CHAPTER FOUR

THE SOURCES AND COLLECTION OF DATA

4.1. TYPES AND SOURCES OF DATA

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design
chocked out. Data are records of the actual state of some measurable aspect of the universe at a
particular point in time. Data are not abstract; they are concrete, they are measurements or the
tangible and countable features of the world. In general, data could be quantitative (expressed in
numerical form) or qualitative (expressed in the form of verbal descriptions rather than
numbers).
When choosing whether to collect quantitative or qualitative data, the following factors need to
be considered:
1. The purpose for which the data is required: quantitative data is necessary if one requires a
high degree of precision or wants to perform statistical analysis, while qualitative data is useful
for providing a detailed or vivid impression of the issue or characteristic concerned.
2. The subject matter: some kinds of subject matter (eg. Production, export levels, prices,
imports, income, etc.) are relatively easily presented in numerical form, while others (eg.
Attitude to a new product, religious beliefs, etc) tend to be more appropriately presented in
qualitative form.
3. The method of data collection: the collection of quantitative data is based on statistically
designed survey procedures, while the collection of qualitative data relies primarily on detailed
observation or interview.
4. The method of data presentation: qualitative data can often be ‘translated’ into a
quantitative form if it can be ‘scaled’ in some way; for example, information on attitudes can be
grouped into categories (eg strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree) which can
then be subjected to statistical analysis.

Depending on the source, the type of data collected could be primary or secondary in nature.
Primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character. Its advantage is its relevance to the user, but it is also likely to be expensive
in time and money terms to collect.
Secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have
already been passed through the statistical process. It is information extracted from an existing
source, probably published or held on a computer database. From Practical point of view this
type of information is collected for any purpose other than the current research objectives and is
not always up-to-date. For this reason it may not precisely meet the needs of the secondary user.
However, it is less expensive and less time-consuming to obtain. Therefore, it provides a good
starting point and very often can help the investigator to formulate and generate ideas which can
later be refined further by collecting primary data.
4.2. COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
Primary data can be collected through experimentation in experimental research or through
surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys.
An experiment is a special form of research, which sets out to examine the relationship between
two factors by manipulating one whilst measuring changes in the other. There are two types of
experiments: Field experiments and laboratory experiments. In fact, experimentation is a means
of obtaining data with relatively high precision in measurement of the variables. In
experimentation, the researcher is data producer.
Survey refers to the method of securing information concerning a phenomenon under study from
all or a selected number of respondents of the concerned universe. In a survey the investigator
examines those phenomena which exist in the universe independent of his action. The survey
design is an important element in data collection. Survey designs can be broadly divided into
cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
A cross-sectional survey collects data at one time. The researcher can generalize findings from
such one-shot studies to the sampled population only at the time of the survey.
A longitudinal survey takes place over time with two or more data collections and has the
benefit of measuring change over time. The following are the types of longitudinal surveys:
i) A trend survey is a longitudinal survey in which a general population is studied over
time. Usually the population is sampled and random samples are measured.
ii) A cohort survey is a longitudinal survey in which a specific population is studied
over time.
iii) A panel survey is a longitudinal survey in which the same sample is measured two or
more times. The samples can represent either a specific or a general population.
Survey includes several methods of collecting primary data such as observation, interview,
through questionnaires, and other methods.

OBSERVATION METHOD

Observation is the most commonly used method of data collection especially, in behavioral
studies. This method could be used both for cross checking information obtained using other
methods and for understanding processes which are difficult to grasp in an interview context.
This method is useful when studying subjects who are not capable of giving verbal reports of
their feelings for one reason or another.

In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific
observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the
researcher, when it serves the formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and
recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under this method,
the information is sought by way of the investigator’s own direct observation without asking
from the respondent.

Advantages of observation method:

1. subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately

 2. the information obtained relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by
either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes

3. it is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less

demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in
the interview or the questionnaire method.

Limitations:
1. expensive;
2. the information obtained is limited ;
3. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
Types of observation:
Structured observation: the observer has a clear definition of the units to be observed, the style
of recording the observed information, the selection of the pertinent data of observation, etc.
Non-structured observation: the opposite of what is mentioned under structured observation
Depending on the nature of the observer, we can classify observations into three basic forms:
Secretive - where the subjects of the study are unaware that they are being observed
Non-participant: where the subjects of the study are aware that they are being
observed but the observer takes no part in the behavior being observed.
Participant: when the subject and the observer interact.

INTERVIEW METHOD
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal questions and reply
in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
Personal interviews: This method requires a person (interviewer) asking questions in a face-to-
face contact to the interviewee.
If the interview is carried out in a structured way, it is called structured interview. This involves
the use of a set of predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of recording. The
interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a
form and order prescribed. As against it, the unstructured interviews are characterized by a
flexibility of approach to questioning. In unstructured interview, the interviewer is allowed much
greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain
questions if the situation so requires. He may even change the sequence of questions. But this
sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with another and the analysis
of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult and time consuming than that of the
structured responses obtained in case of structured interviews.
Advantages of personal interviews:
1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained
2. The interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents
3. There is greater flexibility especially in case of unstructured interviews
4. personal information can be obtained easily
 5. samples can be controlled effectively as there arises no difficulty of missing returns; non-
response generally remains very low
6. the language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the
person interviewed
Some of the weaknesses of the personal interview method:
1. It is very expensive, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken
2. The possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent
3. Certain types of respondents may not be easily approachable (eg. Important officials or
executives, people in high income groups)
4. It is relatively more time consuming
For successful implementation of the interview method, interviewers should be carefully
selected, trained and briefed. They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and must
possess the technical competence and necessary practical experience. Occasional field checks
should be made to ensure that interviewers are neither cheating nor deviating from instructions
given to them for performing their job efficiently.

Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents

on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial
surveys, particularly in developed countries.
Some of the chief merits of telephone interview are:
1. It is faster than other methods
2. It is cheaper than personal interview method; the cost per response is relatively low
3. Recall is easy; callbacks are easy and economical
4. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents
5. No field staff is required
Some of the demerits of telephone interview are:
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities
3. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required
4. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle

DATA COLLECTION THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRE

This method is quite popular, particularly in case of big inquiries. Service evaluations of hotels,
restaurants, transportation providers, and other service providers are good examples of self-
administered questionnaire. Often a short questionnaire is left to be completed by the respondent
in a convenient location. In a mail survey, a questionnaire can also be sent (usually by post) to
the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form
or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself.
The merits of this method are:
1. it is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words
 2. respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers
3. respondents who are not easily approachable can also be reached conveniently
The main demerits of this system can be:
1. it can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating
2. the control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent
3. there is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been dispatched
4. there is also possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions

Schedules: data collection through schedules is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are filled in by the
enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These enumerators go along with
schedules to respondents, put to them the questions in the order the questions are listed and
record the replies.
Here, enumerators should be very carefully selected and trained to perform the job well.
Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross-examination in order to
find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, hardworking, and should have
patience.

Essentials of a good questionnaire: To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively

short and simple. Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more
difficult questions. Personal questions should be left to the end. Technical terms and vague
expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided. Questions may be
dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple choice (alternative answers listed), or open-ended
(inviting free response). The later type of questions are often difficult to analyze and hence
should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.

4.3. COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

The use of existing data (secondary data) in a research activity is termed as desk research simply
because the person carrying it out can usually gather such data without leaving his/her desk. In
any type of study, it is advisable to assess the availability of secondary data before embarking
upon a primary data collection exercise, since the latter is expensive in terms of time, money and
manpower.

The following list includes Sources of Secondary data:

 Different Central Statistical Authority Publications;
 Different Publications by Regional Governments;
 Various publications by the different Ministries;
 Publications of the National Bank of Ethiopia;
 On-line and Electronic Data Bases;
 Reports and publications of various associations, business organizations, etc
 Various publications of international, multilateral and non-governmental Organizations;
 Report of research scholars and consultants;
 Historical documents, archives, maps, photographs, letters, biographies,
autobiographies, diaries, textbooks, periodicals;
 Popular media (Newspapers, magazines, Radio and television).

Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. The researcher, before using secondary
data, must see that they posses the following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data: reliability can be tested by answering questions like who collected
them. What were the sources of data? What methods were used to collect them? At what
time were they collected? How they were analyzed etc.
2. Suitability of data: Data must be evaluated whether they could serve for another purpose
other than the one for which they were collected. This should be seen in terms of
definitions of various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data
from primary source originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original
inquiry must also be studied.
3. Adequacy of data: This should be done in terms of area coverage, level of accuracy,
number of respondents, etc.

4.4. SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION

There are various methods of data collection. As such, the researcher must judiciously select
method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors:
1. Nature, scope and object of inquiry: The method selected should be such that it suits
the type of inquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important
in deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data
not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.
2. Availability of funds: When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he
will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and
effective as some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and
the researcher has to act within this limitation.
3. Time factor: Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can
be collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the
researcher, thus, affects the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at
the time of selecting the method of collection of data.

 However, one must always remember that each method of data collection has its uses and
none is superior in all situations.