference could be due to different cultures
low in affection have little emotional investment in the two regions. Recently, Sayeed (2010)
in the relationship. studying public and private managers in India
Interpersonal behavior is further defined reported the influence of individual
as a two-way process in which individuals differences of leadership styles. He reported
‘express’ behavior towards others, as well as positive relationship of Inclusion and Affection
‘want’ to experience certain behavior from dimensions with that of participative and
others. He also, defined each of these three nurturing styles of leaders. The Control
relational components as having two distinct Expressed dimension failed to relate with
tactical operations. Each aspect has an leaders’ Task Orientation component.
‘Expressed’ component and a ‘Wanted’ However, he did not carryout a distinctive
component. Inclusion Expressed (IE) study based on gender.
behaviors signify a desire to be a member of ‘Personality’ is an outcome of several
a relationship. Inclusion Wanted (IW) factors such as genetics, sociology of the
behaviors are internal desires to be included society in which one is brought up, socio-
by others. If the person is socially competent, economic background of the family which will
he or she will manifest appropriate match in determine such things as type and quality of
Expressed and Wanted aspects. Problems schooling, social status in the society etc.
arise, however, for the individual who lacks Hence, all these environmental, demographic
the interpersonal skills to match Wanted and socio-economic factors are likely to have
and Expressed needs. Interpersonal an impact on one’s interpersonal behavior. It
incompetence arises from a disjunction in the is therefore, important to understand the
level of expression versus wanting of a differences if any, in interpersonal behavior
component. Despite mixed evidence on the between different groups of subjects. The
existence of three components (Schutz, 1978) current study had therefore, aimed at
and lack of evidence on distinction between examining the interpersonal differences
inclusion and affection (Gough & Bradley, based on gender, caste: Upper and Lower,
1996), this scale is quite popular in the and place of upbringing: Rural, Semi-Urban,
western countries. Urban.
The FIRO-B manual fails to report data Objectives:
separately for boys and girls. However, Exline, The objective of this study is to verify
Gray, and Schuette (1965) reported that interpersonal differences based on gender,
College-aged women scored higher than did caste and place of upbringing in the Indian
college-aged men on the two inclusion and context. It is expected that there will be
the two affection scales. However, in a study significant differences as the socialization
of undergraduate Canadian business processes are quite different between
students, McRae and Young (1990) found no gender, caste and place of upbringing.
significant gender differences. In an Indian
study, Arul (1994) found gender differences Method
on FIRO among management students in Participants:
Gujarat. In yet another study, Mahoney and A total of 184 students, 112 boys and
Stasson (2005) reported interpersonal 72 girls, participated in the study. All were
differences between genders on at least two selected based on convenience sampling
dimensions: expressed-inclusion, expressed-
NK Natarajan, Dinesh Nagar and Deepa Ayachit 181
from Engineering and Management classes Wanted, AE for Affection Expressed and AW
at a prestigious technical institution at Central for Affection Wanted.
India. Approximately 35% of the participants Results
identified themselves as from lower caste and
65% as upper caste. Approximately 23% Table 1 displays the grouped means of
respondents had rural upbringing, 22% semi- FIRO scale scores separated by gender. It
urban and 55% urban. The median age of was seen that women scored significantly
the sample was 22 years. higher then men on both the Inclusion scales
(Equal Variance not assumed). Inclusion
Measure: Expressed, t (182) = 2.98, p = 0.01; and
The FIRO-B (Schultz, 1958) consists of Inclusion Wanted, t (182) = 2.33, p < 0.05.
54 items, 9 for each of the 6 scales. For Table 2 displays the grouped means of
convenience, the scales are labeled IE for FIRO scale scores separated by caste. It was
Inclusion Expressed, IW for Inclusion Wanted, seen that there is no significant difference
CE for Control Expressed, CW for Control between the lower and upper caste.
Table 1. Mean and SD Scores on the FIRO-B Scales of the Whole Group and
by Gender
Group Variables IE CE AE IW CW AW
TotalN=184 Mean 5.22 4.36 2.78 4.19 4.20 2.65
SD 2.06 2.10 1.95 2.87 2.16 1.63
MaleN= 112 Mean 4.86 4.48 2.83 3.86 4.33 2.70
SD 2.02 1.96 1.93 2.65 2.17 1.68
FemaleN=72 Mean 5.77 4.18 2.69 4.80 4.01 2.58
SD 2.02 2.30 1.99 3.10 2.15 1.57
‘t’ value 2.98** 0.95 0.49 2.33* 0.97 0.49
*p<.05; **p<.01
Table 2. Mean (SD) Scores on the FIRO-B Scales Grouped by Caste
Groups Variables IE CE AE IW CW AW
Lower Caste Mean 4.97 4.25 2.84 4.047 4.42 2.55
N= 64 SD 2.17 1.85 2.10 2.73 2.02 1.49
Upper Caste Mean 5.36 4.42 2.75 4.27 4.09 2.71
N= 120 SD 2.00 2.27 1.88 2.96 2.24 1.716
‘t’ value 1.22 0.54 0.30 0.51 0.98 0.66
Table 3. Mean (SD) Scores on the FIRO-B Scales Grouped by Place of
Upbringing
Group Variables IE CE AE IW CW AW
Rural Mean 5.16 4.16 2.79 5.07 4.28 2.79
N=43 SD 1.69 1.87 1.88 2.34 2.04 1.846
Semi-Urban Mean 5.20 4.83 2.83 4.12 3.78 2.63
N=41 SD 1.96 2.37 2.12 2.59 2.51 1.68
Urban Mean 5.26 4.26 2.76 3.85 4.35 2.61
N=100 SD 2.26 2.08 1.93 3.12 2.06 1.54
‘F’ value .038 1.322 .019 2.780* 1.038 .187
* p < .065
Table 3 displays the grouped means of and do not make much distinction between
FIRO scale scores separated by place of work and social gatherings. They may also
upbringing. It was seen that rural and semi- withdraw first if they sense a possibility of
urban groups scored higher in only one scale being rejected by others. This finding is not
of Inclusion: Inclusion Wanted to the extent very surprising in the Indian context. It is
of F (182) = 2.78, p = 0.065 level of common knowledge that women in India are
significance. There were no other significant subjected to considerable subjugation right
differences between the groups. from early childhood. Perhaps, this feeling of
It is seen that gender, caste and place subjugation and deprivation finds expression
of upbringing interact in predicting four for inclusion as they mature. In the present
dimension of FIRO scale i.e. Inclusion study the subjects were of the adult age
Expressed, Inclusion Wanted, Affection group, doing professional courses like
Expressed and Control Expressed. Female engineering and management and are in the
respondents of lower caste brought up in verge of joining work organizations. Further,
urban area scored significantly higher in the most of them have been staying in hostels
scale of Inclusion Expressed to the extent of where they get greater opportunity to
F (18) = 7.80, p = 0.04 level of significance. socialize which could be a contributing factor
Also, Male respondents from lower caste towards women scoring high on both scales
brought up in rural area scored significantly of inclusion, and attaining interpersonal
higher in the scale of Inclusion Wanted to the balance between expressed and wanted
extent of F (42) = 8.37, p = 0.001 level of dimensions of Control and Affection. Hence,
significance and the ones brought up in semi- lack of significant differences except in case
urban areas scored significantly higher in the of ‘Inclusion’ is not very surprising. The
scale of Affection Expressed to the extent of findings are somewhat in line with the findings
F (42) = 3.95, p = 0.27 level of significance. of Arul (1994) though the instrument used by
Male respondents of upper caste brought up him was a modified version. Further, the
in semi-urban area scored significantly higher results are partially consistent with the
in the scale of Control Expressed to the extent findings of Exline, Gray, and Schuette (1965),
of F (66) = 8.37, p = 0.012 level of and Mahoney & Stasson (2005). In both these
significance. studies significant differences were found
based on gender on the two inclusion and
Discussion affection scales. Though, there is some
In the present investigation interpersonal consistency in the results, comparing it with
scores did not differ very significantly in most the results of a totally divergent cultural
groupings except in case of gender where context would be unreasonable. Hence, what
significant differences were observed in both would be relevant to us is the sole Indian study
the scales of Inclusion i.e. Inclusion Wanted by Arul (1994).
and Inclusion Expressed. The female subjects Surprisingly and against common belief,
have been found to include and want to be there were no significant differences
included in the activities more then their male observed based on caste distinction. This
counterparts. It may be said that women are may be a good indicator of the erosion of caste
likely to include others in their activities and distinctions in the Indian society. However,
like to be included in others’ activities. They based on place of upbringing, significant
enjoy the opportunity to provide input and difference (p=0.065) was found for ‘Inclusion
don’t like to get cut off from information and Wanted’. It was seen that subjects with rural
updates. They may seek recognition and and semi-urban upbringing seek more
endorsement from colleagues and superiors
NK Natarajan, Dinesh Nagar and Deepa Ayachit 183
inclusion in group activities than their urban do play a major role in the development of
counterpart. This could be seen as a new interpersonal styles of the youth. The findings
social divide emerging in India. Indian society of the study stand to corroborate the
had a very strong legacy of the cast system expected outcomes of the governmental
and even though it now appears to be fading measures of creating an all inclusive society.
the mindset of divided society is perhaps It is common knowledge that most people
getting expression in the form of rural-urban have discriminatory biases and hence their
distinction. As stated earlier, personality is an interpersonal interactions are to some extent
outcome of several factors including influenced by these biases. In this regard, a
sociology of the society in which one is recruiter is no exception. The study very
brought up, socio-economic background of categorically brought out that there hardly
the family which will determine such things exist any major interpersonal differences in
as type and quality of schooling, social status terms of gender, caste or place of upbringing.
in the society etc. It is common knowledge With hierarchy giving way to team form
that rural population in India is agrarian, poor of working, it is important that employees
and deprived of the comforts of modern urban have a balanced interpersonal style in terms
living. Hence, the mass migration of people of Control, Inclusion and Affection in both
from rural to urban settings is likely to result dimensions of expressed and wanted. In team
in a struggle between the two sections. In this functioning conflicts are inherent and for the
context, the finding of the present study that team to be effective, conflicts have to be
rural and semi-urban subjects seek more resolved. Having a balanced interpersonal
Inclusion in the group activities is not very style is imperative to handling conflicts
surprising. Interactions of gender, caste and amicably. The study has brought out that while
place of upbringing highlight that the male there are no significant differences in the
subjects of lower caste from rural and semi- dimensions of Control and Affection, women
urban upbringing will demand inclusion in believe in inclusion and being included. It may
group activities and seek attention in the therefore, be concluded that in situations
organization. They will also express affection where teamwork is of paramount importance
as a means to attain inclusion in the group. to the organization, a women employee that
This may be because of caste discrimination too brought up in urban areas will be a better
that they may have experienced in the rural / fit than men. Since they believe in inclusion
semi-urban societies and hence wish to be and being included they may also exhibit a
included at par with others. On the other hand, participative and nurturing leadership styles
female subjects of the lower caste brought as reported by Sayeed (2010). On the other
up in urban areas will include others in the hand, men brought up in rural and semi-urban
activities and will not mind others getting areas may feel neglected in organizations
attention. This may be due to self assurance and seclude themselves unless a conscious
developed in an urban society where gender/ intervention is practiced to being them at par
caste discriminations are quite insignificant. with others. Apart from these minor
Implications for organizations differences, it may be said that modern
Indian society has been discriminatory educated Indian youth are shaping up as
in nature for years. Post independence, adults with balanced interpersonal styles.
several measures have been taken by the Direction for future research
government to eradicate caste and gender This study can be criticized for
based discrimination and the resultant push homogeneity of the sample as most of the
and pull of the various sections of the society subjects were from the same cultural /
geographical context of Madhya Pradesh. Leary, T. (1957). Interpersonal diagnosis of

Also, most of them were engineering and personality. New York: Ronald.
management students adding to the issue of Kiesler, D.J. (1996). Contemporary interpersonal
homogeneity of the sample. Further, the fact theory and research: Personality,
that the subjects were volunteers may also psychopathology and psychotherapy. New
have biased the findings to some extent. It York: Wiley.
may therefore be wise to take samples from Mahoney, J.M., & Stasson, M.F. (2005).
across the country so as to generalize the Interpersonal and Personality Dimensions of
findings on a national level. The findings being Behavior: FIRO-B and the Big Five. North
American Journal of Psychology, 7, 205-216.
of relevance to HR managers / recruiters, it
is suggested that a pan India study be done McRae, L., & Young, J. (1990). Field
independence and the FIRO-B. Perceptual
with household income as one of the
and Motor Skills, 70, 493-494.
variables.
Sayeed, O.B. (2010). FIRO-B & Nurturant-Task
References Leadership Model: Moderating Influence of
Arul, M.J. (1994). Interpersonal needs of Individual Differences, Indian Journal of
managers and management students – An Industrial Relations, 45, 446-458.
exploratory study (Unpublished Doctoral Schutz, W.C. (1958). FIRO -A three-dimensional
Thesis). Sardar Patel University, Gujarat. theory of interpersonal relations. NY: Holt,
Exline, R., Gray, D., & Schuette, D. (1965). Rinehart & Winston.
Visual behavior in a dyad as affected by Schutz, W.C. (1978). FIRO awareness scale
interview contact and sex of respondent. manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Psychologists Press.
1, 201-209. Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory
Gough, H. G., & Bradley, P. (1996). CPI manual. of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
(3rd ed). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
Psychologists Press.
Revision received:September 01, 2010
NK Natarajan, Commander, Senior Recruiter, Services Selection Board, Bhopal

Dinesh Nagar, PhD, Professor, Barkatullah University, Bhopal
Deepa Ayachit, Asst. Professor, Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and
Management, Bhopal
185

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 185-188.
Book Reviews
Panch. Ramalingam (2010). Recent Studies In School Psychology by Authors Press, New
Delhi – 110 092., pp.340, Rs. 975/-.
India as the most populous democracy endowed with rich cultural heritage has developed a
number of school systems evolving over many centuries to meet the needs of children. As an academic
discipline and as a practice, school psychology is relatively a recent area of interest drawing upon
research based on Western models. In the Indian context school psychology involves systematic
knowledge and study of the principles and philosophy, methodology and practices to bring about
qualitative change in education.
Schematically, the book is divided into twenty-five well-conceived chapters mostly dealing
empirically with different dimensions of school psychology practices at the school level in different
parts of India. The quality of the papers in the compilation is generally good and the editor Dr. Panch.
Ramalingam must be commended for his effort to bring together a body of scholars to look into the
breadth and depth of knowledge in School Psychology. Particular mention must be made of the
contribution of Erika E. Voigt, G. Venkatesh Kumar, Anupama Shrivastava and Anjana Mukhopadhyay
and Debdulal Dutta Roy. These papers successively look into school psychology and social
transformation, rational emotive behaviour therapy and levels of alienation and emotional intelligence
of adolescents with internalising symptoms.
The various themes/topics, discussed in this study provide ample indication on the theory and
practices followed at the ground level of school education in India. Further, the book provides a
wealth of knowledge to professional school psychologists and school-based practitioners to achieve
the goals of quality, excellence, equity, social justice and relevance in school-based education in
particular and education as a whole.
The book will be useful to all the stakeholders in the school system in India and to social
scientists and policy makers in the Government.
Reviewed by Dr. V.T. Patil
Former Vice-Chancellor of Pondicherry University and Adjunct Professor,
Centre for Indic Studies, University of Massachusetts, Massachusetts, USA.
Rabindra Kumar Pradhan and Purnima Mathur (2008). Emotional Intelligence (Perspectives
in Organizations) by Academic Excellence Publishing Company, Delhi – 110 031, pp.331,
Rs. 850/-.
Emotional intelligence is a set of competencies, which direct and control one’s feelings towards
work, people, success and failure in life. The set of competencies is the ability of the person to
control and manage his/her moods and impulses, which contribute to the best of situational outcomes.
Understanding one’s own moods and impulses of others or any situation helps one to respond and
behave in accordance with expectations. In a work situation workers’ effective use of skill and
knowledge in time depends on the effective regulation of emotions at work and their readiness to
186
contribute to best in their target accomplishment. Knowing one’s emotions and feelings as they
occur, and tuning one’s self to the charged situation, requires the emotional competency, emotional
maturity and emotional sensitivity that determine the success of adaptability and adjustment with
the changing scenario. In a work situation, since it involves group of people with different ideas,
suggestions, and opinions, effective conglomeration of all these determine the best outcome. In
various empirical studies emotional intelligence (EI) has been found to be positively related to job
performance at all levels. But it appears to be especially relevant in jobs that demand a high degree
of social interaction. Without EI, a person can have outstanding training, a highly analytical mind, a
long term vision and an endless supply of terrific ideas, but still not make a great leader. In this
regard the most widely publicized claim of Goleman’s assumption about success at workplace
attributed to “20% of IQ and 80% EQ” as a matter of fact made a remarkable impact in the field of
psychology and management. The publication of Goleman’s best selling books on “Emotional
Intelligence: why it matters more than IQ”? (Goleman 1995) and “Working with Emotional Intelligence”
(Goleman, 1998) brought not only a revolutionary paradigm shift in the field of intelligence research
but also considered as a landmark in the history cognitive psychology. It confirms that cognitive
intelligence can not be accounted alone to explain the totality of human abilities or human
achievements. This is especially true as individuals move up in an organization. The evidence
indicates that the higher the rank of a person considered being a star performer the more EI capabilities
surface as the reason for his or her effectiveness. Examples of leader with strong emotional intelligence
would include US secretary of state Colin Powell, Oprah Winfrey, Us President Barak Obama and in
our country our present prime minister Dr. Manmohan Singh. Thousands of studies have shown that
effective leaders consistently possess more emotional intelligence competencies such as self-
awareness and self-management.
The last two decades of research on emotional intelligence unfolds many developments and
dimensions in behavioral sciences. This edited volume (of Prof. R. K. Pradhan and Prof. Purnima
Mathur) encompasses nearly 90% coverage of empirical research findings as well as envisages its
multiple perspectives in home, education and organizational sectors. This volume extensively deals
with various issues related to the conceptual, theoretical, applied, and empirical aspects of emotional
intelligence and provides comprehensive understanding of these concepts and its applications in
different contexts of life.
The empirical research in the area of emotional intelligence, documented in this volume has
been primarily divided into three sections. The first section deals with the concept, models and
measurement of emotional intelligence. The second section elaborates on extensive research work
done on emotional intelligence in the context of home and school environment and its various correlates.
The third section exclusively discusses the applications of emotional intelligence at workplace in
organizations. Thus, this book covers almost every dimension of EI both outwardly and in-depth,
which gives an insight to its readers to look within themselves. It deals with the distinct personality
constructs of emotional intelligence. The most significant factor it highlights is how to enhance our
emotional intelligence and apply it in various work set-ups. The new dimensions of EI like ‘Emotional
Creativity’(EC), ‘Emotional Labour’(EL) have been unfolded here and widely discussed about how
these can be utilized for personal as well as organizational success. The authors in this volume have
also elaborated on EQ competencies and how EQ plays a vital role in enhancing the leadership
effectiveness. In fact the combination of EI and EC can transform the leadership style into 3600 and
can create charismatic leaders. The authors have also conceptualized the relevance of new age
leadership which can surely bring the star performance to the organization in the face of global
competition. All these above topics covered in this book not only recommend for adopting a
competency based approach for empowering the employees within the organization but also endorse
the vision of creating an emotionally intelligent organization by creating a culture that uplifts the
187
human resource ability to its infinity. Thus, I find this book to be extremely useful not for any
particular group of professionals but for all sections of people, doesn’t matter which organization /
institution / country they belong to. This book will be a pathfinder for the professionals in behavioral
sciences as well as the emerging researchers in taking up the issues and studies like EI – as a
multifaceted human compound in cross-cultural context. At last, but not the least, there is also lot
of scope in this book to solve most of our socio-political conflicts across the society.
Reviewed by Dr. Atasi Mohanty,
Asst. Professor, Centre for Educational Technology,
IIT-Kharagpur, Pin-721302, India.
Updesh Kumar and Manas K. Mandal (2010). Suicidal Behaviour Assessments of People-at-
Risk by Sage Publications, New Delhi – 110 044. pp.378, Rs. 795/-.
This is a edited volume of contemporary thoughts, empirical studies related to psychometric

analysis of various dimensions associated with suicidal behaviour. The wide spectrum of articles
included in this volume reveals authentic sources of suicidal risk assessment to understand the
suicidal personality and predict suicidal behaviour. It includes articles by experts in the field covering
suicide research carried out globally. The collection is divided into two sections-the first focused on
the theoretical issues and second on the applied and practical issues related to suicidal behaviour
among specific populations.
This book has several strengths, perhaps the first of which is the degree to which it implicitly
honours the distinction between prediction and explanation. The chapters divide rather neatly into
psychometric assessment method and explanatory models based on a verity of plausible perspectives,
including neurophysiology, cognitive processes, and cultural and social influence models. Innumerable
publications are available on the subject of suicidal behaviour, although most of these revolve around
the epidemiological or theoretical descriptions of suicide. Utilising empirical evidence in active clinical
practice and translating insights gained from clinical experience into empirical data, however, still
remains a challenge. Most of the available literature focuses on the clinical symptomatology of
suicide and its sociological development and influences.
The editors Updesh Kumar and Manas K. Mandal deserve for appreciation of the work done in
the field of suicidal behaviour. Their thought provoking vision to unit like minded authors on a focused
theme and discussing diverse aspects of the problem in various psychological, socio-cultural contexts
serve as a ready recokner to the readers.
Review Team
JIAAP
Roy Moodley, Aanchal Rai, and Waseem Alladin (2010). Bridging East-West Psychology and
Counselling by Sage Publications, New Delhi – 110 044. pp.324, Rs. 895/-.
This edited volume in honour of Dr. Pittu Laungani, one of the leading cross-cultural psychologist
of the West, brings together renowned names in the field of psychology who critique Dr. Laungani’s
contribution from various angels. It explores the nature of cross-cultural psychology,
counseling and psychotherapy, specifically attempting to build bridges between Indian
philosophy and the Western approaches and methods.
188
This edited volume has been divided into five parts. The first part begin with a key paper by pittu
Laungani. This is as building multicultural counselling bridges - the holy grail or a poisoned chalice –
it discusses an multiculturalism, individualism, communalism, and popper’s three worlds of
epistemology. This book is more than a useful resource for academics and practitioners in the field
of counseling and multiculturalism. It is above all attribute to pittu Laungani who sadly left us too
soon, a year after I had the opportunity of meeting him. I feel that I have had the distinguished
pleasure to have met a man, an individual who reflects the finer qualities of what we are all about.
Pittu Laungani expressed to me his love for life; he exhumed a demeanor that revealed his particular
connection and his dynamic engagement with reality.
The various chapters consider interesting and challenging questions like culture and stress,
traditional healing and Hindu spirituality and caste, class and culture and their relationship to counseling
psychology. The book will be of great interest to those teaching and studying courses on cross-
cultural counseling and psychotherapy and also multicultural social work.
Reviewed by B. Sharmila
Mother Teresa Institute of Health Sciences,
Puducherry
Aradhana Shukla (2009). Culture Cognition and Behaviour by Concept Publishing Company,
New Delhi – 110 059. pp.352, Rs. 700/-.
This book covers twenty papers examining the relationship between culture cognition and
behaviour. It also highlights concept of culture. This book enumerates the developmental and
acculturative influences on categorization behaviour of Kharwar children, spatial cognition of children
in Nepal, linguistic profile of Kumaun and dynamics of education development.
Keeping these views in consideration this volume is planned and materialized in five sub themes.
In section one “Concept of Culture” a relationship among culture, cognition and behaviour is elucidated
by Aradhana Shukla. Second section named as: Culture and Cognition” is comprised by seven
empirical papers. Section three named as “Culture and Personality” deals with the relationship between
culture and personality and it consists of five papers.
This book is very relevant to the contemporary nature. In a spectacular perusal of the articles
reveals that attempt has been made to relate culture, cognition and behaviour in wider perspective.
The editor feels that this volume will give fresh breeze to the readers to think over the issues which
have been presented in this volume. The issues of concern highlighted may be helpful to carve out
some trends and directions for future vision in the field of human inquiry.
Review Team
JIAAP
189
Prof. Anima Sen Award

Prof. Anima Sen Award
for Excellence in Research
for
Certificate and a cashExcellence in 1000/-
award of Rs. Research
for an outstanding paper
published in each volume of
Certificate
Journal of theand a cash
Indian award of
Academy of Rs. 1000/-
Applied for an
Psychology
outstanding paper
Late Dr. published
Anima in each volume of
Sen (1938-1995)
A distinguished scholar and professor of Psychology, University of Delhi. Prof. Anima
Sen has authored several books, published large number of papers and guided a number
of research students. She was recipient of a number of prestigious awards and
Late
fellowships, including Fulbright, Dr. Anima
Hull University SenFellowship and has also been
Research
a National Fellow of UGC. This award has been instituted by Prof. A.K. Sen as a tribute
1938-1995
to Dr. Anima Sen and it will remain a lasting inspiration.
A distinguished scholar andAwards

professor of Psychology, University of
Delhi. Prof. Anima Sen has authored several books, published large
number
The following of papers
papers andselected
have been guidedfor
a number of research students. She was
the Award:
recipient of a number of prestigious awards and fellowships, including
Award 2006
Trait Fulbright, HullAnger:
Anxiety and Trait Uiversity ResearchofFellowship
A Comparison Peptic Ulcer and has also been a
and Bronchial
AsthmaNational Fellow
Patients of UGC.
by S.N. Ghosh This award
and Sagar has been
Sharma, instituted by Prof. A.K.
Shimla
State Self Esteem and Causal Attributions in Reattribution Training among Self-
worth Protective Students by S.P. Sinha and Sandhya Gupta, Agra
Award 2007
 Attachment Style in Relation to Family Functioning and Distress in College
Students by Aruna R. M. Kapanee and Kiran Rao, NIMHANS, Bangalore
 Effects of Target Expectancy and Cognitive Demand on Vigilance Performance by
Indramani L. Singh, Trayambak Tiwari and Anju Lata Singh, BHU, Varanasi.
Award 2008
Psycho-Oncology Research in India: Current Status and Future Directions by
Seema Mehrotra, NIMHANS, Bangalore
Technology to Teach Self-Help Skills to Elementary Students with Mental
Disabilities by Kamlesh Rai, NCERT, New Delhi
Award 2009
 NEO-PI-R Factor Structure in College Students
by Kamlesh Singh, IIT Delhi
 Intervention as an Adjunct to Drug Therapy for Childhood Depression
by R. Kannappan, Vinayaka Mission’s Medical College, Salem
190

January 2011, Vol.37, No.1, 190-191.
Information for Authors
The JIAAP is a refereed Journal and all articles are sent to expert assessors who
evaluate each paper on several dimensions such as originality of the work, scientific
argument, and English style, format of the paper, references, citations and finally they
comment on suitability of the article for the particular Journal. In case of review articles
the importance of the subject and the extent the review is comprehensive are assessed.
Prospective authors are expected that before submitting any article for publication
they should see that it fulfils these criteria. The improvement of article may be achieved
in two ways (i) more attention to language (ii) more attention to the sections of the
article.
Major Components of an article
Title: It should be short and accurate, no need to prefix “A study of” avoid abbreviations
in the title. Also provide short title 2/3 words for use as running head of paper.
Author/s Name and institutional affiliations only should be given with title. Address,
qualification, etc. may be provided at the end of paper.
Acknowledgements: may also be given at the end of the paper.
Abstract/summary: Should be short not more than 150 words, mention essential
facts only. (Give on a separate page)
Introduction: Not a long review of the subject area and details of history, it should
pertain to specific area of study and should cover only relevant researches. (Do not
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Results: Provide relevant facts only, data may be given preferably in the form of
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values at suitable places in the text: F(df) = ; p<.05/.01.
Discussion: This is important aspect of the paper, should be drafted carefully, stating
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past work and finally, try to answer: what does it mean in the concluding part. In some
situations section of Results may be combined with Discussion so as to avoid repetition.
References: Citations in the text and References must correspond to each other; do
Information for Authors 191
not over reference by giving the obvious/old classic studies or the irrelevant. Avoid
giving references to abstracts and unpublished papers. Give all journal titles in full
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Reference Examples: All Journal titles with volume number (issue numbers are not
required) and all book titles should be given in Italics.
Rao, K., Subbakrishna, D.K., & Prabhu, G.G. (1989). The development of a coping
checklist: A preliminary report. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 128-133.
Pestonjee, D.M. (1999). Stress and coping: The Indian experience. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Zubin, J. (1975). Problem of attention in schizophrenia. In M.I. Kietzman, S. Sutton and
J. Zubin (Eds.) Experimental approaches to psychopathology. New York: Academic
Press.
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1

January, 2011 ISSN 0019-4247 Volume 37, Number 1

9. Positive Psychology Research in India: A Review and Critique

35. Personality, Emotional Intelligence and Marital Satisfaction of Violent and

47. Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Psychological Well Being of

Depression, Stress and Anxiety

53. Depression in Institutionalised and Non-Institionalized Elderly

60. Parental Styles and Depression among Adolescents

78. Impact of Pranakarshan Pranayam on Anxiety: A Matched Control Trial

This issue has been published with the grant-in-aid from

86. Gender Differences in Depressive Symptoms: The Role of Daily Hassles,

106. Construct Validity of Reading MotivationQuestionnaire

114. Development and Validation of Perception of Parental

125. Mental and Emotional Impact of Divorce on Women

132. Achievement Motivation and Parental Support to Adolescents

140. Transformational Leadership and Innovative Work Behaviour

149. An Analysis of Individualism-Collectivism Across Northern India

157. Information Technology (Internet): Effects on Social Participation and

163. Personality Correlates of Loneliness

169. Love Types, Psychological Well-Being and Self-Concept

179. Interpersonal Differences: Implications for Organizations

185. Panch. Ramalingam (2010). Recent Studies in School Psychology. Reviewed

185. Rabindra Kumar Pradhan and Purnima Mathur (2008). Emotional

188. Aradhana Shukla (2009). Culture Cognition and Behaviour.

189. Prof. Anima Sen Award for Excellence in Research.

190. Information for Authors

INDIAN ACADEMY OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY (Regd.)

Indian Academy of Applied Psychology

Past Presidents of IAAP

Awards Instituted in the IAAP

JIAAP Abstracts 1985-2010

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Institutional Rs.1,000 Rs.2,500

INDIAN ACADEMY OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

Life Membership: Rs. 2000/- Ordinary membership (Annual): Rs.100/-

Secretariat: Editorial Office:

46th National and 15th International

(04 - 06 February, 2011)

Mysore University, Mysore

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© Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology

Positive Psychology Research in India: A Review and Critique

Seema Mehrotra and Ravikesh Tripathi

electronic database which incorporates the approach of asking participants to write

Development of positive traits/strengths mood induction on helping behaviors e.g.

demonstrated to have an impact on the examined as an outcome in a sample of

quite variable across studies. In terms of the disadvantaged/advantaged groups.

understanding associations between Abstracts International Section A: Humanities

Nathawat, S. S.; Joshi, U. (1997). The effect of paradoxical communication. Journal of

progressing small-scale industrial Thomas, L. E., & Chambers, K. O. (1989).

© Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology

Emotional Intelligence and Life Satisfaction: Re-examining the

Schutte et al. Emotional Intelligence (SEIS; clarity of feelings component of emotional

Table 2. Pearson’s correlations of the variables (N = 286 to 300)

of emotional intelligence found in NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)

Nutankumar S.Thingujam, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of

© Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology

Personality, Emotional Intelligence and Marital Satisfaction of

Depression – .27 – .16 – .30