Sher Shah Suri

This course material is designed and developed by Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi and Krishna Kanta Handiqui State
Open University (KKHSOU), Guwahati.
BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONOURS)
GENERIC ELECTIVE COURCE - I
HISTORY (GEHI)
GEHI-01
History of India- I
BLOCK – 4
INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE ADVENT OF

THE MUGHALS
UNIT-12 SHERSHAH: ADMINISTRATION AND REFORMS
UNIT-13 MUGHAL ADMINISTRATIVE INSTITUTIONS :
ZABTI, MANSAB AND JAGIR
UNIT-14 RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE SULH-I-KUL
UNIT-15 MUGHAL ART AND ARCHITECTURE
UNIT 12 : SHER SHAH : ADMINISTRATION AND
REFORMS
Structure
12.1 Learning Objectives
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Sher Shah Suri and his expansionist policy
12.4 Sher Shahs Administrative Reforms
12.5 Significance of his rule
12.6 Let Us Sum Up
12.7 Further Reading
12.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
12.9 Model Questions
12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

 explain the political turmoil that occurred after the defeat of Humayun in the
hands of Sher Shah,
 discuss the rise of Sher Shah and his glorious rule in India,
 describe the administrative measures initiated by Sher Shah, and
 discuss the impact of the Second Afghan rule under Sher Shah in India
12.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, we have discussed the foundation of theMughal Empire by

Babur and his incessant battles to carve out a kingdom. He was successful in bringing
the rebellious chiefs under his control. Humayun failed to consolidate his position and
this paved the way for Sher Shah.
In this Unit, we will discuss the rise and fall of Sher Shah and his brilliant career. The
victory of Babur at Panipath and Ghagra did not result in complete submission of the
Afghan chiefs. They were seething with discontent against the newly founded
Mughal rule and needed only a strong leadership to unite their isolated efforts into an
organized national resistance against it. This was provided by Sher Khan Sur who
effected the revival of the Afghan power and established a glorious though short-
lived regime in the form of Second Afghan Empire in India by ousting the newly
established Mughal authority.
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12.3 SHER SHAH SURI AND HIS EXPANSIONIST POLICY
 Background
From an obscure Sur family of Rahori in Afghanistan, Sher Shah Suri rose to
prominence by dint of his personal merit. His original name was Farid. With the
administration of his father's jagir at Sasaram, Sher Shah began his career.
For twenty one years (1497-1518) Sher Shah successfully managed the jagir, but was
treacherously removed from his post by his step mother and half-brothers. Sher Shah
left Bihar and entered into the services of Daulat Khan Lodi. Through his new master,
Sher Shah requested Ibrahim Lodi to bestow on him the jagir of his father which was
however rejected by the Sultan. But on the death of his father Hassan Ibrahim Lodi
conferred on Sher Shah the jagir of his father. Still, because of strong opposition of
his half-brothers, Sher Shah could not take full possession of his father's jagir.
Sher Shah then entered into the services of Bahar Khan Lohani, the Afghan governor
of South Bihar. After the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi at Panipath, Bahar Khan Lohani
declared himself an independent ruler of South Bihar and made Sher Shah his deputy
governor and the tutor of his minor son Jalal Khan. But as Bahar Khan Lohani was
instigated against Sher Shah, the latter had to enter the Mughal services where he
remained for a very short time, from 1527 to 1528.
Sher Shah helped Babur in his campaign against Chanderi for which he got back his
paternal jagir as a reward from the Mughal emperor. Again, Bahar Khan Lohani
reappointed Sher Shah to his earlier position as the deputy governor and tutor of his
minor son Jalal Khan. But in October, 1528 Bahar Khan Lohani died and his widow
Dudu Bibi too followed him. Now, Sher Shah became the guardian and regent of the
minor Jalal Khan who remained only as the nominal ruler. Slowly Sher Shah started
grabbing all the powers of the kingdom. He virtually became the independent ruler of
South Bihar and styled himself as Hazrat-i-Ala. Bahar Khan Lodhi gave the title of
'Sher Khan' to Sher Shah for killing a tiger single handedly.
The first great achievement of Sher Shah was the acquisition of the fort of Chunar as
a consequence of his marriage with Lad Malika, widow of Taj Khan, governor of
Chunar. Then in 1533, Sher Shah defeated the combined forces of the Lohani chiefs
of Bihar and Mohammad Shah of Bengal at Surajgarh. By this victory he brought the
whole of Bihar under his control. He defeated Mohammad Shah of Bengal thrice in
1536, 1537 and1538 securing large wealth of Bengal and even occupied the capital
city of Gaud for a short period. All these victories enhanced the power and prestige of
SherShah who tactfully kept Humayun busy in Gaud and cut off all lines of
communication between Bihar and Delhi. On the return journey of Humayun from
Bengal to Agra, Sher Shah effectively blockaded his way and inflicted a crushing
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defeat on the Mughal army in the battle of Chausa on June 26, 1539. Humayun
somehow managed to save his life.
Emboldened by this victory, Sher Shah retrieved his authority in Bengal and crowned
himself at Gaud as Sher Shah ‘Sultan-i-Adil’. The very next year in 1540 Sher Shah
again defeated Humayun in the battle of Kannauj or Bilgram and occupied the throne
of Delhi. Sher Shah re-established the Afghan Empire which he ruled for five years,
from 1540-1545.
During this short period Sher Shah proved himself to be a conqueror. He sent an
expedition against Malwa and with the submission of the governor of the fort of
Gwalior, Malwa was conquered in 1542. The fort of Raisin was captured by Sher
Shah after a desperate struggle offered by Pooran Mal. Multan, Punjab, and Sindh
were occupied in 1543. Jodhpur under Maldeo had become powerful and Humayun
was offered shelter by its ruler. This infuriated Sher Shah who took it up as a pretext
to raid Jodhpur. Maldeo was defeated and Marwar was conquered in 1544. His last
expedition was against the Raja of Kalinjar and it was during the raid on the fort at
Kalinjar that Sher Shah lost his life due to a grievous injury caused by a blast to blow
off the walls of the fort. Kalinjar was won in 1545.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer the following questions:
1. What was the original name of Sher Shah?

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2. Who was Lad Malika?
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3. Who offered shelter to Humuyan?
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12.4 SHER SHAH'S ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS
The success of Sher Shah lies in his administrative reforms that have served as an
inspiration for his successors. The important officials at the court were- Diwan-i
Wizarat, Diwan-i Ariz, Diwan-i Rasalat, Diwan-i Insha. The Diwan-iWizarat handled
the income and expenses of the state and also supervised the other ministers. Diwan-
i- Ariz looked after the administration of the military affairs. The Diwan-i Risalat was
in charge of diplomatic correspondence through a network of ambassadors and
envoys. The Diwan-i Insha drew the royal proclamations and was in charge of
maintaining the Government reports. The Diwan-i Qazi and Diwan-i-Barid were
related to the department of justice and intelligence respectively.
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Sher Shah provided an administrative framework. The whole Empire was divided
into forty seven units called sarkars. Munsif-i-Munsifan was in charge of trying civil
cases in the sarkars and supervised the works of the Amirs. The Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran
was in charge of maintaining law and order and was to oversee the work of shiqdars.
Each sarkarwas sub-divided into several parganas. Every pargana had some important
officials like Shiqdar, Amin, Munsif, a clerk and middlemen like Chaudhari, Patwari
and Muqaddam. Fotahdar was given the charge of handling the treasury of a pargana.
The clerks were known as Karkuns. The Amins and Shiqdars were transferred every
two years to curb the possibilities of an internal revolt.
He introduced a fine revenue administrative system which served as a rolemodel for

future agrarian reform. Land was divided into three types, measured by the officials
against every cultivator and the cultivators were supposed to pay one-third of their
produce. The revenue collection for the village was the duty of the village Headman
who charged 5 per cent for his labour. Revenues were remitted in case, crops were
destroyed and loans were granted to the cultivators which gave impetus for more land
to come under cultivation. Patwaris were appointed for the purpose of maintaining
records of the accounts for more than one village. Leniency was shown to the
cultivators and the rights and obligations of the cultivators were defined through Patta
and Qabuliyat. Thus, Sher Shah was able to avoid corruption in the revenue
department. The Amir headed the revenue department and the shiqdar was
responsible to collect the revenues and send the same to the treasury.
Sher Shah has been praised for his efficient police system. Local responsibility was
enforced to maintain law and order. In a sarkar, the duty to watch over the criminal
activities was set upon Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran and for the pargana it was the shiqdar. In
the deliverance of justice, Sher Shah ensured that no criminal was set free. The Qazi
and Mir Adi were in charge of trying the civil cases. Criminal law was subject to the
state law and severe punishments were meted out to the guilty.
In matters of trade, various duties imposed on goods were abolished under his reign.
Internal customs too were abolished so as to facilitate trade and the free flow of
goods. Prior to Sher Shah, the currency system provided no hope for the people. He
introduced a new coin Dam and abolished old currency made of mixed metal.
LET US KNOW
Sher Shah introduced a regular postage system. The Sarais built along the roads
served as dak-chowkis of the postal department. Two horsemen were always kept at
every sarai or dak-chowki to receive the dak or mail from the previous chowki and
deliver it to the next one
Sher Shah instructed for the building of roads. Four roads were constructed covering
a long distance. Trees were planted and Sarais were built for the travellers. As a result
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towns grew near these Sarais and trade improved. The Sarak-i-Azam or the Grand
Trunk Road from Sonargaon to Indus was one of his greatest achievements.
Sher Shah could not give much time to architecture, but the Purana Qila located at
New Delhi, Rohtasgarh on the banks of Jhelum and such meritorious buildings were
constructed during his reign. His mausoleum at Sahasram is unequalled in its beauty
and grandeur.
 Successors of Sher Shah Suri
The Second Afghan Empire or the Sur Empire founded by Sher Shah Suri did not last
long as his successors were inefficient. Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son
Jalal Khan under the title of Islam Shah or Salim Shah who ruled from 1545 to1553.
Islam Shah was very suspicious in nature and hastened the process of liquidation of
the Empire. After his death, Nizam ascended the throne under the title of Muhammad
Adil Shah. He ruled for only for four years from 1553 to1557.
Although Muhammad Adil Shah ruled for four years, he lost his throne of Delhi to a
usurper named Ibrahim Khan Sur, a nephew of Sher Shah. He ruled Delhi from
Chunar where he made his new headquarters. Another nephew of Sher Shah,
Sikandar Shah occupied Punjab. An administrative chaos prevailed in the Empire.
Muhammad Adil Shah made Hemu his Chief Minister entrusting him with all the
administrative responsibilities. This was resented by the Afghan nobles. A serious
scramble for power started among the Afghan nobles with the prominent ones
declaring themselves as independent. A civil war also started among Muhammad
Adil Shah, Ibrahim Khan Sur and Sikandar Shah.
Taking advantage of this, Humayun made an attempt to recapture his lost Empire. He
defeated the Afghan army under Sikandar Shah at Machhiwara on the bank of the
river Sutlej. Punjab was occupied and Akbar, son of Humayun, was made its
governor. Then a conflict took place near Sirhind on June 22, 1555. Humayun entered
Delhi on July 23, 1555 and became the emperor of India once again after an interval
of fifteen years. The Sur Empire or the Second Afghan Empire came to an end and
the Mughal rule was restored. But Humayun did not live long. He died following an
accident on January 26, 1556. He nominated his son Akbar as his successor before his
death.
12.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF HIS RULE
During the short period of his rule, Sher Shah's achievement was impressive.
According to Dr. R. P. Tripathy, "Had Sher Shah lived longer he might have taken the
wind out of the Akbar's sails."
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Sher Shah has often been called a precursor of Akbar due to his administrative
measures. As an administrator, Sher Shah laid the foundation of the administrative
structure which was later on followed and improvised by Akbar. His reforms in the
police system, the judiciary, the revenue and tariff, communication and transport etc,
revealed his indefatigable spirit in the service of the state. He embodied in himself the
spirit of an enlightened despot by following a liberal policy towards his people.
Smith had made an observation which rightly sums up the greatness of Sher Shah. He
marks "If Sher Shah had been spared, the 'Great Mughals' would not have appeared
on the stage of history."
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
4. Where is the Mausoleum of Sher Shah located?

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5. What was the duty of shiqdar?
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6. Who was in charge of trying the civil cases?
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12.6 LET US SUM UP
After going through this Unit, you have learnt that:–
 Sher Shah could rule for a short time during which he extended the territory of
his Empire and provided a good administrative system.
 The successors of Sher Shah were inefficient and they quarreled among
themselves. Taking advantage of this, Humayun defeated
 the successor of Sher Shah Suri and re-established the Mughal Empire by
overthrowing the Afghan rule. Thus the Second Afghan Empire or Sur Empire
came to an end.
12.7 FURTHER READING
1) Chandra, Satish. (Reprint 2008): Medieval India: From Sultanateto the Mughals,
Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) Part one. New Delhi, India: Har-Anand Publications
Pvt. Ltd
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2) Majumdar, RC., Raychaudhuri, HC. and Datta, K. (2007). An Advanced History of
India. Delhi, India: Macmillan.
3) Prasad, Ishwari. (1965). A Short History of Muslim Rule in India. Allahabad, India,
The Indian Press.
4) Maiti, Provatansu and KumarSaha, Prabhat. (2000). Medieval India (1206 A.D.-
1707 A.D.). Calcutta, India: Sreedhar Publishers.
12.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answers to Q. No. 1: Farid

Answers to Q. No. 2: Widow of Taj Khan
Answers to Q. No. 3: Maldeo, ruler of Jodhpur
Answers to Q. No. 4: Sahasram
Answers to Q. No. 5: To maintain peace and order in the pargana
Answers to Q. No. 6: Qazi and Mir Adl
12.9 MODEL QUESTIONS
(A) Very Short Questions (answer each within 50 words):
Q.1. How much did the Headman charge for his labour of collecting taxes?
Q.2. What is Patta?
Q.3. Why did the Second Afghan rule not last after the death of Sher Shah?
(B) Short Questions (asnwer each within 150 words):
Q.1. What was the role of Patwari in land revenue system?

Q.2. How did Sher Shah check the anomalies in the revenue department?
Q.3. What is the significance of the battle of Kanauj?
(C) Long Questions (answer each within 300-500 words):
Q.1. Discuss the career and military feats of Sher Shah Suri as an Empire builder.
Q.2. Analyse the achievement of Sher Shah as the precursor of Akbar.
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UNIT 13 : MUGHAL ADMINISTRATIVE
INSTITUTIONS : ZABTI, MANSAB AND
JAGIR
Structure
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Central Administration
13.4 Provincial Administration
13.5 Jagirdari System
13.6 Mansabdari System
13.7 Let Us Sum Up
13.9 Answers to Check your Progress

 explain the Mughal administration and the principles behind it,
 discuss the administration at the central and provincial level,
 describe the land assignment system under the Mughals- the jagirdari and
mansabdari system.
13.2 INTRODUCTION
The development of Mughal administration was primarily the work of Akbar. The
ideas and principles on which it evolved were different from those of the Delhi
Sultanate. Due to lack of time and opportunity in case of Babur and lack of
inclination and ability in case of Humayun, an elaborate system of civil government
was not possible. It was largely due to the establishment of an administrative
apparatus by Sher Shah that Akbar could lay the edifice of a systematic structure in
administration. The Mughal state was essentially military in nature where the word of
the Emperor was the law. The administrative structure was highly centralized as
viewed by historians like Irfan Habib, Athar Ali, etc. This Unit will focus on the
Mughal administration.
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13.3 CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The head of the Mughal administrative apparatus was the Emperor. Though the king
enjoyed absolute power, he appointed a number of officers in different departments of
the government for the transactions of the innumerable affairs.
From1526 to 1560, i.e., fromthe time of Babur to the first four years of the reign of
Akbar, the office of Wazir or Wakil enjoyed great power. At the time of Bairam
Khan's regency (1556-60), the office of the Wazir enjoyed unlimited power.AsAkbar
took the financial power of the Wakil from Bairam Khan, the office lost its
importance.
The main departments of the state were usually four. The head of exchequer was the
Diwan who was usually the highest officer in the state, being in sole charge of
revenue and finance. He personally inspected all financial transactions, payments in
all departments, and maintained direct contact with the provincial Diwan.
The office of military pay and accounts was entrusted to Mir Bakshi, who discharged
various duties. While he was the Paymaster-General of all the officers of the state,
who "theoretically belonged to the military department", he was also responsible for
recruiting soldiers of the army and for maintaining the list of Mansabdars and other
high officials. When preparing for a battle, he presented a complete master-roll of the
army before the Emperor. Khan-i-Saman was the officer of the Imperial Household
department who looked into all matters "in reference to both great and small things".
The last but not the least important office was held by Sadr-us Sudur who was the
head of religious endowments and charity and also the minister of education. Before
Shah Jahan, the office of Chief Qazi and Sadr-us Sudur were combined into one- Sadr
who acted as the Chief Qazi. Aurangzeb separated these two offices and appointed
two different persons to hold these posts.
Secondary in importance were the heads of departments like Mustaufi (Auditor

General), Chief Mufti (Legal Adviser), Chief Muhtasib (Censor of Public Morals)
and Daroga-i-Dak Choki (Officer of Intelligence and Postal Department). The other
officials, somewhat inferior in status to those mentioned above, were the Mir Atish or
Daroga-i-Topkhana (Superintendent of Artillery), Nazir-i-Buyutat (Superintendent of
Imperial Workshop), Mir Barak (Superintendent of Forests), MirArz (Officer who
presented petitions to the Emperor) and Mir Tazak (Master of Ceremonies).
13.4 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
For the purpose of smooth administration and revenue collection, the empire was
divided into several provinces known as Subas. Akbar divided his empire into twelve
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Subas. Later, when he conquered new provinces in the Deccan, the number rose to
fifteen towards the close of his reign. Subsequently they rose to seventeen at the time
of Jahangir's reign, to nineteen in the time of Shah Jahan and to twenty-one at the
time of Aurangzeb.
The administrative structure of the province during the Mughal rule was exactly the
miniature of the central government. The head of a Suba was Subedar who was
appointed directly by the Emperor. He was the head of the civil as well as military
administration of each Suba. The provincial Diwan was the head of the revenue
department of the province and was appointed by the Emperor. He was an
independent officer who answered all questions relating to provincial finance.
The provincial Bakshi looked after the military establishment. He also kept an
account of the salaries and emoluments of allMansabdars. Provincial Sadr, Qazi,
Buyutat, Muhtasib, etc had to discharge the same duties like their counterparts at the
centre. Besides, in every Suba, Daroga-i-Dag Choki was established for conducting
intelligence and postal system, Waqai Navis and Waqai Nigars were appointed for
supply of reports directly to the king and some Sawanih Nigars were also recruited
for maintaining confidential reports supplied to the king.
 LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
The administration below the Subas, were divided into Sarkars and the Sarkars were
subdivided into Parganas: Faujdar was the chief executive head of a Sarkar whose
main duty was to maintain the law and order under his jurisdiction and the execution
of royal decrees and regulations. In addition, he had to keep the powerful Zamindars
under check. The next important officer of a Sarkar was the revenue collector known
as Amalguzar. Some Thanas were established in disturbed areas and in and around
the cities for preservation of law and order. These were headed by Thanedars.
A Shiqdar was in the charge of the general administration of a Pargana and maintain
law and order.He was assisted by anAmil (Revenue Collector), an Amin (Revenue
Assessor), a Potadar (Treasurer), Qanungo (Record Keeper of Land) and few
Bitikchis (Writers or Clerks).
A village was the lowest administrative unit in the Mughal system of administration.
The village head was known as Muqaddam. He was assisted by the Patwari, who took
care of the village revenue records. At this level, the Mughals followed almost the
same pattern of administration as it was under Sher Shah. The administration of the
urban areas was entrusted to Kotwal who was appointed by the centre. His duty was
prevention of crime, prevention of social abuses, control of the market, care and
disposal of heirless properties, etc.
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The forts of the Mughals, which were known as Qilas, were located at strategically
important places where small towns grew up due to erection of huge garrisons. To
administer the Qilas, some high ranked Mansabdars were usually appointed as
Qiladars for its administration. One Mutasaddi was appointed to administer the ports.
This office was auctioned in some cases and given to the highest bidder.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Who separated the office of Chief Qazi and Sadr-us Sudur?

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2. What was the duty of the Subedar?
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3. Who was Mutasaddi?
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 Mughal Judicial System
The Mughal rulers possessed a great sense of justice and tried to establish an efficient
system of judicial administration. Initially, they followed the judicial system based on
Islamic law of the Sultanate period under which the subjects were divided into two
classes- Believers and Zimmis, the latter being not recognized as citizens of the
country. It was Akbar who did not strictly adhere to the Islamic theory of kingship
and made some changes in the judicial system.
At the apex of the judicial administration stood the king, who was considered to be
the fountain of justice. He held his court on fixed days of the week and personally
decided all the important cases. The king alone enjoyed the right to award death
sentences. Next to the king's court stood the courts of Sadr-us-Sadur which decide the
religious cases and the Qaziul- Qzat which decide all other cases.
There was separate judicial machinery at the provincial level. The chief responsibility
of judicial administration rested with the Subedar, the Diwan and the Qazi. The
Subedar decided all the criminal cases and punished thieves, robbers, rebels, etc. The
civil cases were decided by the Diwan. The court of the Qazi also enjoyed wide
judicial powers. The Qazi with the help of officials like Mufti and Miradi discharged
both civil and criminal justice on the Hindus and the Muslims.
At the Sarkar and Pargana level, the Siqdar acted as the chief judicial officer and tried
all criminal cases. The civil cases were tried by the Amil. The Qazi and the Kotwal
too enjoyed the right to try certain types of civil and criminal cases. The lowest unit
of judicial administration was the Panchayat.
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No codified laws existed in the Mughal judicial system. The cases of the Muslims
were decided on the basis of Quranic injunctions, hadiths or sayings of the prophet,
fatwas or decrees of the eminent judges, etc. In case of the Hindus the cases were
decided in accordance with their customary and traditional laws. However, in
criminal cases some identical laws existed for the members of the two communities.
The political cases were tried by special courts consisting of civil and military
officials.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

4. Name the lowest unit of judicial administration.

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5. Define Hadith?
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6. Who acted as the chief judicial officer at the Sarkar and Pargana level?
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13.5 JAGIRDARI SYSTEM
Jagirdari system during the time of the Mughals was a continuation of the earlier iqta
system that formed a part of the feudal structure prior to the Mughal period. It was an
administrative mechanism which involved revenue assignments that was transferrable
during the Sultanate days. By this system, the ruling class of a particular region was
responsible for the management of revenue appropriation under the direct supervision
of the central authority without having any hereditary rights over the regions falling
under their control.
Earlier permanent and hereditary rights controlled the revenue assignments as the son
succeeded to the official posts. However, under the Lodis, the Afghan nobles were
given such revenue assignments and derived only partly from the king's favour. This
Mughal system of revenue assignment is identified as Jagirs and the assignee is
known as Jagirdar. Unlike the iqta system which was administrative cum fiscal
arrangement, jagirdari system under the Mughals was purely revenue based
assignment.
Akbar divided the land into two categories- Khalisa and Jagir. Land revenue of
Khalisa land went directly to the royal treasury whereas Jagirs were assigned to the
Jagirdars according to their rank. Those Mansabdars who received cash payment were
known as Naqdi. Jagirs were usually granted to the Mansabdars and the governing
class of the empire.
The Jagirs under the Mughals were transferable after three or four years and no
Jagirdar was allowed to retain the same Jagir for a long time. This feature of the
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system not only kept a check on the Jagirdars but also helped taking long-term
measures for the development of the areas by the Jagirdars.
Generally there were four types of Jagirs - (a) those which were given in lieu of pay
known as Jagir Tankha, (b) those which were given to a person on certain conditions
called Mashrut Jagirs, (c) those which were independent and involved no obligation
in service termed Inam Jagir and (d) those which were assigned to Zamindars in their
own homeland known as Watan Jagir. The last named was the only exception to the
general system of transfer of Jagir system.
The increase in the number of Mansabdars and the limited availability of land as well
as the administrative and financial disorder of the country caused a crisis in the
Jagirdari system in the later part of the reign of Aurangzeb. Many of those who were
appointed as Mansabdars found it hard to get their Jagirs. The Jagirdari system was
one of the important causes of the agrarian crisis in the Mughal Empire.
Though the term jagir does not occur in the official paper before Akbar, it began to be
used gradually after Akbar. The term jagir has been used in varying frequencies-more
frequently since 1561 but by 1575, it had declined. This may be due to the changing
administrative jargon for different assignment in the original documents. During the
time of Babur, wajah was used and during the first four years of Akbar's reign vague
expressions like hukumat, sardari, dawari, hirasat etc were used.
The marking of difference between the revenue assignment and holding

administrative posts may have been the outcome of Sher Shah's policy of appointing
sarkar-level military commanders. This policy was carried forward by Islam Shah
who made an attempt to put all soldiers serving under him on cash salaries.
The jagirs of the leading nobles were located strictly within the territory controlled by
him. However, the territory extended much beyond the revenue assignment.
At times there were disputes regarding the control of revenue as to whether the senior
commander would control the revenue of his territory or only his personal jagir. This
growing tension led to conflict between central authority and the regional
commanders.
Towards 1575 the jagir system assumed certain features. One jagir of a noble was
conceived as fixed income against specific methods and not a portion of the revenue
collected from the territories under his charge. Secondly, the central diwan had the
supreme authority to decide the value of the jagirs (locale and nominal) of the nobles
or those serving under the superior hakims.
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LET US KNOW
Ali Quli Khan (hakim) of Jaunpur assigned sarkar Banaras to his brother Bahadur
Khan and made it formally on behalf of the king. This is a single exceptional case
where an actual decision on assignment was taken without any prior authorization
from the central authority, as mentioned by Bayazid Bayat in the Tazkira-i-
Humayunwa- Akbar.
Jagirs began to be distributed among the high nobles at the presence of a central
diwan. Abul Fazl reports this in connection with the assignment of the Malwa in
1562. And the value of the jagir and locale was defined through sanads issued by the
central diwan. And failure to abide by the procedure was considered an offence and
not acceptable.
Until 1560, the jagir of a noble was never assigned in parts against the partial assesed
income (Jama) of two or more parganas. The jagirs were settled in terms of the
assesed income (Jama) of the parganas against which it was assigned. In the initial
years of Akbar's rule, the central share in the revenue of the different regions was
fixed but while discharging the responsibility of collecting and transmitting to the
treasury the nobles misappropriated it. This was perhaps the reason behind the
depletion of treasury towards the beginning of 1561.
The jagirs of the nobles belonging to powerful clans were concentrated in particular
regions. Most of the jagirs were distributed among the members of the same clan like
the Uzbeks in Jaunpur, Mirzas in Sambhal, Jalairs in Lucknow and Awadh, Qaqshals
in Kara, Manikpur and the Atka clan in Panjab. This led to the slowing down of the
process of the transfer of jagirs.
From around 1561 certain changes were introduced in the way jagirs were assigned.
The jagirs were assigned in fragments over a number of parganas and Ain-i-dahsala
testifies to the fragmentation of the jagirs.
13.6 MANSABDARI SYSTEM
The basis of civil and military administration under the Mughals was the Mansabdari
system which was introduced by Akbar who himself borrowed it from Persia.
The term Mansab literally means the rank of its holder (Mansabdars) in the official
ladder in the Mughal system of administration. From that angle, the Mansabdars were
the paid-service officers of the Mughals. On the basis of merit or service to the state,
Mansabs were given to both civil and military officers and hence they formed an
integral part of the Mughal bureaucracy.
Thus the Mansabdars belonged to the civil and the military department. The
Mansabdars could be transferred from the civil to the military department and vice
14
versa. The Mansabdars had to supply certain number of soldiers to the state according
to their rank. In the time of Akbar the Mansabdars were classified into 33 grades,
from commanders of 10 to 10,000 soldiers. Generally Mansab in the rank of 7,000
and above was reserved for person like princes or other members of royal family.
The title of Mansabdar was assigned to the high officials while the less superior
officers were given the title of Rouzinder.
There were two important characteristic features. Firstly, in broader sense all the
Mansabdars were subordinate to the king. That means, in an expedition, a Mansabdar
of lower rank had to obey the Mansabdar of higher rank in matters of war. Secondly,
the Mughal Mansabdars were known by the number of ranks identified as - Zat and
Sawar. Zat indicated the number of horses, carts, elephants etc to be maintained by a
Mansabdar. Sawar determined the number of horsemen the Mansabdar had to furnish
or maintain. Sawar rank was either equal or lower than that of the Zat. Hence, the
position of the Mansabdar was determined by the Zat number, not that of Sawar. For
example, Mansabdar with 4000 Zat and 2000 Sawar was higher in rank than a
Mansabdar of 3000 Zat and 3000 Sawar.
The Mansab rank under the Mughals was not hereditary. The son of a Mansabdar did
not inherit the rank from his father. Such grant depended on the will of the Emperor.
Another important feature of the system was the law of escheat (zabti), according to
which when a Mansabdar died, all his property was confiscated by the king. This
measure was introduced so that the Mansabdars could not exploit the people at will.
Regarding the payment of the Mansabdars, the system of payment in cash or in
assignment of a Jagir existed. Generally, a Mansabdar preferred a Jagir to cash
payment due to social status associated with it.
The Mansabdari system, introduced byAkbar, was a unique feature of the

administrative system of the Mughal Empire. But it was, no doubt, a complex system.
There were gradations of the Mansab holders. Mansabdars holding the rank of one
Hazari or above were termed as "Omrah" and those below a Hazari were termed
Mansabdars. They performed the same type of duties. There were three classes of
Mansabdars. (a) If the Zat and Sawar ranks were equal the Mansabdar belonged to the
first class. (b) If the Sawar rank was half of his Zat rank, the Mansabdar belonged to
the second class. (c) If the sawar rank was less than half the Zat rank or there was no
Sawar rank at all, then the Mansabdar would belong to the third class.
The Mughals stressed on the central authority of the ruler in maintaining order within
the Empire. The Mansabdari system became the means through which chieftains, clan
leaders and aristocrats who commanded considerable status and power were inducted
into the nobility. The mansabdar was to report only to the Emperor rather than to
another official of a higher mansab or rank. The Emperor wielded much control over
the officials through the frequent attendance of the nobles. This enabled the nobles to
15
maintain their elite status. The nobles could not assert their power through hereditary
claims unlike the times of Tughlaqs and the Lodhis. Akbar did away with this
practice and the rank of an officer ended with the death of the officer. Moreover, the
mansabdars, were transferred to prevent any territorial consolidation of power. The
Mughal princes were given ranks subordinate to the Emperor. The system managed to
draw into the fold of the Mughal army the maximum number of military recruits.
It allowed optimal absorption of warlords and recruits. Rewards and high

maintenance grants were offered as incentives to warlords who enlisted superior
horse-breeds.
Due to the indirect recruitment process the Mughal grasp or hold over Indian military
power remained tenuous throughout. There were no strict regulations and control.
Instead, the number of mansabdar increased leading to the expansion of the empire to
newer frontiers.
The Mansabdars posted in the Deccan, received jagirs for only 3 or 4months. The
increase in the mansab was far greater than the growth in the jama. It was to cope
with this situation that the zat and sawar salaries were reduced to a large scale and it
posed a military and financial problem. Akbar aimed to broaden the base of his rule
by establishing a personalized and semi-bureaucratic relationship with the Hindu
chieftains and Muslim nobles. The mansabdars under Akbar were mostly Persians,
Turanis, Muslims born in India and the Rajput chieftains.
The lowest ranking mansabdar was a commander of 10 cavalry and the highest
ranking mansabdars was a commander of 10,000 cavalry. In Akbar's time most of the
mansabdars above the rank of 5000 were his sons.
LET US KNOW
Abdul Kadir Badauni (a chronicler in Akbar's time) had written that the contingent of
a mansabdar consisted of Khas Khailan (his personal dependents) as well as bargirs,
who were mercenaries.
On the basis of their performance mansabdars were either promoted to higher ranks
or demoted to lower ranks. Akbar introduced descriptive roll system and pay was
dependent on the inspection of these rolls by imperial inspectors. Branding horse
system was made compulsory to prevent borrowing of horses between the
mansabdars. Most high ranking mansabdars were governors of subas. The sons
inherited a lower mansab than his father.
Sir Thomas Roe mentions that the children of the mansabdar inherited a small fortune
like, 'horses, staff and some stock". Thus, the law of escheat worked well as it kept
the mansabdars away for indulging in corruption and other acts of high handedness.
16
However, this also led to an increasing tendency among the mansabdars to indulge in
reckless expenditure.
According to J.N. Sarkar, the law of escheat made the nobles a selfish band quick to
join a winning side in every war of succession in order to keep safe their material
possessions as their entitlements were subject to the pleasure of the king.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

7. What does the term "Zat" indicate in the mansabdari system?

________________________________________________
8. _______________ testifies to the fragmentation of the jagirs.
9. Name the only non-transferable type of Jagir?

________________________________________________
13.7 LET US SUM UP
After going through this Unit, you have learnt that–

 The king enjoyed absolute power, but a decentralised form of government
existed during the Mughal period.
 The empire was divided and sub-divided into several levels functioning under
capable administrators and officers.
 The jagirdari and mansabdari system were an integral part of the Mughal
administration and it formed the base of civil and military administration.
 Roy, Kaushik. (2013). Military manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia.
New York, USA: Taylor and Francis.
 Chandra, Satish. (Reprint 2008). Medieval India: From Sultanate to the

Mughals,DelhiSultanate (1206-1526)Part one. NewDelhi, India: Har-Anand
Publications Pvt. Ltd
 Prasad, Ishwari. (1965). A Short History of Muslim Rule in India. Allahabad,

India: The Indian Press Ltd. (2nd Edition)
 Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.
17
 Habib, Irfan (2000). Agrarian system of Mughal India, 1556-1707. (3rd
edition). Bombay, India: Oxford University Press.
13.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answers to Q No. 1: Aurangzeb

Answers toQ No. 2: He was in charge of the civil as well as military administration
of a Suba.
Answers toQ No. 3: He was in charge of the administration of the ports.
Answers toQ No. 4: Panchayat
Answers toQ No. 5: Sayings of the Prophet
Answers toQ No. 6: Siqdar
Answers toQ No. 7: Zat indicated the number of horses, carts, elephants etc to be
maintained by a Mansabdar.
Answers toQ No. 8: Ain-i-dahsala
Answers toQ No. 9: Watan jagir
13.10 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What was the function of the Diwan?
Q.2. What kinds of cases were decided by Qazi-ul-Qazat?
Q.3. Who was the main architect of Mughal administrative system?
Q.4. How many Subas were there in Deccan underAurangzeb?
(B) Short Questions (answer each within 150 words):

Q.1. How was justice delivered in the absence of any codified law?
Q.2. How was the state share of revenue determined?

Q.1. Show how the provincial administration of the Mughals resembles the central
administration.
Q.2. Discuss the salient features of the Mughal administration.
Q.3. Discuss the Jagirdari system.
18
MUGHAL LAND REVENUE SYSTEM
Structure
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Methods of Land Revenue Assessment
13.4 Magnitude of Land Revenue Demand
13.5 Mode of Payment
13.6 Collection of Land Revenue
13.7 Relief Measures
13.8 Land Revenue Administration
13.9 Let Us Sum Up
13.10 Key Words
13.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
13.1 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we will discuss some important aspects of Mughal land revenue system.
After going through this Unit, you should be able to know the following:
 the methods of assessment;
 the magnitude of land revenue demand;
 mode of collection of land revenue;
 the different methods used to collect the land revenue;
 what sort of relief was available to peasants in case of adverse circumstances;
and
 the duties and obligations of different officials engaged in land revenue
system.
13.2 INTRODUCTION
The central feature of the agrarian system under the Mughals was the alienation from
the peasant of his surplus produce (produce over and above the subsistence level) in
the form of land revenue which was the main sour& of state's income. Early British
administrators regarded the land revenue as rent of the soil because they had a notion
that the king was the owner of the land. Subsequent studies of Mughal India have
shown that it was a tax on the crop and was thus different from the land revenue as
conceived by the British. Abul Fazl in his Ain-i Akbari justifies the imposition of
taxes by the state saying that these are the remuneration of sovereignty, paid in return
for protection and justice.
19
The Persian term for land revenue during the Mughal rule was mal and mal wajib.
Kharaj was not in regular use.
The process of land revenue collection has two stages: (a) assessment
(tashkhis/jama), and (b) actual collection (basil). Assessment was made to fix the
state demand. On the basis of this demand, actual collection was done separately for
kharif and rabi crops.
13.3 METHODS OF LAND REVENUE ASSESSMENT
Under the Mughals assessment was separately made for kharif and rabi crops. After
the assessment was over a written document called patta, qaul or qual-qarar was
issued in which the amount or the rate of the revenue demand was mentioned. The
asses see was in return supposed to give qabuliyat i.e. 'the "acceptance" of the
obligation imposed upon him, stating when and how he would make the payments'.
We will discuss here a few commonly used methods:
1) Ghalla Bakhshi (Crop-sharing): In some areas it was called bhaoii and batai. The
Ain-i Akbari notes three types of crop-sharing:
a) Division of crop at the threshing floor after the grain was obtained. This was
done in the presence of both the parties in accordance with agreement.
b) Khet batai: The share was decided when the crop was still standing in the
fields, and a division of the field was marked.
c) Lang batai: The crop was cut and stacked in heaps without separating grain
and a division of crop in this form was made.
In Malikzada's Nigarnama-i Munshi (late 17th century) crop sharing has been
mentioned as the best method of revenue assessment and collection. Under this
method, the peasants and the state shared the risks of the seasons equally. But as
Abul Fazl says it was expensive from the viewpoint of the state since the latter
had to employ a large number of watchmen, else there were chances of
misappropriation before harvesting. When Aurangzeb introduced it in the Deccan,
the cost of revenue collection doubled simply from the necessity of organising a
watch on the crops.
2) Kamkut/Daeabandl: The word kankut is &rived from the words kan and kut. Kan
denotes gram; while Kut means to estimate or appraisal. Similarly, dana means grain
while bandi is fixing or determining anything. It was a system where the grain yield
(or productivity) was estimated. In kankut, at first, the field was ' measured either by
means of a rope or by pacing.
20
AAer this, the per bighs productivity from good, middling and bad lands was
estimated and the revenue demand was fixed accordingly.
3) Zabti: In Mughal India, it was the most important method of assessment. The
origin of this practice is traced to Sher Shah. During Akbar'r reign, the system was
revised a number of times before it took the final shape.
Sher Shah had established a rai or per bigha yield for lands which were under
continuous cultivation (pow), or those land which very rarely allowed to lie fallow
(pamuti). The rai was based on three rates, representing good, middling and low
yields and one third of the sum of these was appropriated as land revenue. Akbar
adopted Sher Shah's mi. Akbar introduced his so-called karori experiment and
appointed karories all aver North India in 1574-75. The entire jagir was converted
into khalisa. On the basis of the information provided by the karoris regarding the
actual produce, local prices, productivity, etc. in.1580. Akbar instituted a new system
ain dahsala, where the average produce of different crops as well as the average
prices prevailing over the last ten years (15-24 R.Y. of Akbar) were calculated. One
third of the average produce was the state's minimum share. Under karori
experiment, measurement of all provinces took place. Bamboo rods with iron rings
called tanab were used instead of hempen ropes. On the basis of productivity and
prices prevailing in different regions they were divided for revenue purposes into
dastur circles. The rates of assessment in cash for each crop in every dastur was
decided, and the demand was fixed accordingly. The main features of the zabti
system as it finally came into operation under Akbar were:
i) measurement of land war essential;
ii) fixed cash revenue rates known as dastur amal or daster for each crop.
iii) all the collection was made in cash.
From an administrative point of view, zabti system had some merits:
i) measurement could always be rechecked;
ii) due to fixed dasturs, local officials could not use their discretion; and
iii) with fixing the permanent dasturs, the uncertainties and fluctuation in levying the
land revenue demand were greatly reduced.
There were some limitations of this system also:
i. It could not be applied if the quality of the soil was not uniform;
ii. If the yield was uncertain, this method was disadvantageous to peasants
because risks were borne by them alone. Abul Fazl says, "If the peasant does
21
not have the strength to bear zabt, the practice of taking a third of the crop as
revenue is followed."
iii. This was an expensive method as a cess of one dam per bigha known as
zabitana was given to meet the costs towards the maintenance of the
measuring party;
and
iv. Much fraud could be practised in recording the measurement.
Zabti system was adopted only in the core regions of the Empire. The main provinces
covered under zabti were Delhi, Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, Lahore and Multan. Even
in these zabti provinces, other methods of assessment were also practiced, depending
on the circumstances of the area.
Nasaq was not an independent method of assessment; it was subordinate to other

methods. It was a method or procedure which could be adopted whatever be the basic
method of revenue assessment and collection that was in force. In North India it was
nasaqi zabti, while in Kashmir it was nasaqi ghalla bakhshi. When it was applied
under zabti the annual measurement was dispensed with and previous figurn were
taken into account with certain variations. Since zabti system involved annual
measurement, the administration and revenue payers both wanted to replace it. Zabti-
lharsala or annual measurement was, therefore, set aside with some modifications.
Revenue Farming (Ijara)
Ijara system or revenue fanning war another feature of the revenue system of this
time. Though, as a rule Mughals disapproved of this practice, in actual fact certain
villages were sometimes farmed out. Generally, these villages, when peasant did not
have resources available for undertaking cultivation or where owing to some calamity
cultivation could not be done, were farmed out on Ijara. The revenue officials or their
relatives were not supposed to take land on Ijara. It was expected that revenue
farmers would not extract more than the stipulated land revenue from the peasants.
But this was hardly the case in actual practice.
The practice of Uam, it seems, could not have been very common in the zabti
provinces, Gujarat and the Mughal Dakhin. In the khalisa lands also this practice was
very rare. However, in the jagir lands it became a common feature. Revenue
assignees (jagirdars) farmed out their assignments in lieu of a lump sum payment,
generally to the highest bidders.
Sometimes, jagirdars sub-assigned part of their Jagirs to his subordinates/troopers.

During the 18th century Ijara system became a common form of revenue assessment
and collection.
22
13.4 MAGNITUDE OF LAND REVENUE DEMAND
Let us first 'examine what share of the produce was taken by the state as land revenue.
Abul Fazl says that no moral limits could be set for the demand of the ruler' from his
subjects; "the subject ought to be thankful even if he were made to part with all his
possessions by the protector of his life and honour," He adds further that "just
sovereigns" do not exact more than what is required for their purposes which, of
course, they would themselves determine.
Aurangzeb explicitly mid that the land revenue should be appropriated according to
sharlat, i.e., not more than one half of the total produce.
European traveller Pelssert, who visited India in the early 17th century, declared that
"so much is wrung from the peasants that even dry bread is scarcely left to fill their
stomachs." Irfan Habib comments: "Revenue demand accompanied by other taxes
and regular and irregular exactions of officials was a heavy burden on peasantry".
Sher Shah formed three crop rates on the basis of the productivity of the soil, and
demand was fixed at 1/3 of the average of these three rates for each crop. Abul Fazl
comments that under Akbar, Sher Shah's 1/3 of revenue demand formed the lowest
rate of assessment. Recent studies show that revenue demand under the Mughals
ranged between 1/3 to 1/2 of the produce, and sometimes even 3/4 in some areas. On
close scrutiny we find that the revenue demand varied from saba to suba. In
Kashhmir, the demand in theory was one-third while in practice it was two-thirds of
the total produce. Akbar ordered that only one-half should be demanded.
In the province of Thatta (Sind), the land revenue was taken at the rate of one-third.
Yusuf Mirak, the author of Mazhar-Shahjahani (a memoir on the administration of
Sind written in 1634), explains that the Tarkhans who held Thatta in jagir when the
Ain-i-Akbari was written, did not take more than half of the produce from the
peasantry and also in some cases they took one-third or a fourth part of the total
produce.
For Ajmer suba, we find different rates of revenue demand. In fertile regions of
eastern Rajasthan ranged from one-third to one-half of the produce. 1rfan Habib on
the basis of the Ain-i-Akbari says that in the desert regions, proportion amounted to
one-seventh or even one-eighth of the crop. But Sunita Budhwar Zaidi points out that
there is no evidence in other sources of such low rates from any locality of Rajasthan.
Even in Jaisalmer, one-fifth of the produce was collected from the rabi and one-fourth
from the kharif crop.
In Central India, rates varied from one-half, one-third to two-fifths. In Deccan, one-
half was appropriated from the ordinary lands while one-third was taken from those
irrigated by wells and one-fourth was taken from high grade crops.
23
Aurangzeb's farman to Rasik Das Karori stipulates that when the authorities took
recourse to crop-sharing, usually in the case of distressed peasantry, the proportions
levied should be one-half, or one-third or two-fifths. Rates under Aurangzeb were
higher than that of Akbar. Perhaps it was due to the fact that there was a general rise
in agricultural pries and, thus, there was no real change in the pitch of demand.
In the case of Rajasthan it is reported that revenue rates varied according to the class
or caste of the revenue payers. Satish Chandra and Dilbagh Singh have shown that
Brahmins and Banias paid revenue on concessional rates in a certain pargana of
Eastern Rajasthan.
It may be safely assumed that in general the rate of revenue demand was from 1/2 to
1/3 of the produce. Since, the revenue was imposed per unit of area 'uniformly’
irrespective of the nature of the holding, it was regressive in nature--those who
possessed large holdings felt the burden less than those who possessed small
holdings.
Check Your Progress 1
1) Define the following:

Ghalla Bakbshi: .....................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Kankut: ..................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Polaj: .....................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Rai: ........................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Enumerate merits and demerits of the zabti system.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Discuss the pattern of revenue demand in Mughal India.

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
24
13.5 MODE OF PAYMENT
The practice of collecting land revenue in cash was in use in some regions even as
early as the 13th century. In the Mughal period, the peasant under zabti system had to
pay revenue in cash. No provision is on record for allowing a commutation of cash
into kind in any circumstances. However, under crop-sharing and kankut,
commutation into cash was permitted at market prices. Cash nexus was firmly
established in almost every part of the Empire.
13.6 COLLECTION OF LAND REVENUE:
Under ghalla bakhshi, the state's share was seized directly from the field. In other
systems, the state collected its share at the time of harvest.
Abul Fazl maintains that "Collection should begin for rabi from holi and for kharif
from Dashehra. The officials should not delay it for another crop”.
In the kharif season, the harvesting of different crops was done at different times and
the revenue was accordingly to be collected in three stages depending on the type of
crops. Thus, under kharif the revenue could only be collected in instalments.
The rabi harvest was all gathered within a very short period. The authorities tried to
collect revenue before the harvest wa5 cut and removed from the fields. By the end of
the 17th century, the authorities in desperation started preventing the peasants from
reaping their fields until they had paid their revenue. Irfan Habib comments: "It
shows how oppressive it was to demand the revenue from the peasant before the
harvest, when he would have absolutely nothing left. The practice was at the same
time the work of a well developed money economy, for it would have been
impossible to attempt it unless the officials expected that the peasants would pay up
by pledging their crops before hand to grain merchants or moneylenders".
Usually, the revenue was deposited in the treasury through the 'amil' or revenue
collector. Akbar encouraged the peasants to pay directly, Todar Ma1 recommended
that the peasants of trusted villages, within the time limit, could deposit their revenue
in the treasury themselves and could obtain receipt. The village accountant, patwari,
made endorsement in his register to establish the amount paid. Irfan Habib considers
these regulation as precautionary measures on the part of administration to avoid
fraud and embezzlement.
13.7 RELIEF MEASURES
Abbas Khan in the Torlkh-I Sher Shahi writes, "Sher Shah declared that concessions
could be permitted at assessment time, but never at that of collection". Aurangzeb in
25
his farman to Muhqmmad Hashim karori, instructed that no remissions were to be
allowed once the crop had been cut.
Whatever be the method of revenue assessment, there was some provision for relief
in the care of bad harvests. We have already seen that in ghda bawl and kankut, state's
share would rise and fall depending upon the current harvest. In zabtl, relief was
given by excluding the area designated nabud from assessment.
In practice, it was not possible to collect the entire amount, and there was always a
balance which was to be collected next year. It also seems to have been a common
practice to demand the arrears, owed by peasants who had fled or died, from their
neighbours. Aurangzeb issued a hasb ul hukm in A.D. 1674-75 to check this practice
in khalisa and jagir lands, arguing that no peasant could be held responsible for
arrears contracted by others.
Taqavi (strength giving) loans were granted to enable the peasants to buy seeds and
cattle. Abul Fazl writes, "the amalguzar should assist the empty handed peasants by
advancing them loans". Todar Mal had suggested that taqavi should be given to
cultivators who were in distressed circumstances and did not have seeds or cattle.
These loans were interest-free, normally to be repaid at the time of harvest. These
were advanced through the chaudhris and muqaddams. Abul Fazl says that the loans
should be recovered slowly.
New wells were dug up and old ones were repaired for extension and improvement of
cultivation.
1) What was the medium of payment of land revenue?

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What were the forms of relief given to the peasants at the time of natural calamity?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
13.8 LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
We get ample information about the revenue machinery for khalisa lands. But our
information for Jaw administration is quite scanty. Since Jagirdars were transferred
after every two or three years, they had no knowledge of revenue paying capacity of
the people and local customs. So we find three types of officials:
26
a) officials and agents of jagirdars;
b) permanent local officials many of whom were hereditary. They were generally
not affected by the frequent transfers of the Jagirdars, and
c) imperial officials to help and control the Jagirdars
At the rural level, there were many revenue officials:

i) Karori: In 1574-75, the office of karori was created. Describing his duties,
Abul Fazl says that he was incharge of both assessment and collection of the
revenue. An important change took place during Shah Jahan's reign. Now
amins were appointed in every mahal and they were given the work of
assessment. After this change, Lard (or amil) remained concerned chiefly
whith collection of revenue which amin had assessed.
The karori was appointed by the diwan of the province. He was expected to
look after the interests of the peasantry. The accounts of the actual collection
of the karoris and their agents were audited with the help of the village
patwari's papers.
ii) Amin: The next important revenue official was amin. As we have already
mentioned, that the office of amia was created during Shah Jahan's reign. His
main function was to assess the revenue. He, too, was appointed by the diwan.
He was responsible jointly with the karod and faujdar for the safe transit of
the collected revenue. The faujdar of the province kept a vigilant eye on the
activities of amin and karori. He also used to recommend their promotion.
iii) Qanungo: He was the local revenue official of the pargana, and generally
belonged to one of the accountant castes. It was a hereditary post, but an
imperial order was essential for the nomination of each new person.
Nigarnama-i Munsi holds qanungos responsible for malpractices because

"they have no fear of being transferred or deposed." But a qanungo could be
removed by an imperial order if he indulged in malpractices, or on account of
negligence of duty. He was supposed to maintain records conarning revenue
receipts, area statistics, local revenue rates and practices and customs of the
pargana. It was generally believed that if a qanungo was asked to produce the
revenue records for the previous hundred years, he should be able to do so.
The Jagjrdar's agents were generally unfamiliar with the locality; they usually
depended heavily on the information supplied to them by the qanungos.
The qanungo was paid 1% of the total revenue as remuneration, but Akbar
started paying them salary.
27
iv) Chaudhari: He was also an important revenue official like the qanungo. In
most caw he was the leading zamindar of the locality. He was mainly
concerned with the collection. He also stood surety for the lesser zamindars.
The chaudhari distributed and stood surety for the repayment of the taqavi
loans. He was a countercheck on qanungo.
From Dastur-ul Amal Alamgiri it appears that the allowance to the

chaudhari was not very substantial. But it is possible that he held extensive
revenue free (inam) lands.
v) Shiqqdar: Under Sher Shah, he was the incharge of revenue collection and
maintained law and order. In Akbar's later period, he seems to be a
subordinate official under the karori. Abul Fazl mentions that in case of an
emergency, the shiqqdar could give the necessary sanction for disbursement
which was to be duly reported to the court. He was also responsible for thefs
that occurred in his jurisdiction.
vi) Muqaddam and Patwari: The muqaddam and patwari were village level
officials. The former was the village headman. In lieu of his services; he was
allowed 2.5 percent of the total revenue collected by him. The patwari was to
maintain records of the village land, the holdings of the individual cultivators,
variety of crops grown and details about fallow land. The names of the
cultivators were entered in his babi (ledger). On the basis of information
contained in these bahis, the bitikchi used to prepare necessary papers and
records according to which assessment and collection was carried out.
In each pargana, there were two other officials-the fotadar or khazmdar (the
treasurer), and karkun or bitikchi (the accountant). Under Sher Shah, there were two
karkuns, one for keeping the records in Hindi and the other in Persian. But in A.D.
1583-84 Persian was made the sole language for accounts.
The faujdar represented the military or policy power of the imperial government. One
of his main duties was to help the jagirdar or amil collecting revenue from the
zortalab (refractory) zamindars and peasants.
There were waqal navis, sawanih nigar (news writers), etc., whose duty was to report
the cases of irregularities and oppression to the centre.
Check Your Prgrese 3
1) Describe the duties and functions of a karori.

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
28
2) Define the following:
i) Zortalab-Zamindars:
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
ii) Fotadar
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
iii) Waqal Navis

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
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13.9 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we have discussed the central features of the agrarian system under the
Mughals. The land revenue was the main source of the state's income. The British
administrators regarded it as rent of the soil, and thought that the owner of the land
was the king, but subsequent studies have shown that it was a tax on the crop rather
than on land.
The salient features of the Mughal land revenue system may be summarised as
follows :
a) The magnitute of land-revenue demand varied from region to region;
b) A number of methods were used to assess the land revenue demand. Though
zabti was the most important method of revenue assessment, other methods,
like, ghalla bakhshi, and kankut were also prevalent.
c) The special feature was that in most cases (at least in the. zabti provinces),
revenue was realized in cash, thereby giving impetus to monetization and
market economy.
d) Relief was provided at the time of natural calamity. The state used to give
concessions in the form of nabud, and advanced loans called taqavi, and,
e) A large number of officials were associated with the administration of land

revenue. some of the important functionaries were karori, amin, qanungo,
29
chaudhuri, shiqqdar, fotadar, bitikchi, diwan, faujdar, waqai navis
sawanih nigar, etc.
13.10 KEY WORDS
Bahi : record book; accounts-book; ledger
Maurusi : hereditary
Raiyat : peasant
Jama : assessed revenue
Hasil : actual collection
Qabuliat : acceptance
Nabud : not-existing
Patta : a writen document issued by the revenue department to the

peasants in which the rate of revenue demand, etc., were entered.
Taqavi : agricultural loan
Zortalab : refractory
13.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
1) See Sec. 13.3

2) See Sec. 13.3. At first-define zabti system. Trace its origin and then discuss its
merits and demerits.
3) See Sec. 13.4. Analyse that in Mughal India revenue demand was not uniformly
imposed. Discuss how it varies from region to region.
1) See Sec. 13.5

2) See Sec. 13.7. Write the nature of the relief measures. What type of loans were
given? What was taqavi loan; why it was given and on what condition? Who were
the officials involved in the distribution of these loans, etc.
30
1) See Sec. 13.8 (i). Analyst why Akbar created the office of karori? What powers
were entrusted upon him at that time. What changes were made during the
succeeding reigns in his powers and functions.
2) See Sec. 13.8 (vi).
31
UNIT 14 : RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE SULH-I-KUL
Structure
14.2 Introduction
14.3 Religious tolerance and sulh-i-kul
14.4 Let Us Sum Up

 explain the expansionist policy of Akbar and the consolidation policy that he
pursued,
 analyse the diplomatic alliances Akbar established with the local rulers, chiefs
and his motives behind it, and
 describe the religious policy of Akbar.
14.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we discussed about the dynamic Afghan ruler, Sher Shah, whose
administrative reforms and other policies created a benchmark for his successors to
follow. In this unit, we will be discussing the religious policy of the great Mughal
Emperor, Akbar. The Unit will highlight the achievements of Akbar propagating a
new religious order.
14.3 RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE AND SULH-I-KUL
Akbar did have faith in religion but he was not an orthodox or conservative Muslim.
His close association with Faizi and Abul Fazl was also instrumental in enriching his
views on religion. The greatness of Akbar lies on the fact that at a time when there
was much intolerance around him, his vision was not blinded by the narrow opinions
of the religious fanatics who surrounded him.
During his time, in 1575, the Ibadat Khana or the House of Worship was constructed
specially for the discussion of different religious ideas. The exponents of various
religious faiths were called upon to deliberate on matters related to religion and
spirituality and Akbar took great interests in such discussions. Purshottam and Debi
were exponents of Brahmanism, Vijayasen Suri, Jinachandra followed the Jaina faith,
while Dastur Meherjee Rana belonged to the Zoroastrian faith. Akbar had high
32
regards for the knowledge of such preachers and wished for an intellectual dialogue
but there were differences among the religious leaders, particularly between those
who favoured the spirit of free thinking and those who were orthodox in their outlook
towards religion.
When Akbar read the khutba, it was a clear indication that he was asserting his
leadership of both the political as well as the spiritual world. In the year1579, Shaikh
Mubarak produced a document by which Akbar became the final interpreter of the
Muslim law (Imam-i-Adil). This document was termed as the Infallibility Decree, by
Dr. Smith. Akbar made an attempt through this decree to free himself from the
domination of the spiritual leaders. Akbar was eagerly anxious to be recognized as a
true Muslim by the religious leaders of his court. However, his sincere attempt was
severely criticised. The conservative Muslims were not happy with the growing
tolerance policy of Akbar and his showing favour to the Hindus.
Despite the resentment among the Muslims, Akbar continued with his religious
propaganda and his next endeavour was the promulgation of the Din-i-Illahi or the
Tauhid-i-Illahi. Akbar aimed at establishing a common religious faith for the people
based on the goodness and truth found in every religion. Certain ceremonies
associated with the Din-i-Illahi are stated in the Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl.
The followers of the new faith were graded according to their readiness to sacrifice to
the Emperor their property, honour and religion. Sadly, the new faith found very few
takers and after the death of Akbar, Dini- Illahi silently disappeared. Birbal was the
only Hindu, who agreed to join the new faith. Scholars have different views of Din-i-
Illahi, ranging from some ridiculing it as Akbar's folly and others praising it for its
rational basis. Some have refused to accept the terminology of religion given to Din-
i-Illahi. They are of the opinion that Din-i-Illahi had no priest, religious books, no
ceremonials and belief system. However, according to S.R. Sharma, Din-i-Illahi as a
new order of faith was a brilliant experiment in national idealism by Akbar. Even
though Din-i-Illahi ceased to exist after the death of Akbar, yet it cannot be denied
that this new order of faith had some sincere and rational objectives.
His relation with the Sikhs was equally amicable which is evident from the fact that
he gave the fourth Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das, a huge plot of land. The Mughal policy
towards the Rajputs contributed to the expansion and consolidation of the Mughal
Empire under Akbar and his successors. Akbar adopted a policy of conciliation
towards the Rajputs and other non- Muslim subjects. The liberal measures such as the
abolition of jizyah, remission of pilgrim taxes, etc fortified people's faith in Akbar as
a liberal ruler. But in adopting the conciliatory policy, Akbar did not deviate from his
imperialist designs of bringing under his sway the whole of Hindustan. As mentioned
above, there were a few Rajput chiefs like those of Amber (Jaipur) and Bikaner, who
on their own accord, offered submission. The emperor treated them nicely.
33
Akbar also allied himself with the philosophical idea which is identified with sulh-i-
kul (Absolute Peace). The emphasis of this philosophy was on the role of a preceptor
who would guide towards the road leading to Divine Reality. In his vision of sulh-i-
kul, there was no place for prayers and worship.
His religious views were meant to bring together people from every religious field
and foster a sense of loyalty to each other and to the Emperor.
Sulh-i kul an Arabic term literally meaning “peace with all,” “universal peace,” or
“absolute peace,” drawn from a Sufi mystic principle. As applied by the third Mughal
Emperor of India, Akbar (who reigned 1556-1605), it described a peaceful and
harmonious relationship among different religions. In keeping with efforts to mesh
the diverse populations of his realm, Akbar proposed unity and peace among all
human beings – sulh-i kul. The concept implies not just tolerance, but also the sorts of
balance, civility, respect, and compromise required to maintain harmony among a
diverse population. Sulh-i kul was originally used during Akbar's reign and
sometimes after him in the Mughal court and among some Sufi movements in India.
Today the term is used primarily by historians, art historians, and scholars
researching in the field of Mughal culture and Sufi movements of India, and less so
by other scholars and peace activists. In the field of interfaith dialogue, tolerance
plays an important role in constructive interactions, so the concept of sulh-i kul has
great potential relevance to discussions of intercultural dialogue specifically, and
cultural diversity more generally. Sulh-i kul was invented to describe universal peace,
specifically with regard to interfaith tolerance and equal treatment for all, regardless
of religious beliefs. Given continuing religious conflicts matched to the reality of
cultural pluralism, it seems useful to resurrect this historic term as a modern tool. The
concept also has potential for discussions of such concrete contexts as managing a
multicultural society.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What was Jizyah?

________________________________________________
2. Name the Sikh Guru who was granted land by the Mughal Emperor Akbar.
________________________________________________
3. What was the objective behind the establishment of the Ibadat Khana by Akbar?
________________________________________________
14.4 LET US SUM UP
After going through this Unit, you have learnt that:
34
 Akbar was a devout Muslim but at the same time he had a liberal attitude
towards people of other religious faiths. His policy of sulh-i-kul was a novelty
in medieval period.
1. Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.
2. Ali, M. Athar. (2008). Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture.
New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.
3. Mukhia, Harbans. (2004) The Mughals of India. New Delhi, India: Blackwell
Publishing
4. Habib, Irfan (edtd.). (1992). Medieval India 1: Researches in the History of India
1200-1750. NewDelhi, India: Oxford University Press
5. Habib, Irfan (edtd.). (1997). Akbar and his Times. New Delhi, India: Oxford
University Press
6. Ahmed Farooqui, Salma. (2011). A Comprehensive History of Medieval India:

From the Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. New Delhi, India: Dorling
Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Online Sources:
 Bayazid Ansari and his Raushniya Movement. (2016, January 7). Retrieved
from https://pakpotpourri.wordpress.com/2012/12/23/ bayazid-ansari-his-
raushiniya-movement-in-the-af-pak-regions-16th- 17th-century/
14.6 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is Sulh-i-kul?
Q.2. Define jizya?
(B) Short Questions (answer each within 150 words):

Q.1. What were the features of the Infallibility Decree?

Q.1. Explain the motive behind the propagation of Din-i-Illahi and how was it
received?
35
UNIT 15 : MUGHAL ART AND ARCHITECTURE
PAINTING AND FINE ARTS

Structure
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Antecedents
15.3.1 Painting in the 15th Century
15.3.2 Painting under Early Mughlas
15.4 Evolution of Mughal School under Akbar
15.4.1 Establishment of Royal Atelier
15.4.2 Style and Technique
15.4.3 Distinctive Features
15.5 Development under Jahangir and Shahjahan
15.5.1 Introduction of New Styles
15.5.2 Thematic Variation
15.5.3 Final Phase
15.6 European-Impact on Mughal Painting
15.7 Painting in the Deccan
15.7.1 Court Patronage
15.7.2 Style and Theme
15.8 Rajput Painting
15.8.1 Style and Theme
15.8.2 Main Centres
15.9 Fine Arts under Mughals
15.9.1 Music
15.9.2 Dance and Drama
15.10 Let Us Sum Up
15.11 Key Words
15.1 OBJECTIVES
Cultural values are often reflected through the medium of paintings and tine arts.
After going through this Unit, you will be able to know the following:
 the development of painting' during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries;
36
 the various styles and techniques of painting;
 the thematic variations in the paintings in different regions, and
 the development of fine arts viz., music, dance and theatrical arts in the courts
of the Mughals and other regional kingdoms;
15.2 INTRODUCTION
The sixteenth century, especially its second half, marks a watershed in the
development of the art of painting and music in India. Akbar gave liberal patronage to
the growth of fine arts during his rule. His successors also showed great interest in
these arts, so that by the end of the seventeenth century painting and music in the
Mughal court reached unparalleled height.
Simultaneously, in the Deccan, was evolving another peat tradition of painting and
music somewhat independent of the Mughal influence. Later, in the eighteenth
century, the patronage to painting shifted from the Mughal court to regional
kingdoms, such as Rajasthan and Punjab.
In the following pages you will read details of the emergence of these various
traditions of painting along with the growth of other fine arts.
15.3 ANTECEDENTS
In this section we will discuss the development of painting in the pre-Mughal period.
15.3.1 Painting in the Fifteenth Century
Until recently it was believed that the art of painting did not flourish during the rule
of the Delhi Sultans ad that the illuminated manuscripts of the Mughals were, in fact
a revival of painting after a lap& of several centuries from the end of the tenth.
Lately, however, enough evidence has come to light suggesting the existence of:
 a lively tradition of murals and painted cloth during the 13th and 14th
centuries;
 a simultaneous tradition of the Qur'anic calligraphy, lasting upto the end of
the 14th century, and
 a tradition of illustrated Persian and Awadhi manuscripts, originating
probably at the beginning of the 15th century.
Of this last tradition, a notable number of illustrated manuscripts from the period
between the 15th and 16th century have become known. Some of these works were
commissioned by independent pawns in the Sultanate located outside the court. From
the former category mention may be made of:
37
a) the Bostan of S'adi, illustrated by the artist Hajji Mahmud, and
b) Ni'mat Nama (a book on cookery)
c) Miftah a1 Fuzala by Muhammed Shadiabadi
These manuscripts were illustrated at Mandu (Malwa) during the second half of the
fifteenth century. A fine example of the latter category is the illustrated manuscript of
Laur Chanda (in Awadhi) executed for a patron seemingly not related with the
court.
It is, thus, evident that at the time of the advent of the Mughals in India there did exist
a live tradition of painting focused mainly on illuminating manuscripts, made
possible by the use of paper as the new material.
15.3.2 Painting Under Early Mughals
Babur, the founder of Mughal rule in India (in 1526), ruled for four years only. He
was not able to contribute anything to the growth of painting. His successor Humayun
was mostly engaged in containing his rivals till be was forced out of India by Sher
Shah in 1540. It was, however, during his refuge at the court of Shab Tahmasp of
Persia that Humayun acquired love of the art of painting. Humayun was so influenced
by the art practiced there that he commissioned Mir Syed Ali and Khwaja Abdus
Samad, two Persian masters, to illustrate manuscripts for him. These two painters
joined Humayun's entourage on his triumphant return to India.
Humayun's contribution to the evolution of Mughal paintings is very important.

These are several important features of the Mughal school which seem to have
originated in the paintings done during Humayun's period. An important painting
from Humayun's period is titled 'Princes of the House of Timur and dated c. 1550. It
has been executed on cloth, quite large in size, measuring approximately 1.15m.
square. Such a large format is unusual even for paintings in Persia, and it has been
suggested that it probably relates to the Mongol tradition of having paintings in their
tents.
38
15.4 EVOLUTION OF MUGHAL SCHOOL UNDER AKBAR
The emergence of the Mughal School of painting as distinct from all other styles was
mainly due to the deep interest Akbar took in the promotion of this art.
Akbar's views on The Art of Painting

Drawing the 1ikencss of anything is called tasvir. His majesty, from his earliest
youth, has shown a great predilection for this art, and gives it every encouragement,
as he looks upon it as a means, both of study and amusement. Hence the art
flourishes, and many painters have obtained great reputation. The works of all
painters are weekly laid before His Majesty by the Daroghas and the clerks; he then
confers rewards according to excellence of workmanship, or increases the monthly
salaries. Much progress was made in the commodities required for painters, and the
correct prices of such articles were carefully ascertained. The mixture of colours has
especially been improved. The pictures thus received a hitherto unknown finish. Most
excellent painters are-now to be found, and masterpieces, worthy of a Bihzad, may be
placed at the side of the wonderful works of the European painters who have attained
world-wide fame. The minuteness in detail, the general finish, the boldness of
execution, etc., now-observed m pictures, are momparable; even inanimate objects
look as if they had life. More than a hundred painters have become famous masters of
the art, whilst the number of those who approach perfection, or of those who are
middling, is very large. This is especially true of the Hindus; their pictures surpass
our conception of things. Few, indeed, in the whole world are found equal to them.
-Ain Akbari
15.4.1 Establishment of Royal Atelier
The first major project undertaken during Akbar's regime was that of illustrating the
Hamza Nama. It began m 1562 for which several artists were employed at the court.
39
The place where the painters worked was known as Tasvir Khana. Although Abul
Fazal enumerates the names of only seventeen artists, we now know that the number
was very large. S.P. Verma (Art, Material Culture m the Paintings of Akbar's Court,
Vikas, New Delhi, 1978) has prepared a list of 225 artists who worked at Akbar's
atelier. These artists belonged to, different places, but among them the majority were
Hindus. Interestingly, several low caste people, due primarily to their artistic skill,
were also raised to the status of royal artist. The case of Daswant, who was the son of
a Kahar (palki-bearer), may be especially cited. The painters were assisted by a set of
gilders, line-drawers and pagers. The artists were salaried employees. SP. Verma
opines that the lowest paid worker in the atelier received an amount between 600 to
1200 dams. (40 dams = one rupaya).
There are paintings which bear the names of two artists. Sometimes even three artists
worked on a single painting. On one painting from Akbarnama four artists have
worked. The painting was thus a collaborative team work, The sketching of figures
and colouring were done by a team of two different artists. In cases where three artists
have worked the outlining was done by one artist, the other artist coloured the faces
and a third one coloured the remaining figure. It is however not known to us as to
how was such a complex arrangement worked out Probably in such a team work the
&etching and colouring were done by separate artists. (Cf. S.P. Verma, op. cit.)
As has been noted above, the atelier was supervised by daroghas with the assistance
of clerks. They were responsible for making materials of painting easily available to
the artists and to oversee the progress of their work. They also arranged for periodical
presentation of the artists' works before the Emperor.
15.4.2 Style and Technique
The illustration done at Akbar's court are considered as representative works of the
Mughal art. Notably, however, in these paintings, there is evident a gradual evolution
in the style and technique. The illustrations of the early phase are clearly influenced
by the Persian tradition, the identifying features of which are listed below:
 symmetrical compositions;
 restricted movement of figures;
 fineness of the lines of drawings;
 flat depiction of architectural columns; and
 profuse embellishment of buildings in the manner of jewels.
Later, the paintings acquired a distinctive character of their own. They assumed a
more eclectic character composed mainly of the Persian and Indian traditions with
touches of European influence.
40
15.4.3 Distinctive Features
The Mughal style became recognisable within a span of fifteen years since the setting
up of royal atelier under Akbar. In the next decade or so, i.e. by about 1590 it
acquired a distinctive form which was marked by:
 naturalism & rhythm

 clothing objects of daily use assuming Indian forms.
 picture space having subsidiary scenes set in background
 extraordinary vigor of action and violent movement
 luxuriant depiction of foliage & brilliant blossoms
41
It should be emphasized here that the identity of the Mughal paintings under Akbar
was as much made of an original style as a fusion of the Persian and Indian traditions.
Specific mention may be made here of the depiction of action and movement which is
not to be found in either the pre-Mughal art of India or the art of Persia (S.P. Verma
in Art & Culture, eds. A. J. Qaiser & S .P. Verma , Jaipur, 1993).
Painting under Akbar's period distinguishes itself as a tradition from Persian painting
as well as from Indian styles particularly by the presence of historical subject matter.
The two most commonly used themes are:
 daily events of the court, and

 portraits of leading personalities
While portrait painting was known in Persia, painting as a chronicle of actual events
was certainly a new emphasis. Painters used familiar formulas for hunting or battle
scenes regardless of the fact that the literacy reference for the scene was historical or
purely imaginary. Moreover specific events illustrated are frequently reworkings of
scenes ‘recording’ quite different vents in the earliest known historical manuscript of
this period, the Timur Nama of about 1580 AD. Possibly, painters conceived scenes
according to a repertoire of types e.g. the seize of a fortress, crossing a river, an
audience or battle scene. In the working of whole volumes such as the Akbar Nama,
the artists seem to have reworked or adapted these campositional types. Painters
usually mated new compositions only when no prototypes existed, and only a few
artists were capable of such invention.
We have listed below, in chronological order famous illustrated manuscripts of this

period-
Manuscript Date
Hamzanama c. 1562-1580
Anwar-i Suhaili 1570
Tutinama c. 1570-1580
Tarikh-i Khandan-i Timuriya c. 1570-1590
Rabumama c. 1570-1590
Akbarnama c. 1570-1600
Tarikh-i Alfi c. 1570-1600
Razmnama 1582
42
1) Write a note of 50 words on the art of painting under early Mughals.

..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
2) How did the concept of teamwork operate in the Royal Atelier?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
3) List four distinctive features of Mughal School of painting.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
15.5 DEVELOPMENTS UNDER JAHANGIR AND SHAH JAHAN
During Jahangir and Shahjahan, Mughal painting achieved its zenith. Jahangir took a
deep interest in painting even as a prince. He maintained his own studio apart from
Akbar's large atelier. Jahangir's preference was for paintings of hunting scenes, birds
and flowers. He also continued the tradition of portraiture. Under Shahjahan the
colours of the paintings became more decorative and gold was more frequently used
43
for embellishment. In the following sub-sections, we shall study the introduction of
new styles and thematic variations in Mughal paintings during Jahangir &
Shahjahan's reign.
15.5.1 Introduction of New Styles
In the period of Jahangir's rule (1605-27), manuscripts became less important than
individual pictures. Milo Cleveland Beach (Mughal and Rajput Painting, Cambridge
University Press, 1992) is of the opinion that Jahangir, with his personal involvement,
may have functioned effectively as the head of the royal studio. Therefore, artistic
decisions were made by the Emperor himself consequently introducing his own
stylistic preferences in the paintings. Two important new elements in the style of
Mughal painting during the first half of the seventeenth century have been identified
as below:
 Jahangir's paintings seem to accentuate a formalist style, i.e., making the work
realistic and preferring the precise recording of contemporary reality.
 The paintings this period have broad margins which are gorgeously decorated
with the depiction of flora and faces of human figures, etc. designs from plant
motifs.
44
15.5.2 Thematic Variations
Jahangir was a keen naturalist. Whenever he came across a strange animal or bird, his
artists painted the same immediately. We have paintings of birds and animals in the
most realistic fashion.
Shah Jahan was a great patron of architecture, but he did not neglect the painting.
Under him, the previous tradition of doing portraits, preparing albums, and,
illustrating books, was continued Additionally we find the paintings depicting
charming love scenes and portraits of female members. Another important theme
chosen for painting was super imposition of animals and the scenes of performing
acrobats.
15.5.3 Final Phase
Aurangzeb, who succeeded Shahjahan, had begun his rule on a bitter note by
executing his brothers and imprisoning his father. The arts were ignored during his
regime. Painting did not stop altogether, though it list the patronage of the Emperor
and became confined to the studios of the nobles. There exist some commissioned
portraits of the nobles and their relations from the courts of the Rajput principalities.
Large number of karkhana records (on paintings) are located in the Rajasthan State
Archives, Bikaner. There also exist a few interesting pictures of the emperor himself
during his campaigns. The skill of the painters is evident, though the paintings are
more formal and seem to have lost their earlier liveliness.
Later, under Muhammed Shah (1719-48), interest got renewed in depicting pleasure
loving scenes. But by this time many of the painters of imperial studio had begun
migrating to provincial courts. The loss of the Mughals, thus, was the gain of the
provincial styles.
15.6 EUROPEAN IMPACT ON MUGHAL PAINTING
The eclectic nature of the Mugha1 School of Painting has been discussed in the Unit
earlier. In its later phases, especially during the Seventeenth Century, the Mughal
painting was influenced by the European art. Some of the themes of European art
were incorporated by Mughal painters and they also adopted a few of the techniques
of European artists. According to A.J. Qaisar a large number of European paintings
were either copied or adapted or even reinterpreted, sometimes, by Mughal painters.
At the same time many original prints from Europe were collected and preserved in
the albums of Jahangia and Dara Shikoh and several Mughal nobles. (A.J. Qaisar,
Indian Response to European Technology & Culture, Oxford, 1982).
The contact Mughal court painters had with European paintings, prompted them
initially to make exact copies in their own hands. Such imitations, as noted by
45
contemporary European travellers, were impeccably done. But Mughal painters also
made experiments by making new paintings on the subjects chosen from European
paintings.
One import-ant feature: that becomes noticeable in some Mughal paintings is the
attempt to make them bee dimensional. Clearly it speaks of the impact of European
technique. Another European convention acceptable to Mughal painters was the
effect of light and shade, mostly utilized in fight scenes. The depiction of motifs like
'hals', winged angles and roaring clouds in Mughal paintings was again under the
influence of European paintings. One important technique that of oil painting from
Europe, somewhat did not attract the Mughals. There is no work from this period that
was executed in oil.
1) What important thematic variations became noticeable in Mughal painting in the

seventeenth Century?
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2) Name two members of Mughal ruling class who made collections of European
paintings in their albums.
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3) Which European motifs were incorporated by Mughal painters?
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46
15.7 PAINTING IN THE DECCAN
A distinct style of painting emerged in the kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and

Golconda in the Deccan in the late 15th century and predates-the Mughal painting.
But the greatest patronage to painting in these kingdoms was given in the sixteenth
century and the Decanni style reached its zenith in the seventeenth century under the
impact of the Mughal tradition. Here we shall trace the developments in the Deccan
painting during the 16th-17th centuries.
15.7.1 Court Patronage
The successor states of the Bahmani kingdom actively patronised painting. The
earliest known painting from these states is dated between 1565-69. It is an illustrated
manuscript of Ta'rif-i Husain Shahi composed arid illustrated at Ahmadnagar. About
1570, a second Deccani manuscript was composed and illustrated, this time at
Bijapur. This was the Nujum-ul-Ulum In all probability his work was commissioned
by Ali Adil Shah who had several painters working at his court, But the greatest of
the Bijapur line, and perhaps of all the rulers of the successor states, was Ibrahim Adil
Shah (1580-1627) who was an accomplished painter and a calligraphist. Towards the
close of the 16th century, there had emerged a new tradition of painting in
Ahmadnagar and Bijapur, known as the Ragamala painting. Under Ibrahim's
patronage this tradition reached the highest point of its growth.
There is another category of paintings in the Deccan style which depict the pomp and
grandeur of the royal processions. Several paintings of this type have come down to
us from the reign of Abdulla Qutb Shah (1626-72) of Golkonda.
In the 18th Century patronage of painting in the Deccan passed to the Asaf Jahi
dynasty of Hyderabad. The painting of Azam Shah returning from bird-shooting and
approaching his pleasure garden at the foot of the Golconda fort, and the album of
Himmatyar Khan, a noble of the Nizam's court, are some of important surviving
examples of the Deccani painting from Hyderabad.
15.7.2 Style and Themes
Numerous influences seem to have affected the formation of the Deccani tradition.
Many of the rulers of Deccan kingdoms were connoisseurs of Persian painting and
built up good collections of miniatures and manuscripts. The influence of the Persian
tradition is thus evident in the paintings done at their courts. It should, however, be
noted that this assimilation is not precise and disciplined. Consequently, many of the
features have been liken over without the refinement of the Persian paintings.
Another significant influence on the Deccan paintings is that of the Mughal school.
Contacts between Decani and Mughal traditions developed in my ways. There were
exchanges of artists between the two court us also gifts of paintings.
47
But the Deccan paintings cannot be analysed primarily on the basis of various
derivative influences. The best specimens of Deccan paintings creatively reshape
extraneous suggestions and become aesthetically original. Thus the features typical of
Deccan paintings are:
 hierarchical scaling, i.e., the principal figure being bigger than the subordinate
figures;
 richness of the palette, in which white and gold are used as they are in no
other Indian miniatures;
 typical Jewelry, e.g., plaque of the necklace;
 exaggerated swirl of the girdle and stole, especially in the case of feminine
figures, and
 intersection of diagonals so as to form an arch around the principal figures.
15.8 RAJASTHANI PAINTING
The Rajasthani paintings have a distinct aesthetic quality. The emergence of this
style, in the opinion of Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, from the earlier pre-Turkish
traditions reached its consummation around 1600. In its early phase, it showed a great
vigour, though it absorbed Mughal influence later. After the collapse of the Mughal
power, it reemerged and flourished under the patronage of different Rajput kingdoms.
In the following sub-sections we shall discuss the main style and themes of the
Rajasthani schools as also the main centres where the art flourished in the 17th and
18th centuries.
15.8.1 Style and Themes
Rajasthani painting, since its beginning, adopted nature as the main theme. The
illustrations are almost like landscape paintings where human figures seem to play
48
only subordinate roles. Some of the main elements of nature depicted in these
paintings are:
 a variety of tree forms;
 a dense foliage;
 singing birds and frolicking animals;
 rivers full of lotus blossoms; and
 drops of rain falling from deep blue clouds.
The Rajasthani miniatures are also known for the intensity of colours used. Deep blue
for clouds, streaks of gold showing flashes of lightening, and emerald green for
foliage are some of the most prominently used colours. The major themes selected by
painters of this gem are:
 hunting scenes;
 portraits, and
 musical seasons.
Another characteristic of the Rajasthani paintings, particularly of the 17th century, is

the use of compartmental pictures in which space is divided into bends and rectangles
and used as frames for figures and groups.
15.8.2 Main Centres
(a) Mewar School: The house of Nisar Din (1606) stands out as the earliest known
group of Rajasthani painters. Subsequently the same tradition was carried further by
Sahib Din, who worked from 1627 to 1648. This phase represents the Mewar School
at its height The illustrated series ran into hundreds covering a very wide range of
life, including mythology. Under the patronage of Jagat Sing I (1628-52). a long
series of illustrations called Nayakabheda was executed by a number of painters in a
poetic and sentimental style. However, in the subsequent half-a-century period, the
influence of the Mughal style gradually weakened the vitality of the Mewar school,
and it gradually became more and more subdued.
49
(b) Bundi School: It has an almost parallel history, except hat here seem to have
been two important periods in it, viz., 1620-35 and 1680-1700. During the 18th
century, the Bundi school took a new turn. While retaining its originality of
expression, it followed the Mughal school in subject-matter and technical details, The
main emphasis now was on the display of feminine grace in which it seemed to excel.
(c) Kishangarh School: The Kishangarh style was lyrical and sometimes sensuous. It
was encouraged by Maharaja Sawant Singh, popularly known as Nagari Das at the
turn of the 18th century (1699-1764). Although Mughal secular influence in panting
affected every court in Rajasthan, in Kishangarh deep Hindu devotionalism seems to
have survived. Under Sawant Singh's patronage, there was a spurt in the art of
painting based on the love-lore of Radha and Krishna. The Kishangarh paintings are
mostly the work of the talented artist Nihal Chand. The elegant forms of the
Kishangarh females, with their sharp noses, almond eyes and arched mouths, set up a
new tradition in Rajasthani painting.
50
15.9 FINE ARTS
Fine arts during the l6th-l8th century seem to have developed more in the regional
kingdoms than in the Mughal state. However, historical information on the
development of tine arts is scanty, and the following narrative is based on piecemeal
records.
15.9.1 Music
Centres of musical study and practice, as stated above, were located in regional
kingdoms. In the South, a system of parent and derivative modes, i.e., Janaka and
Janya ragas, existed around the middle of the 16th century. The earliest treatise
which deals with this system is titled Swaramela Kalanidhi. It was written by
Ramamatya of Kondavidu (Andhra Pradesh) in 1550. It describes 20 janak and 64
janya ragas. Later, in 1609, one Somanatha wrote Ragavibodha in which he
incorporated some concepts of the North Indian style. It was sometimes in the middle
of the 17th century that a famous treatise on music, called Caturdandi-prakasika
was composed by Venkatamakhin in Thanjavur (c. 1650). The system propounded in
the text has come to form the bedrock of the Carnatic system of music.
The development of music in North India was largely inspired and sustained by the
bhakti movement. The compositions of the 16th and 17th century saint poets were
invariably set to music. In Vrindavan, Swami Hatidas promoted music in a big way.
He is also considered to be the teacher of the famous Tansen of Akbar's court. Tansen
himself is considered one of the great exponents of North Indian system of music. He
is given credit for introducing some famous ragas viz., Miyan ki Malhar, Miyan ki
Todi and Darbari. Raja Mansingh of Gwaliar (1486-1517) played a distinguished
part in the growth and perfection of Dhrupad, a variant style of the North Indian
music.
In the 18th century, music in North Indian style received great encouragement at the
court of the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. Sadaranga and Adaranga were two
great composers of Khayal gayaki at his court- Several new forms of music such as
Tarana, Dadra and Ghazal also came into existence at this time. Moreover, some
folk forms of music were also incorporated in the courtly music. In this category
mention may be made of Thumri, employing folk scales, and to Tappa developed
from the songs of camel drivers of Punjab.
In passing, it should be noted that while in the South the texts of music enforced a
stricter science, in the North the absence of texts permitted geater liberty. There were
thus several experiments in mixing the ragas carried out in the North. A loose code
of North Indian style of music is a feature that has continued to the present day.
51
15.9.2 Dance and Drama
Evidence on dance and drama in the medieval period is scattered. The more important
sources are the texts on music, dance and drama, and the creative works of literature
in the different languages of India.
The textual material is mainly from Orissa, South India and from the court of the
Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah. Abhinaya Chandrika by Mahesvara Mahapatra
and Sangit Damodara by Raghunatha are the two 17th century texts on dance and
drama koin Orissa. From South India we have Adi Bharatam, Bharatarnava,
Tulajaraja's (1729-1735) Natyavedagama and Balaravarman's (1753-1798)
Balaramabharatam. There is the Sangita Malika treatise on dance and music from
the court of Muhammad Shah.
1) Write a note of 50 words on the main themes shown in Deccan paintings.

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2) Write three elements of nature depicted in Rajasthani paintings.

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3) Give names of two main centres of patronage of Rajput paintings.
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15.10 LET US SUM UP
We have seen how painting and fine arts came to prosper under the Mum. The
keyword in the development of these arts during this period was eclecticism. Painting
assimilated indigenous traditions as we8 as from Persia. In the seventeenth century
another significant influence, that from Europe, made an impact on Mughal paintings.
Music and dance, and the theatrical arts were the other subjects that received royal
patronage. Tansen adorned the court of Akbar and propelled music to unprecedented
heights. In comparison dance and theatre remained only at the initial stages of
development.
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15.11 KEY WORDS
Accentuate : intensify
Atelier : workshop or studio of artists
Calligraphy : the art of decorative writing
Embellish : beautify
Gilder : artist marking with golden colour
Mural : wall painting
Palette : flat board used by painter to arrange and mix colours for
painting
Portrait : painting of the face or bust
Sketch : line drawing
Theatre : drama
15.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
1. See Sub-sec. 15.3.2.

2. Sec Sub-sec. 15.4.1.
3. See Sub-sec. 15.4.3
1. See Sub-sec. 15.5.2.

2. Jahangir and Dara Shikoh. See Sec. 15.6.
? Halo, Winged Angels and Roaring Clouds. See Sec. 15.6.
1. See Sub-sec. 15.7.2. .

2. See Sub-sec. 15.8.1.
3. E.g. Mewar and Bundi. See Sub-sec. 15.8.2.
53
SOME USEFUL BOOKS FOR THIS BLOCK
AL. Bashan (ed.) : Cultural History of India
K.A. Nilkanth Sastry : History of South India
K.M. Jhaveri : History of Marathi Literature, Sahitya Academy, New Delhi
Percy Brown : Indian Architecture (Islamic Period)
Percy Brown : Indian Paintings
M.C. Beach : Mughal Architecture
M.C. Beach : Mughal and Rajput Paintings
S.P. Verma : Art and Material Culture in the Paintings of Akbar's Court
A.J. Qaisar : Indian Response to European Technology
54
ARCHITECTURE
Structure
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Beginning of Mughal Architecture
15.3.1 Buildings of Babur
15.3.2 Buildings of Humayun
15.4 Interregnum: The Sur Architecture
15.5 Architecture Under Akbar
15.5.1 Structural Form
15.5.2 Building Projects
15.6 Architecture Under Jahangir and Shah Jahan
15.6.1 New features
15.6.2 Major Buildings
15.7 The Final Phase
15.7.1 Buildings of Aurangzeb
15.7.2 Safdar Jang's Tomb
15.8 Let us Sum up
15.9 Key Words
15.1 OBJECTIVES
The establishment of Mughal rule in India in 1526 (Block 2) revitalised Indo-Islamic

architecture. The new rulers effected an amalgam of the prevalent architectural forms
and techniques with those brought from Central Asia and Persia. The result of their
efforts was the emergence of one of the most splendid buildings in India.
After reading this Unit you will know about:

 new structural forms and techniques in Mughal architecture;
 major buildings of this period; and
 elements of decadence in Mughal architecture towards the close of the period.
15.2 INTRODUCTION
The Mughal rulers were men of acute aesthetic awareness and, as patron of art and
culture, they built beautiful cities and buildings in India. The foundation of a new
style of architecture in India had already been laid in the thirteenth century with the
55
introduction of the arcuate technique where spaces were covered with domes and
entrances were made with the help of arches. The Mughals carried this tradition and
created a synthesis of the pre-Turkish technique, viz., trabeate with the arcuate. The
final result, however, of all this blending was the emergence of a distinct style of their
own.
Babur did not have enough to devote to big architectural projects. He, nevertheless,
laid out several gardens in India on the pattern of his culture-area In his memoires
(Baburnama) he claims credit for some pavilions also. Unfortunately very few of his
buildings survive today.
Humayun, Babur's successor, was plagued by continuously eroding political

authority. Within a decade of his assuming power, he was dethroned and sent into
exile in Persia. The buildings dating from this period, therefore, do not show any
distinctiveness. Humyun survived for only one year after his return to India in 1555.
However, the impact of a long contact with the Persian culture can be seen in the
designing and execution of his mausoleum under the supervision of his wife Hamida
Banu Begum.
The flowering of the Mughal architecture in reality took place under Akbar. He
encouraged a hybrid style, containing foreign as well as indigenous elements. Akbar
particularly appreciated the resources of the indigenous artisans and got them
translated in the buildings of Fatehpur Sikri.
Akbar's son Jahangir was not a notable builder, but Jahangir's son Shah Jahan was
one of the greatest patron of the building art. Some of India's finest monumental
heritage dates from Shah Jahan's reign. Marble replaced red sandstone as the principal
building material, and the decorative art of inlaying achieved distinction with the
introduction of semiprecious stones as inlay material, called pietra dura (prachin
kari). Shah Jahan also introduced the bulbous domes and convoluted arches in his
buildings.
Aurangzeb's temperament did not respond to the style prevailing from his father's
reign. His buildings, therefore, show a change: they are austere in both material and
style.
15.3 BEGINNING OF MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
The history of architecture during the 16th-18th centuries is in fact an account of the
building activities of Mughal Emperors, except for a brief interregnum of a decade
and a half when Surs ruled in Delhi.
56
It is true that the Mughal style of architecture took a concrete form during the reign of
Akbar, yet the basic principles of Mughal architecture were provided by Babur and
Humayun, the two predecessors of Akbar.
15.3.1 Buildings of Babur
Babur had a short reign of five years, most of which was spent in fighting battles for
the consolidation of the newly born Mughal state. He is, however, known to have
taken considerable interest in building secular works. It is unfortunate that very little
of this work is extant today. The only standing structures of Babur's reign are two
mosques, built in 1526, at Panipat and Sambhal. But both these structures are
common place, and possess no architectural merit.
Babur's secular works mainly comprise the laying of gardens and pavilions. In one of
the miniatures, he has been depicted inspecting the layout plan of a garden of
Dholpur. Today, only the excavated ruins of this garden axe visible. Two more
gardens, Ram Bagh and Zahra Bagh at Agra, are also attributed to him. But the
present layout of these gardens seems to have undergone many alterations. None of
Babur's pavilions have been noticed as surviving today.
15.3.2 Buildings of Humayun
The surviving buildings of Humayun's reign have the same inconsequential character
as that of Babur. The Mughal domination over India was too unsettled for the
production of any great work of architecture. Moreover, Humayun had to spend
fifteen long years of his life in exile in Persia during the ascendance of the Sur
dynasty in Delhi. However, two mosques from among several other buildings erected
during the first phase of his reign survive. One of these lies in ruinous condition at
Agra. The other is at Fatehabad (Hissar). But both these structures are devoid of any
architectural distinctiveness much in the same manner as the mosques of Babur.
Humayun's return to Delhi in 1555 was short lived. There are in fact no notable
buildings of this time. -Mention may, however, be made of Humayun's tomb as a
structure which was inspired by the Persian culture imbibed by Humayun during his
exile. This building is in fact a landmark in the development of the Mughal style of
architecture. The construction began in 1564 after Humayun's death under the
patronage of his widow, Hamida Bano Begum. The architect of the building was
Mirak Mitza Ghiyas, a native of Persia. He brought many Persian craftsmen to Delhi
to work on the structure and their skills and techniques were liberally employed. The
tomb has thus become representative of an Indian rendition of a Persian concept. It
may be noted that Humayun's tomb, strictly speaking, is a building of Akbar's reign.
But because of peculiar features, it has been treated separately.
57
Humayun's tomb is one of the earliest specimens of the garden enclosure and is raised
high on an arcaded sandstone platform. The tomb is octagonal in plan and is crowed
by a high
dome, which is actually a double dome. It has two shells, with an appreciable space in
between. The inner shell forms the vaulted ceiling to the inner chambers, and the
outer shell rises like a bulb in a proportion with the elevation of the main building. To
the centre of each side of the tomb is a porch with a pointed arch providing entrance
to the main chamber. The interior of this building is a group of compartments, the
largest in the centre containing the gave of the Emperor. The smaller ones in each
angle were meant to house the graves of his family member. Each room is octagonal
in plan and they are connected by diagonal passages.
A double-dome is built of two layers. There is one layer inside which

provides ceiling to the interior of the building. The other layer is the
outer one which crowns the building. The devices of double dome
enables the ceiling inside to be placed lower and in better relation to the
interior space it covers. This is done without disturbing the proportions
and the effect of elevation of the exterior. The method of making double
dome was practised in Western Asia for quite sometime before it was
imported into India.
15.4 INTERREGNUM: THE SUR ARCHITECTURE
The Mughal rule in India was interrupted by Sher Shah Sur in 1540. For the next
fifteen years the Empire came under the sway of the Surs who embarked on profound
architectural projects. Their buildings, in fact, laid the ground Work on which the
Mughals built.
The architectural heritage produced under diverse conditions and in two separate
localities of the Surs may be divided into two separate and distinct periods. The first
58
phase emerged at Sasaram (Bihar) under Sher Shah between 1530 and 1540. Here a
group of tombs was built illustrating,: the final fulfilment of the Lodi-style (for
details, see course EHI-03, Block 8) by which it has been inspired. The second phase
lasted from 1540 to 1545 when Sher Shah had wrested control of the Empire from
Humayun. Under his patonage, several architectural innovations were adopted which
got reflected in mature form in the consequent Mughal style.
The first phase is represented by a group of tombs, three belonging to the ruling
family and one to Aliwal Khan who was the architect of these tombs. The buildings
reflect the ambition of Sher Shah to create monuments grander than anything round in
Delhi. The first project of this scheme was the construction of the tomb of Hasan
Khan, Sher Shah's father, in 1525. But this was a conventional exercise in Lodi
design. The major representative of this group was the tomb of Sher Shah (Sasaram),
an architectural masterpiece. Here the architect considerably enlarged the normal
proportions of the earlier building and set it in a beautiful tank approached by a
causeway. In addition to this, he increased the number of stories thus producing a
beautiful pyramidical structure in five distinct stages. This monument was
constructed of the finest Chunar sandstone.
Sher Shah's tomb stands on a stepped square plinth on a terrace appreciated though a
gateway via a bridge placed across the tank. There is an error in orienting the lower
platform of the tomb on the main axis. But it is corrected by skewing the axis of the
superstructure built over the lower platform. The main building comprises an
octagonal chamber surrounded by an arcade. There are domed canopies in each
corner of the platform. The proportions of diminishing stages and the harmonious
transition from square to octagon and to sphere are elements which speak highly of
the capabilities of the Indian architect.
The second phase of development took place in Delhi. Sher Shah built the Purana
Qila intended to be the sixth city of Delhi. Today, only two isolated gateways
survive. Far more important, however, was the Qilai Kuhna Masjid , built about
1542 inside the Purana Qila citadel. In the architectural scheme of this mosque, the
facade of the prayer hall is divided into five arched bays, the central one larger than
the others, each with an open archway recessed within it. The facade is richly carved
in black and white marble and red sandstone, and the central arch is flanked by
narrow, fluted pilasters. The rear carriers of the mosque have five stair turrets with
rich windows carried on brackets.
One notable feature in this building is the shape of the arches - there is a slight drop,
or flatness, in the curve towards the crown. It is indicative of the last stage before the
development of the four-centred "Tudor" arch of the Mughals.
59
1. Match the following:

d i) Ram Bagh and Zahra Bagh a) Hamida Bano Begum
a ii) Humayun's tomb b) Tomb of Sher Shah
b iii) Sasaram c) Sher Shah
c iv) Purana Qila d) Babur
2. Discuss the characteristic features of Humayun's tomb in 60 words.

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15.5 ARCHITECTURE UNDER AKBAR
Akbar’s reign can be taken as the formative period of Mughal architecture. It

represents the finest example of the fusion of Indo-Islamic architecture.
60
15.5.1 Structural Form
The architecture of the reign of Akbar represents encouragement of the indigenous

techniques and a selective use of the experiences of other countries. The chief
elements of the style of architecture that evolved under Akbar's patronage can be
listed thus:
a) the buildings mainly used red sandstone as the building material;

b) a widespread use of the trabeated construction;
c) the arches used mainly in decorative form rather than in structural form;
d) the dome was of the 'Lodi' type, sometimes built hollow but never technically
of the true double order;
e) the shafts of the pillars were multifaceted and the capitals of these pillars
invariably took the form of bracket supports; and
f) the decoration comprised of boldly carved or inlaid patterns complemented by
brightly coloured patterns on the interiors.
15.5.2 Building Projects
Akbar's building projects can be divided into two main groups, each representing a
different phase. The first group comprised buildings of fork and a few palaces mainly
at Agra, Allahabad and Lahore. The second group related basically to the construction
of his new capid at Path-pur Sikri.
a) The First Phase
One of the earliest building projects of Akbar's reign was the construction of a fort at
Agra, conceived actually as a fortress-palace. Its massive walls and battlements
convey an effect of great power. Inside the fort, Akbar had built many structures in
the styles of Bengal and Gujarat. Except the Jahangiri Mahal, however, all the other
structures were demolished by Shah Jahan as part of a later phase of remodeling.
Today the Delhi Gate of the fort and ,Jahangiri Mahal are the only representative
buildings of Akbar's reign.
The Delhi Gate of Agra Fort probably represents Akbar's earliest architectural effort.
It formed the principal entrance to the fort. The architecture of the gate shows an
originality signifying the slat of a new era in the building art of India. The gate
follows a simple plan; the different components are:
 a front consisting of two broad octagonal lowers by the sides of a central

archway;
 a back having arcaded terraces topped by kiosks and pinnacles; and
 an ornamentation consisting of patterns in white marble inlaid against the red
sandstone background.
61
The Jahangiri Mahal was built by Akbar and is conceived as a robust building in red
sandstone. It is the only surviving example in the fort of the domestic requirements of
the ruler and is a fine specimen of the fusion of the Hindu and Islamic building
designs. It is planned in the form of an asymmetrical range of apartments. The facade
on the eastern side has an entrance gateway leading to a domed hall with elaborately
carved ceiling. As one crosses this hall one reaches a central open courtyard. On the
north side of this courtyard is a pillared hall with a roof supported on piers and cross-
beams with serpentine brackets. The southern side, too, has a similar hall. 'This
symmetry is, however, broken on the east side by a set of chambers that lead to a
portico facing the river Yamuna. The entire construction is mainly in red sandstone
with the combination of beam and bracket forming its principal structural system.
The same style is manifested in the other palace-fomesses at Lahore and Allahabad.
Only the fort at Ajmer represents a different class. Since it spearheaded the advancing
frontier of the Empire, the walls of the fort were thickly doubled.
62
b) The Second Phase
The second phase of Akbar's architectural scheme coincides with the conception and
creation of a ceremonial capital for the Empire at Sikri, nearly forty kilometres west
of Agra. The new capital was named Fathpur.
It is one of the most remarkable monuments in India. In its design and layout Fathpur
Sikri is a city where the public areas like the courtyards, Diwan-i Am and Jami
Masjid form a coherent group around the private palace apartments. The city was
built in a very short span of time (1571-1585) and as such does not follow any
conscious overall plan. The buildings were sited to relate to each other and to their
surroundings. An asymmetry seem to have been deliberately incorporated into the
setting-out and design of the complex. All the buildings are in characteristic rich red
sandstone, using traditional trabeate construction. The pillars, lintels, brackets, tiles
and posts were cut from local rocks and assembled without the use of mortar.
The buildings in Fathpur Sikri may be resolved into two categories: religious and
secular character. The religious buildings comprise (a) the Jami Masjid; (b) the ;
Buland Darwaza; and (c) the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti. The buildings of secular
nature are more varied and thus numerous. These can be grouped under (a) palaces;
(b) administrative buildings; and (c) structures of miscellaneous order. It is a curious
fact that the religious buildings are invariably built in the arcuate style while in
secular buildings dominates the trabeate order.
The Jami Masjid uses the typical plan of a mosque - a central courtyard, arcades on
three sides and domed skyline. The western side has the prayer hall with three
separate enclosed sanctuaries, each, surmounted by a dome and linked by 'arcades.
The usual entrance to the masjid is from tile east where stands the structure of a big
gateway projected in the form of a half hexagonal porch.
In 1596, he southern gateway was replaced by Akbar with a victory gate, the Buland
Darwaza. It is constructed in red and yellow sandstone with white marble inlay
outlining the span of the arches. The loftiness of the structure is enhanced by a flight
of steps on the outside. The entrance has been formed by a piercing huge central arch
which is crowned by an array of domed kiosks. The Buland-Darwaza was built to
commemorate Akbar's conquest of Gujarat in 1573.
The tomb of Salim Chishti stands in the courtyard of the Jami Masjid in the north-
western quarter. It is all architectural masterpiece as it exhibits one of the finest
specimens of marble work in India. The structure was completed in 1581 and was
originally faced only partly in marble. The serpentine brackets supporting the eaves
and the carved lattice screens are remarkable features of this structure.
The palace complex in Fathpur Sikri comprises a number of apartment and chambers.
The largest of these buildings is known as the Jodh Bai palace. The palace is
63
massive and austere in character. The wall outside is plain with principal buildings
attached to inner side, all facing an interior courtyard. On the north side is an arcaded
passage and a balcony. There are rooms in the upper storey in the north and south
wings. They have ribbed roofs covered with bright blue glazed tiles from Multan.
A unique building of the palace complex is the Panch Mahal, a five storeys
structure, located south-east of the Diwani Khas. The size of the five storeys
successively diminishes as one goes upwards. At the top is a small domed kiosk.
Some of the sides in this building were originally enclosed by screens of red
sandstone. But none remain intact now. An interesting feature is that the columns on
which the five storeys have been raised are all dissimilar in design. Of the
administrative buildings, undoubtedly the most distinctive is the Diwani Khas. The
plan of this building is in the form of a rectangle and is in two stories from outsides. It
has flat terraced roof with pillared domed kiosks rising above each comer. Inside,
there is a magnificent carved column in the centre, having a huge bracket capital
supporting a circular stone platform. From this platform radiate four railed 'bridges'
along catch diagonal of the hall to connect the galleries surrounding the upper portion
of the hall. The main architectural object in this interior is the central column. The
shaft is variously patterned and branches out, at the top, into a series of closely set
voluted and pendulous brackets which support the central platform.
64
Another notable building of the same category is the Diwani Am. It is a spacious
rectangular courtyard surrounded by colonnades. The Emperor's platform is towards
the western end. It is a projecting structure with a pitched stone roof having five equal
openings. The platform is in three parts, the centre probably used by the Emperor and
separated from the other two sides by fine stone screens pierced with geometric
patterns.
Buildings of miscellaneous character are scattered all over the city complex:
i. Two caravansarais, one located inside the Agra Gate, immediately to the
right; and the other, the larger structure, is outside the Hathi Pol on the left
side;
ii. Karkhana building located between the Diwani Am and Naubat Khana,
having a series of brick domes of radiating rather than horizontal courses; and
iii. The water-works, opposite the caravansarai near Hathi Pol, comprising a
single deep baoli flanked by two chambers in which a device was used to raise
the water for distribution in the city.
1. Tick mark right ( ) and wrong ( ) against the following statements:
i) Akbar used white marble as building material in most of his buildings.

ii) Akbar's buildings never used double dome.
65
iii) Akbar's architecture is a combination of trabeate and arcuate styles.
iv) Akbar used corbelling to cover the spaces.
2. Write a note on the important secular buildings at Fathepur Sikri.

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
3. Name the last of the religious buildings at Fathepur Sikri and write two lines on
that.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
15.6 ARCHITECTURE UNDER JAHANGIR AND SHAH JAHAN
Akbar's death in 1605 did in no way hamper the development of a distinctive Mughal
architecture under his successors. A secure Empire and enormous wealth in legacy in
fact permitted both Jahangir and Shah Jahan to pursue interest in the visual arts.
15.6.1 New Features
In the sphere of the building art, Jahangir and Shah Jahan's reigns were an age of
marble. The place of red sandstones was soon taken over by marble in its most
refined form. This dictated significant stylistic changes which have been listed below:
a) The arch adopted a distinctive form with foliated curves, usually with nine
cusps;
b) Marble arcades of engrailed arches became a common feature;
c) The dome developed a bulbous form with stifled neck. Double domes became
very common;
d) Inlaid patterns in coloured stones became the dominant decorative form; and
e) In the buildings, from the latter half of the Jahangir's reign, a new device of
inlay decoration called pietra dura was adopted. In this method, semi-precious
stones such as lapis lazuli, onyx, jasper, topaz and cornelian were embedded
in the marble in graceful foliations.
15.6.2 Major Buildings
The account of the major buildings of this period begins with a remarkable structure,
that is, the tomb of Akbar, located at Sikandra, eight kilometers from the Agra on
Delhi road. It was designed by Akbar himself and begun in his own lifetime hut
remained incomplete at the time of his death. Subsequently, it was completed by
Jahangir with modifications in the original design. As it stands today, the entire
complex is a curious mix of the architectural schemes of both Akbar and Jahangir.
66
The scheme of this complex envisages the location of tomb in the midst of an
enclosed garden with gateway in the centre of each side of the enclosing wall.
The tomb building in the centre is a square structure built up in three stories. The first
storey is in fact an arcaded platform making the basement. Within the platform,
vaulted cells surrounded the mortuary chamber and a narrow inclined corridor in the
south leads to the grave. The middle portion is in thee tiers of red sandstone pavilions
trabeated throughout The to storey, of white marble in contrast to the red sandstone
elsewhere, has an open court surrounded by colonnades with screens. The tomb is
linked by causeways and canals to the gateways in the enclosure wall. But it is the
one in the south which provides the only entrance, the other three being false
gateways added for symmetry.
The southern gateway is a two-storey structure with circular minarets of white marble
rising above the comers. The entire structure of the gateway is ornamented with
painted stucco-coloured stone and marble inlay. Interestingly, the decorative motifs
include, besides the traditional floral designs, arabesques and calligraphy, gaja (the
elephant) hamsa (the swan) padma (the lotus), swastika and chakra.
The architectural importance of Akbar's tomb at Sikandra can be gauged from the fact
that several mausoleums built subsequently reflect the influence of this structure to
varying degree. Particular mention may be made of the tomb of Jahangir at Shahadara
near Lahore and of Nur Jahan's father Mirza Ghiyas Beg at Agra.
The tomb of Itimadud Daula, built in 1622-8 by Nur Jahan on the grave of her father
Mirza Ghiyas Beg marks a change in architectural style from Akbar to Jahangir and
Shah Jahan. The transition from the robustness of Akbar's buildings to a more
sensuous architecture of the later period is evident in the conception of this structure.
The tomb is a square structure raised on a low platform. There are four octagonal
minarets, at each comer, with domed roofs. The central chamber is surrounded by a
verandah enclosed with beautiful marble tracery. The main tomb is built in white
marble and is embellished with mosaics and pietra dura. The central chamber
contains the yellow marble tomb of Itimadud Daula and his wife. The side rooms are
decorated with painted floral motifs. Four red sandstone gateways enclosing a square
garden, provide a splendid foil for the white marble tomb at its centre.
It should be noted here that Jahangir as a much greater patron of the art of painting.
His love of flowers and animals as reflected in the miniature painting of his period,
made him a great lover of the art of laying out gardens rather than building huge
monuments. Some of the famous Mughal gardens of Kashmir such as the Shalimar
Bagh and the Nishat Bagh stand as testimony to Jahangir's passion.
67
In contrast to Jahangir, his son and successor Shah Jahan, was a prolific builder. His
reign was marked by a extensive architectural works in his favourite building
material. the marble. Some of these were:
a) the palace-forts, e.g, the La1 Qila at Delhi;

b) the mosques, e.g. the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort and the Jami Masjid at
Delhi; and
c) the garden-tombs, e.g., the Taj Mahal.
We shall describe here only the more important and representative buildings of Shah
Jahan's reign.
The La1 Qila is a regular rectangle with the north wall following the old course of
the Yamuna river. There are two gate-ways -- the Delhi and Lahore Gates, and
massive round bastions at regular intervals along the wall. The gates are flanked by
octagonal towers with blind arcades and topped by cupolas. A moat runs all along the
fort wall except the river side. Inside, there are several notable buildings of which
particular mention play be of Diwani Am, Diwani Khas and Rang Mahal. The
Diwani Am and Rang Mahal are arcaded pavilions with sandstone columns in pairs,
plastered with powdered marble. In the eastern wall of the Diwani Am is built the
68
throne platform for the Emperor having curved corniced roof in the style of the
Bengal architecture. Behind this structure on the eastern side is located the Rang
Mahal fronted by an open courtyard. Further north, in alignment with the Rang
Mahal is the Diwani Khas. All of these buildings have floral decorations on the
walls, columns and piers.
In the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort, Shah Jahan made experiment with an alternative
scheme-an open arcaded prayer hall. Moreover, in this mosque the designer has also
dispensed with the minarets. In their place, chhatris have been used on all four
comers of the prayer hall. There are three bulbous domes rising over a cusped
arcades. The entire building has been built in white marble with black marble
calligraphy, heightening the elegance of the structure.
The Jami Masjid at Delhi is an extended aid larger version of the Jami Masjid at
Fatehpur Sikri and thus becomes the largest building of its kind in India. It is built on
a raised platform surrounded by arcades that have been left open on both sides. The
main entrance is on the eastern side with an ascending flight of steps increasing he
effect of loftiness. There are two smaller gateways in the middle of the northern and
southern wings. Within, the mosque follows a plan similar to the Jami Masjid at
Fathpur Ski--colonnades running along die three sides and sanctuary on the fourth
side. Three bulbous domes in white marble rise above the sanctuary. The building
material used here is red sandstone with white marble for revetments and for inlaying
the frames of panels.
The Taj Mahal is undoubtedly Shah Jahan's grandest and most well known project.
The construction work began in 1632, and most of it was completed by the year 1643.
The plan of the complex is rectangle with high enclosure wall and a lofty entrance
gateway in the middle of the southern side. There are octagonal pavilions, six in all,
at the comers and one each in the eastern and western sides. The main building of the
Taj stands on a high marble platform at the northern end of be enclosure. To the west
of this structure is a mosque with a replica on the east side retaining the effect of
symmetry.
The Tai Mahal is a square building with deep alcoved recesses in each side and its
four comers bevelled to form an octagon. Above this structure rises a beautiful
bulbous dome topped with an inverted lotus finial and a metallic pinnacle. At the four
corners of the platform rise four circular minarets capped with pillared cupolas. The
interior resolves itself into a central hall with subsidiary chambers in the angles, all
connected by radiating passages. The ceiling of die main hall is a semi-circular vault
forming the inner shell of the double dome. The decorative features of the building
consist of calligraphy aid inlay work in the exterior and pietra dura in the interior.
Marble, the main building material, is of the finest quality brought from Makrana
quarries near Jodhpur. The garden in front of the main structure is divided into four
quadrants with two canals running across, forming the quadrants. The cenotaph in the
69
main hall was enclosed originally with a screen in golden tracery. But it was later
replaced by Aurangzeb with a marble screen.
1. Mark right ( ) and wrong ( ) against the following statements:
The characteristic feature of Jahangir and Shah Jahan's architecture is:

i) red sandstone is replaced by marble as building material.
ii) use of multi-foliated curves in arches.
iii) double dome replaced by the single one.
iv) inlay work is replaced by tine carvings and geometrical designs.
v) introduction of pietra dura.
2. Write a note on the architecture of the Taj Mahal in about 60 words.

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
15.7 THE FINAL PHASE
This section is divided into the two sub-sections. The first one deals with the building
activities of Aurangzeb reign; the second tells us about the buildings of the post-
Aurangzeb period.
15.7.1 Buildings of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb had none of his father's passion for architecture. Under him, the generous
encouragement given by his predecessors to the arts was almost withdrawn. The
architectural works during the reign of Aurangzeb were less numerous and of a lower
standard than those executed under any previous Mughal ruler. In Delhi itself, the
capital city of the Empire, very few buildings are associated with his name. The
70
major buildings include the mausoleum of his wife Rabla ud Dauran in Aurangabad,
the Badshahi Masjid in Lahore and the Moti Masjid at Lal Qila, Delhi. The Badshahi
Masjid is comparable to the Delhi one in size and architectural composition. It has a
vast court, a free standing prayer hall and minarets at each comer of the hall. There
are four smaller minarets at each angle of the sanctuary. The cloisters run on the both
sides with arched entrances at regular intervals. There is only one portal. The building
material is red sandstone with the use of white marble as a relief to the red sandstone.
Atop the prayer hall, three bulbous domes in white marble rise beautifully.
Tile other important building of this period is the Moti Masjid in the Lal Qila, Delhi.
The marble used in its construction is of a very fine quality. The plan is similar to the
Moti Masjid built by Shah Jahan in Agra fort; only the curves are more prominent.
The three bulbous domes cover the prayer hall which is designed in the form of three
cupolas in the same alignment.
The mausoleum of his wife at Aurangabad, is an attempt at emulating the Taj Mahal.
But a serious miscalculation on the part of Aurangzeb's architects in providing the
comers of the mausoleum, too, with minarets upsets the harmony of the entire
building. These minarets, which are superfluous in the overall scheme of the building,
are the only major deviation in copy from the original scheme of the Taj Mahal.
15.7.2 The Safdar Jang's Tomb
After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the collapse of the Empire was only a matter of
time. The few buildings that were built during the first half of the eighteenth century
amply testify the decadent conditions that ensued.
The Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi is the most important building of this period. It is
located amidst a large garden and copies the plan of the Taj Mahal in the same
manner as was done in the Rabia ud Dauran's tomb. One major change in the design,
however; is that the minarets rise as an adjunct to the main building and not as
independent structures. The main building stands on an arcaded platform. It is double
storeyed and is covered by a large and almost spherical dome. The minarets rise as
turrets and are topped by domed kiosks. The building is in red sandstone with marble
panelling. The cusps of the arches are less curved, but synchronies well with the
overall dimensions of the building.
71
1. Discuss the architectural activities during Aurangzeb's reign.

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
2. Write a note on the Safdar Jang's tomb.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
15.8 LET US SUM UP
Babur and Humayun were too busy to tackle the political problems to pay much
attention to the building activities. However, Babur himself was a deep lover of
gardens and he laid out a number of gardens in India during the short span of his
reign. The main Mughal architectural activities tool place under Akbar. His buildings
are mostly of red sandstone. Akbar's buildings show a fine blend of trabeate and
arcuate forms. Jahangir was more interested in paintings rather than architecture.
However, his interest in paintings, animals and floral designs affected the
contemporary architecture as well and a new decorative style-pietro-dura was
introduced during his reign. During Shah Jahan's reign the Mugld architecture
reached its zenith with the prodominant use of marble. Shah Jahan immortalised the
Taj Mabal, a pure white marble structure. Its double domes, minarets, multi-foliated
arches, etc, -all speak of the perfection and the climax. His successor, Aurangzeb, had
little time for building activities, and very few buildings were, therefore, constructed
during his reign. The post-Aurangzeb's period can also be termed as period of decline.
Owing to disturbed political scenario later, the Mughal Emperors could hardly yay
my attention to huge building projects. The only monument of note that can be
identified is the Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi.
72
15.9 KEYWORDS
Alcove: a vaulted recess

Arcade: a range of rooted arches
Arch: a self-supporting structure made of bricks or of stone blocks
and capable of carrying a superimposed load over an
opening
Baoli: Step-well
Bay: deep recess
Bevel: a slopping surface
Bracket: a support projecting from a wall
Cenotaph: commemorative building
Convoluted arch: An arch that is cusped inside
Colonnade: a row of columns
Causeways: passage across water
Cupola: a domical roof over a polygonal space
Dome: a convex roof built over a square; Octaganal or circular
space in building
Eaves: slight projection of roof

Engrailed arches: foliated arch
Façade: a course of bricks or stones projecting from a wall as a
continuous structure.
Finial : the top of a pinnacle
Kiosk : an open pavilion having roof supported by pillars
Pier : a mass of stone or brick which supports a vertical load
Pietra Dura: an ornamental mosaic of lapis lazuli, marble etc.
Post : long timber supporting vertical thrust of some part of a
building
Portal : frontage
Reventments : supportive joints
Stucco : ornamentation done by carving lime plaster
73
Trabeate : an architectural form in which the main openings are made
by beams supported on pillars
Turrets : side minarets attached with the building.
74
15.10 ANSWERSTOCHYEOCUKR PROGRESS EXERCISES
1. i) d ii) a iii)b iv)c
2. See Sub-sic. 15.3.2
1. i) ii) iii) iv)
2. See Sub-sec 15.5.2. Discuss the general characteristic features of Akbar's building
at Fathpur Sikri- the style adopted, building material used, decoration, carving etc.
1. i) ii) 4 iii) iv) v)

75
1. See Sub-sec. 15.7.1. Discuss that Aurangzeb was hardly interested in the building
activities and very few buildings were constructed during his reign. Describe these
buildings and their characteristic features.
2. See Sub-sec. 15.7.2.
76

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This course material is designed and developed by Indira Gandhi National

INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE ADVENT OF

12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

In the previous Unit, we have discussed the foundation of theMughal Empire by

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

1. What was the original name of Sher Shah?

12.4 SHER SHAH'S ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS

He introduced a fine revenue administrative system which served as a rolemodel for

 Successors of Sher Shah Suri

12.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF HIS RULE

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

4. Where is the Mausoleum of Sher Shah located?

12.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that:–

12.7 FURTHER READING

12.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Q. No. 1: Farid

12.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (answer each within 50 words):

(B) Short Questions (asnwer each within 150 words):

Q.1. What was the role of Patwari in land revenue system?

(C) Long Questions (answer each within 300-500 words):

13.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

Secondary in importance were the heads of departments like Mustaufi (Auditor

13.4 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Who separated the office of Chief Qazi and Sadr-us Sudur?

 Mughal Judicial System

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

4. Name the lowest unit of judicial administration.

13.5 JAGIRDARI SYSTEM

The marking of difference between the revenue assignment and holding

13.6 MANSABDARI SYSTEM

The Mansabdari system, introduced byAkbar, was a unique feature of the

It allowed optimal absorption of warlords and recruits. Rewards and high

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

7. What does the term "Zat" indicate in the mansabdari system?

8. _______________ testifies to the fragmentation of the jagirs.

9. Name the only non-transferable type of Jagir?

13.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that–

13.8 FURTHER READING

 Chandra, Satish. (Reprint 2008). Medieval India: From Sultanate to the

 Prasad, Ishwari. (1965). A Short History of Muslim Rule in India. Allahabad,

 Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

13.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Q No. 1: Aurangzeb

13.10 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (answer each within 50 words):

(B) Short Questions (answer each within 150 words):

(C) Long Questions (answer each within 300-500 words):

13.3 METHODS OF LAND REVENUE ASSESSMENT

We will discuss here a few commonly used methods:

i) measurement of land war essential;

iii) all the collection was made in cash.

From an administrative point of view, zabti system had some merits:

i) measurement could always be rechecked;

There were some limitations of this system also:

Nasaq was not an independent method of assessment; it was subordinate to other