Cereal and Cereal Products: Imran Pasha and Aamir Shehzad

Chapter 2
Cereal and Cereal Products
Imran Pasha and Aamir Shehzad*
Abstract
Cereals are the annually grown monocots belonging to the family Poaceae,
cultivated and consumed across the globe. They form the base of food guide
pyramid and are the most acceptable food source for low income communities
owing to their easy accessibility and low price. Some of the cultivated cereal grains
include wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, millet, oat, barley and rye. These are splendid
source of carbohydrates, proteins, essential nutrients and various bioactive
moieties. Drying and storage of grains are some of the pre-processing parameters
which play a key role in sustaining the end product quality. Grains are consumed
after cleaning, tempering and processing into flour, grits, flakes etc. via hammer
and roller milling. Grain and flour quality affects the end product properties hence
analysed through different assays to assess for physical (grain hardness, colour,
1000 kernel weight) chemical (moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash) and
rheological (farinograph, mixograph, rapid visco amylograph) parameters. Cereals
are employed in numerous products such as breads, biscuits, cakes, bagels,
breakfast cereals and extruded products.
Keywords: Cereals, cereals morphology, composition, storage, milling, quality
tests, cereal products.
2.
*
Imran Pasha˧ and Aamir Shehzad
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
˧
Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Tahir Zahoor and Masood Sadiq Butt
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
40 I. Pasha and A. Shehzad
2.1. Introduction
The word “cereal” originates from Roman name “ceres” and depicts the grain or
edible kernel of grass family Poaceae (McKevith 2004). Cereals are staple food for
human and cultivated on almost 60% of the agriculture land all over the world
(Saulnier et al. 2007). Some of the domesticated cereal grains include wheat, rice,
maize, sorghum, millet, barley, oat and rye. Among these wheat, rye and barley are
closer members of the subfamily Pooideae and the tribus Triticeae while oat is a
remote member of the Triticeae (Zohray and Hopf 2000). Rice, corn, sorghum and
millet demonstrate distant developmental lines. Domesticated wheat includes five
distinct types: hexaploid bread and spelt wheat (genome AABBDD), tetraploid
emmer and durum wheat (AABB), and the diploid einkorn (AA). The essential
chromosomal number in Triticum and its allied species are x=7 while the
undomesticated species are diploids (2n = 2x = 14) with genome designation AA
(T. monococcum), DD (T. tauschii) and SS (T. speltoides) (Dvorak et al. 1998). The
seed of cereals are commonly termed as “kernel” or “grain” with variable weight
ranging from 350 mg (corn grain) to 8 mg (oat grain) and uniform features; bran
enclosing germ and endosperm.
Composition analysis of cereal grains shows that it consists of 12-14 % moisture,
65-75 % carbohydrates, 7-12 % protein and 2-6 % lipids. All the cereals are quite
similar in gross composition being low in protein and high in carbohydrates while
vary in lipids and fiber content. Carbohydrates are present mainly in the form of
starch and nonstarch polysaccharides (pentosans, β glucan, cellulose etc.). The
amino acid profiling of different cereals divulges that lysine is the limiting amino
acid in all grains, while methionine is particularly deficient in wheat, rye, barley
and oat. The knowledge of genetics has been proven helpful in this regard by the
development of high-lysine barley and corn varieties (Kohler and Wieser 2013).
Lipids content of the cereals are very low; however, difference exist among
different grains i.e., oats and maize contain relatively large amounts of lipids. Oats
contain at least 10 % lipids, one-third of which are polar lipids (phospholipids and
galactolipids) while the lipid content of maize ranges between 0.4 to 17 %, most of
which are triacylglycerides. Cereal grains also contain substantial level of oleic (10-
40%) and linoleic acid (40-60%). Different cultivars of a given type of cereals
exhibit compositional variability (Belitz et al. 2009). Cereals are also a promising
source of valuable phytochemical compounds such as phagopyritols, phytosterols,
saponins, tannins and squalene (Berghofer and Schoenlechner 2002). The main
bioactive components present in the kernel of cereals are phenolic compounds,
phytosterols, tocols, lignans, alkylresorcinols, phytic acid, γ-oryzanols,
avenanthramides, cinamic acid, ferulic acid, inositols and betaine (Okarter and Liu
2010). Among all the cereals, sorghum and millet are the richest one with
diversified phenolics. Phenolic acids are present in both free and bound form, in the
outer layer of pericarp of cereal grains and esterified to bran potion, respectively.
The major phenolic acids in cereals are ferulic acids and p- coumaric acid (Mattila
et al. 2005).
All these nutrients are embedded in different parts of kernel; endosperm is splendid
source of carbohydrate and proteins, lipids are mostly present in germ portion while
2. Cereal and Cereal Products 41
minerals, vitamins and other phytochemical moieties are present in bran and
aleurone layers, respectively (Fincher and Stone 1986). Thus, to gain an insight, the
chapter elucidates the comprehensive composition of the cereal grains as they are a
prime source of eatables across the world hence require proper storage with
subsequent drying and milling. Quality of grains ultimately affects the end product
quality therefore; a wide range of physical, chemical and rheological test has been
established to examine the storage conditions, milling parameters and product
quality. These grains have been exploited for a broad spectrum of products
including leavened as well as unleavened cereal products.
2.2. Morphology of Cereals

The embryo or germ of cereal grains is enclosed in a fragile structure being rich in
protein and enclose the new-fangled plant. A special packing of cells known as
scutellum differentiate the germ from endosperm and play a key role in providing
energy to the germinating seeds. The endosperm is composed of thin-walled cells
which are packed within starch granules. Each cereal grain has specific layers of
aleurone cells surrounding the endosperm; wheat, maize, sorghum, oat and rye
constitute one cell layer while rice and barley possess three cell layers. The pericarp
originating from the ovary of flower constitutes the outer layers of grain and
encases seed coat while the external thick walled structure forms the bran. The
spikelets constitute the ear or spike of grain. In Poaceae, pericarp and seed coat are
present in combined form. Thus, this type of fruit is a typical feature of cereals and
botanically termed as caryopsis. Cereal flowers develop into a dry and monocot
fruits, known as “grain” or “kernel”. There is a great diversity in the weight and
size of the grains e.g. corn grain is about 350 mg while millet grain is ~9 mg (Evers
and Miller 2002).
2.2.1. Wheat
Wheat Triticum aestivum L. belongs to the family Poaceae, subfamily Pooideae
and tribe Triticeae. It has various synonyms and common names as wheat, bread
wheat and common wheat. Bread wheat is an allohexaploid (6x), that has 21 pairs
of chromosomes (2n = 42) during meiotic cell division. These chromosomes are
further categorized into 3 closely connected (homologous) set of chromosomes
designated as the A, B and D genomes. These homologous groups usually include 7
pairs of chromosomes (AABBDD) (Dvorak et al. 1998; Haudry et al. 2007).
Wheat kernel termed as “caryopsis” constitutes bran (12-14%), germ (2-3%) & the
endosperm (83%). The bran is made up of pericarp, testa and the aleurone layers.
The endosperm and germ are separated by the scutellum. The kernel is normally 5-
9mm long, has an average weight of 35-50mg and possesses a crease on one side of
grain from where it is initially joined to the flower. The cells present in the bran
and aleurone layers are composed of live protoplast and these are rich in proteins &
enzymes. These nutrient dense cell layers have a crucial role during the
germination process (Belderok et al. 2000).
2.2.2. Rice
Rice is the second largest produced cereal crop after maize across the globe.
Botanically it is known as Oryza sativa L. and belongs to the tribe oryzeae.
Oryzeae includes 12 genera and about 22 species. Among them, 20 species are wild
and 2 Oryza sativa &Oryza glaberrima are grown for food purposes. Rice has
diploid (2n=24) or tetraploid genome (4n=48) and designated as AA and BBCC
(Brar and Khush 2003). The caryopsis of rice grain is 5-12mm long & 2-3mm
thick, doesn’t have a crease and comprises of glumes, endosperm and embryo
(Vaughan and Marishima 2003). Awns are present at the tips of the grain in some
cultivars. These may become a hurdle in dehusking so must be removed prior to
dehulling (Vaughan et al. 2003). Li et al. (2000) illustrated caryopsis (brown rice)
and hull as main parts of the kernel. Hull weight is approximately 20% of the whole
kernel weight and composed of lemma and palea. Caryopsis constitutes the germ
(2-3%), endosperm (89-94%) and numerous thin layers of distinguished cells such
as; the pericarp (2%) and the seed coat (5%). The seed coat (bran) constitutes six
layers of tissues in which the aleurone layer is the innermost. The main part of rice
kernel is endosperm which is composed of starch, protein, fat, sugar, crude fiber
and total ash. The starch granules are embedded in the protein matrix. Rice
varieties vary in their kernel length, width and thickness (Moldenhauer and
Gibbons 2003).
2.2.3. Maize
Maize ((Zea mays L.) is an economical source of energy in the form of biofuel and
an easily accessible resource of animal feed and its products like starch, which is
utilized in numerous valuable industrial purposes (Macrae et al. 1993; Fast and
Caldwell 2000). Maize belongs to the tribe Andropogoneae having 86 genera with
Zea including 5 species with haploid number of chromosomes 2x=2n=20 and the
genome is designated as AA (Ellneskog et al. 2007). There is a great diversity
among the corn cultivars regarding the composition of endosperm and kernels. The
four commercially important classes of maize include, firstly, dent maize
(identified by hard endosperm on sides & base of the kernel and when dried dent
produces on the top due to contraction of soft endosperm, grown for silage)
secondly, flint maize (hard endosperm with a small soft centre, use as food),
thirdly, sweet corn (dent type maize with elevated level of moisture & sugars) and
fourthly, popcorn (flint type maize i.e. hard endosperm which expands upon
heating) (Paliwal 2000)
The maize grain is composed of four parts as: the germ, the pericarp, the
endosperm and the tip cap. Corn is a monocotyledonous grain and constitutes a
single seeded fruit along with some loosely attached layers of the seed coat and
nucellus. The grain is connected to the ear through the pedicel which remains
attached to the bottom of the kernel. Maize kernel constitutes 5-6% of the pericarp,
10-14% germ while the remaining part is the endosperm (Liu et al. 2007).
2.2.4. Barley
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) belonging to tribe Triticeae is a cool season, fast
growing, primitive cereal crop commonly cultivated for food, feed and brewing
purpose (Hughes and Baxter 2001). Hordeum is unusual in the aspect that it has
both annual and perennial species i.e. H. Vulgare and H. marinum are annual while
H. bulbosom is perennial. The genus hordeum includes 32 species all having 7
number of chromosomes (x=7) with diploid (2n=2x=14), tetraploid (2n=4x=28)
and hexaploid (2n=6x=42) species (Komatsuda et al. 1999; Von Bothmer et al.
1999). Barley has a great diversity in its types; two and six rowed barley, hulled
and naked barley. The floret of a barley plant has a spike at the top of the stem and
it composes of 2-6 rows of fertile spikelets which ultimately develop into mature
caryopsis. A layer of cells termed as husk is present as outer layer of grain and
compose of lemma & palea. The hull of grain is tightly bound to its pericarp. The
kernel is composed of pericarp, seed coat, germ, aleurone layers and endosperm.
Two to three layers of cells are present in the aleurone layers with some varieties
having coloured aleurone (blue) layers (Kumar and Goh 2000).
2.2.5. Sorghum
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour L. Moench) is a temperate climate crop, belonging to
the tribe Andropogoneae. Bicolour is most pronounced genera having 25 species
which are further categorized into five subspecies as bicolour, guinea, caudatum,
kafirin and durra. Sorghum is unable to tolerate low temperature conditions but has
moderate resistance towards serious pests and diseases (Zohary and Hopf 2000). It
possesses diploid and tetraploid number of chromosomes (2n=2x=20; 2n=4x=48).
Sorghum grain is spherical in shape and weighs about 20-30 mg. Development of
seed occurs in three stages: milk dough, early dough & late dough. It is usually
classified based on its end use as: (1) grain sorghum; (2) forage sorghum; (3) grass
sorghum; (4) Sudan sorghums and broomcorn (Serna and Rooney 1994). Sorghum
grains are also classified based on their distinguishing characteristics such as:
pericarp colour and thickness, colour of testa, colour and type of endosperm. The
caryopsis of sorghum grain is composed of three parts: pericarp (7.9%), germ
(9.8%) and endosperm (82.3%). Some varieties have hard endosperm while others
have soft. The endosperm provides required nutrients to the germinating seedlings.
Pericarp of the kernel constitutes three different layers such as epicarp, mesocarp
and endocarp. Along with seed coat, grains have another small cap called as
“glume”. Sorghum varieties vary based on colour of seed coat and glume, although
removed through dehulling but sometimes may present in flour and affect its
colour. These colour components include certain phytochemicals i.e. condensed
tannins that may exert some beneficial role such as an antioxidant or lower
digestibility of protein and iron (Rooney and McDonough 1987; Macrae et al.
1993).
2.2.6. Millet
Millet comprises of several divergent species that are annual cereal grasses with
small rounded grains (Macrae et al. 1993). Among all the diversified species, the
most significant is the pearl millet botanically known as pennisetum glaucumand

tribe paniceae. Some other minor species of millet include finger millet (Eleusine
coracana), porso millet (Panicum scorbiculatum) and foxtail millet (Digitaria
exilis). Millet is not as much essential as other cereal grains in terms of global food
production whereas, human consumption accounts about less than 1 % of all the
cereal grains (Andrews and Kumar 1992). It possesses tetraploid number of
chromosomes 2n=4x=36. The caryopsis weighs about 9 mg and comprises of
pericarp, germ and endosperm. The germ constitutes 17% of the kernel while the
remaining part is the endosperm (Rooney and McDonough1987).
2.2.7. Rye
Rye botanically termed as Secale cereale L. is a member Poaceae in the tribe
Triticeae. Cereale possess diploid number of chromosome as 2n=2x=14.It is
usually employed in bread making, brewing and animal feed. The kernel is mostly
hull less and has crease just like wheat grain but is longer and thinner than wheat.
The caryopsis encloses the bran, germ and endosperm (~86% of the grain) with
bran comprising the pericarp and the seed coat and constitutes about 10% of the
grain (Shewry and Bechtel 2001).
2.2.8. Oat
Oat (Avena sativa L.) belongs to tribe Aveneae in the family Poaceae. It includes 3
pronounced species with chromosome number as 2n=2x=14 in the diploid species,
2n=4x=28 in the tetraploids, and 2n=6x=42 in the hexaploid species. The caryopsis
is enclosed by the glumes (hull; layer of lemma and palea) that remain attached to
it. Hull constitutes 25% of the total kernel weight. The caryopsis is termed as
“groat”, which constitutes about 65 to 85 % of the kernel and enclosed by pericarp,
seed coat and aleurone cells of the bran. One third part of the groat is covered by
germ, other is the endosperm. The oat groat is rich in fat and protein as compared to
the other cereals (Kent and Evers 1994).
2.2.9. Pseudo Cereals

Along with the cereal grains, some promising cereal lik e grains termed as pseudo
cereals are also gaining momentum owing to their starchy endosperm, belongs to
the family Chenopodiaceae with three grains i.e. quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa),
amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum)
as mentioned in the “International AACC list of recognized grains”. Pseudo cereals
belong to the dicot family and have resemblance to cereal crops in terms of their
chemical composition and functional properties possessing splendid nutritional
components of proteins, minerals and vitamins. Thus, can be a good source of
alternative crops to supplement food products for enhancing their nutritive value
(Brennan et al. 2012). Several phylogenetic classifications depict that Amaranthus
and Chenopodium genus belongs to Caryphyllales while Fagopyrum belongs to
Polygonales (Drzewiecki et al. 2003). The scanning electron micrograph of these
grains reveals that they are smaller in size as compared to the cereal grains and the
embryo is enveloped in a layer of starchy tissue termed as perisperm (Alvarez-
Jubete et al. 2010). The heath promoting components known as “bioactive

moieties” are an essential constituents of pseudo cereals such as phagopyritols,
phytosterols, polyphenols, saponins and squalene (Berghofer and Schoenlechner
2002).
The diversified chemical composition of these grains makes them suitable for
functional properties such as the high amylopectin content makes them stable
towards freezing, thawing and retrogradation. Likewise, amaranth protein
concentrates exhibit better solubility, foaming and emulsifying properties (Fidantsi
and Doxastakis 2001). These are now considered as a well-known source of gluten
free cereals. Quinoa and amaranth are used for the development of a wide variety of
gluten free cereal products (Taylor and Parker 2002).
2.3. Chemical Composition of Cereals

Cereal crops are usually consumed as a staple diet across the globe. In addition to
their food uses these are consumed as animal feed and non-renewable energy
source in the form of biofuel & bioethanol. Cereals have great variability in their
chemical composition like all other food groups. Compositional analysis of cereal
grain has revealed the presence of essential nutrients for a balance diet such as
protein, dietary fiber and lipid (Fincher and Stone 1986; Truswell 2002). These
components also affect the end use quality of cereal grains in food and feed.
Cereals are the energy packets constituting all the macro and micronutrients in a
well-defined ratio. On dry matter basis, carbohydrates (56-74%) are the major
constituents followed by proteins (8-11%), lipids (2-4%) and minerals and vitamins
(1-3%), respectively (Table 2.1). The components are in different parts of cereal
grains such as endosperm is the source of starch and protein while dietary fiber,
minerals and vitamins are mostly present in germ and bran, respectively varying
among different cereals in their respective varieties (Wrigley and Batey 2010).
Table 2.1 Chemical Composition of Cereal grains

Components Wheat Rice Corn Barley Oat Millet Rye
Moisture (%) 12.6 13.0 11.3 12.1 13.1 12.0 13.6
Protein (%) 11.3 7.7 8.8 11.1 10.8 10.5 9.4
Carbohydrates (%) 59.4 73.7 65.0 62.7 56.2 68.2 60.3
Lipids (%) 1.8 2.2 3.8 2.1 7.2 3.9 1.7
Fiber (%) 13.2 2.2 9.8 9.7 9.8 3.8 13.1
Minerals (mg/kg) 1.7 1.2 1.3 2.3 2.9 1.6 1.9
Vit B2 (mg/kg) 0.9 0.9 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.1 1.7
Vit B6 (mg/kg) 2.7 2.8 4.0 5.6 9.6 5.2 2.3
Folic acid (mg/kg) 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.4 1.4
Vit E (mg/kg) 14.0 19.0 26.0 22.0 15.0 4.0 16.0
Panthothenic acid 12.0 17.0 6.5 6.8 7.1 14.0 15.0
(mg/kg)
Source: Lasztity (1998), Hansen et al. (2004), Jaroslav et al. (2007), Belitz et al. (2009)
2.3.1. Carbohydrates
In cereal grains, 66-76% of their weight is carbohydrates that are a diverse group
composed of major and minor nutrient; starch (55-70%) and other non-starch
polysaccharides (NSP). Arabinoxylans (1.5–8.0%) and β-glucans (0.5-7.0%) while
oligosaccharides in the form of glucofructans (~1-3%) are the key examples
(Goesaert et al. 2005).
2.3.1.1. Starch
It is the main storage carbohydrate of cereal grains and has diversified functional
and nutritional properties especially in bread and other baked products (Zeeman
et al. 2010). Starch is basically a polysaccharide composed of glucose subunits that
are held together by α, 1-4 & 1-6 glycosidic linkages. It is a hetero polymer with
two distinct polymer chains termed as amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a
linear polymer having α, 1-4 linkage with a degree of polymerization (DP) of 1000-
1500 glucose residues. Amylopectin is a branched polymer with α 1-4 and 1-6
bonding. Starch is present in the form of granules in the endosperm of different
cereals with variable size such as rice starch granule has a diameter of 5 μm and
wheat has 25-40 μm, shape (large, small, round or spherical) and content of
amylose and amylopectin fractions of starch. Generally, cereal starches consist of
25-28% amylose and 72-75% amylopectin, while their mutant genotypes have
varied amylose/amylopectin ratio. “Waxy” varieties may contain up to 100%
amylopectin level whereas “high amylose” cultivars have very high amylose (70%)
content. Variability in the ratio of amylose/amylopectin can alter their functional
attributes. High amylose starches have more resistant starch content than normal
cultivars and have physiological function as they resist the action of digestive
enzymes and act as dietary fiber (Hizukuri 1996; Van Hung et al. 2006). The
fraction of dietary starch that is not hydrolysed by the endogenous enzymes of
human intestine is called as the resistant starch (RS). Four different types of
resistant starches; Type 1(RS1) physically inaccessible starch, Type 2 (RS2) native
starch granules, Type 3 (RS3) retrograded starch and Type 4 (RS4) chemically
modified starches have been classified by Englyst et al. (1992). RS has been
recognized as a splendid substrate for the fermentation of microorganisms present
in the colon and is valuable due to its high levels of short chain fatty acid
production. Animal trials have shown that resistant starch has been found effective
against colon cancer by lowering the pH in the colon which ultimately inhibits the
production of injurious by-products of protein fermentation (Koo et al. 2010).
Regarding the carbohydrates content of pseudo cereals, these enclose fewer
amounts of mono and oligosaccharides but rich in starch content. The granules of
starch are small in diameter usually in the range of 1-8 μm with amylose content of
about 3-20% (Lindeboom et al. 2005).
2.3.1.2. Non-starch polysaccharides (NSP)
The carbohydrate polymers except starch which make up the outer covering of
cereal grains are termed as Non-Starch Polysaccharides (NSP). As present in bran
so a higher extraction rate is related with an elevated level of NSP (Meuser and
Suckow 1986). Nutritionally, NSP are termed as dietary fiber, these carbohydrate
polymers of plant origin which remain intact in human digestive tract (Bermink
1994). There are two types of dietary fiber which differ based on their solubility.
The components of dietary fiber that are water soluble are called as soluble dietary
fiber and comprises of pectic substances and hydrocolloids while the components
that are insoluble in water are known as insoluble dietary fiber and consist of
lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose. Arabinoxylans (AX) and β-glucans (soluble
dietary fiber) are key elements of cereal grain endosperm such as wheat, barley,
oat, rye etc. (Blackwood et al. 2000).
i) Arabinoxylans (AX)
All the cereal species possess varied quantity of AX as the highest contents exist in
rye (6-8%) while wheat grain has only 1.5-2.0%. AX is composed of β, 1-4, d –
xylopyranosyl subunits as a linear polymer along with substitution of α -l
arabinofuranose at the O-2 and/or O-3-positions (Izydorczyk and Biliaderis1995).
Ferulic acid is a minor element of AX which is attached to arabinose through an
ester linkage at the O-5 position. All the cereals differ substantially in their AX
content, molecular weight and pattern of substitution (Maes and Delcour 2002). AX
is generally classified in two subgroups based on their extraction in aqueous media
as a water-extractable (WEAX) and a water un-extractable fraction (WUAX). Total
WEAX in wheat and rye are 25-30% and 15-25%, respectively (Meuser and
Suckow 1986).
ii) β-glucans
β-glucans also known as lichenin are the principal non-starch polysaccharides in
barley (3-7%) and oats (3.5-5.0%) while > 2% exist in other cereal grains
(Lethonen and Aikasalo 1987). The basic monomers in β-glucan are D-glucose
chains connected through mixed β,1-3 & β,1-4 glyosidic linkages. β-glucan is
comparatively flexible with an asymmetrical shape caused by the two above
mentioned different bonds in the polymer (Izydorczyk and Dexter 2008). β-glucans
illustrate higher aqueous solubility as compared to AX (38-69% in barley, 65-90%
in oats) and subsequently lead to the formation of viscous solution.
Epidemiological studies have depicted the hypoglycaemic and hypocholestrolmic
potential as well as immune stimulatory activity of β-glucan via fermentation of
colon microflora (Liu 2003). Furthermore, β-glucan content of cereal grains depend
upon its genotype and is considered as an essential functional component of food
that can be enhanced by plant biotechnology (McKevith 2004).
2.3.2. Proteins
Protein is regarded as one of the imperative nutrient for the physiological activities
of human. Cereal grains diverge greatly in their protein content due to variation in
genotype, agro climatic conditions etc. Although the proteins are scattered over the
whole grain but their quantity differ within each part of the grain. For example,
germ and aleurone layer of wheat grains holds 30% proteins while endosperm and
bran contain ~13 % and ~7%, respectively (Belitz et al. 2009). Even the protein
content varies among all parts of cereal grain but is mostly embedded in the starchy
endosperm. Regarding the amino acid profile of wheat, rye and barley; glutamine is
present in highest concentration (15-31%) followed by proline (12-14%), leucine

(7-14%) and alanine (4-11%) respectively. Essential amino acids such as
tryptophan (0.2-1.0%), methionine (1.3-2.9%), histidine (1.8-2.2%) and lysine (1.4-
3.3%) are present only at very low levels and thus termed as limiting amino acids
of cereals but now some new varieties have been developed via biotechnology,
such as high-lysine barley and corn (Shewry and Tatham 1990).
2.3.2.1. Osborne fractions
Conventionally, cereal flour proteins are grouped into four types (albumins,
globulins, prolamins and glutelins) on the basis of their solubility and the process of
fractionation as given by Osborne, 1) albumins are soluble in water, 2) globulins
are soluble in dilute salt solutions but do not dissolve in water, 3) prolamins are
categorized as cereal proteins being soluble in aqueous alcohols i.e. 60-70%
ethanol and 4) glutelins are described as proteins being soluble in dilute acids or
bases. However, it has been found that remarkable fraction of glutelins are
insoluble in dilute acids e.g. acetic acid and the primary structure destroy during
extraction in alkaline media. Currently, a mixture of different solvents including
alcohols (50% propanol), reducing agents (dithiothreitol) and disaggregating
compounds (urea) are being employed for its extraction (Osborne 1907).
Most of the albumins and globulins are considered as metabolic proteins based on
their functionality for example, enzymes/enzyme inhibitors, while oats are an
exception that possess substantial levels of legume like globulins e.g., 12S globulin
(Peterson 1978). These metabolic proteins mostly reside in the aleurone layer, bran
and germ while present at very low concentration in the endosperm. Albumin and
globulins are present in lesser concentration than the storage proteins with an
exception of oat globulins that exist about 50% of the total proteins. Their nutrition
profile reveals that amino acid composition of metabolic proteins is rich in lysine
contents. The enzymes included in metabolic proteins are capable to hydrolyse
carbohydrates and proteins and hence fulfil the energy requirements of embryo
during germination (Kruger and Reed 1988).
Along with enzymes, enzyme inhibitors are also a part of metabolic proteins. Many
researchers have segregated and illustrated enzyme inhibitors from germ and
endosperm. Usually, the inhibitors target the hydrolysing enzymes to avert the
extensive break down of starch and proteins during the developmental stages of
grain and also protect & defend plant tissues from animal (insect) or microbial
enzymes (Lasztity 1984). Predominant classes are amylase and protease inhibitors
which are concentrated in the albumin/globulin fractions. Amylase inhibitors can
be directed towards both cereal and non-cereal amylases while protease inhibitors
directed towards proteases from both cereals and animals. Some inhibitors appear
to be bifunctional inhibiting amylases as well as proteases (Delcour and Roosney
2010).
Prolamins and glutelins are the primary storage proteins of cereal grains embedded
in the starchy endosperm and provide nitrogen and amino acids to the young
seedling during the process of germination and their concentration vary from 70 to
90% based on total protein content. But some cereals have an exception such as oat
and rice in which prolamins are present in minute quantity (Shewry and Tatham
1990). The Osborne fractions of all proteins is a mixture of complex proteins rather
than a single fraction. The prolamin fractions of the diverse cereals have been
classified according to their trivial names such as: wheat (gliadin), rice (oryzin)
(Mandac and Juliano 1978), corn (zein) (Wilson 1991), barley (hordein), oats
(avenin) (Peterson 1978), millet & sorghum (kafirin) (Shull et al. 1991) and rye
(secalin) (Gellrich et al. 2005). Similarly, the glutelin fractions of wheat, corn,
barley and rye are known as glutenin, zeanin, hordenin and secalinin, respectively.
The prolamin and glutelin fraction of wheat proteins are collectively known as
gluten (Wieser et al. 2006).
Along with its quantitative features, Osborne procedure is also employed in the
preparation and characterization of flour proteins and the enrichment of different
protein types. Amino acid profile, sequence, molecular weight and inter & intra-
chain S-S linkages of storage proteins (prolamins and glutelins) have been broadly
explored. These investigations revealed that the storage proteins of wheat, barley
and rye are closely related according to their phylogeny while oat glutelins are
structurally different (Kohler and Wieser 2000). According to two different
principles, storage proteins have been categorized into three groups on the basis of
their structure. Shewry and Tatham (1990) defined all storage proteins as prolamins
based on their molecular weight and sulphur content as high-molecular-weight
(HMW), sulphur rich (S-rich) and sulphur poor (S-poor) prolamins.
The prolamins are also categorized based on their electrophoretic mobility in acid-
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) with band region termed as a / b
(highest mobility), g (medium mobility) and w (lowest mobility). Their
nomenclature is also based on their apparent size by employing sodium dodecyl
sulphate (SDS- PAGE) e.g. HMW and MW-glutenin subunits (GS), HMW-
secalins, D-, C- and B-hordeins (Shewry and Tatham 1990).
Storage proteins present in rice, maize, sorghum and millet depict similarity among
each other while on the other hand these grains illustrate a significant difference
from wheat, barley, oat and rye. Regarding the amino acid composition of these
storage proteins, these possess higher level of leucine and other hydrophobic amino
acids and less quantity of proline and glutamine (Hamaker et al. 1995). Corn
storage proteins, called zeins, are classified into four groups based on structure
(Tatham et al. 1985). Alpha zeins are the main subgroup comprising of the 71-85%
of total zeins, followed by gamma zeins having 10-20% of total zeins and beta-
zeins and delta zeins with 1-5% of the total zeins, respectively (Esen 1987).
Considering the molecular weight of all these fractions revealed that alpha zeins
have an apparent molecular weight of 19,000Da and 22,000D as determined by
SDS-PAGE while gamma zeins have 10,000D to 27,000D MW, beta zeins and
delta zeins possess 18,000D and 10,000D MW, respectively (Wilson 1991).
The prolamins of sorghum and millet are termed as kafirins and based on solubility,
molecular weight and structure these are subdivided into alpha, beta, gamma and
delta subgroups (Watterson et al. 1993). Among all these sub categories, alpha
kafirins constitutes about 65-85% of the total kafirins and represents as the main
subclass of total kafirins. Other sub groups comprise of > 10 % of total kafirins
(Shull et al. 1991). The ratio of prolamins to glutelins (~1:30) is unbalanced in the
storage proteins of rice (Mandac and Juliano 1978). SDS-PAGE patterns of rice
prolamins (oryzins) showed a major band with MW 17,000Da and a minor band
with MW 23,000 Da. The apparent MW of glutelin subunit is in a range from
20,000Da to 38,000Da (Juliano 1985).
Protein quantity and quality both are much improved in the pseudocereals grains.
The most limiting amino acid lysine is in higher content in pseudo cereals as
compare to the cereal grains. Arginine and histidine content is high in amaranth and
quinoa and thus utilized in infant formulas and specialty products for growing
children. Bioavailability in terms of protein efficiency ratio and protein digestibility
is the main indicators employed as determinant of nutritional quality of proteins
and pseudo cereals rank higher in this regards. These are low in prolamins and
probably suitable for celiac disease (Drzewiecki et al. 2003).
2.3.3. Lipids
Lipids exist in minute quantity in cereal grains but have a pronounced impact on
the functional attributes of food by conjugating with protein and starch. They vary
from 1.7% to 7.0% among all the cereals with highest concentration present in
germ followed by aleurone layer and endosperm. Oat is rich in lipids (7%) content
while wheat grain contains ~2% including essential fatty acids (palmitic C16:0 &
linoleic acid C18:2), phytosterols and fat soluble vitamins (Ruibal-Mendieta et al.
2004). Lipids are classified as free lipids, starch lipids and non-starch lipids (NSL)
based on their extraction under specific conditions (Eliasson and Larsson 1993;
Hoseney 1994). NSL constitutes about 75% of the total lipids when extracted with
aqueous butanol at normal temperature.
Fatty acid profile of all cereal grains is similar having 39-69% linoleic acid, 11-
36% oleic acid and 18-28% palmitic acid (Table 2.2) (Delcour and Hoseney 2010).
Triglycerides are present in form of free non-starch lipids and free lipids in germ
and aleurone layer while phospholipids and glycolipids are present in the
endosperm as bound non-starch lipids. Even present in minute quantity but have a
pronounced effect on the baking properties so have been studied comprehensively.
The pseudocereals are rich in fats content as compare to the cereal grains with an
elevated amount of unsaturated fatty acids. Squalene a bioactive compound present
in pseudocereals, is an unsaturated open chain triterpene that is mostly present in
the liver of deep sea fish and other marine species (Lindeboom et al. 2005).
Table: 2.2 Fatty acid Composition of Cereal grains

Cereals 16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3
Wheat 20.5 0.2 1.5 14.5 57.5 4.0
Rice 33.0 0.7 1.6 33.3 42.7 1.6
Maize 12.5 0.3 1.9 29.3 52.9 1.6
Barley 20.5 0.07 1.3 14.9 58.0 4.4
Oat 15.8 0.3 1.7 37.6 38.7 1.5
Millet 8.5 0.2 1.4 23.2 64.4 1.1
Source: Morrison (1978), Ryan et al. (2007), Brindzova et al. (2008), Cho et al. (2008)
2.3.4. Micronutrients
Minerals and vitamins are two categories of micronutrients which are present
mainly in bran, germ and aleurone layers of cereal grains. The mineral content of
cereals ranges from 2 to 5% with the substantial levels of iron, zinc and magnesium
along with trace minerals. Among trace minerals, selenium content is highest in
rice as 10-13 μg/100g. The whole grain flour includes all portions of grain so it will
have more mineral contents as compared to patent flour (Henderson et al. 2003).
Vitamins are present in the range of 1 to 50 mg/kg in cereal grains. Mostly, cereal
grains are deficient in vitamin A and C but have substantial content of vitamin B.
Thus, cereals are a good source of B-group and fulfil about 50-60% of the daily
requirement of B-vitamins. Vitamin E is the most important fat soluble vitamin
present in the form of the tocopherols in range of 14-26 mg/kg in cereal grains. Just
like minerals, vitamins are also present in the outer portion of grains hence, milling
of cereals into patent flour results in loss of most of the vitamins. Therefore, whole
grain products or products enriched or fortified with micronutrients can be more
beneficial for consumers (McKevith 2004).
Pseudocereals are also rich source of micro and macro minerals such as calcium,
potassium, iron and zinc. The ratio of calcium and phosphorous (Ca: P) is
considered best as 1-1.5 while it is about 1.9-2.7 in pseudo grains. Vitamins are
also present in substantial amount in pseudocereals especially the folate content.
Buckwheat possess 24.7 mg/100 g total folate while in amaranth it ranges from 52-
70 mg/100g, on the other hand quinoa possess about 10 times more total folate than
spring wheat as 132.7 mg/100g (Schoenlechner et al. 2010).
2.3.5. Bioactive Components

These are the biochemical compounds that exist in minute quantities in food
matrices and have health promoting properties. In cereals, these phytochemicals are
generally present in bran and germ portion of grains. Phenolic compounds,
phytosterols, tocols, dietary fiber, lignin, phytic acid, cinamic acid, ferulic acid,
oryzanols, carotenoids etc. (Liukkonen et al. 2003). Some of these compounds are
present in specific cereals i.e. oryzanols exist in rice bran, saponins is present in
oat, β-glucan in oat and barley while alkyl resorcinol subsists in rye (Fardet 2010).
The factors that may influence the quantity of all these compounds include nature
of grain cultivars and portion of grain sampled (Adom et al. 2005). Among the
phenolic compounds, phenolic acids and flavonoids are mostly present in whole
grains (Heinio et al. 2008) while considering the carotenoids, lutein has been found
in wheat, followed by zeaxanthin and β cryptoxanthin in rice and maize,
respectively. The most promising characteristic of carotenoids is that these are
equally distributed in kernel with major content in endosperm portion (Konopka
et al. 2004; Saikia and Deka 2011). Phytic acid and saponins are usually present in
bran portion of cereal grains and termed as antinutritional components as phytic
acid binds the mineral elements there by lowering the bioavailability of these
nutrients (Lopez et al. 2002). Yet it has now been recognized for its antioxidative
potential by chelating the free iron and subsequently suppressing the iron catalyzed
oxidative reactions (Graf et al. 1987). Tocols comprise of tocopherols and
tocotrienols and renowned as natural antioxidants in cereal grains (Nielson and

Hansen 2008). β- glucan are the prime component of cell wall of cereals especially
oat and barley. In barley, these are present in endosperm but in oat they usually
reside in aleurone layers (Peter 2007). These bioactive moieties are renowned as an
effective tool to cure various diseases such as hypercholesterolemia, diabetes,
cancer, oxidative stress, cardiovascular disorders etc. (Kris-Etherton et al. 2002).
2.4. Storage of Cereal Grains

Grain quality is generally determined before harvesting because deterioration may
occur during harvest, drying and storage so the quality of grain can only be
improved before harvesting. Certainly, the keeping quality of kernels may instigate
to depreciate in the field before harvest. Agro-climatic conditions such as rainfall
before or during harvesting may promote early diseases and sprouting. Along with
it, high moisture content in grains will require more drying expenses (Bailey 1992).
Delayed harvest of wheat will lead to low protein content, reduced specific weight
and high amylase activity which in turn will lower the grain quality for bread
making. Inferior quality of crop in the field will give poor quality grain and
subsequent end product. Weeds when present along with the grains may obstruct
the harvesting process and results in high moisture content of grains. It also raises
the expenses of cleaning (Evans 2001).
Cereal grains are considered as one of the vital commodities for feeding humanity.
Some of the pre-processing parameters which play a key role in maintaining the
end product quality include drying and storage of grains. Proper storage of grains is
basically done to uphold physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the
harvested grain during the storage period (Bailey 1992). The grains can both
momentarily be stored on the farm after subsequent harvesting or depart to the
collection centre directly, from where these are transported to bigger storage
facilities. The techniques for sustaining the value of cereal grains are being
employed since prehistoric ages but deterioration is still observed (Bell and
Armitage 1992).
Storage is related to a wide range of chemical and biological hazards such as
sprouting, microbial spoilage, insects and rodents infestation. Appropriate storage
is crucial to reduce the postharvest losses with some of its critical factors such as;
moisture content, temperature and duration of storage (Richard 2003). Elevated
level of moisture in cereal grains during storage creates a favourable environment
for the propagation of mold growth as well as insect infestation and enhanced rate
of respiration. Being a living commodity, when the grains respire they increase the
temperature of storage bin and this may ultimately affect the quality of grains.
Proper ventilation can be an appropriate method by which the excess heat is
expelled from the storage area and ultimately reduced the insect infestation (Reed
2006).
2.4.1. Drying of Cereals

Drying is a preliminary step before storage with an aim to eradicate excess
moisture from grains and for the purpose; air has been recognized as an appropriate
medium. The parameters of drying air which must be considered for the
development of a suitable drying method includes; drying temperature, relative
humidity, the specific volume and specific enthalpy. The rate of drying depends
upon the drying of individual seed (Brook 1992). Generally, the size and moisture
loss represent inverse relation i.e., small grains dried earlier then the large ones.
Similarly, naked kernels also dry easily than those having husk around them. Maize
kernel is the largest among all the cereal grains so it will take more time for drying.
On the other hand, when wheat and rice are considered, wheat grain will dry more
easily then the rice kernel owing to the presence of husk in rice grain (Reed 2006).
A wide variety of low to high temperature driers may be employed for drying. High
temperature drier removes moisture from the grains rapidly and destroy insects.
These have less time of contact with grains but it can also negatively influence the
properties when not applied properly such as the thermal denaturation of protein.
Natural drying processes have also been exploited such as wind and solar driers
e.g., corncobs. Some of the naturally present modified storage atmosphere
comprises of underground storage and silos blushing with gases such as nitrogen
(Delcour and Hoseney 2010).
Cereal grains have moisture content of about 16 to 20% at the time of harvest. This
elevated level of moisture content makes them susceptible to microbial
deterioration. So, for suitable storage the grain must be dried up to the moisture
level of 13 to 15%, while when the barley is to utilize for malt preparation it can be
dried to 12%. Drying systems either depend on normal or high temperature of air as
drying medium. The former is a comparatively slow method in which ambient air is
forced through the grain chamber for drying (Fan et al. 1976). The driers having the
batch or continuous flow of air use air at the temperature 40 to 120ºC followed by
cool air to remove excess heat and vapours from the grains for appropriate storage.
As moisture and heat are the crucial factors for grain storage so these should be
controlled to avoid any damage to the grains. Low temperature and moisture should
be maintained in storage premises to control microbial infestation. Usually in
developing countries crib and bag type storage is applied for maize cobs at small
farms but these are now being substituted by bulk storage all over the world (Reed
2006).
2.4.2. Methods of Storage

2.4.2.1. Crib Storage
Crib storage is an obsolete method of grain storage especially ear maize, but still
practiced with proper ventilation and moisture content of 20-25 % for clean grains
in moderate climate. When it should be applied in warm and humid areas proper
fumigation is applied to cribs for control of insect damage during storage. Suitable
aeration is a key factor that can take away 3-5% of moisture from stored grains and
if the method is applied for high moisture grains (> 25%) it should then be
equipped with automatic aeration system (Hall 1957).
2.4.2.2. Bag Storage

This type of storage is also applied to small scale level of storage yet has its own
importance such as; easy to carry and transport, each individual lot with specific
identity does not require any specific equipment and can be stacked under suitable
shelter. But it requires labour efforts so can be expensive in areas with high labour
cost (Bell and Armitage 1992). Bags made of different materials such as jute,
cotton, hemp etc. are usually utilized for storage but these are unable to provide
protection against deterioration factors. On the other hand, bags prepared from
polypropylene offer better mechanical strength and protect entry of rodents but
these may add extra cost and are also vulnerable to UV radiation deterioration.
Although these provide high mechanical strength but cannot be piled up more than
3m due to the slippery nature of polypropylene. Jute bags give better opportunity in
this regard and can be piled up to 6 m in storage premises (Bailey 1992).
2.4.2.3. Bulk Storage
i) Vertical Storage
This type of storage is applied for bulk storage of grains with proficient expulsion
from the concrete silos under the action of gravity. For the proper construction of
vertical type silos, an appropriate layout is the key factor under consideration. The
concrete silos or steel bins have variable holding capacity that depends upon the
bulk density of stored grains. Each vertical type of storage facilities has its own
benefits and disadvantages such as the concrete silos have more durability, large
storage capacity, less maintenance and water condensation issue (Fan et al. 1976).
However, these also have some disadvantages; large setup cost, more manufacture
time then steel bins. While steel bins have flexibility in the fitting of ventilation
equipment and temperature sensors. Both the steel bins and concrete silos vary in
the thickness of their walls such as 150 mm for concrete silo and 5 mm for steel
bins, respectively and ultimately differ in volume with same outside diameter e.g., a
30 m x 5 m steel bin has 12 % more capacity than a concrete silo. The main
drawback of steel bin is rusting, so the bin must be galvanized and all the nuts and
bolts should also be properly painted to avoid appearance of rust spots (Boumas
1985).
ii) Horizontal Storage
Along with vertical type silos and bins, horizontal sheds and ware houses are also
an effective storage method for large scale storage. Although it is quite difficult to
pour and remove grains from these warehouses and need high labour efforts but
have low initial construction cost as compared to the vertical type silos. These
sheds also require proper aeration and is usually less uniform than vertical silos so
the air flow is adjusted at higher rate i.e. 0.05 m3/min/ton (Boumas 1985).
iii) Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage
Basically, this type of storage is designed based on variation in the gaseous
condition of the storage equipment. This alteration may be due to the respiration of
grains as they are a live commodity and thus consequently change the level of gases
(reduces the O2 and increases the CO2). This can also be devised artificially through
infusing gases such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide in the storage premises. This type
of storage is observed in conventional underground cavity storage in which the
concentration of oxygen decreases from 0.5 to 0.2% while carbon dioxide increases
from 45-50%, respectively. The change in atmosphere creates an inhibitory effect
on microbial infestation and is usually practiced in some regions especially in
Africa (Busta et al. 1980). Nitrogen generators are used for infusing the gas in
sealed premises and this storage type is mostly employed for long term storage of
grains. The moisture content of grains must be in range of 12-14% for controlled
atmosphere storage. Nitrogen gas is lethal for life and permeation of pure nitrogen
can destroy any form of microbes present in the storage facilities. There is a
problem of nitrogen leakage from the premises so it is applied along with oxygen
such as 97% to 99% N2 and 0.5% to 4% O2. The lethal effect of nitrogen depends
upon species of microbes or insects, storage temperature and moisture content.
Sometimes carbon dioxide is also used for CA storage alongside nitrogen (Banks
and Sharp 1979).
iv) Chilled Storage
High temperature provides the most favourable environment for the deterioration of
grain quality. Thus, to keep the grains intact, chilled storage is an appropriate
method that uses low temperature conditions and is favourable in cold regions such
as tropical areas. For the purpose, a chiller or a mechanical refrigeration unit is used
that may lower the temperature and humidity ratio of air to the desired level and
then enters the chilled air to the storage premises (Sulzer 1993).
2.4.3. Nutritional Changes During Storage

Nutritional attributes of cereal grains may alter during storage even though these
changes will be very minute. The quality of grains will deteriorate when the storage
environment has high moisture content as it favours the enzymatic activity of grain
& microbes consequently leads to the breakdown of starch (Macrae et al. 1993).
The presence of favourable conditions such as elevated temperature and moisture
activates the lipolysis of unsaturated fatty acid and thus causes rancidity in grains.
However, a little or no change occurs in protein and micronutrient content of cereal
grains even if stored for up to 6 months in disinfected conditions. On the other
hand, proper storage is also necessary to enhance the milling yield and cooking
characteristic of rice grains as their expansion ratio increase during cooking after
appropriate storage. To improve the cooking characteristics and eating quality of
rice grains they should be stored for 3 to 4 months (Pomeranz 1984).
2.5. Milling of Cereals

Cereals are the major reserve of energy in human diet and require proper processing
before consumption (Owens et al. 1997). Depending upon the size & availability of
the grains, grinding is the most appropriate processing method for proper utilization
and nutrient retention. The fundamental principles involve in particle size reduction
are; Compression, Impact, Attrition and Shear. The grinding tools utilize these
principles in such a combination that eventually describes the equipment’s
suitability in different circumstances. Now a days, the two most frequently used
grinders in milling industry include hammer and roller mills. Hammer mills mainly
pulverize by utilizing the principles of impact and attrition while roller mills
operate by using shear and compression force for grinding the grains. Milling is the
foremost step for the processing of cereals mainly the bread cereals such as wheat
and rye (Macken et al. 2006). Some of the preliminary steps before milling include
cleaning and tempering. Cleaning eliminates undesirable matter while tempering
softens the endosperm, making it easier to separate and grind during milling.
2.5.1. Cleaning
When cereal grains are taken down from a truck, railcar or ship and conveyed into a
mill elevator, it also contains a sizable percentage of non-cereal grain components,
termed as dockage (seeds, stems, damaged kernels, insects and stones etc.).
Different cleaning equipments are employed based on size, shape, density and
magnetism to separate dockage and equipments are installed as per need of cereal
grain quality. Generally, magnetic separators are installed at first step of cleaning to
avoid any damage to the equipment in next steps of milling process (Posner 2009).
After this, aspirators remove low density components (straw, stems, stones and
other plant fragments). Air is the separating medium in the aspirator, flows upward
through the grain as it is fed into the separator and removes the lighter materials.
Then the grains are passed over a set of sieves of different aperture size that
separates stones and larger seeds etc. Grains with similar shape are segregated by a
disk separator; as the pockets in rotating disks accept seeds of definite size. Dust
particles or the mold adhering to the grains are removed by abrasion (Posner and
Hibbs 2004).
2.5.2. Tempering
This is aimed at softening the endosperm and hardens the bran for easy separation
by adding specific level of water to kernels with a definite holding period.
Tempering is basically the moisture adjustment of the kernels e.g., for soft wheat,
proper tempering brings the moisture content up to 13.5-15.0% with tempering
times of 6-10 hrs while for hard wheat, the final moisture is 15.5-16.5% and
holding time is 12-18 hrs. Thus, the tempering time and water to be added depends
upon the grain hardness. Sometime, heating is also done along with tempering to
facilitate the penetration of water into the kernels and is termed as conditioning.
The temperature of water must be below 50°C to avoid any detrimental effect of
conditioning on the functional properties of kernel components (Hoseney 1994).
2.5.3. Milling Equipments

Cleaning and tempering are the prerequisites for the process of milling and the
grains are then milled via different milling systems. Hammer and roller mills are
mostly employed for milling of cereal grains. Among cereals, wheat being a staple
food is mostly consumed and milled through these mills.
2.5.3.1. Hammer Mills

It constitutes a grinding chamber having a rotor assembly mounted on a fixed shaft
with two or more rotor plates (Heiman 2005). There is a great diversity of grinding
chamber design such as a semi-circle, a full circle, a teardrop and a spill screen.
Hammers are connected to the rotor assembly in fixed or free swinging form. When
the rotor assembly revolves, the hammers attached to it shatter kernels by the force
of impact. Since the hammer mills pulverize primarily by impact, a minimum
critical "tip speed" is required to supply energy to break the grains in grinding
chamber. It usually works at a tip speed of 17,000-25,000 ft./min. with a hammer
mill with small diameter running at a high revolution as compared to the mill with a
large diameter to acquire same tip speed. The aperture of sieves has the profound
influence on the particle size of the grain. Contemporary hammer mills have
become much more proficient when an additional “air assist” system is combined
to it (Macken et al. 2006).
2.5.3.2. Roller Mills
The blueprint of a roller mill differs significantly depending upon its utilization.
Roller mills are versatile in nature and named according to their applications such
as crackers, crimpers, flakers, crumblers, grinders, crushers or simply rollers. These
are the first machine in nearly all the mills having two counter rotating rolls
separated with a small distance called the “gap.” The two rolls rotate with variable
speed and lead to shearing and crushing action on the grains. Of the two rolls, first
roller mills constitute the break system and separate the endosperm from the bran
and germ. There are five breaks in the system and rolls are corrugated in nature.
(Posner and Hibbs 2004)
The germ portion is separated in the first two sets of break rolls. Germ is soft and
when it moves through the rollers it gets flattened. Bran is mostly present in the
form of low density flakes. The grounded grains pass through a set of sifters after
every break rollers to separate the material on the basis of shape and density. Finely
crushed particles are collected as flour while larger ones are removed or grounded
by next set of rollers such as large flakes of endosperm. These flakes of endosperm
are termed as middlings and then subjected to the reduction rolls for fine grinding.
The reduction flour must be capable to sieve through the aperture size of 136 μm.
The reduction rollers are non-corrugated and run at low differential that provide a
grinding action resulting in fine flour particles. Flour from break and reduction rolls
vary in their particle size and are combined in different proportions via flour
dressing system. Usually flour particles that pass through the 10X sieves are
considered as standard flour particle size (Delcour and Hoseney 2010).
In the mill feed system, bran and germ are isolated from each other along with
removal of adhering endosperm. Large hull particles separated during early break
roller are called as “bran” and constitute ~11% of the total grinding fraction
produced during milling. The fine particles which adhere to the endosperm and
scraped off further grinding are known as “shorts” and they correspond ~15% of
the grain flour. Germ is normally retained at the rate of 0.5 to 2.0% of wheat and
may vary with the type of grinding equipment. All the above-mentioned
components are the flour mill by products and sold as feed, specialty products etc.
(Bass 1988).
i) Milling Rice
Whole rice kernels in the form of paddy are dehulled using a soft rubber roll sheller
to separate husk and brown rice from the grain. Brown rice is then milled to detach
bran and produce white rice via whitening and polishing respectively (Posner and
Hibbs 2004). Milling of rice can be a single stage or a multi stage process. In single
step milling husk and bran are separated from grain simultaneously leading to the
production of white rice from rice paddy. In multistage processing, each step is
carried out separately. In rice milling usually the process of whitening and
polishing are employed by which bran particles attached to the endosperm are
removed and shining white kernel is produced (Siebenmorgen and Meullenet
2004).
ii) Milling Corn
Generally, two types of milling are employed in corn milling; dry and wet milling.
In dry milling, germ is separated from corn grain after proper tempering by using a
cone shaped degerminator which removes the hull and germ from the kernel. Grits
are produced from the endosperm by using roller mill and are further utilized in a
wide variety of products such as extruded snacks and breakfast cereals (Hoseney
1994). Wet milling divides the corn grain into its four basic parts; starch, protein,
germ and fiber. Different steps are involved in wet milling such as steeping, coarse
grinding, fine grinding and screening that separates germ, fiber, protein and starch,
respectively. The residual slurry is pure starch which can be used in different
products e.g. syrup, paint, paper, ethanol etc. (May 1987). Steeping is the initial
step in wet milling of corn in which corn grains undergo steeping in water having
dissolved SO2 for about 40-48 hrs. This process increases the moisture content of
grains to 45%. The steep corn then becomes suitable for separation of components
by coarse and fine grinding. Coarse grinding of corn removes germ portion from
kernel using the disc mills. The fine grinding of endosperm ultimately detaches the
fiber and starch. Starch is present in protein matrix in corn grain so further
disintegration and dewatering steps ultimately separates gluten and starch from the
grain. Thus, in this way whole grain is disintegrated into its components (Ji et al.
2003).
iii) Milling Barley
It is dehulled and the husk is separated by aspiration with subsequent sieving and
cutting. Generally pearling eradicates about50% of the original grain. Pearl barley
is mostly produced by milling while flour is considered as a side product (Kent and
Evers 1994).
iv) Milling Oat
Two divergent processes have been employed for milling of oat; the conventional
dry shelling system in which dry oats are milled and the advance method that
includes green shelling system (Hoseney 1994).
v) Milling Sorghum and Millet

The grains are generally milled through conventional process, employing a
manually operated wooden mortar and pestle. Normally, grains are broken up and
the husk is separated via aspiration or floatation. The process is repeated with
subsequent sieving to eliminate coarse matter and produce flour and meal (Kent
and Evers 1994).
vi) Milling Rye
Since milling of rye is analogous to wheat milling but rye is somewhat more prone
to ergot, thus the fungal infestation is removed with great attention. Rye grains are
softer than wheat kernels so duration of tempering is less as compared to wheat i.e.
six hours (Hoseney 1994).
2.5.4. Technical and Nutritional Outcomes of Milling

The process of milling brings about numerous technical changes in flour and its
components. First and foremost, changes that occur in the starch granules are the
size reduction and enhanced surface area. These changes are vital for proper texture
of bread as these provide access to the α-amylase, but the degree of all these
changes largely relies on grain quality and the parameters of milling. The process
of milling also influences the protein present within the granules as the heat
produced during mechanical operation can denature protein structure. Elevated
temperature during milling can lower the yield of wet gluten that subsequently
reduces the water binding ability of wheat flour. So, in order to avoid this, proper
tempering of grains should be done and excessive heating during the milling
process must also be avoided (Delcour and Hoseney 2010). Appropriate aging of
flour is essential for its required characteristics. The flour must be stored under
proper atmospheric condition such as temperature & humidity to have beneficial
effect on the flour quality. Changes that may occur during aging include; colour
from cream to white and improved baking attributes as the quality of gluten
improves. Since wheat flour is usually aged for 2 months but the changes normally
occur within first two weeks of storage. Rye flour ages earlier so it is stored for two
weeks only. On the other hand, the biochemical changes occur in rice kernels that
affect its cooking characteristics (Bass 1988).
2.6. Cereal Grain Analyses and Quality Tests

A variety of characteristics can be used to determine the quality of cereals and
cereal based products by using assigned different significance level, based on the
desired end product. These characteristics can be categorized as chemical,
enzymatic, and physical. Quality testing methodologies individually can be sorted
as those concerned with the chemical composition of the material under test,
enzymatic activity assays and physical or physicochemical properties tests (AACC
2000).
2.6.1. Physical Testing

2.6.1.1. Test Weight
Test weight is an immediate method to assess milling quality of grains that
measures the weight of grains per unit volume. It is a simple way to judge the
soundness of grains, as grain quality relates directly to flour yield (Halverson and
Zeleny 1988) and is usually considered as a measure for grading of grains. Test
weight quantifies the weight of a clean grain sample required to fill a level
Winchester bushel measure (2150.42 in3 or 35.24 dm3).
Hardness of grain can be measured either using a single grain or a bulk sample
(Pomeranz et al. 1984). The single grain tests involve abrasion, cutting, crushing, or
penetration. In bulk tests, hardness is estimated from the power or time required to
grind a given quantity of grain, from the quantity of abraded material or from the
particle size of the ground material. The latter is determined by sieving (Yamazaki
and Donelson 1973), sedimentation (ICC 1976; Standard No. 127), centrifugation
(AACC Method 50-10), light diffraction technique, Coulter counter or NIR
spectroscopy (Williams 1979). Many laboratories are now using a single kernel
characterization system to simultaneously measure several factors including
hardness (Osborne et al. 1997). 1000 kernel weight is another physical test used to
assess the grain quality in which grains are counted and weighed to get the weight
of known number of grains.
2.6.1.2. Flour Colour Testing
Extent of the oxidation of carotenoid pigments by bleaching compounds is tested
by whiteness of the colour. Light reflectance of the sample is measured within the
blue range of the light spectrum. The measured values vary not only with the extent
of bleaching but the age of the flour (AACC Method 14-30.01). NIR analysers and
tri-stimulus reflected colour instruments such as the Minolta or Hunter devices are
also now being used.
The "slick" (Pekar) test is a rough but simple guide for assessing flour colour
visually (AACC Method 14-10) in which flour is placed on a flat piece of wood or
metal then pressed down, trimmed and immersed in water. The colour can be
judged at various stages like before immersion in water, shortly after immersion
and after the flour has been dried. Bran shows fine brown flecks when wet.
Image analysis in which computer software examines the brightness of the pixels in
a digitized image is a sophisticated instrument in which a low power microscope
illuminates the sample with UV light. The bran and aleurone fragments
fluorescence differently under UV light, producing different colours (Wetzel 1994).
2.6.2. Chemical Tests

2.6.2.1. Moisture
The quality of cereal grains and their products depend upon its moisture content
and its determination is the first step of quality evaluation. It also has a pronounced
effect on the behaviour of grains during storage and milling. Thus, various methods
are used for the determination of moisture content. The moisture is determined by
drying and the loss in weight includes both water & other volatiles while the
sample is dried at an elevated temperature: 103°C for 72 hours (AACC Method 44-
15A) or at 135°C for 2 hours (AACC Method 44-19). Other procedures employed
include; partial vacuum which uses a partial vacuum equivalent to 25 mm mercury
at 100°C for about 5 hours (AACC Method 44-32), measuring dielectric constant
(AACC Method 44-11), azeotropic distillation with toluene (AACC Method 44-
51), and near-infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy.
2.6.2.2. Crude Protein
Classical Kjeldahl analysis is commonly used for protein analysis (AACC Methods
46-10, 46-1 1, 46-12, 46-13). It works on the principle of nitrogen reduction in
protein and conversion to ammonium sulphate by hot digestion of the dry sample
with concentrated sulphuric acid in the presence of a catalyst. It results in liberation
of ammonia from the sulphate by distillation in the presence of sodium hydroxide
and absorption into a known volume of standard acid solution. Un reacted acid
quantity is determined by titration, the quantity of released nitrogen is established
and converted to protein by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen with appropriate
conversion factor i.e. 5.7 for wheat and wheat flour, while 6.25 for most foods and
feeds. Dye-binding capacity of specific amino acids groups of protein can be used
for determination of protein content in the cereal grains (AACC Method 46-14A).
Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIR) is one of the latest techniques for
protein determination (AACC Method 39-10). NIR is an empirical method that
requires a set of pre analysed reference samples for instrument calibration (AACC
Method 46-30).
Protein determination is particularly significant when testing wheat or flour. The
amount and quality of wheat proteins have long been recognized to have a decisive
effect on the physicochemical attributes of the dough and consequently on its
handling properties and baking potential. Since gluten formation is the principle
function of wheat protein so the protein determination in wheat is by a quantitative
estimation of wet and dry gluten. Gluten is prepared by washing out of starch and
soluble content of the dough (AACC Method 38-10). For the purpose, now
automatic gluten washers are being used (AACC Method 38-11). Visual
examination of colour and elasticity of the wet gluten can be done. The difference
between gluten weight before and after drying can be taken as a rough estimate of
its hydration capacity.
2.6.2.3. Ash Content
Ash content is an important criterion in flour quality. According to AACC Method
08-01, ash is determined as a residue of incinerated sample at 550°C for soft wheat
flour or 575-590°C for hard wheat flour until a light grey ash is obtained (AACC
1983). An accelerated method is to wet the flour with magnesium oxalate solution
and incineration for 30-45 minutes at 700°C (AACC Method 08-02). The ICC
Standard No. 104 (18) for ash determination in cereals prescribes incineration at
900°C until the residue is white. For a rapid determination of ash, NIR
spectroscopy can be applied (Williams 1975).
2.6.2.4. Crude Fat

Fat is a paramount component in cereals and their products. According to AACC
method 30-10, crude fat is determined by the removal of moisture from the sample
with subsequent acid hydrolysis, followed by extraction of fat from the resultant
sample with suitable organic solvent. The fat being dissolved in organic solvent
like ethers are distilled off separating fat from ethers and the residual sample is
heated at 100°C till constant weight and expressed as percent crude fat. The method
is valid to cereal products, predominantly heat treated products (AACC 2000).
2.6.2.5. Fiber
Fiber has mostly determined as crude fiber in a food matrix. It is considered as the
remaining residues of the sample treated with the hot concentrated acid and alkali
respectively (AACC Method 32-10). For the determination of total dietary fiber
(soluble and insoluble fractions) amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes are used as
proposed by Prosky et al. (1988).
2.6.2.6. Starch
Starch is the main chemical component of the cereal grains. For starch content
determination, the physical condition of the starch granule is more important than
the actual quantity of this component. The degree of physical damage to the granule
during milling is imperative. The amylolytic degradation of damaged starch
granules and quantitative estimation of the level degradation is measured (AACC
Method 76-30A). Development of colour when iodine reagent is added to extract of
flour that contains amylose leached out from the damaged granules by a solution of
ammonium sulphate, form amide, and sulfosalicylic acid gives the value of starch
(Hampel 1952; Williams and Fegol 1969).
2.6.2.7. Enzyme Activity
Amylolytic activity of starch has prime importance in grain quality. For that reason,
the assays for amylolytic activity deal primarily with α-amylase. The AACC
Method 22-07 is a calorimetric assay based on the reaction of α-amylase with a
buffered solution of potato amylose dyed with Cibachrom blue F3GA. Another
AACC method (Method 22-07) is to measure the rate of decrease in light scattering
ability of a dilute suspension of dextrin substrate treated with enzyme extracted
from the flour under test. The ICC Standard No. 108 (ICC 1968) is a similar
colorimetric method. Other chemical procedures based on quantitative estimation
of the reducing sugars produced in situ in a buffered flour suspension after a
standard incubation period (AACC Method 22-15). To analyse proteolytic activity
nitrogen released from a buffered haemoglobin substrate when it is incubating with
the enzyme containing flour extract is estimated quantitatively by Kjeldahl analysis
(AACC Method 22-60). Solubilized haemoglobin can also be measured by a
spectrophotometer (Method 22-62) or a colorimeter (Method 62-63).
The lipase activity is high in grains having more fat content like oat in cereals or
the oil seeds and expressed in terms of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required
to neutralize free fatty acids extracted from a 100 g sample (AACC Methods 62-
01A, 62-02A, and 62-03A).
2.6.2.8. Physical Dough Tests

Physical properties of dough not only depict the performance during different steps
of processing but also have a significant effect on finished product qualities. The
functional properties of flour have pronounced effect on dough attributes and thus
they are determined by following different methods.
i) Farinograph
One of the most extensively used dough recording mixer is Brabender farinograph.
Two blades of Z-shaped farinograph mixer basically rotate at the constant but with
different speed and subject dough to the relatively slow mixing at the constant
temperature. Farinograph record is represented in the form of farinograms with
common indices of measurement as defined by the ICC method. With the
increasing strength of flour, dough stability and development time increases. While
tolerance index of the mixing and degree of the softening both are inversely related
to the increasing strength. Arrival time is the elapsed time needed for top of curve
to gain the 500 units of farinograph which is called as FU line on recording chart
and it serves as measurement of rate at which water is absorbed by flour. Departure
time is equal to the combination of arrival time and stability. Long term arrival and
times of departure represent the strong flour. To show the strength of tested flour as
single score, value of valorimeter is determined by the time of dough development
and descending slope of curve by the means of special type of valorimeter also
known as nomograph. Higher the value stronger will be the flour. Another related
property is the absorption of water by the flour that can be measured by the means
of farinograph. Water absorption is amount of the water needed for the dough to
attain a precise consistency normally of 500 FU at point of the optimum
development. As stronger flour contains high protein contents and gluten in better
quality, so it shows higher absorptions. Farinograms and the absorption of water
value changes with the increasing in flour strength. Resistograph mixer can be used
to attain more information about dough mixing characteristics. It combines the
mixing with pressing, kneading and stretching, thus delivers high shear and high
input work to dough. Resistograms contain two maxima, which become more
apparent with the medium and the weak flours. First medium relates to the water
binding and the other one measures stickiness and the extensibility at breakdown of
dough. Another variant of farinograph, the mixer named as Brabender Do-Corder
mixer is basically designed to support the conditions of the mechanical dough
developments. It contains a close mixer in which dough is subjected to mixing at
different speeds and with the higher input work levels than in other common
farinograph mixer (AACC Method 54-21.02).
ii) Mixograph
Mixograph is another type of commonly used recording mixer. For the purpose of
mixing action, it contains four pins called as planetary pins that revolve about the
three stationary pins attached to bottom of mixing bowl. Mixing is defined as
pulling, folding and repelling action, which is many times severe than that
produced by farinograph. Speed is the main advantage of mixograph which can
help to conduct a test. Mixograph is more important with the breeders of hard
wheat varieties and in quality control labs of mill and bakery as well as in the labs
conducting research on proteins that control the mixing quality. It is accessible in

many sizes including 35g, 10g, and computerized model that require only 2g flour
sample. In comparison to farinograph, it is difficult to standardize mixograph as it
also requires more operator skill for the determination of proper absorption of water
by the flour. Shape of mixogram is indicated by the indices which are similar to
those cleared for farinogram. Peak time is similar to the dough development time in
the farinograph. Peak height indicates the absorption and strength of flour. At
specific time, the height of the curve of past peak is similar to index of farinograph
tolerance. High values show the greater tolerance to the over mixing. The same
values apply to the angle between ascending and the descending parts of curve at
peak. High tolerance to the overmixing and overall strength of flour can be judged
from area under curve. Mixograph is modernized by the redesigning and
incorporation of computerized data acquisition and the interpretation (AACC
Method 54-50).
iii) Consistograph
Chopin consistograph is new recording dough mixer. It contains two parts: a mixer
loaded with pressure sensor in a mixing bowl with special blades of double arm
mixing and Alveolink NG recorder calculator, fitted with special colour printer and
the dedicated software required for analysis, graphing and data collection. It can
record pressure in the real time in mixing bowel during the mixing, determine water
absorption capacity of flour with the mixing test at a constant absorption as well as
it can also be employed to characterize behaviour of dough with mixing test at the
constant absorption. Stress strain instrumental techniques provide the information
on the potential behaviour of the dough due to development and expansion of the
gas during fermentation and in early baking stages. Load extension instrument is
applied to measure resistance of the dough to the extension (AACC Method 54-
50.01).
iv) Extensograph
In an extensograph, a cylindrical shaped dough piece is stretched until it ruptures
and the force applied on the sample piece is transmitted using lever system to a
recorder. According to AACC procedure (AACC Method 54-10), the dough with
2% salt is prepared in a farinograph mixer, the dough is developed until maximum
consistency is achieved, whereas in the ICC method (ICC Standard No. 114) the
dough is mixed for 5-minutes. When dough sample is stretched, a curve between
force and time is obtained called an extensogram that includes: Maximum
resistance, dough extensibility and resistance to extensibility. The area under the
curve is proportional to the energy required to stretch the sample dough piece to its
rupture point. Other than differentiating the flours, extensograph also evaluates the
effect of oxidizing agents on physical qualities of dough. The extensometer is part
of a device consisting of two subunits: a water absorption meter and a mixer-shaper
unit. Absorption meter determines optimum absorption of the dough from the
extrusion time value measured on several doughs prepared from the same flour
sample with varying amount of water. Optimum absorption is linked to extrusion
time of about 50 second. Then the dough is shaped in the mixer shaper unit where
stretching between two pegs is done. The force applied on the stationary peg is
recorded in the form of a curve similar to an extensogram.
v) Alveograph
In alveograph, the dough is subjected to two dimensional extensions by blowing a
molded and rested sheet into a bubble (AACC Method 54-30). This instrument
records inflation time using air pressure in the bubble. An alveograph records an
alveogram that is similar to an extensogram. The maximum height of the curve is
taken as a measure of resistance to extension while the length is measure of
extensibility. The area under the curve is converted into a W value that represent
deformation energy which is equal to the total work input in blowing up the sample
piece into a bubble.
A new alveograph modification is the Alveograph NG having these components: A
dough preparation mixer, the alveograph that measures deformation of dough
sample, a recorder-calculator, visualization, analysis and printout of data functions.
An advanced version of alveograph is the Alveo-Consistograph in which
capabilities of the Alveograph NG and the Consistograph are combined.
vi) Dynamic Rheometry
Dough-stressing systems used conventionally are destructive as they extend the
structure far greater than that occurs in a normal dough rise and oven spring. To
overcome the issue, smaller strain should be applied in a regular repeating manner
(several times per second) in an oscillator. Stress transmitted through the dough is
measured and its phase angle lag is used to measure both viscous and elastic
components (Lavanga 1998).
vii) Amylograph
Amylograph is a torsion viscometer that records the changes in buffered flour
suspension’s viscosity continuously with a uniform temperature increase at a rate of
1.5°C/min with constant stirring (AACC Method 22-10). The starch granules swell
during gelatinization and amylose molecules leach out with the increase in soluble
concentration in the surrounding liquid causing a rise in the suspension viscosity.
Higher the activity of the starch-liquefying enzyme system, the lower will be the
peak viscosity. α-amylase is responsible for the final viscosity as it is more heat
sensitive (AACC Method 22-12).
viii) Falling Number
It is based on calculating the time required to stir that allow viscometer-stirrer to
fall at a standard distance. For measuring sprout damage, screening of small-sized
wheat samples is done on a scale in which whole grain samples having value lower
than 250 s FN are considered to be damaged due to excessive α-amylase activity
while samples above 400 s FN need addition of preparations of malt or α-amylase
to make it suitable for bread fermentation (AACC Method 56-81.03).
ix) Rapid Visco Analyzer

Rapid visco analyzer is a viscometer that stirs and controls temperature. The device
uses 35 g of starch flour or whole meal suspended in 25 mL of water in a
temperature controlled thin aluminium cup, clamped in a split copper block. A
plastic paddle is used for stirring of solution at 160 rpm and heated in a
programmed manner while its viscosity is measured. The results are recorded and
analysed using a computer controlled instrument (AACC Methods 22-08, 61-02)
2.6.3. Physicochemical Tests

Swelling ability is measured in wet gluten to predict baking strength by following
the Berliner and Koopman (1929) method in which wet gluten is immersed in a 0.1
N lactic acid solution. Higher the specific swelling factors stronger will be the
gluten strength. The Pelschenke test also called dough-ball test in which a small
piece of whole wheat meal yeasted dough is prepared and immersed in water at a
constant temperature (AACC Method 56-50). Test number is the length of time
before the disintegration of dough starts that measures gluten quality and quantity.
It is 30 min for soft wheat and more than 6 hours for very strong wheat. Test
number is divided by the wheat protein content and index to gluten quality can be
separated from quantity. The higher index represents higher gluten strength.
The sedimentation test (AACC Methods 56-60, 56-61A, 56-63) originally
developed by Zeleny (1947) that measures the volume of sediment (predominantly
swollen protein and occluded starch) from crude white flour suspended in dilute
acetic acid. Like the "test number," the "sedimentation value" reflects both gluten
quantity and quality but can be turned into an index of gluten quality alone if
divided by sample protein content. It is then referred to as "specific sedimentation
value."
The alkaline water retention test performed by Yamazaki (1953) has been useful in
predicting performance of wheat flours in cookie (biscuit) manufacturing. Another
widely used test to evaluate soft wheat flour quality is the MacMichael viscosity
test. The special MacMichael viscometer measures the increase in viscosity of
acidulated soft wheat flour suspensions due to swelling of starch and gluten (AACC
Method 56-80). Starch swelling becomes more pronounced if the granules are
damaged. Thus, if the range in protein content is relatively narrow the
measurements reflect primarily the condition of the starch. On the other hand, if the
changes in viscosity due to starch are constant, the increase in viscosity is in direct
relation to the swelling properties and quantity of gluten present. The Brookfield
viscometer is now often used for a similar test because the MacMichael viscometer
is no longer manufactured and the torsion wires are no longer available. A rapid
lactic acid swelling procedure has also been developed, using the RVA (Blakeney
et al. 1996).
Physicochemical testing also includes tests evaluating a dough's gas production and
retention capacity. The national pressure meter method (AACC Method 22-11)
measures the pressure of gas produced by a yeasted suspension of flour in an
airtight and pressure gauge equipped container after 5-hour fermentation at 30°C.
National has computerized the instrument so that up to eight pressure cells can be
monitored simultaneously and the pressure changes are continuously graphed.
Other methods for measuring gas production and/or gas retention use special
instruments such as the Demaray gasograph (Rubenthaler et al. 1980) or the Chopin
rheofermentometer. The latter, apart from measuring the total and retained gas also
monitors the changes in dough volume during fermentation. The maturograph
measures the net results of gas production and gas loss by recording the changes in
height of fermenting dough subjected to periodic punching at two minute intervals.
From the shape of the curve, optimum proofing conditions and fermentation
tolerance can be established. The difference between top and bottom envelope of
the curve band reflects the changes in the height of the dough due to periodic
punching and recovery and is often referred to as elasticity (Seibel 1968).
Experimental baking tests are used to determine flour quality at industrial scale.
Bakery quality control laboratories often practice baking one-pound bread loaves
while new wheat variety screening laboratories often bake loaves containing 100 g
of flour. When flour is limited, a loaf containing 35 g flour are baked. Even smaller
10 g loaves can be made at early stage of decision to help the plant breeder
(Shogren and Finney 1984). To evaluate the baking quality of individual gluten
protein components 2 g flour is mixed in a mixograph then baked in small metal
thimbles (Gras and Bekes 1996).
2.7. Cereal Products

2.7.1. Leavened Products
Cereal products raised by raising agents that produce gases and soften the finished
products by foaming action are called leavened cereal products. Among all the
cereals, wheat has a unique property of dough forming by the addition of water and
thus retains gas during fermentation (Cauvain and Young 2006). Products leavened
by microorganisms like yeast are called yeast leavened products and these include
bread, pizza, buns, rolls, bagels, croissants etc. Some products are not leavened by
yeast like biscuits, cake, doughnuts, muffins, pastries etc. and are called as quick
bread because there is no fermentation by yeast in their processing and thus require
less time for their foaming action. Leavening agents such as steam or air, baking
powder, baking soda are responsible for leavening action in these baked products
(Delcour and Hoseney 2010).
2.7.1.1. Yeast Leavened Cereal Products
i) Bread
Bread is one of the key cereal products available to consumers for consumption.
Bread has been the principle food providing balanced diet due to its affluent
macronutrient concentration (carbohydrate contents) to people across the globe.
Due to high intake of bread and increased demand of consumer, production of
bread with low calories, high protein and high fiber content are now focused by
bakery sector (Bhol and Bosco 2013). Bread is yeast leavened bakery product
varying in size, colour, shape, flavour and texture. Crust and crumb are the two
distinct components of bread. Crust is a dried-out part which is crunchy and mildly
hard while crumb has a loafy structure, give volume and shape to the bread (Sinha
2007). Bread quality is determined by the complex interactions of the raw
materials, the dough processing method and the quantity & quality of ingredients
used in the recipe (Brunori et al. 1989).
Bread is a homogenous combination of some major and minor ingredients. Major
ingredients include flour, sugar, water and yeast while minor ingredients include
salt and oil. Technology of bread making and ingredient’s selection play a vital role
in final bread quality. Texture of bread depends upon the water absorption of flour
while mixing method and time influences the quality (Selomulyo and Zhou 2007).
The key purpose of bread making is to convert flour into palatable, appetizing,
delicious and digestible food item. Bread manufacturing methods vary extensively
throughout the world (Dewettinck et al. 2008). The earliest breads prepared were
unleavened or flat, but the most primitive key and technological improvement in
bread was the introduction of leavening agent i.e. yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
also referred as baker’s yeast to impart special quality attributes, in terms of
structural and textural characteristics. The leavened breads are chiefly characterized
by better loaf volume, appealing colour, characteristic aroma and flavour, soft
crumb structure, improved shelf life and microbiological safety (Cauvain 2003;
Patel et al. 2005). Still, the shelf life of bread is comparatively short leading to
some unfavourable changes in its physicochemical properties such as softness of
crumb, hardness of crumb, loss of freshness that ultimately results in poor sensory
quality (Baik and Chinachoti 2000; Barcenas et al. 2003).
ii) Bun and Roll
These products include a broad range of soft and hard crust baked products. Dough
for bun and rolls are prepared by proper mixing of all the ingredients and
fermentation by yeast, followed by dividing, rounding and proofing. Flour required
for buns and rolls must have 12% protein along with 10-14% addition of sugar and
3-6% oil. Buns resemble bread regarding their ingredients but have short
fermentation time as compared to bread (Kent and Evers 1994). The entire bun
making operation is carried out in different integrated units to produce panned
dough pieces in sections equipped with different equipments. The proofed dough
then undergoes baking in ovens (Sinha 2007).
iii) Pizza
Pizza is a yeast leavened product like French bread and Middle Eastern flat bread.
Pizzas are either marketed as frozen dough units after preparation in commercial
wholesale plants or consumed as freshly prepared pizza through production in retail
operation units. Pizza toppings and crust are the most common variables in
formulation of pizza while the dough can be either thick or thin (Pepe et al. 2003).
For thin dough, protein content of flour must be 9% while for thick crust it is 11-
12%. The thick crust dough has higher level of shortening and salt with low level of
sugar and more water absorption. Sugar is added only to provide nutrients for the
activity of yeast (Kulp and Ponte 2000). Microbial activities have immense sensory
and technological implications on pizza and other baked products as during
leavening process they play a vital role in rising of volume, hydrolysis of proteins
and acidulation. Activity of yeast and lactic acid bacteria as leavening agents for
pizza are assessed based on their proteolytic activity. Sometimes proteolytic and
non-proteolytic starter cultures are also employed for enhanced flavour and texture
and their activity is monitored throughout the fermentation process without delay
after mixing of the dough. Proteolytic starter culture gives viscosity and firmness to
crumb of the dough as compared to the non-proteolytic starter (Pepe et al. 2003).
iv) Bagel
Bagels are relatively an innovative and popular leavened product originated from
Southern Germany. It is prepared from leavened dough having crispy and brown
crust with dense and rubbery crumb. Bagels vary in their size; small as cocktail
bagel to large as bull bagel or super bagel (Kulp and Ponte 2000). The protein
content of flour is one of the key factors for the “mouthfeel” of the bagel. High
protein dough for bagel will have a thick and crispy crust with a greater mouthfeel.
On the other hand, lower protein dough will have thin crust and soft crumb just like
a roll. Bagel with round bottom crust and high volume are mostly preferred by
consumers and thus prepared from high gluten flour. As bagel is a yeast leavened
product, yeast expands and ferments the dough during different processes. To attain
the shape of bagel its dough is boiled before baking. In conventional bagel making
process, dough with low water absorption is made from high protein wheat flour,
along with sugar, salt and yeast in less quantity then bread (Lusas and Rooney
2001). Production of bagels does not need human labour and entirely automated in
large commercial bakeries. Moistened, dispersed and mixed dough is transferred to
dough divider which cuts it into individual uniform portions that are shaped by the
molder. Proofing is done to retard fermentation followed by boiling for a short span
and baked at the end (Sinha 2007).
v) Croissant
Croissant is a crescent shaped roll prepared from yeast leavened dough to make
flaky puff pastry. It may be flavored with other ingredients such as chocolate,
cheese or almond paste. It has light and flaky consistency and melt in the mouth.
Soft wheat flour is usually required for proper texture and shape of croissant just
like puff pastry (Kent and Evers 1994). Croissants are produced in a variety of
shape and size, plain or sometimes also filled with meat or sweet fillings depending
upon the market demand. Plain croissants are used for sandwiches. These are also
known as butter pastry made of yeast leavened dough with butter applied on layers
of dough, rolled & folded many times, and transferred into a sheet through
laminating (Kulp and Ponte 2000).
2.7.1.2. Chemically Leavened Products
i) Biscuit
Biscuit is a baked product in which soft wheat with low protein content is the basic
ingredient along with sugar, shortening, salt and baking powder as leavening agent
(Sinha 2007). Baking is the process, which under the action of heat transformed the
raw dough into final biscuits having texture, flavour and structure. The quality of
biscuits can be affected by the ingredients quality as well as the processing
parameters such as mixing, moulding and baking. Colour, texture, flavour and
aroma are the quality determining traits of biscuit that affect the sensory attributes
of product and firstly noticed by the consumers. The sensory characteristics can be
controlled during processing to improve the overall acceptability of biscuits (Lara
et al. 2011).
Due to variation in weight and thickness during forming and shaping, the moisture
percentage varies extensively in biscuit making. So, for a given recipe, the
consistency of biscuit dough could be adjusted by varying the water content.
Addition of water in biscuit’s dough is less than other bakery goods and should not
exceed 10% after baking. Dough rheology is of considerable importance in biscuit
manufacturing as it influences the machinability of dough and the quality of biscuit.
Dough which is too firm or too soft will not process satisfactorily on the
appropriate dough forming equipment and will not yield a suitable product (Sudha
et al. 2007). Structure of dough and its rheological properties affects biscuit size
obtained after baking. Sweet biscuits have good plasticity and cohesiveness without
gluten network formation because of high fat and sugar concentration (Sinha 2007).
Function of fat in biscuit is multifaceted with smooth mouth feel, proper texture,
grain and tenderness. Other ingredients also interact with fat for the development of
mouth feel, texture and lubrication. Several health disorders are associated with the
high intake of fat but with fat reduction quality of biscuit is affected therefore fat
replacers (maltodextrin etc.) are used to improve its texture significantly. Guar gum
and mono stearate can further improve biscuit texture (Sudha et al. 2007).
ii) Cake
Cake is a chemically leavened baked product in which batter has significant
percentage of bubbles inside it forming a foam system with complex emulsion. The
flour for cake making should have swollen starch granules that are not damaged
during milling process to retain bubbles for its puffed structure. Presence of gluten
network makes the cake harder, chewier and crispy which is not desirable in cakes
(Kent and Evers 1994). Soft wheat along with shortening, sugar, eggs and baking
powder are required for batter preparation of cake. There is a wide variety of cakes
with variable content of the ingredients in formulations such as layer cake, pound
cake, angel food cake etc. (Hoseney et al. 1988). Low viscosity is one of the vital
rheological properties of cake batter as the water to flour ratio in cake batter is high.
Egg protein develops a protective layer around the air bubbles and acts as a surface
active agent so egg is an imperative ingredient of cake (Shepherd and Yoell 1976).
Mixing process ends when density reaches to minimum and maximum air bubbles
in the batter. Consequently, during baking, the egg proteins coagulate and the
swollen granules of starch gelatinizes, thus provide a proper texture to cake batter
(Sinha 2007).
Along with wheat based cakes fermented rice cake is also produced and consumed
as breakfast cereal, snack food or dessert. This leavened steam rice cake is
fermented with lactic acid bacteria also used to fermented other food’s production
and preservation. To produce this type of cake, rice is soaked overnight after
washing then ground and mixed with coconut milk and sugar. Leavening and
acidification of the batter occur during fermentation of several hours. Steaming of

about 30 minutes is done before serving the fermented batter (Sinha 2007).
iii) Muffin
Muffin is cake like quick bread product prepared on large scale commercially in
industries and bakeries due to use of soft wheat flour, high concentration of sugar
and fat which resembles bread if prepared on small scale due to extensive gluten
network development and tunnel formation (Hoseney et al. 1988). The problem of
tunnel formation and gluten development can be avoided by using soft wheat flour
and high sugar and fat content. Cake type muffin contain sugar 50-70% and fat 18-
40% while in bread type muffin both sugar and fat are 12% (Sinha 2007).
iv) Pastry
Pastry products have high fat content with crumbly and flaky texture. These are
sometimes slightly caramelized, tender and crispy. A good quality pastry is airy and
light but having enough strength to support the filling (Kents and Evers 1994). The
pastry is different from other bakery product because it contains more fat content
responsible for its sensory qualities and soft texture. In pastry dough, water content
should be low to avoid gluten development and tougher crust. It can be
characterized into two types: puff pastry and plain pastry (Sinha 2007).
2.7.2. Unleavened Cereal Products

Cereal products that are not leavened by incorporation of yeast or any other
chemical leavening agent are termed as unleavened cereal products, they differ
from bakery dough because of not leavened e.g. flat bread, macaroni, spaghetti,
noodles, vermicelli and breakfast cereal products.
2.7.2.1. Macaroni
Macaroni is the pasta product made from durum semolina which originated many
years ago and is consumed widely. Semolina is purified, coarse middling of durum
wheat variety obtained from its milling. Durum wheat (Ttiticum durum) also called
as macaroni wheat is harder than common hard wheat varieties. It is difficult to
reduce this hard durum wheat to fine flour. Optimum particle size of semolina for
making macaroni is around 150 microns. Durum wheat is rich in carotenoids so it
gives yellowish tint to macaroni (Kill and Turnbull 2001).
Semolina and water are placed in mixing chamber; water is added to achieve the
moisture content of 28-30 % and mixed until stiff dough is formed. Gluten should
not be allowed to develop during mixing. Mixing of dough under vacuum can
protect mechanical strength and appearance of final product. After mixing, dough is
extruded through dies of different shapes at high pressure to get the product various
shapes. Application of high temperature during extrusion denatures protein and
disturbs the final quality i.e. cooking characteristics (Khetarpaul et al. 2005).
2.7.2.2. Spaghetti
Spaghetti is long type pasta originated from Italy and is the most popular and
traditional type of pasta made from unleavened dough of durum wheat. Dough is
hydrated up to moisture level of 31% with proper development (Delcour and

Hoseney 2010). During dough making process for spaghetti preparation, the
incorporation of air is controlled due to two reasons. Firstly, yellow colour
appearance is known as the sign of the best spaghetti product i.e., yellow carotenoid
pigment bleached down by the enzyme in the presence of oxygen. So, air should be
removed to retard the oxidative activity. Secondly, the product appears chalky if air
is entrapped during mixing (Zweifel et al. 2003). The dough is kneaded to achieve
its appropriate texture and then passed through extruder for final cooking and dried
(Kents and Evers 1994)
2.7.2.3. Noodles
Noodle is a pasta product and known to have been originated in China. It is rolled,
levelled and cut into a variety of shapes. In addition to flour and water it contains
salt and generally made from wheat flour instead of semolina. However, egg is not
an essential ingredient of oriental noodle but in USA, noodles must include more
than 5.5 % egg solids and less than 13 % moisture (Baroni 1988). Noodles can be
handled in wet form because of strong flour usage and exhibiting cooked noodles
with chewy texture. Noodle making is a simple process that involves the extrusion
cooking of wheat flour dough followed by drying of noodles. To distribute water
uniformly in flour 5 to 10 minutes of mixing is required and the quantity of water
should not exceed 35% of the flour weight. Resting period of 10 to 15 minutes is
given to the dough after mixing for uniform water distribution throughout the flour.
Then the dough is passed through two successive rolls; one of large diameter to
make dough sheet having thickness of about 1 cm and further reduced to 1-2 mm.
A thin dough sheet is then passed through cutting rolls to cut the sheet into
desirable size (Crosbie and Ross 2004).
Dry noodles are generally not precooked, prepared at moisture content of around
35% and finally dried to 8-10% moisture. Traditionally, drying is done in sun but
controlled atmosphere dehydrators are also used for the drying purpose. Steamed
noodles are precooked in low pressure steam condition, and then sun or oven dried
to moisture content of about 10% with improved shelf life among all types of
noodles. Some other precooked noodles include quick cooking noodles, ramen
noodles, instant noodles that are steamed after cutting and waving and then fried
with usually 5-8% moisture (Khetarpaul et al. 2005).
2.7.2.4. Breakfast Cereals
Cereal based products are vital and rich source of energy so they are favourably and
increasingly consumed in breakfast. Breakfast cereals are processed grains made
through a series of treatments resulted in ready to eat cereals and exist in various
shapes like gun puffed shapes, flakes, shredded shapes and extrude shapes etc. may
be fortified with minerals and vitamins. For making breakfast cereals, liquid
ingredients are mixed with dry ingredients to form slurry which then undergo the
process of cooking (Sinha 2007).
Initially breakfast cereals were consumed after boiling but now drying and
extrusion has improved the texture and nutritional properties of the final product.
Drying and toasting process of breakfast cereals imparts pleasant colour and
flavour to the final product. Caramelization and Millard reactions are involved in
the generation of these characteristics and both depend on temperature, pH, water
activity and type of substrate (Henares et al. 2006).
2.8. Conclusions
Cereal grains are considered as one of the imperative commodities for feeding
humanity and a non-renewable energy source all over the world. It can be accessed
from above mentioned facts that cereals vary in their agro climatic conditions and
have vast diversity in their genera. Morphological attributes of cereals have
revealed distinct characteristics features such as leaves, roots, flowers and kernel.
They are a splendid source of well-balanced nutrients enclosed in the caryopsis. A
comprehensive insight of the chapter elucidates that cereal grains require adequate
storage with subsequent drying to prevent losses due to deterioration and
contamination. Mostly cereal grains are utilized after proper milling although
various other methods are also used for their processing. Methods of milling vary
with the cereal grains i.e. dry milling for wheat and wet milling for corn. A vast
array of quality tests has been established to explore the physical, chemical and
rheological parameters of grains and flour. Cereals have been consumed by humans
since long and are utilized in a wide variety of products including leavened as well
as unleavened products such as bread, biscuits, bagels, rolls extruded products etc.
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Chapter 2

Cereal and Cereal Products

Imran Pasha and Aamir Shehzad*

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

2.2. Morphology of Cereals

most significant is the pearl millet botanically known as pennisetum glaucumand

2.2.9. Pseudo Cereals

Jubete et al. 2010). The heath promoting components known as “bioactive

2.3. Chemical Composition of Cereals

Table 2.1 Chemical Composition of Cereal grains

present in highest concentration (15-31%) followed by proline (12-14%), leucine

Table: 2.2 Fatty acid Composition of Cereal grains

2.3.5. Bioactive Components

tocotrienols and renowned as natural antioxidants in cereal grains (Nielson and

2.4. Storage of Cereal Grains

2.4.1. Drying of Cereals

2.4.2. Methods of Storage

2.4.2.2. Bag Storage

2.4.3. Nutritional Changes During Storage

2.5. Milling of Cereals

2.5.3. Milling Equipments

2.5.3.1. Hammer Mills

v) Milling Sorghum and Millet

2.5.4. Technical and Nutritional Outcomes of Milling

2.6. Cereal Grain Analyses and Quality Tests

2.6.1. Physical Testing

2.6.2. Chemical Tests

2.6.2.4. Crude Fat

2.6.2.8. Physical Dough Tests

conducting research on proteins that control the mixing quality. It is accessible in

ix) Rapid Visco Analyzer

2.6.3. Physicochemical Tests

2.7. Cereal Products

acidification of the batter occur during fermentation of several hours. Steaming of

2.7.2. Unleavened Cereal Products

hydrated up to moisture level of 31% with proper development (Delcour and

Baroni, D. (1988). Manufacture of pasta products. In: Fabriani, G. and C. Lintas.

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