The Case For Qualitative Research
The Case For Qualitative Research
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The Academy of Management Review
LINDA SMIRCICH
Pennsylvania State University
Debates regarding research methods in the social sciences are linked
directly to assumptions about ontology, epistemology, and human
nature. After reviewing a range of positions relating to these assump-
tions, we argue that the dichotomy between quantitative and qualitative
methods is a rough and oversimplified one. Contemporary social science
is dominated by commitments to research methods almost as ends in
themselves, resulting in abstracted modes of empiricism based on both
quantitative and qualitative methods. Qualitative research is an approach
rather than a particular set of techniques, and its appropriateness derives
from the nature of the social phenomena to be explored.
Table 1
Network of Basic Assumptions Characterizing
The Subjective-Objective Debate within Social Science
Subjectivist Objectivist
Approaches to Approaches to
Social Science Social Science
4 ----
Assumptions man as pure spirit, man as a social man as an actor; man as an man as an adaptor man as a responder
About consciousness, constructor; the the symbol user information
Human Nature being symbol creator processor
Research exploration of pure hermeneutics symbolic analysis contextual analysis historical analysis lab experiments,
Methods subjectivity of Gestalten surveys
492
The social world and what passes The social world is a continuous The social world is a pattern of
as "reality" is a projection of in- process, created afresh in each en- symbolic relationships and meanings
CORE
dividual consciousness; it is an act of counter of everyday life as individuals sustained through a process of
ONTOLOGICAL human action and interaction.
creative imagination and of dubious impose themselves on their world to
ASSUMPTIONS
intersubjective status. This extreme establish a realm of meaningful Although a certain degree of continui-
position, commonly known as solip- definition. They do so through the ty is preserved through the operation
sism, asserts that there may be medium of language, labels, actions, of rule-like activities that define a par-
nothing outside oneself: one's mind and routines, which constitute sym- ticular social milieu, the pattern is
is one's world. Certain transcendental bolic modes of being in the world. always open to reaffirmation or
approaches to phenomenology Social reality is embedded in the change through the interpretations
assert a reality in consciousness, the nature and use of these modes of and actions of individual members.
manifestation of a phenomenal symbolic action. The realm of social The fundamental character of the
world, but not necessarily accessible affairs thus has no concrete status of social world is embedded in the net-
to understanding in the course of any kind; it is a symbolic construc- work of subjective meanings that sus-
everyday affairs. Reality in this sense tion. Symbolic modes of being in the tain the rule-like actions that lend it
is masked by those human processes world, such as through the use of enduring form. Reality rests not in the
which judge and interpret the language, may result in the develop- rule or in rule-following, but in the
phenomenon in consciousness prior ment of shared, but multiple realities, system of meaningful action that
to a full understanding of the struc-the status of which is fleeting, con- renders itself to an external observer
ture of meaning it expresses. Thus fined only to those moments in which as rule-like.
the nature of the phenomenal worldthey are actively constructed and sus-
may be accessible to the human be-tained.
ing only through consciously phe-
nomenological modes of insight.
Humans as
Transcendental Beings Humans Create Their Realities Humans as Social Actors
Humans are viewed as intentional Human beings create their realities Human beings are social actors in-
beings, directing their psychic energy in the most fundamental ways, in an terpreting their milieu and orienting
ASSUMPTIONS
and experience in ways that con- their actions in ways that are mean-
attempt to make their world intelligi-
ABOUT
ingful to them. In this process they
stitute the world in a meaningful, in- ble to themselves and to others. They
HUMAN tentional form. There are realms of
are not simply actors interpreting utilize language, labels, routines for
NATURE
being, and realms of reality, con-
their situations in meaningful ways, impression management, and other
stituted through different kinds for
of there are no situations other than modes of culturally specific action. In
founding acts, stemming from a form those which individuals bring into be-so doing they contribute to the enact-
of transcendental consciousness. ing through their own creative activi-ment of a reality; human beings live in
Human beings shape the world within ty. Individuals may work together toa world of symbolic significance, in-
the realm of their own immediate ex- create a shared reality, but that realityterpreting and enacting a meaningful
perience. is still a subjective construction relationship with that world. Humans
capable of disappearing the moment are actors with the capacity to inter-
its members cease to sustain it as pret, modify, and sometimes create
such. Reality appears as real to thein- scripts that they play upon life's
dividuals because of human acts of stage.
conscious or unwitting collusion.
SOME
EXAMPLES OF
RESEARCH Phenomenology Ethnomethodology Social Action Theory
494
The social world is a field of ever- The social world is an evolving pro- The social world is a hard, con-
changing form and activity based on cess, concrete in nature, but ever- crete, real thing "out there," which af-
the transmission of information. The changing in detailed form. Everything fects everyone in one way or another.
form of activity that prevails at any interacts with everything else and it is It can be thought of as a structure
one given time reflects a pattern of extremely difficult to find determinate composed of a network of deter-
"difference" sustained by a particular causal relationships between consti- minate relationships between consti-
kind of information exchange. Some tuent processes. At best, the world tuent parts. Reality is to be found in
forms of activity are more stable than expresses itself in terms of general the concrete behavior and relation-
others, reflecting an evolved pattern and contingent relationships be- ships between these parts. It is an ob-
of learning based on principles of tween its more stable and clear-cut jective phenomenon that lends itself
elements. The situation is fluid and to accurate observation and measure-
negative feedback. The nature of rela-
tionships within the field is pro- creates opportunities for those with ment. Any aspect of the world that
babilistic; a change in the appropriate appropriate ability to mold and exploitdoes not manifest itself in some form
pattern and balance within any relationships in accordance with their of observable activity or behavior
sphere will reverberate throughout interests. The world is in part what must be regarded as being of ques-
the whole, initiating patterns of ad- one makes of it: a struggle between tionable status. Reality by definition
justment and readjustment capable various influences, each attempting is that which is external and real. The
social world is as concrete and real as
of changing the whole in fundamental to move toward achievement of
desired ends. the natural world.
ways. Relationships are relative
rather than fixed and real.
Humans as Humans as
Information Processors Humans as Adaptive Agents Responding Mechanisms
Human beings are engaged in a Human beings exist in an interac- Human beings are a product of the
external forces in the environment to
tive relationship with their world.
continual process of interaction and
which they are exposed. Stimuli in
They influence and are influenced by
exchange with their context - receiv-
their environment condition them to
their context or environment. The pro-
ing, interpreting, and acting on the in-
behave and respond to events in
cess of exchange that operates here
formation received, and in so doing
creating a new pattern of information is essentially a competitive one, thepredictable and determinate ways. A
that effects changes in the field asindividual
a network of causal relationships links
seeking to interpret and ex-
whole. Relationships between in- ploit the environment to satisfy im- all important aspects of behavior to
dividual and context are constantly portant needs, and hence survive. context. Though human perception
modified as a result of this exchange;Relationships between individualsmay influence this process to some
the individual is but an element of a and environment express a pattern of degree, people always respond to
changing whole. The crucial relation- activity necessary for survival and situations in a lawful (i.e., rule-
ship between individual and context well-being of the individual. governed) manner.
is reflected in the pattern of learning
and mutual adjustment that has
evolved. Where this is well developed,
the field of relationships is har-
monious; where adjustment is low,
the field is unstable and subject to un-
predictable and discontinuous pat-
terns of change.
Behaviorism
Cybernetics Open Systems Theory Social Learing Theory
495
496
REFERENCES
499
Husserl, E. Ideas. New York: Collier, 1962. Skinner, B.F. Verbal behavior. New York: Macmillan, 1957.
Husserl, E. Phenomenology and the crisis of phi- Torbert, W.R. Learning from experience. New York: Colum-
losophy. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1965. bia University Press, 1972.
Received 1/21/80
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