Tarantula Husbandry and Critical Care Pellett2015
Tarantula Husbandry and Critical Care Pellett2015
Tarantula Husbandry and Critical Care Pellett2015
Tarantula husbandry
and critical care
Tarantulas are gaining popularity as pets, and are seen more frequently in practice.
Disease recognition and prevention is essential amongst collections. Clinical examination
of spiders and common conditions are discussed in this article. 10.12968/coan.2015.20.2.119
Sarah Pellett BSc(Hons) MA VetMB CertAVP (ZooMed) MRCVS. Animates Veterinary Clinic, Thurlby,
Lincolnshire, PE10 0EB.
Mark Bushell. Assistant Curator of Invertebrates. Bristol Zoo Gardens, Clifton, Bristol, BS8 3HA.
Steven A Trim BSc(Hons). Founder and Managing Director of Venomtech. Venomtech Limited, 2nd Floor
South Pod, Discovery Park House, Discovery Park, Sandwich, Kent, CT13 9ND
S
piders of the family Theraphosidae, also known as ta-
Spinnerets
rantulas or bird-eating spiders, represent an important
group of commonly kept arachnids in captivity. There
are approximately 900 species within this family. They Abdomen
are becoming increasingly popular within the pet trade and as (Opisthosoma)
displays at zoological collections. These animals can be long-
lived with a life expectancy of more than 30 years for females of
some species; this means that some keepers become emotionally
attached to their pets and there is a demand for vets to be will- Cephalothorax
ing to treat them. Most males live for approximately 3–4 years (Prosoma)
and commonly die a few months after their terminal instar once Eyes Femur
they moult to maturity; there is more demand for female spiders
due to their greater longevity. Some males do live longer, and can Chelicera Patella
take 6–7 years to mature. In captivity, male terminal instars can
Tibia
survive up to eight months or more, and rarely can survive up to
18 months. Very occasionally a male tarantula will have a post- Pedipalps Metatarsus
terminal moult but will lose their ability to reproduce.
Tarsus
These spiders are arthropods belonging to the Order Arane-
ae, Suborder Mygalomorphae and Family Theraphosidae. Some Figure 1. External anatomy of an Ecuador Purple Femur tarantula (dorsal view).
of the commonly kept species include the Mexican Red Knee (Courtesy of Andrew Mitchell)
tarantula, (Brachypelma smithi), popular because of its bright col-
ouration; the Chilean Rose, (Grammostola rosea), favoured due to Anatomy
its appearance and because it is a slow-growing, hardy species; The basic external anatomy is shown in Figure 1.
and the Pink-toed tarantula, (Avicularia avicularia) which is re- Theraphosids have two pairs of book lungs located on the ven-
ported to be a docile species. The Goliath bird-eater, (Theraphosa tral aspect of the abdomen. Most other spiders have a pair of tra-
blondi), is the largest of the Theraphosids, is fairly fast growing, cheae and one pair of abdominal book lungs, although there are
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and can reach a weight of 115 g and a leg span of over 250 mm. other combinations found within this order (Ruppert et al, 2004).
This species is sought after by more experienced enthusiasts. Spiders have a large heart located in the dorsal abdominal segment,
The tarantulas mentioned above are terrestrial species, with the and an open circulatory system. Blood vessels do transport the
exception of the Pink-Toed, which is an arboreal species from blood to a specific place, but thereafter the blood flows freely in
South America. the open spaces between the organs. The colourless blood is called
Tibial spur
Husbandry
Enclosure size is species dependent and all dimensions must
be taken into consideration. A fall from a height of even 30 cm
can lead to fatal opisthosoma trauma. Heavier spiders such as
the Goliath bird-eater will be more susceptible, therefore tanks un-
der 30 cm high are recommended. Terrestrial tarantulas have hooks
on their feet, so mesh top tanks are discouraged; if claws become
trapped in the mesh, limb autotomy may occur. Pink-toed tarantu-
las will require higher enclosures as they are an arboreal species. Figure 3. Handling session.
Tarantulas are photophobic and do not require additional light-
ing. Recommended temperature ranges for most species of taran- Physical examination – general handling
tula is within 20–30°C, and a maximum-minimum thermometer In general, arachnids are not recommended for handling, due to
is advised for close monitoring of environmental temperatures. If the risk of damage to the animal and also public risk of enveno-
additional heat is needed, a heat mat under thermostatic control mation from a bite and sensitivity from urticating hairs. However,
can be placed on the outside of part of the enclosure, always on a some clients or institutions may provide handling sessions such
side, never underneath. as ‘arachnophobia sessions’ and may seek veterinary advice (Fig-
Tarantulas should not be directly sprayed with a light mist of ure 3). These encounters can be beneficial to change people’s
water, as this can cause irritation and stress. Instead, the substrate perception of spiders. In these sessions, gloves are not normally
should be moistened for those species requiring a higher humid- worn by trained personnel, as gloves may re-enforce the public’s
ity, such as the Goliath bird-eater and Pink-toed tarantula. Water impression that spiders are harmful, giving them a negative im-
should always be available, provided in a shallow dish. age and eliciting a fear response towards the animals. New World
Invertebrates such as crickets and locusts should be the spider’s species are generally used for these sessions (Brachypelma spp.
main diet; these should be fed, not starved, to ensure optimum and Grammostola spp. being the most used genera) due to their
nutritional content. Wax worms should be fed sparingly due to their general docility, although there are occasional exceptions to this.
© 2015 MA Healthcare Ltd
high fat content and poor nutritional value. Some larger species Old World species tend to be more aggressive and are more likely
may accept whole killed vertebrates such as mice. In contrast to to bite.
other animals, tarantulas do not need calcium supplementation; Nicotine was once used as an insecticide and is harmful
spiders do not incorporate calcium carbonate into their exoskel- to all invertebrates, therefore smokers must always wash their
etons (Pizzi, 2010). hands prior to handling these animals. Tarantulas can bite and
Figure 4a. Gently restrain the spider by putting pressure on the centre of the cephalothorax; (Courtesy of Romain Pizzi ©Zoological Medicine Ltd) and
Figure 4b. The spider then can be picked up securely.
can cause severe irritation from urticarial hairs. These hairs are posture and anorexia. History should also include whether the
either flicked directly by a stressed spider from the opisthosoma, spider was wild-caught or bred in captivity, as this is important
or are left as residues within the spider’s environment. Some when considering parasitic diseases. Further details such as when
people are extremely sensitive to these hairs and can develop se- the tarantula last ate and last moulted should also be obtained.
vere erythematous reactions. If inhaled, or if hairs get into the The spider can be examined by viewing it from all sides in a
eye, then reactions can become more serious. Gloves are recom- clear-walled container. More docile species can be examined by
mended when handling these animals in the clinic. Aerial hairs careful handling. Gloves should always be worn for this. Check
can be avoided by keeping the spider away from people’s faces, a the whole body surface looking for signs of disease, masses, ec-
distance of one metre being recommended. Goggles can also be toparasites, wounds, fungal infections (which are usually visual-
worn as a safety precaution. ised at the opening of the book lungs) and dehydration.
If the spider has to be handled for a training session or for a Imaging is rarely used in spiders, although a couple of pub-
clinical examination then either of two methods may be applied. lications have been produced. Radiography is of limited value
If the animal appears docile then it can be allowed to walk onto due to the exoskeleton consisting of proteins and very little soft
the hand. The second method is to pick up the spider directly
either by cupped hands or in the case of an examination by plac-
ing the index finger or a pencil gently on the centre of the rigid
cephalothorax (Figure 4a). The middle finger and thumb are then
placed between the second and third pair of legs either side of
the cephalothorax (Figure 4b). When held for an examination the
spider can be held with its body upside down. This seems to put
them in a torpor-like state. These animals should always be han-
dled over a table, as a fall as little as 30 cm may be fatal.
Spiders must not be handled during a moult, including the
pre- to post-moult period. Feeding should have resumed before
they are handled again. The duration of this moulting process
can be up to a month. Adult theraphosids usually moult once
a year and owners should be encouraged to record this so that
moulting times can be predicted.
Diagnostic approach
If the spider is kept in a small enclosure then it is beneficial for
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the owner to bring the whole set-up into the surgery. A detailed
history, emphasising the husbandry aspect, is essential as the
majority of problems seen are related to inadequate husbandry.
Owners usually notice a change in behaviour with their animal, Figure 5. Ultrasonography of a theraphosid. (Courtesy of Romain Pizzi ©Zoo-
such as reluctance to move, remaining in an abnormally huddled logical Medicine Ltd)
cating) hairs. Hair loss can be seen on the dorsal and caudal as-
pect of the opisthosoma of many New World terrestrial tarantulas.
In captivity this often indicates environmental stress. The hairs
will not regrow but will be replaced after the moult. Treatment
is not required, but husbandry issues leading to hair loss must be
addressed. Old World (Asian and African) tarantula species do
not have urticating hairs and therefore do not develop alopecia,
nor do most arboreal species.
Dysecdysis
Tarantulas in dorsal recumbency are normally undergoing ecdysis
(normal moulting) and are very susceptible to trauma (Figure 6).
Some owners will call for advice, concerned that the spider has
died. Dead spiders are normally found in an upright position with
the legs flexed beneath them; the legs only have flexor muscles
and so limb extension is dependent on haemolymph pressure. Dys-
ecdysis (abnormal or difficulty moulting) is a common presentation
in tarantulas, and optimum husbandry with the provision of good
nutrition and hydration is important in order to minimise this. As-
sisting with the removal of the old cuticle must be avoided, as pull-
Figure 6. A tarantula in dorsal recumbency undergoing a moult.
(Reproduced with permission from the BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets, 5th edition. ing this will result in tearing of the new fragile cuticle underneath.
Courtesy of Romain Pizzi ©Zoological Medicine Ltd) The new cuticle is initially soft, to enable body expansion, and then
will harden over a few hours to a few days. If limbs are trapped in
tissue differentiation being evident. Ultrasonography (Figure 5) the old cuticle it is better to wait until the new cuticle has hard-
is of value to detect the presence of large endoparasitic acrocerid ened. Attempts then can be made to gently remove old cuticle us-
larvae in the opisthosoma (Johnson-Delaney, 2006). ing surfactants such as household detergent and water, taking care
Endoscopy is beneficial, providing magnification when exam- to avoid the book lungs which are situated on the ventral surface of
ining oral discharges in tarantulas. This can aid in differentiation the abdomen. Old cuticle can also be removed with fine scissors,
of a bacterial infection from panagrolamid nematodes, as these but in extreme cases autotomy of affected limbs may be an op-
nematodes can be seen easily with an endoscope due to magnifi- tion, followed by the application of tissue glue adhesive at the site
cation effects. to prevent leakage of haemolymph. Autotomy can be induced by
Bacterial and fungal culture and sensitivity can be performed grasping the femur segment of the limb (see Figure 1). Autotomy is
on oral or anal discharges or from lesions. Interpretation of results usually performed by pulling the femur rapidly upwards, although
must be taken with caution, as some pathogens are often difficult the spider may shed the limb itself while the leg is being held. Re-
to culture using the standard technique. Postmortem sampling generation of the limb will take place, and it will return to normal
is often unrewarding due to rapid gut breakdown and transloca- size within the following two to three moults (Pizzi, 2010).
tion of bacteria after death. Necropsy examination should be per-
formed immediately after death or euthanasia. Trauma
Cytology (stained and unstained) can provide useful infor- Physical trauma and loss of haemolymph is serious in Thera-
mation for identifying bacterial, fungal and protozoal infections. phosids. If a fall does occur then immediate first aid is essential.
Postmortem examination and histology can be used to visualise If the wound is not too big then it can be dried using pure talcum
melanised inflammatory nodules, which are a typical inflamma- powder (with no added perfume or other additive), or it can be
tory response by arthropods due to trauma and infection. Faecal sealed with tissue glue. Limbs can be injured easily, for example,
analysis may be useful to identify protozoans and gregarines. terrestrial Theraphosids have fine hairs on their feet and these can
Blood (haemolymph) smears can be performed but interpreta- catch on clothing fibres. This may result in autotomy or damage to
tion is still in its infancy, with differences in opinion on nomencla- the limb with loss of haemolymph from the joints. If this occurs,
ture of cell types. Haemolymph can be sampled using a 30 gauge the limb should be removed at the joint. It is advisable to keep the
insulin needle and syringe, collecting from the dorsal midline of tarantula on a paper towel substrate afterwards for 24–48 hours to
the opisthosoma. After sampling, place a small amount of tissue monitor for any continued leakage of haemolymph. This should be
adhesive onto the cuticle to prevent haemorrhage. An alternative visible on paper towel but would be missed on normal substrate
method for sampling is by inserting the needle into the ventral as it is pale. Theraphosids may need to be treated for dehydration
© 2015 MA Healthcare Ltd
area of the joint membrane of a limb. dependent on the volume of haemolymph lost.
Figure 7. Preparing to administer fluids to a tarantula – lining up on Figure 8. Small volumes of fluids can be administered into a leg. (Courtesy
the midline. (Courtesy of Gareth Dickin) of Romain Pizzi ©Zoological Medicine Ltd)
no treatment available and this disease is seen in wild-caught spec- oxfendazole, enrofloxacin and trimethoprim sulphonamides,
imens. Larvae are deposited on the spider’s body, crawl to the book death has always occurred with this infection. Until the exact li-
lungs and penetrate the opisthosoma between the lamellae. Larvae fecycle of this nematode is known, it is advisable to still consider
may be present for months to even years. The mature fourth instar this as having zoonotic potential; human cases have occurred
is the destructive feeding stage, consuming tissues and bursting following bites from infected spiders, resulting in infections of
out of the dorsal opisthosoma to pupate. deep wounds. Larger spiders such as Theraphosa blondi have the
Mermithid nematodes are also seen in wild-caught individu- potential to bite in excess of 1cm due to the large fangs. Due
als, who may be asymptomatic for months to years. Clinical signs to this risk, unsuccessful treatment options and the concern for
include an enlarged asymmetrical opisthosoma, malformation of spread in a collection, euthanasia of an affected spider is still
palps and shorter legs. Absence or poor development of male sec- recommended. The mode of transmission between spiders is
ondary sexual characteristics is also seen. Treatment is not avail- unknown, but spread between infected containers, and vector
able. transmission from Phoridae flies and mealworm beetles (Tenebrio
molitor) have been speculated.
Oral nematodes of tarantulas
Panagrolamid nematodes observed within the mouthparts of Poisoning
some tarantula species are an important disease of captive spi- Care must be taken if other animals in the household are being
ders seen in both captive bred and wild-caught specimens. The treated with commercial flea and tick products. Clinical signs
exact lifestyle of these parasites is unknown at the time of writ- include anorexia, incoordination, twitching and death. Reports
ing, however this appears a condition solely of captivity. It could of death in tarantulas due to the residual effects of fipronil have
have zoonotic potential as some related nematodes such as Hali- been published. Gloves should always be worn when handling
cephalobus and Haycocknema spp. have proven to be zoonotic. these animals and care must be taken in the surgery when using
The spider presents initially with lethargy, anorexia and a change clear containers to examine or house individuals. If fipronil has
in posture. White discharge can also be seen between the mouth been used recently, such as in snakes with snake mites, then this
and chelicerae during the later stages of infection. may adversely affect the tarantula. Treated enclosures have been
All new spiders should be quarantined for a minimum of 30 known to kill spiders despite being washed (Pizzi, 2010).
days. Any anorexic spiders should have their quarantine duration
increased. Examine the areas between the mouth and chelicerae Supportive care
carefully before any spider leaves quarantine. In collections with Correcting the underlying environmental problems, address-
particularly rare or valuable specimens, flush the mouth with ing temperature and humidity is essential in stabilising these
physiological saline under a brief general anaesthetic. The con- animals.
tents are examined under magnification; a mass of nematodes Rehydration in tarantulas can be achieved by placing the
0.5–3mm in length will be seen in infected individuals. Alter- cephalothorax of the spider in a shallow dish of water, taking care
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natively, examination by endoscopy will improve visualisation of not to submerge the book lungs on the ventral surface of the
these nematodes, due to magnification. The nematodes have a opisthosoma. Most spiders will hydrate within a few hours.
symbiotic relationship with bacteria which cause tissue necrosis. Severely dehydrated spiders are unable to move as extension
Despite various treatment options trialled in the literature, of limbs is dependent on haemolymph pressure. Fluid therapy
with a variety of medications such as ivermectin, fenbendazole, can be achieved by administering intrahaemolymph injections
with isotonic fluids, using a 30 gauge insulin needle and syringe. righting reflex. Carbon dioxide has also been used by entomologists
Fluids are administered directly into the heart in the dorsal mid- for anaesthesia, although this option is controversial and it is not an
line of the opisthosoma (Figure 7). If the heart is missed then flu- anesthetic agent. (Sladky, 2014).
ids will still be effective, as tarantulas have an open venous and The animal can be placed under a large mammalian facemask
closed arterial system. After injecting, seal the cuticle with tissue or in an induction chamber, and gas is then passed over the body
adhesive to prevent iatrogenic haemorrhage. A safer method to (Figure 9a). Most terrestrial invertebrates use a tracheal system for
avoid haemorrhage is to administer fluids into a limb by inserting respiration and can readily absorb volatile anaesthetic gases. Gas
the needle in the ventral area of the joint membrane (Figure 8). enters the trachea through the spiracles and travels through the
The disadvantage of this method is that fluid administration is tracheoles to the fluid-filled tips where gas and oxygen diffuses
slow and only small fluid volumes can be given (less than 0.1 ml). directly from tracheoles into the cells, and carbon dioxide diffuses
from the cells into the tracheoles. It is also important to under-
Anaesthesia stand that respiratory openings of most arthropods are not found
Several key obstacles limit successful anaesthetic and analgesic on the head but on the body at various locations. Masks over the
use in invertebrates. These include subjectivity in pain assess- head of tarantulas will not be effective to maintain anaesthesia and
ment; inadequate knowledge of anaesthetic and analgesic efficacy, delivery of gas needs to be directed to the respiratory openings. In
safety, dosages and dosing frequency across species; the inability tarantulas the abdomen needs to be contained within the mask
to monitor anaesthetic depth; pharmacokinetics of anaesthetic and as the book lungs are located on the ventral abdomen (Figure 9b).
analgesic drugs and the unknown relationship between risks and Another method of anaesthetising the animal is to place the
benefits for specific drugs (Sladky, 2014). invertebrate in a closed container with a cotton ball saturated with
Anaesthesia may be necessary to allow physical examination, to isoflurane or sevoflurane liquid. Care must be taken not to allow
allow for diagnostic sampling, and to allow for treatment such as the spider to come into direct contact with the saturated cotton
exoskeleton repair or manual removal of ectoparasites. wool ball. The primary concern with either of these methods is the
Gaseous anaesthetics are the method of choice for anaesthetis- risk of environmental gas exposure of personnel.
ing tarantulas. Isoflurane and sevoflurane are both effective and Monitoring anaesthetic depth can be a bit of a challenge: there
commonly used anaesthetic gases in the clinical setting. Induction is a lack of available methods other than the loss of the righting
can be slow, taking as long as 20 minutes before there is a loss of reflex, and a reaction or otherwise to noxious stimuli such as a
Figure 9a. Induction; and 9b. Maintenance of anaesthesia in Theraphosids. (Courtesy of Romain Pizzi ©Zoological Medicine Ltd)
either a dose of 0.5% v/w 300 mg/ml KCl can be administered welcomes the submission
centrally via the sternum into the prosoma ganglia or 1% v/w of articles, please
300 mg/ml KCl can be delivered via intracardiac delivery. This contact debra.bourne@
method is effective in ablating the nervous system and is non-re- markallengroup.com
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