Aashto-2010-Lrfd Bridge Construction Specifications
Aashto-2010-Lrfd Bridge Construction Specifications
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a
violation of applicable law.
Voting Members
Officers:
Regional Representatives:
Nonvoting Members
iii
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
HIGHWAY SUBCOMMITTEE ON BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
2009
MALCOLM T. KERLEY, Chair
KEVIN THOMPSON, Vice Chair
M. MYINT LWIN, Federal Highway Administration, Secretary
RAJ AILANEY, Federal Highway Administration, Assistant Secretary
KEN KOBETSKY, AASHTO Liaison
KELLEY REHM, AASHTO Liaison
ALABAMA, John F. “Buddy” Black, William “Tim” OKLAHOMA, Robert J. Rusch, Gregory D. Allen,
Colquett, George H. Conner John A. Schmiedel
ALASKA, Richard A. Pratt OREGON, Bruce V. Johnson, Hormoz Seradj
ARIZONA, Jean A. Nehme PENNSYLVANIA, Thomas P. Macioce, Harold C.
ARKANSAS, Phil Brand “Hal” Rogers, Jr., Lou Ruzzi
CALIFORNIA, Kevin Thompson, Susan Hida, PUERTO RICO, (Vacant)
Barton J. Newton RHODE ISLAND, David Fish
COLORADO, Mark A. Leonard, Michael G. Salamon SOUTH CAROLINA, Barry W. Bowers, Jeff
CONNECTICUT, Julie F. Georges Sizemore
DELAWARE, Jiten K. Soneji, Barry A. Benton SOUTH DAKOTA, Kevin Goeden
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, Nicolas Galdos, L. TENNESSEE, Edward P. Wasserman
Donald Cooney, Konjit “Connie” Eskender TEXAS, David P. Hohmann, Keith L. Ramsey
FLORIDA, Marcus Ansley, Sam Fallaha, Jeff Pouliotte U.S. DOT, M. Myint Lwin, Firas I. Sheikh Ibrahim
GEORGIA, Paul V. Liles, Jr. UTAH, (Vacant)
HAWAII, Paul T. Santo VERMONT, Wayne B. Symonds
IDAHO, Matthew M. Farrar VIRGINIA, Malcolm T. Kerley, Kendal Walus,
ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson, Thomas J. Domagalski Prasad L. Nallapaneni, Julius F. J. Volgyi, Jr.
INDIANA, Anne M. Rearick WASHINGTON, Jugesh Kapur, Tony M. Allen,
IOWA, Norman L. McDonald Bijan Khaleghi
KANSAS, Kenneth F. Hurst, James J. Brennan, Loren WEST VIRGINIA, Gregory Bailey, James D. Shook
R. Risch WISCONSIN, Scot Becker, Beth A. Cannestra,
KENTUCKY, Mark Hite William Dreher
LOUISIANA, Hossein Ghara, Arthur D’Andrea, Paul WYOMING, Gregg C. Fredrick, Keith R. Fulton
Fossier
GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE, Kary H. Witt
MAINE, David B. Sherlock, Jeffrey S. Folsom
N.J. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Richard J.
MARYLAND, Earle S. Freedman, Robert J. Healy Raczynski
MASSACHUSETTS, Alexander K. Bardow, Shirley N.Y. STATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William J.
Eslinger Moreau
MICHIGAN, Steven P. Beck, David Juntunen PENN. TURNPIKE COMMISSION, James L. Stump
MINNESOTA, Daniel L. Dorgan, Kevin Western
MISSISSIPPI, Mitchell K. Carr, B. Keith Carr U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS—
MISSOURI, Dennis Heckman, Michael Harms DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY, Christopher
MONTANA, Kent M. Barnes H. Westbrook
NEBRASKA, Mark J. Traynowicz, Mark Ahlman, U.S. COAST GUARD, Hala Elgaaly
Fouad Jaber U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE—
NEVADA, Mark P. Elicegui, Todd Stefonowicz FOREST SERVICE, John R. Kattell, Scott F.
NEW HAMPSHIRE, Mark W. Richardson, David L. Mitchell
Scott
NEW JERSEY, Richard W. Dunne ALBERTA, Tom Loo
NEW MEXICO, Raymond M. Trujillo, Jimmy D. NEW BRUNSWICK, Doug Noble
Camp NOVA SCOTIA, Mark Pertus
NEW YORK, George A. Christian, Donald F. Dwyer, ONTARIO, Bala Tharmabala
Arthur P. Yannotti SASKATCHEWAN, Howard Yea
NORTH CAROLINA, Greg R. Perfetti
NORTH DAKOTA, Terrence R. Udland TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD—
OHIO, Timothy J. Keller, Jawdat Siddiqi Waseem Dekelbab
iv
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
ABBREVIATED TABLE OF CONTENTS
The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, Third Edition, contains the following 32 sections:
v
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
FOREWORD
The first broadly recognized national standard to design and construct bridges in the United States was published in
1931 by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO), the predecessor to AASHTO. With the advent of
the automobile and the establishment of highway departments in all of the American states dating back to just before the
turn of the century, the design, construction, and maintenance of most U.S. bridges was the responsibility of these
departments and, more specifically, the chief bridge engineer within each department. It was natural, therefore, that these
engineers, acting collectively as the AASHTO Highways Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, would become the
author and guardian of this first bridge standard.
This first publication was entitled Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental Structures. It quickly
became the de facto national standard and, as such, was adopted and used by not only the state highway departments but
also other bridge-owning authorities and agencies in the United States and abroad. The title was soon revised to Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges and new editions were released about every four years. AASHTO released the 17th
and final edition in 2002.
The body of knowledge related to the design of highway bridges has grown enormously since 1931 and continues to
do so. Theory and practice have evolved greatly, reflecting advances through research in understanding the properties of
materials, in improved materials, in more rational and accurate analysis of structural behavior, in the advent of computers
and rapidly advancing computer technology, in the study of external events representing particular hazards to bridges such
as seismic events and stream scour, and in many other areas. The pace of advances in these areas has accelerated in recent
years. To accommodate this growth in bridge engineering knowledge, the Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures has
been granted authority under AASHTO’s governing documents to approve and issue Bridge Interims each year, not only
with respect to the Standard Specifications but also to enhance the twenty-odd additional publications on bridges and
structures engineering that are under its stewardship.
In 1986, the Subcommittee submitted a request to the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research to assess U.S.
bridge design specifications, to review foreign design specifications and codes, to consider design philosophies alternative
to those underlying the Standard Specifications, and to render recommendations based on these investigations. This work
was accomplished under the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), an applied research program
directed by the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research and administered on behalf of AASHTO by the Transportation
Research Board (TRB). The work was completed in 1987, and, as might be expected with continuing research, the
Standard Specifications were found to have discernible gaps, inconsistencies, and even some conflicts. Beyond this, the
specification did not reflect or incorporate the most recently developing design philosophy, load-and-resistance factor
design (LRFD), a philosophy which has been gaining ground in other areas of structural engineering and in other parts of
the world such as Canada and Europe.
From its inception until the early 1970s, the sole design philosophy embedded within the Standard Specifications was
one known as working stress design (WSD). WSD establishes allowable stresses as a fraction or percentage of a given
material’s load-carrying capacity, and requires that calculated design stresses not exceed those allowable stresses.
Beginning in the early 1970s, WSD was adjusted to reflect the variable predictability of certain load types, such as
vehicular loads and wind forces, through adjusting design factors, a design philosophy referred to as load factor design
(LFD). Both WSD and LFD are reflected in the current edition of the Standard Specifications.
A further philosophical extension considers the variability in the properties of structural elements, in similar fashion to
load variabilities. While considered to a limited extent in LFD, the design philosophy of LRFD takes variability in the
behavior of structural elements into account in an explicit manner. LRFD relies on extensive use of statistical methods, but
sets forth the results in a manner readily usable by bridge designers and analysts.
With the advent of these specifications, bridge engineers had a choice of two standards to guide their designs, the
long-standing AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, and the alternative, newly adopted AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications, and its companions, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications and AASHTO
LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specifications. Subsequently, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and
the states mandated that LRFD standards be used to design all new and total replacement bridges after 2007. For more
information on FHWA’s LRFD policy, please visit http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/lrfd/index.htm.
A new edition of these specifications will be published every two years, followed by an interim edition the immediate
year after its release. The Interim Specifications have the same status as AASHTO standards, but are tentative revisions
approved by at least two-thirds of the Subcommittee. These revisions are voted on by the AASHTO member departments
prior to the publication of each new edition of this book and, if approved by at least two-thirds of the members, they are
vii
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
included in the next new edition as standards of the Association. AASHTO members are the 50 State Highway or
Transportation Departments, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Each member has one vote. The U.S. Department
of Transportation is a nonvoting member.
Annual Interim Specifications are generally used by the States after their adoption by the Subcommittee. Orders for
these annual Interim Specifications may be placed by visiting our website, bookstore.transportation.org, or by calling
1-800-231-3475 (toll free within the U.S. and Canada). A free copy of the current publication catalog can be downloaded
from our website or requested from the Publications Sales Office.
The Subcommittee would also like to thank Mr. John M. Kulicki, Ph.D., and his associates at Modjeski and Masters
for their valuable assistance in the preparation of the LRFD Specifications.
AASHTO encourages suggestions to improve these specifications. They should be sent to the Chairman,
Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, AASHTO, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249, Washington, DC 20001.
Inquiries as to intent or application of the specifications should be sent to the same address.
viii
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
PREFACE
Units
The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, Third Edition, uses U.S. Customary units only. Per a
decision by the subcommittee in 2009, SI units will no longer be included in this edition or future interims.
References
If a standard is available as a stand-alone publication—for example, the ACI standards—the title is italicized in the
text and listed in the references. If a standard is available as part of a larger publication—for example, the AASHTO
materials specifications—the standard’s title is not italicized and the larger publication—in this case, Standard
Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 29th Edition—is listed in the
references.
Unit Abbreviations
Most of the abbreviations commonly used in LRFD Construction are listed below.
Also, please note the following:
• Most units of time have one-letter abbreviations. Unit abbreviations are always set in roman type, while variables
and factors are set in italic type. Thus, “2 h” is the abbreviation for “two hours.”
Unit Abbreviation
cubic foot ft3
cubic inch in.3
cubic yard yd3
degrees Fahrenheit ºF
foot ft
foot-kip ft-kip
foot per hour ft/h
foot per minute ft/min
foot per second ft/s
foot pound ft · lb
foot pound-force ft · lbf
foot second ft · s
gallon gal
hour h
Hertz Hz
inch in.
joule J
kilonewton kN
kilopascal kPa
kip per foot kip/ft
kip per square inch ksi
kip per square foot kip/ft2
megapascal MPa
microinch μin
micron μm
mile mi
minute min (min. for “minimum”)
ix
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
Table i (continued)—Frequently-Used Unit Abbreviations
Unit Abbreviation
newton N
newton meter N·m
newton per meter N/m
ounce oz
pascal Pa
pascal second Pa · s
pound lb
pound-force lbf
pound-force foot lbf · ft
pound-force inch lbf · in.
pound-force per foot lbf/ft
pound-force per inch lbf/in.
pound-force per pound lbf/lb
pound-force per square foot psf
pound-force per square inch psi
pound per cubic foot lb/ft3
pound per cubic inch lb/in.3
pound per cubic yard lb/yd3
pound per foot lb/ft
pound per inch lb/in.
pound per hour lb/h
pound per square foot lb/ft2
pound per yard lb/yd
radian rad
radian per second rad/s
quart qt
second s
square inch in.2
square foot ft2
square mile mi2
square yard yd2
year yr
Note: There are no abbreviations for day, degree (angle), kip, mil, or ton.
x
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
CHANGED AND DELETED ARTICLES, 2010
SUMMARY OF AFFECTED SECTIONS
The third edition revisions to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications affect the following sections:
3. Temporary Works
5. Drilled Shafts
11. Steel Structures
18. Bearing Devices
30. Thermoplastic Pipe
SECTION 3 REVISIONS
Changed Articles
The following Article in Section 3 contains changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both:
3.1.1
Deleted Articles
SECTION 5 REVISIONS
SECTION 11 REVISIONS
Changed Articles
The following Articles in Section 11 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both:
Deleted Articles
SECTION 18 REVISIONS
Changed Articles
The following Articles in Section 18 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both:
xi
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
Deleted Articles
SECTION 30 REVISIONS
Changed Articles
The following Article in Section 30 contains changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both:
30.5.2
Deleted Articles
xii
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 1: STRUCTURE EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
1.1—GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2—WORKING DRAWINGS .................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.3—MATERIALS ....................................................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.4—CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.4.1—Depth of Footings ...................................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.4.2—Foundation Preparation and Control of Water ........................................................................................... 1-2
1.4.2.1—General............................................................................................................................................. 1-2
1.4.2.2—Excavations within Channels ........................................................................................................... 1-3
1.4.2.3—Foundations on Rock ....................................................................................................................... 1-3
1.4.2.4—Foundations Not on Rock ................................................................................................................ 1-3
1.4.2.5—Approval of Foundation ................................................................................................................... 1-3
1.4.3—Backfill ...................................................................................................................................................... 1-4
1.5—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT .................................................................................................................. 1-4
1.5.1—Measurement .............................................................................................................................................. 1-4
1.5.2—Payment ..................................................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.6—REFERENCE ....................................................................................................................................................... 1-6
1-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 1
1.1—GENERAL C1.1
1.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
1.3—MATERIALS C1.3
1.4—CONSTRUCTION
1.4.1—Depth of Footings
1.4.2.1—General
1.4.2.3—Foundations on Rock
1.4.2.5—Approval of Foundation
1.4.3—Backfill
1.5.1—Measurement
1.5.2—Payment
1.6—REFERENCE
AASHTO. 2008. AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway Construction, Ninth Edition, GSH-9, American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2
2.1—DESCRIPTION .................................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2—WORKING DRAWINGS .................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.3—CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 2-2
2.3.1—General ....................................................................................................................................................... 2-2
2.3.2—Salvage ....................................................................................................................................................... 2-2
2.3.3—Partial Removal of Structures .................................................................................................................... 2-3
2.3.4—Disposal ..................................................................................................................................................... 2-3
2.4—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT .................................................................................................................. 2-4
2-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 2
2.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
2-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
2-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
2.3—CONSTRUCTION
2.3.1—General
2.3.2—Salvage
2.3.4—Disposal
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
3.1—GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.1—Description ................................................................................................................................................. 3-1
3.1.2—Working Drawings ..................................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.3—Design ........................................................................................................................................................ 3-2
3.1.4—Construction ............................................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.1.5—Removal ..................................................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2—FALSEWORK AND FORMS.............................................................................................................................. 3-2
3.2.1—General ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.2—Falsework Design and Construction .......................................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.2.1—Loads ............................................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.2.2—Foundations...................................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.2.3—Deflections ....................................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.2.4—Clearances ........................................................................................................................................ 3-3
3.2.2.5—Construction ..................................................................................................................................... 3-4
3.2.3—Formwork Design and Construction .......................................................................................................... 3-4
3.2.3.1—General............................................................................................................................................. 3-4
3.2.3.2—Design .............................................................................................................................................. 3-5
3.2.3.3—Construction ..................................................................................................................................... 3-5
3.2.3.4—Tube Forms ...................................................................................................................................... 3-6
3.2.3.5—Stay-in-Place Forms ......................................................................................................................... 3-6
3.2.4—Removal of Falsework and Forms ............................................................................................................. 3-6
3.2.4.1—General............................................................................................................................................. 3-6
3.2.4.2—Time of Removal ............................................................................................................................. 3-6
3.2.4.3—Extent of Removal ........................................................................................................................... 3-7
3.3—COFFERDAMS AND SHORING ....................................................................................................................... 3-8
3.3.1—General ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-8
3.3.2—Protection of Concrete ............................................................................................................................... 3-8
3.3.3—Removal ..................................................................................................................................................... 3-8
3.4—TEMPORARY WATER CONTROL SYSTEMS ................................................................................................ 3-9
3.4.1—General ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-9
3.4.2—Working Drawings ..................................................................................................................................... 3-9
3.4.3—Operations .................................................................................................................................................. 3-9
3.5—TEMPORARY BRIDGES ................................................................................................................................... 3-9
3.5.1—General ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-9
3.5.2—Detour Bridges ........................................................................................................................................... 3-9
3.5.3—Haul Bridges ............................................................................................................................................ 3-10
3.5.4—Maintenance ............................................................................................................................................. 3-10
3.6—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ................................................................................................................ 3-10
3.7—REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................... 3-11
3-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 3
TEMPORARY WORKS
3.1—GENERAL
3.1.1—Description C3.1.1
This work shall consist of the construction and FHWA issued Technical Advisory T5140.24 on
removal of temporary facilities that are generally designed October 29, 1993, concerning Bridge Temporary Works.
by the Contractor and employed by the Contractor in the The Secretary of the U.S. Department of Transportation
execution of the work, and whose failure to perform was directed by Congress to develop specifications and
properly could adversely affect the character of the contract guidelines for use in constructing bridge temporary works.
work or endanger the safety of adjacent facilities, property, The falsework collapse of the Maryland Route 198 Bridge
or the public. Such facilities include but are not limited to over the Baltimore/Washington Parkway and the fact that
falsework, forms and form travelers, cofferdams, shoring, no national standard code or specification was available on
water control systems, and temporary bridges. Appropriate bridge temporary works precipitated the mandate.
reductions in allowable stresses and decreases in resistance The guide specifications, handbook, and certification
factors or imposed loads shall be used for design when program are useful in conjunction with this Section of these
other than new or undamaged materials are to be used. To Specifications. States are encouraged to review these
the extent possible, calculations shall include adjustments publications and incorporate appropriate portions into their
to section properties to account for damage or section loss. specifications. The Construction Handbook (see below) is a
Unless otherwise permitted, the design of the useful instructional tool for field inspection personnel.
temporary works shall be based on AASHTO LRFD Bridge The following publications are useful reference
Design Specifications load factors specified in Articles documents in the preparation of specifications for the
3.4.1 and 3.4.2, and all applicable load combinations shall design, review and inspection of temporary works:
be investigated. Such investigation shall include
construction loads; member capacity based on field • Synthesis of Falsework, Formwork, and
condition which account for section loss, deterioration of Scaffolding for Highway Bridge Structures,
capacity, and any alterations of the structure; support Nov. 1991 (FHWA-RD-91-062)
conditions during all construction phases; and the
appropriate distribution of construction stockpiled materials • Guide Standard Specifications for Bridge
and construction equipment. Temporary Works, Nov. 1993
(FHWA-RD-93-031)
3.1.2—Working Drawings
3.1.3—Design C3.1.3
The design of temporary works shall conform to the Article 3.1.3 specifies the use of the AASHTO LRFD
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications or the Guide Bridge Design Specifications or the Guide Design
Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works, or to Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works, unless another
other established and generally accepted design code or recognized specification is accepted by the Engineer.
specification for such work. The Guide Design Specifications for Bridge
When manufactured devices are to be employed, the Temporary Works is referenced for design loads.
design shall not result in loads on such devices in excess of Access scaffolding is covered under the Occupational
the load ratings recommended by their Manufacturer. For Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) but stability
equipment where the rated capacity is determined by load trusses used for erection of structural steel are designed as
testing, the design load shall be as stated in the Guide falsework.
Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works.
The load rating used for special equipment, such as
access scaffolding, may be under the jurisdiction of OSHA
and/or other State/Local regulations. However, in no case
shall the rating exceed 80 percent of the maximum load
sustained during load testing of the equipment.
When required by statute or specified in the contract
documents, the design shall be prepared and the drawings
signed by a Registered Professional Engineer.
3.1.4—Construction
3.1.5—Removal
3.2.1—General C3.2.1
The working drawings for falsework shall be prepared Falsework is considered to be any temporary structure
and sealed by a Registered Professional Engineer whenever which supports structural elements of concrete, steel,
the height of falsework exceeds 14.0 ft or whenever traffic, masonry, or other materials during their construction or
other than workers involved in constructing the bridge, will erection.
travel under the bridge. Forms are considered to be the enclosures or panels
Falsework and forms shall be of sufficient rigidity and which contain the fluid concrete and withstand the forces
strength to safely support all loads imposed and to produce due to its placement and consolidation. Forms may in turn
in the finished structure the lines and grades indicated in be supported on falsework.
the contract documents. Forms shall also impart the Form travelers, as used in segmental cantilever
required surface texture and rustication and shall not detract construction, are considered to be a combination of
from the uniformity of color of the formed surfaces. falsework and forms.
3.2.2.1—Loads C3.2.2.1
The design load for falsework shall consist of the sum In the SI units, normal-weight concrete is known as
of dead and live vertical loads and any horizontal loads. normal-density concrete and lightweight concrete is known
As a minimum, dead loads shall include the weight as low-density concrete.
(mass) of the falsework and all construction material to be
supported. The combined unit weight (density) of concrete,
reinforcing and prestressing steel, and forms shall be assumed
to be not less than 0.16 kip/ft3 of normal-weight concrete or
0.13 kip/ft3 of lightweight concrete that is supported.
Live loads shall consist of the actual weight (mass) of
any equipment to be supported, applied as concentrated
loads at the points of contact and a uniform load of not less
than 0.02 kip/ft2 applied over the area supported, plus
0.075 kip/ft applied at the outside edge of deck overhangs.
The horizontal load used for the design of the falsework
bracing system shall be the sum of the horizontal loads due to
equipment; construction sequence, including unbalanced
hydrostatic forces from fluid concrete; stream flow, when
applicable; and an allowance for wind. However, in no case
shall the horizontal load to be resisted in any direction be less
than two percent of the total dead load.
For post-tensioned structures, the falsework shall also
be designed to support any increase in or redistribution of
loads caused by prestressing of the structure.
Loads imposed by falsework onto existing, new, or
partially completed structures shall not exceed those
permitted in Article 8.15, “Application of Loads.”
3.2.2.2—Foundations
3.2.2.3—Deflections
3.2.2.4—Clearances
3.2.2.5—Construction
3.2.3.1—General C3.2.3.1
3.2.3.2—Design C3.2.3.2
The structural design of formwork shall conform to the Formwork design refers to ACI 347-78, Recommended
ACI Standard, Recommended Practice for Concrete Practice for Concrete Formwork.
Formwork (ACI 347), or some other generally accepted
and permitted standard. In selecting the hydrostatic
pressure to be used in the design of forms, consideration
shall be given to the maximum rate of concrete placement
to be used, the effects of vibration, the temperature of the
concrete, and any expected use of set-retarding admixtures
or pozzolanic materials in the concrete mix.
3.2.3.3—Construction
3.2.3.4—Tube Forms
3.2.3.5—Stay-in-Place Forms
3.2.4.1—General
3.2.4.2—Time of Removal
Falsework for:
Forms:
3.2.4.3—Extent of Removal
3.3.1—General C3.3.1
Cofferdams shall be constructed to adequate depths to Cofferdams and shoring consist of those structures
assure stability and to adequate heights to seal off all water. used to temporarily hold the surrounding earth and water
They shall be safely designed and constructed and be made out of excavations and to protect adjacent property and
as watertight as is necessary for the proper performance of facilities during construction of the permanent work.
the work which must be done inside them. In general, the
interior dimensions of cofferdams shall be such as to give
sufficient clearance for the construction of forms and the
inspection of their exteriors, and to permit pumping from
outside the forms. Cofferdams that are tilted or moved
laterally during the process of sinking shall be righted,
reset, or enlarged so as to provide the necessary clearance.
This shall be solely at the expense of the Contractor.
The Contractor shall control the ingress of water so A concrete seal conforming to the requirements of
that footing concrete can be placed in the dry. The Section 8, “Concrete Structures,” shall be placed under
Contractor shall determine if a seal is required, and, if water below the elevation of the footing.
required, shall determine the depth of the seal and the cure
time required and shall be fully responsible for the
performance of the seal. After the seal has cured, the
cofferdam shall be pumped out and the balance of the
masonry placed in the dry. When weighted cofferdams are
employed and the weight is utilized to partially overcome
the hydrostatic pressure acting against the bottom of the
foundation seal, special anchorage such as dowels or keys
shall be provided to transfer the entire weight of the
cofferdam into the foundation seal. During the placing and
curing of a foundation seal, the elevation of the water
inside the cofferdam shall be controlled to prevent any flow
through the seal and, if the cofferdam is to remain in place,
it shall be vented or ported at or below low-water level.
Shoring shall be adequate to support all loads imposed
and shall comply with any applicable safety regulations.
3.3.2—Protection of Concrete
3.3.3—Removal
3.4.1—General
3.4.2—Working Drawings
3.4.3—Operations
3.5—TEMPORARY BRIDGES
3.5.1—General C3.5.1
Temporary bridges shall be constructed, maintained, Temporary bridges include detour bridges for use by
and removed in a manner that will not endanger the work or the public, haul road bridges, and other structures, such as
the public. conveyor bridges, used by the Contractor.
When a design is not furnished by the Owner, the The “design of detour bridges” refers to the AASHTO
Contractor shall prepare the design and furnish working LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2007.
drawings to the Engineer for approval. The design shall
provide the clearances, alignment, load capacity, and other
design parameters specified or approved in the contract
documents. The design shall conform to the AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. If design live loads
are not otherwise specified in the contract documents,
75 percent of the HL93 loading may be used. The working
drawings and design calculations shall be signed by a
Registered Professional Engineer.
When haul road bridges or other bridges which are not The design of haul bridges refers to the AASHTO
for public use are proposed for construction over any LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2007.
right-of-way that is open to the public or that is over any
railroad, working drawings showing complete design and
details, including the maximum loads to be carried, shall be
submitted to the Engineer for approval. Such drawings
shall be signed by a Registered Professional Engineer. The
design shall conform to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications when applicable or to other appropriate
standards.
3.5.4—Maintenance
3.7—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 1995. Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works, CHBTW-1, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 1995. Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works, GSBTW-1, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
ACI. 1978. Recommended Practice for Concrete Framework, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
CCEER. 2006. Recommendations for the Design of Beams and Posts in Bridge Falsework, CCEER 05/11, Center for Civil
Engineering Earthquake Research, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, Jan. 2006.
FHWA. 1991. Synthesis of Falsework, Formwork, and Scaffolding for Highway Bridge Structures, FHWA-RD-91-062,
Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, Nov. 1991.
FHWA. 1993. Bridge Temporary Works, TS140.24, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Washington, DC, Oct. 1993.
FHWA. 1993. Guide Standard Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works, FHWA-RD-93-031, Federal Highway
Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, Nov. 1993.
FHWA. 1993. Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works, FHWA-RD-93-032, Federal Highway
Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, Nov. 1993. See also AASHTO GSBTW-1,
listed above.
FHWA. 1993. Certification Program for Bridge Temporary Works, FHWA-RD-93-033, Federal Highway Administration,
U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, Nov. 1993.
FHWA. 1993. Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works, FHWA-RD-93-034, Federal Highway
Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, Nov. 1993. See also AASHTO CHBTW-1,
listed above.
NIST. 1995. Construction and Industrial Plywood, Voluntary Product Standard PS 1-95, National Institute of Standards
and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce, Gaithersburg, MD.
NSBA. 2007. Steel Bridge Erection Guide Specification, S10.1, National Steel Bridge Alliance, Chicago, IL. See also
AASHTO NSBASBEGS-1 (2007).
SSRP. 2006. Full Scale Load Testing of Sand-Jacks, SSRP-05/06, University of California, San Diego, CA, June 2006.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1—INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2—MATERIALS....................................................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.1—Steel Piles................................................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.1.1—Rolled Structural Steel Piles ............................................................................................................ 4-2
4.2.1.1.1—Specifications for Steel Properties ......................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.1.1.2—Minimum Dimensions ........................................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.1.2—Steel Pipe Piles ................................................................................................................................ 4-3
4.2.1.2.1—Specification for Steel ........................................................................................................... 4-3
4.2.1.2.2—Concrete for Concrete-Filled Pipe Piles ................................................................................ 4-3
4.2.2—Timber Piles ............................................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.2.2.1—General ............................................................................................................................................ 4-4
4.2.2.2—Submittals ........................................................................................................................................ 4-4
4.2.2.3—Field Fabrication .............................................................................................................................. 4-4
4.2.2.4—Pressure Treatment .......................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.2.2.5—Required Retentions......................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.2.3—Prestressed Concrete Piles ......................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.2.3.1—Forms ............................................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.2.3.2—Casting ............................................................................................................................................. 4-5
4.2.3.3—Finish ............................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.2.3.4—Curing and Protection ...................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.2.3.5—Prestressing ...................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.2.3.6—Shop Drawings ................................................................................................................................ 4-6
4.2.3.7—Storage and Handling ...................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.3—PROTECTIVE COATINGS ................................................................................................................................ 4-7
4.4—DRIVING PILES ................................................................................................................................................. 4-7
4.4.1—Pile Driving Equipment ............................................................................................................................. 4-7
4.4.1.1—Hammers .......................................................................................................................................... 4-8
4.4.1.1.1—General .................................................................................................................................. 4-8
4.4.1.1.2—Drop Hammers ...................................................................................................................... 4-9
4.4.1.1.3—Air Hammers ......................................................................................................................... 4-9
4.4.1.1.4—Diesel Hammers .................................................................................................................... 4-9
4.4.1.1.5—Hydraulic Hammers ............................................................................................................... 4-9
4.4.1.1.6—Vibratory Hammers ............................................................................................................. 4-10
4.4.1.1.7—Additional Equipment or Methods ...................................................................................... 4-10
4.4.1.2—Driving Appurtenances .................................................................................................................. 4-10
4.4.1.2.1—Hammer Cushion ................................................................................................................. 4-10
4.4.1.2.2—Helmet ................................................................................................................................. 4-11
4.4.1.2.3—Pile Cushion......................................................................................................................... 4-11
4.4.1.2.4—Leads ................................................................................................................................... 4-11
4.4.1.2.5—Followers ............................................................................................................................. 4-12
4.4.1.2.6—Jetting .................................................................................................................................. 4-12
4.4.2—Preparation for Driving ............................................................................................................................ 4-13
4.4.2.1—Site Work ....................................................................................................................................... 4-13
4.4.2.1.1—Excavation ........................................................................................................................... 4-13
4.4.2.1.2—Predrilling to Facilitate Driving ........................................................................................... 4-13
4.4.2.1.3—Additional Requirements for Predrilled Holes in Embankments ......................................... 4-13
4.4.2.2—Preparation of Piling ...................................................................................................................... 4-13
4.4.2.2.1—Pile Heads ............................................................................................................................ 4-13
4.4.2.2.2—Collars ................................................................................................................................. 4-14
4.4.2.2.3—Pile Shoes and End Plates .................................................................................................... 4-14
4.4.3—Driving ..................................................................................................................................................... 4-14
4.4.3.1—Heaved Piles .................................................................................................................................. 4-15
4.4.3.2—Obstructions ................................................................................................................................... 4-15
4.4.3.3—Installation Sequence ..................................................................................................................... 4-15
4.4.3.4—Practical Refusal ............................................................................................................................ 4-15
4-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
4-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
This work shall consist of furnishing and driving For the purposes of this document, “nominal
foundation piles of the type and dimensions designated resistance” is considered synonymous with “ultimate pile
in the contract documents, including cutting off or capacity.”
building up foundation piles when required. This Driven pile lengths are estimated for bidding
Specification also covers providing test piles and purposes from soil investigation, static analysis, and
performing loading tests. Piling shall conform to and be perhaps local experience. Rarely, however, are these
installed in accordance with these Specifications; at the estimated lengths used to control production pile
location; and to the elevation, penetration, and required installations. Usually dynamic methods (e.g., dynamic
nominal resistance shown in the contract documents or testing, wave equation, or dynamic formula) are used to
as directed by the Engineer. evaluate nominal resistance of test piles or the early
Except when test piles are required, the Contractor production piles and then develop a “driving criterion”
shall furnish the piles in accordance with the dimensions with a specified number of blows per unit penetration
shown in the contract documents. When test piles are (“blow count”). For larger projects, a static load test is
required, the production pile lengths shown in the sometimes used to confirm the pile nominal resistance
contract documents shall be used for estimating purposes and establish a driving criterion. The blow count
only and the actual lengths to be furnished for production criterion determined by the test piles is usually applied to
piles shall be determined by the Engineer after the test production piles to ensure that they will achieve similar
piles have been driven and tested. The lengths given in nominal resistances as the test piles. The blow count is in
the order list provided by the Engineer shall include only effect an additional quality assurance test.
the lengths anticipated for use in the completed structure. The objective of this Specification is to provide a
The Contractor shall increase the lengths shown or criterion by which the Owner can ensure that designated
ordered to provide for fresh heading and for such piles are properly installed and the Contractor can expect
additional length as may be necessary to suit the method equitable compensation for work performed. The
of operation, without added compensation. Owner’s responsibility is to estimate the pile lengths
required to safely support the design load. Pile lengths
should be estimated based on subsurface explorations,
testing, and analysis, which are completed during the
design phase. Pile contractors who enter contractual
agreements to install piles for an Owner should not be
held accountable or indirectly penalized for inaccuracies
in estimated lengths. The Contractor’s responsibility is to
provide and install designated piles, undamaged, to the
requirements specified by the Engineer. This work is
usually accomplished within an established framework
of restrictions necessary to ensure a “good” pile
foundation. The price bid for this item of work will
reflect the Contractor’s estimate of both actual cost to
perform the work and perceived risk.
4-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
4-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
4.2—MATERIALS
4.2.1—Steel Piles
Steel used in rolled structural steel piles shall A 36/A 36M is not readily available from structural
conform to the following Standard Specifications of the mills. Better economy and availability will be realized by
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM): specifying high-strength (50 ksi) ASTM A572/A572M
or ASTM A992/A992M.
• ASTM A36/A36M: Standard Specification for
Carbon Structural Steel
The above listing does not exclude the use of steel Pile shoes should be considered when structural
ordered or produced to other than the listed steel shapes are driven through obstructions or to sloping
specifications or other published ASTM specifications hard rock. Pile shoes are discussed in Article 4.4.2.2.2.
that establish its properties and suitability.
Steel for cast steel shoes, if used, shall conform to
ASTM A148/A148M (Grade 90-60).
4.2.1.1.2—Minimum Dimensions
Steel pipe piles shall consist of steel pipe Open-end pipe piles sometimes are filled and
conforming to the project plans. closed-end steel pipe piles are usually filled with
concrete as detailed in Article 4.2.1.2.2.
(a) Minimum Dimensions: Typically, ASTM A252 Grade 2 is used. However,
consideration should be given to using Grade 3, which
Pipes shall have an outside diameter and a provides additional strength with little increase in cost.
minimum nominal wall thickness as shown in While ASTM A252 is a commonly used specification
the contract documents. and performs well in most applications, structures with
seismic or special conditions may require additional
(b) Ends of closed-end pipe piles shall be closed qualifications. One example of this is as follows: Pipe
with a flat plate or a forged or cast steel conical shall be ASTM A252, but dimensional tolerance as per
point, or other end closure of approved design. API 5L and elongation of 25 percent minimum in 2.0 in.
End plates shall have a minimum thickness of The carbon equivalency shall not exceed 0.05 percent.
0.75 in. The end plate shall be cut flush with the API 5L could be specified, but it requires hydrostatic
outer pile wall. The end of the pipe shall be testing and 48.0 in. outside diameter is the largest
beveled before welding to the end plate using a diameter covered by API 5L.
partial penetration groove weld. Bearing piles are usually of no less than 8.0-in.
diameter. Some special applications may have smaller
diameters. Generally, wall thicknesses should not be less
than 0.188 in. Larger pile diameters generally require
larger wall thickness. In some cases, a larger thickness
may be desirable for both open-end and closed-end pipe
piles. Very thin-wall pipe piles may be difficult to drive
in some cases and a thicker wall may be required. Pipes
installed open-ended may require a suitable cutting shoe.
Larger diameter pipes may require thicker end plates
and/or reinforcement.
Before concrete is placed in the pile, the pile shall be A drop light or mirror system, downhole camera or
inspected by an acceptable method to confirm the full weighted tape with attached dry cloth, are possible
pile length and dry bottom condition. If accumulations of inspection methods.
water in pipes are present, the water shall be removed It is not necessary to use a tremie or centering cone
before the concrete is placed. when placing concrete in pipe piles. It is impossible to
The concrete for concrete-filled pipe piles shall have center the concrete in a batter pile.
a minimum compressive strength of 2.5 ksi and a slump Continuous operation may include changing of
of not less than 6.0 in. and not more than 10.0 in. concrete supply trucks or other brief interruptions.
Concrete shall be placed in each pile in a continuous
operation.
No concrete shall be placed until all driving within a
radius of 15.0 ft of the pile has been completed, or all
driving within the above limits shall be discontinued
until the concrete in the last pile cast has set for at least
two days.
4.2.2—Timber Piles
4.2.2.1—General C4.2.2.1
The Contractor shall supply pressure-treated Timber piles are normally ordered only in 5.0-ft
Southern Pine or Douglas fir piles conforming to ASTM incremental lengths. Usually, Douglas fir piles are
D25, i.e., new and clean peeled one piece from butt to available on the west coast, and Southern pine in eastern
tip. Piles not meeting ASTM D25 requirements shall be locations. Southern pine is available up to 80.0 ft in
rejected. length. Douglas fir piles are available up to 120.0 ft.
Most timber piles are 7.0- or 8.0-in. in diameter at the
tip. Because of the natural taper of the pile of 1.0-in.
diameter reduction for each 10.0 ft of pile length, the butt
diameter depends on tip diameter and the pile
length. Most commonly available pile sizes are provided
in the Timber Piling Council’s “Timber Pile Design and
Construction Manual.”
4.2.2.2—Submittals
4.2.2.3—Field Fabrication
4.2.2.4—Pressure Treatment
4.2.2.5—Required Retentions
Production of piles shall be in accordance with For additional information, see the reprint of PCI’s
Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) MNL-116, Manual “Precast Prestressed Concrete Piles,” Chapter 20 of the
for Quality Control for Plants and Production of PCI Bridge Design Manual (September 2004),
Structural Precast Concrete Products. Publication Number BM-20-04.
4.2.3.1—Forms
4.2.3.2—Casting C4.2.3.2
Concrete shall be cast continuously within three days Continuous casting operation may include changing
after pretensioning steel; however, concrete shall not be concrete supply trucks or other brief interruptions.
cast in forms until placement of reinforcement and
anchorages has been inspected and approved by the pile
Manufacturer’s quality control representative. Each pile
shall have dense concrete, straight smooth surfaces, and
reinforcement retained in its proper position during
fabrication. Unless self-consolidating concrete is used, the
concrete shall be compacted by vibrating with a vibrator
head smaller than the minimum distance between the
pretensioning steel. Ensure that pile end surfaces are
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pile.
4.2.3.3—Finish C4.2.3.3
Finish of piles shall be in accordance with PCI Special finishes, if required by the Engineer, can be
MNL-116, Manual for Quality Control for Plants and listed here.
Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products.
Standard finish shall be that the formed sides are
reasonably smooth from casting against approved forms.
Standard finish of the top shall be a float finish with
edges tooled.
Curing of piles shall be in accordance with PCI Local experience and driving conditions may require
MNL-116, Manual for Quality Control for Plants and longer than seven days’ curing time or a minimum
Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products. concrete strength before driving. Piles driven early may
Piles shall be cured using moist curing or accelerated show a higher risk of breakage. If ordered by the
steam curing. Engineer to drive early, the Contractor should not bear
No pile shall be driven until it is sufficiently cured the risk of damaged piles.
so as to resist handling and driving stresses without Air entrainment, water/cement ratio, and type of
damage. cement are all important factors in the design of concrete
In cold weather, an extended curing period may be piles for harsh environments. ACI 318-02 Chapter 4,
required, as specified in the contract documents. Article 4.3, discusses these issues that contribute to
Concrete shall be protected from freezing until the durability in harsh environments such as seawater and
compressive strength reaches at least 0.8 f ′c. sulfate soils.
If exposed to freezing conditions, dowel holes
should be protected from water intrusion. For more
information on cold weather requirements, refer to PCI
MNL-116, Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products.
4.2.3.5—Prestressing
4.2.3.6—Shop Drawings
Handling, storing, and transporting prestressed Cracks can be repaired, if necessary, by injecting
concrete piles shall be done in such a manner as to avoid epoxy under pressure into the cracks. Generally
excessive bending stresses, cracking, spalling, or other recognized guidelines suggest that cracks wider than
injurious result. 0.007 in. can be successfully injected. Smaller cracks
often need no repair.
4.3—PROTECTIVE COATINGS
4.4—DRIVING PILES
All pile driving equipment, including the pile The actual hammer performance is a variable that
driving hammer, hammer cushion, helmet, pile cushion, can be accurately assessed only through dynamic
and other appurtenances to be furnished by the measurements, as in Article 4.4.4.3.
Contractor shall be approved in advance by the Engineer Drop hammer efficiency can be highly variable
before any driving can take place. Pursuant to obtaining depending on the drop mechanism. A lower efficiency
this approval, the Contractor shall submit a description of for drop hammer will produce more conservative
pile driving equipment to the Engineer at least two weeks estimates of nominal resistance, but a higher efficiency
before pile driving is to begin. The description shall would be more conservative when assessing driving
contain sufficient detail so that the proposed driving stresses.
system can be evaluated by wave equation analysis. Diesel hammers operate at variable ram strokes.
If the nominal resistance is to be determined by Hydraulic hammers are often operated at less than full
static load test, dynamic test, quick static load test, or stroke to prevent overstressing piles.
wave equation analysis, the Contractor shall submit to
the Engineer results of a wave equation analysis to show
that the piles are drivable.
If the nominal resistance is to be determined by
dynamic formula, a wave equation analysis is not
required. The blow count required by the dynamic
formula shall not exceed 10 blows per in.
The following hammer efficiencies shall be used in a
wave equation analysis of vertical piles unless better
information is available.
Drop 25 to 40
Single-acting air/steam 67
Double-acting air/steam 50
Diesel 80
Hydraulic or diesel with built-in
energy measurement 95
4.4.1.1—Hammers
4.4.1.1.1—General C4.4.1.1.1
Piles shall be driven with an impact or vibratory The intent is to select a size of hammer with
hammer conforming to these Specifications. sufficient reserve capacity at normal operating conditions
Pile driving hammers shall be of the size needed to depending on the anticipated subsoil conditions and local
develop the energy required to drive the piles at a blow experience. The Contractor may be asked by the
count that does not exceed 10 blows per in. at the Engineer to drive to a higher blow count to penetrate an
required nominal resistance. unforeseen thin dense layer or minor obstruction. Jetting
or drilling may be preferred means to penetrate a dense
layer, as discussed in Articles 4.4.1.2.6, 4.4.2.1.2, and
4.4.2.1.3. Overdriving will often damage the pile and/or
hammer.
Drop hammers shall not be used for concrete piles Lighter drop weights might be insufficient to spool
or for piles whose required nominal resistance exceeds the crane winch.
60.0 tons.
Where drop hammers are permitted, the ram shall
have a weight not less than 1.0 ton and the height of drop
shall not exceed 12.0 ft. In no case shall the ram weight
of drop hammers be less than the combined weight of
helmet and pile. All drop hammers shall be equipped
with hammer guides and a helmet to ensure concentric
impact.
If a dynamic formula is used to establish the Smaller ram weight hammers can be used for special
required blow count, the weight of the striking parts of applications.
air hammers used shall not be less than one-third the
weight of pile and drive cap, and in no case shall the
striking part have a weight less than 1.4 tons. If a wave
equation analysis is used to establish the required blow
count and driving stresses, this limitation on ram weight
shall not apply.
The plant and equipment furnished for air hammers
shall have sufficient capacity to maintain, under working
conditions, the pressure at the hammer specified by the
Manufacturer. The hose connecting the compressor with
the hammer shall be at least the minimum size
recommended by the Manufacturer.
Hammer performance shall be evaluated at the end
of driving by measuring blows per minute and
comparing these blows with the Manufacturer’s
recommendations.
If open-end (single-acting) diesel hammers are not Either impact velocity or stroke measurement is
equipped with a device to measure impact velocity at all required and should be recorded. Jump sticks to visually
times during pile driving operations, the stroke shall be measure stroke should not be used for safety reasons.
obtained by measuring the speed of operation either It is important to record stroke or bounce chamber
manually or with a device that makes the measurement pressure with the blow count.
automatically.
Closed-end (double-acting) diesel hammers shall be
equipped with a bounce chamber pressure gauge in good
working order, mounted near ground level so as to be
easily read by the Engineer. The Contractor shall provide
a correlation chart of bounce chamber pressure and
potential energy.
Hydraulic hammers shall be equipped with a system The measurement of impact velocity makes it
for measuring ram energy. The system shall be in good possible to calculate the kinetic energy of the ram at
working order and the results shall be easily and impact. The measurement device may display either
immediately available to the Engineer. impact velocity or energy. This information shall be
recorded with the blow count.
4.4.1.1.6—Vibratory Hammers
4.4.1.2—Driving Appurtenances
All impact pile driving equipment except drop For hammers requiring cushion material, use of a
hammers shall be equipped with a suitable thickness of durable hammer cushion material that will retain uniform
hammer cushion material to prevent damage to the properties during driving is mandatory to accurately
hammer or pile. Hammers designed such that a hammer relate blow count to nominal resistance. Nondurable
cushion is not required shall be excluded from this materials that deteriorate during driving cause erratic
requirement. estimates of nominal resistance and, if allowed to
dissolve, result in damage to the pile or driving system.
Where applicable, hammer cushions shall be made
of durable, manufactured materials that will retain
uniform properties during driving. Wood, wire rope, or
asbestos hammer cushions shall not be used. A striker
plate shall be placed on the hammer cushion to ensure
uniform compression of the cushion material. The
hammer cushion shall be replaced by the Contractor
before driving is permitted to continue whenever there is
a reduction of hammer cushion thickness exceeding
25 percent of the original thickness or, for air hammers,
when the reduction in thickness exceeds the
Manufacturer’s recommendations.
4.4.1.2.2—Helmet C4.4.1.2.2
Piles driven with impact hammers shall be fitted Pipe piles and timber piles that are approximately
with a helmet to distribute the hammer blow uniformly round sections are frequently driven using square
and concentrically to the pile head. The surface of the helmets. If the helmet dimension is much larger than the
helmet in contact with the pile shall be plane and smooth pipe diameter, then a centering fixture is required.
and shall be aligned parallel with the hammer base and The timber top greatest diameter can be slabbed with
the pile top. It shall be guided by the leads and not be a chain saw to a reduced effective width to fit the helmet
free-swinging. The helmet shall fit the pile head in such a dimension and to a length sufficient for the helmet depth,
manner as to maintain concentric alignment of hammer provided that the slabbed length is above the final cut-off
and pile. elevation.
For special types of piles, appropriate driving heads,
mandrels, or other devices shall be provided so that the
piles may be driven without damage.
For timber piles, the least inside helmet or hammer
base horizontal dimension shall not exceed the pile head
diameter by more than 2.0 in. If the timber pile diameter
slightly exceeds the least helmet or hammer base
dimension, the pile head shall be trimmed to fit the
helmet.
A pile cushion shall protect the heads of concrete Wood pile cushions may become overly compressed
piles. The cushion thickness placed on the pile head and hard after about 1,500 hammer blows. If the hammer
before driving shall be selected by wave equation energy is relatively low, the cushion can last even longer.
analysis so that the limiting driving stresses are not In easy driving conditions, it is possible to drive more
exceeded. If the required driving blow count is than one pile with a cushion.
determined by a dynamic formula, the cushion shall have A cushion that has been exposed to less than
a thickness of at least 4.0 in. 50 blows is generally not suitable for restrike tests.
A new pile cushion shall be provided if, during In the case of batter piles, a horizontal brace may be
driving, the cushion begins to smoke or excessive required between the crane and the leads.
compression occurs. The pile cushion dimensions shall
be such as to distribute the blow of the hammer
uniformly over the entire cross-section of the pile.
Pile cushions shall be protected from the weather
and kept dry before use. Pile cushion shall not be soaked
in any liquid unless approved by the Engineer. The use
of manufactured pile cushion materials in lieu of a wood
pile cushion shall be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
A used pile cushion in good condition shall be used
for restrike tests.
4.4.1.2.4—Leads
Pile driving leads that align the pile and the hammer
in proper positions throughout the driving operation shall
be used. Leads shall be constructed in a manner that
affords freedom of movement of the hammer while
maintaining alignment of the hammer and the pile to
ensure concentric impact for each blow.
The leads shall be designed to permit proper
alignment of battered piles when applicable.
Leads may be either fixed or swinging type.
Swinging leads, when used, shall be fitted with a pile
gate at the bottom of the leads. The leads shall be
adequately embedded in the ground or the pile
constrained in a structural frame such as a template to
maintain alignment.
4.4.1.2.5—Followers C4.4.1.2.5
Followers shall be used only when approved in The pile driven with a follower should be checked
writing by the Engineer or when specified in the contract with a wave equation and selected piles with either a
documents. static test or dynamic test on the pile and/or on the
For concrete piles, a pile cushion shall be used at the follower. This eliminates the need to drive a longer full-
pile top, and suitability of the follower shall be checked length test pile in each bent or footing. The longer pile
by wave equation analysis to verify the blow count, will have higher-than-normal tension stresses, probably
driving stresses, and nominal resistance. different blow counts, and adds significant cost to the
For steel or timber piles, if a wave equation analysis project because longer leads and bigger equipment is
is not performed, the follower shall have an impedance required to drive that pile.
between 50 percent and 200 percent of the pile Impedance is the product of elastic modulus times
impedance. cross-sectional area divided by material wavespeed
The follower and pile shall be maintained in proper (wavespeed is typically 16,800 ft/sec for steel or
alignment during driving. The follower shall be of such 12,500 ft/sec for concrete).
material and dimensions to permit the piles to be driven The final position of the pile can be verified by
to the blow count determined to be necessary. checking the position and inclination of the follower at
the end of driving.
4.4.1.2.6—Jetting C4.4.1.2.6
Jetting shall be permitted only if specified in the Jetting is the use of water and air to facilitate pile
contract documents or approved in writing by the penetration by displacing the soil.
Engineer. Predrilling can also be used to facilitate the
The Contractor shall determine the number of jets penetration of the pile, as specified in Article 4.4.2.1.2.
and the volume and pressure of water at the jet nozzles This may be a situation of excessive jetting below
necessary to freely erode the material adjacent to the the design toe elevation of the pile. In a case in which the
pile. driving resistance is low during driving, consideration
The Contractor shall control and dispose of all jet should be given to adjusting the jetting criteria, upon
water in a manner satisfactory to the Engineer, or as approval by the Engineer. The 5 ft above the pile toe
specified in the contract documents. If jetting is specified should be considered as a first estimate and not
or approved by the Engineer and is performed according necessarily final a criterion.
to the specifications or as approved by the Engineer, the
Contractor shall not be held responsible for any damage
to the site caused by jetting operations. If jetting is used
for the Contractor’s convenience, the Contractor shall be
responsible for all damages to the site caused by jetting
operations.
Unless otherwise indicated by the Engineer or the
contract documents, jet pipes shall be removed before or
when the pile tip is 5.0 ft above the minimum or final tip
elevation, and the pile shall then be driven without
jetting to the final tip elevation or to the required
nominal resistance with an impact hammer. If the
required nominal resistance is not reached at the final tip
elevation, the pile may be allowed to set up and then the
required nominal resistance will be determined by
restriking the pile.
4.4.2.1—Site Work
4.4.2.1.1—Excavation C4.4.2.1.1
If practical, piles shall not be driven until after the In some cases, such as high water table, it may be
excavation is complete. Any material forced up between necessary to drive the piles before excavating. Also, in a
the piles shall be removed to the correct elevation before case in which the footings are closely spaced, it may not
concrete for the foundation is placed. be possible to move the piling rig around in the site. In
Unless otherwise approved by the Engineer, piles at these cases, it is common to use a follower to drive the
bridge ends shall not be driven until roadway piles to final grade before excavating for the pile cap.
embankments are placed. Alternatively, a longer pile can be driven and cut off at
the proper elevation.
When required by the contract documents, the Predrilling is a process where a hole is drilled with a
Contractor shall predrill holes of a size specified, at pile continuous flight auger or a wet rotary bit to remove
locations, and to the depths shown in the contract some soil or loosen the strata. Predrilling is usually used
documents or approved in writing by the Engineer. Any in the case where driving the pile will displace the upper
void space remaining around the pile after completion of soil enough to push adjoining piles out of the proper
driving shall be filled with sand or other approved position or limit vibration in the upper layers.
material. The use of spuds shall not be permitted in lieu Normally, predrilled holes are smaller than the
of predrilling, unless specified in the contract documents diameter or diagonal of the pile cross-section and
or approved in writing by the Engineer. Material sufficient to allow penetration of the pile to the specified
resulting from drilling holes shall be disposed of as elevation. If subsurface obstructions are encountered, the
approved by the Engineer. hole diameter may be increased to the least dimension
that is adequate for pile installation or to avoid
obstructions.
Jetting can also be used to facilitate driving. Jetting
is specified in Article 4.4.1.2.6.
4.4.2.2—Preparation of Piling
For steel and timber piling, the pile heads shall be The goal of a well-prepared pile head is to provide
cut and maintained square with the longitudinal axis of uniform contact and thereby reduce the potential of pile
the pile. Precast concrete pile heads shall be flat, smooth, top damage.
and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pile to Pile top distortions should be removed before
prevent eccentric impacts from the helmet. Prestressing assessing blow count acceptance for the driving criterion.
strands shall be cut off below the surface of the end of Prestressed concrete piles may also be chamfered
the pile. For concrete or timber piles, the pile head shall along their length.
be chamfered on all sides.
4.4.2.2.2—Collars
Pile shoes shall be used when specified by the Pile shoes are sometimes called pile tips or points.
Engineer or in the contract documents to protect all types Shoes are sometimes specified when not needed; to save
of piles when hard driving or obstructions are expected. cost, do not use shoes unless necessary.
Steel pile shoes shall be fabricated from cast steel A pile driving acceptance criterion should be
conforming to ASTM A148/A148M (Grade 90-60). developed that will prevent damage to the pile toe. Steel
End plates used on closed-end pipe piles shall be piles driven into soft rock may not require toe protection.
made of ASTM A36/A36M steel or better. The diameter When hard rock, sloping rock, or obstructions are
and thickness shall be specified by the Engineer. expected, the pile toe should be protected with cast steel
When shoes are required by soil conditions, the tips shoes.
of timber piles shall conform to the approved steel shoes Pile shoes used at the option of the Contractor shall
to ensure a firm uniform contact and prevent local stress be of a type approved by the Engineer.
concentrations in the timber.
4.4.3—Driving C4.4.3
Unless approved by the Engineer, piles shall be A minimum pile penetration should only be
driven to: specified if needed to ensure that uplift, lateral stability,
depth to resist downdrag, depth to resist scour, and depth
• the required nominal resistance, or for structural lateral resistance are met for the strength or
extreme event limit state. Minimum pile tip elevations
• the required nominal resistance and minimum may be required for the extreme event and service limit
tip elevation, if specified, or states. For example, a normally consolidated layer of
cohesive soil below the pile tips might settle under the
• the specified tip elevation. pile loads, causing an undesirable vertical deflection.
For soils that show a large amount of slowly
The blow count shall always be measured, either developing setup and for which sufficient time is not
during initial driving or by redriving with a warm available to verify the setup by restriking a pile, the piles
hammer after a wait period, as determined by the may be driven to a specified depth.
Engineer. The required blow count is determined either by a
For diesel hammers, the stroke shall be recorded. static load test, dynamic testing, or wave equation
For hydraulic hammers, either energy or impact velocity analysis.
shall be recorded.
If water jets are used in connection with the driving, The penetration per blow or blow count is usually
the nominal resistance shall be determined from the required for quality control. The blow count is the
results of driving after the jets have been withdrawn. number of hammer blows required to cause 1.0 ft or
The procedure used in driving the piles shall not 1.0 in. of penetration. Sometimes in easy driving, usually
subject them to excessive and undue abuse producing at the beginning of driving a pile, the penetration may be
crushing and spalling of the concrete, injurious splitting, so large that it is recorded as feet per blow. There may be
splintering and brooming of the wood, or excessive a few cases of very easy driving in soft soils with large
deformation of the steel. setup where measuring blow count may not be necessary.
However, in almost all cases, the driving record (record
of blow count per unit penetration for the entire driving
of a pile) is important if questions arise at some time
after completion of driving.
The hammer can be warmed up by striking a
previously driven pile at least 20 hammer blows.
Jetting is discussed in more detail in
Article 4.4.1.2.6.
4.4.3.1—Heaved Piles
4.4.3.2—Obstructions C4.4.3.2
If piles encounter unforeseeable, isolated Removal would apply only if the obstruction is near
obstructions, the Contractor shall be paid for the cost of ground surface.
obstruction removal and for all remedial design or
construction measures caused by the obstruction.
4.4.3.3—Installation Sequence
The selection of a practical refusal blow count limit In cases in which the driving is easy until near the
is difficult because it can depend on the site soil profile, end of driving, a higher blow count sometimes may be
the pile type, and possibly hammer Manufacturer satisfactory, but if a high blow count is required over a
limitations to prevent hammer damage. In no case shall large percentage of the depth, even 10 blows per in. may
driving continue for more than 3.0 in. at practical refusal be too large. Blow counts greater than 10 blows per in.
driving conditions. should be used with care, particularly with concrete or
timber piles.
In the case of hard rock, the driving criterion should
be based on a blows-per-in. criterion and should address
limiting the blows following an abrupt refusal to prevent
damage. Typically, an example limiting driving criterion
is 5 blows per 0.5 in. Refer to Article 4.4.2.2.2 for pile
shoes.
Where required in the contract documents, probe In the context used here, probe piles are those driven
piles shall be furnished to the lengths specified and to determine the required pile length at various locations
driven at the locations and to the elevations, nominal on the site. In some parts of the country they are known
resistances, or blow counts directed by the Engineer as indicator piles or test piles. The use of probe piles is
before other piles are ordered. All piles shall be driven particularly common when concrete piles are used.
with approved impact hammers unless specifically stated In general, the specified length of probe piles will be
otherwise in the contract documents. The same type and greater than the estimated length of production piles in
size hammer shall be used on the production piles. order to explore the variation of soil conditions.
The approval of driving equipment shall conform to Probe piles that do not attain the hammer blow
the requirements of these Specifications. Unless count, or required dynamic tests that predict nominal
otherwise approved by the Engineer, the Contractor shall resistance at the specified depth may be allowed to “set
excavate the ground at each probe pile to the elevation of up” for a period of 12 to 24 hours, as determined by the
the bottom of the footing before the pile is driven (see Engineer, before being redriven. When possible, the
Article 4.4.2.1.1 and Commentary). Additional probe hammer should be warmed up before redriving begins by
piles shall be driven at locations selected by the Engineer applying at least 20 blows to another pile. If the specified
to explore possible subsurface variations. nominal resistance is not attained on redriving, the
When ordered by the Engineer, probe piles driven to Engineer may direct the Contractor to drive a portion or
plan grade and not having the required nominal all of the remaining probe pile length and repeat the
resistance shall be spliced and driven until the required setup–redrive procedure.
bearing is obtained.
Piles shall be driven with a variation of not more The amount that a pile can be out of position may be
than 0.25 in./ft (1:50) from the vertical or not more than determined by the structural engineer. Tight tolerances of
0.5 in./ft (1:25) from the batter shown in the contract 3 in. or less are not practical.
documents, except that piles for trestle bents shall be
driven so that the cap may be placed in its proper
location without adversely affecting the resistance of the
piles.
After driving, the pile head shall be within 6.0 in. of While the Contractor should make every effort to
plan locations for all piles capped below final grade, and install piles at the planned location and at the planned
shall be within 3.0 in. of plan locations for bent caps batter, deviations in actual accuracy obtained may occur
supported by piles, for many reasons, including obstructions. To avoid
No pile shall be nearer than 4.0 in. from any edge of otherwise needless increases in costs, tight specifications
the cap. Any increase in pile cap dimensions or in plan location should be specified only when absolutely
reinforcing caused by out-of-position piles shall be at the necessary.
Contractor’s expense.
4.4.4.1—General C4.4.4.1
The nominal resistance of piles will be determined When comparing various capacity determination
by the Engineer using the method specified in the methods, higher resistance factors for the more reliable
contract documents. The method used to determine methods result in more useable load per pile or fewer
resistance of piles during or after installation shall be piles per project and thus cost savings. Consideration
consistent with the pile resistance verification should be given to the potential for change in nominal
methodology assumed during the project design phase in resistance after the end of driving. The effect of soil
accordance with Article 10.5.5.2.3 of the AASHTO relaxation or setup should be considered in the
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. determination of nominal resistance for soils that are likely
to be subject to these phenomena. For example, if setup is
present, the pile can be driven to a lesser criterion and
lesser capacity. In this case, a wait period to allow for gain
due to setup, with confirmation of the nominal resistance
by a retest (static or dynamic) will be needed.
If a static load test is used to determine the pile axial The Quick Test Procedure is desirable because it
resistance, the test shall not be performed less than five avoids problems that frequently arise when performing a
days after the test pile was driven unless approved by the static test that cannot be started and completed within an
Engineer or otherwise specified in the contract documents. eight-hour period. Tests that extend over a longer period
The static load test shall follow the procedures specified in are difficult to perform because of the limited number of
ASTM D1143/D1143M, and the loading procedure should experienced personnel that are usually available. The
follow the Quick Load Test Method, unless detailed Quick Test has proven to be easily performed in the field
longer-term load-settlement data are needed, in which case and the results usually are satisfactory. However, if the
the standard loading procedure should be used. Testing formation in which the pile is installed may be subject to
equipment and measuring systems shall conform to significant creep settlement, alternative procedures
ASTM D1143/D1143M. The equipment to conduct the provided in ASTM D1143/D1143M should be
static load test shall be supplied by the entity specified in considered.
the contract documents. The Engineer or the testing The practice varies widely across the country
laboratory shall perform the test. regarding who supplies the testing equipment, measuring
The Contractor shall submit detailed contract systems, and jack. The requirements should be stated in
documents of the proposed loading apparatus, prepared the contract documents.
by a licensed professional engineer, to the Engineer for Requirements and guidelines for interpretation of
approval. The submittal shall include calibrations for the static load test results and the development of driving
hydraulic jack, load cell, and pressure gauge conducted criteria for production pile acceptance are provided in
within 30 days before mobilization to the job site. When Article 10.7.3.8.2 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
the approved method requires the use of tension (anchor) Specifications.
piles that will later be used as permanent piles in the Reaction piles, if used and if driven in production
work, such tension piles shall be of the same type and pile locations, should be reseated by redrive if the test is
size as the production piles and shall be driven in the a compression test.
location of permanent piles where feasible. The pile’s nominal resistance may increase (soil
While performing the static load test, the Contractor setup) or decrease (relaxation) after the end of driving.
shall provide safety equipment and employ adequate Therefore, it is essential that static load testing be
safety procedures. Adequate support for the static load performed after equilibrium conditions in the soil are
test plates, jack, and ancillary devices shall be provided re-established. Static load tests performed before
to prevent them from falling in the event of a release of equilibrium conditions have re-established will
load due to hydraulic failure, test pile failure, or other underestimate the long-term pile nominal resistance in
cause. soil setup conditions and overestimate the long-term
The method of defining failure of the static load test nominal resistance in relaxation cases. For piles driven in
shall be as defined in the contract documents or by the clays, into weathered shale, or in sandy silts and sands,
Engineer. Based on the static load test results, the specifications should require a delay period to elapse
Engineer shall provide the driving criteria for production between driving and load testing of two weeks, seven
pile acceptance. days, or five to seven days, respectively.
When specified, tension static load tests shall be Due to jack ram friction, loads indicated by a jack
conducted in accordance with ASTM D3689. When pressure gauge are commonly 10 to 20 percent higher
specified, lateral load tests shall be conducted in than the actual load imposed on the pile.
accordance with ASTM D3966. When static load tests are used to control
production pile driving, the time required to analyze the
static load test results and establish driving criteria
should be specified so that the delay time to the
Contractor is clearly identified.
Dynamic testing shall be conducted in accordance Dynamic Testing is often called “High Strain
with ASTM D4945. The Contractor shall prepare for the Dynamic Pile Testing” and requires impacting the pile
required instrument attachment as directed by the with the pile driving hammer or a large drop weight and
Engineer. measuring force and velocity in the pile with pile
The Contractor shall drive the pile as directed by the analyzer instruments.
Engineer. If directed by the Engineer, the Contractor The Contractor should attach the instruments to the
shall reduce the driving energy transmitted to the pile by pile after the pile is placed in the leads.
using additional cushion or reducing the energy output of Dynamic Testing estimates the nominal resistance at
the hammer to maintain acceptable stresses in the piles. the time of testing and, as a minimum, generally requires
If nonaxial driving is indicated by dynamic a signal matching analysis of the data. However,
measurements, the Contractor shall immediately realign dynamic testing can also evaluate the reliability of wave
the driving system. equation analyses for driveability by measuring pile
If the required nominal resistance is not achieved at stresses during driving and performance of the hammer
the end of driving, the Contractor shall restrike the in transferring energy to the pile.
dynamic test pile following a waiting period specified in Because the nominal resistance of a pile may change
the contract documents or as directed by the Engineer. substantially during and after pile driving, waiting after
Once the waiting period is completed, the dynamic driving for additional testing may be beneficial for a safe
testing instruments shall be reattached, the pile redriven, and economical pile foundation. If possible, the dynamic
and the dynamic test repeated. The hammer shall be test should be performed as a restrike test if the Engineer
warmed up before restrike begins. The maximum anticipates significant time-dependent increases in
penetration required during restrike shall be 3.0 in., or a nominal strength, called setup, or reductions, called
maximum of 20 blows shall be obtained, whichever relaxation.
occurs first. When high blow counts are anticipated during
restrike, it is important that the largest possible energy be
applied for the earliest blows.
It is desirable to adjust the hammer energy so that
the blow count is between 2 and 10 blows per in.
Nominal resistance may be overpredicted at blow counts
below 2 blows per in. Nominal resistance may be
underpredicted at blow counts above 10 blows per in.
About 20 blows are usually required to warm up a
diesel or hydraulic hammer. If a previously driven pile is
not available to strike for warming up the hammer, the
Contractor may choose to use something else such as
timber pads on the ground.
When dynamic tests are specified on production
piles, the first pile driven in each foundation area is often
tested.
The restrike time and frequency should be based on
the time-dependent strength change characteristics of the
soil. The following minimum restrike durations are often
used:
When specified in the contract documents, the A wave equation analysis is sometimes used to
Engineer using a wave equation analysis shall determine establish a driving criterion in preparation for performing
the driving criterion necessary to reach the required a static or a dynamic test.
nominal resistance of the pile. Soil and pile properties to Without dynamic test results with signal matching
be used in this analysis shall be as shown in the contract analysis and/or static load test data, considerable
documents or as determined by the Engineer. The judgment is required to use the wave equation to predict
Contractor shall supply the Engineer the necessary the pile bearing resistance. Key soil input values that
information on the proposed driving equipment to affect the predicted resistance include the soil damping
perform the wave equation analysis. and quake values, the skin friction distribution (e.g., such
as those that could be obtained from a pile bearing static
analysis), and the anticipated amount of soil setup or
relaxation. Furthermore, the actual hammer performance
is a variable that can only be accurately assessed through
dynamic measurements, although “standard” input
values are available.
When using a dynamic formula, the particular The Engineering News formula has been in use for
formula shall be specified in the contract documents. A many years by some agencies, in spite of the fact that its
dynamic formula should not be used if the required accuracy has been questioned (e.g., Peck, et al., 1974),
nominal resistance is more than 600.0 kips. and through comparison to static load test data, its
Formulas shall be considered applicable only where: inaccuracy has recently been documented (Paikowsky, et
al., 2004; Allen, 2005). The FHWA Gates formula has
• the head of the pile is not broomed, crushed, or been demonstrated to provide improved accuracy relative
otherwise damaged, and to the Engineering News formula (Paikowsky, et al.,
2004; Allen, 2005), and hence it is the preferred dynamic
• a follower is not used. formula, if a dynamic formula is used.
If a dynamic formula is used to establish the driving The Engineering News formula, modified to predict
criterion, the FHWA Gates Formula specified herein a nominal bearing resistance, may be used. The nominal
should be used. The nominal pile resistance as measured pile resistance using this method shall be taken as:
during driving using this method shall be taken as
follows: 12 Ed
Rndr = (C4.4.4.5-1)
( s + 0.1)
Rndr = 1.75 Ed log10 (10 Nb ) − 100 (4.4.4.5-1)
where:
Rndr = nominal pile resistance measured during pile Ed = developed hammer energy. This is the kinetic
driving (kips) energy in the ram at impact for a given blow. If
ram velocity is not measured, it may be
Ed = developed hammer energy. This is the kinetic assumed equal to the potential energy of the ram
energy in the ram at impact for a given blow. If at the height of the stroke, taken as the ram
ram velocity is not measured, it may be weight times the stroke (ft-kips)
assumed equal to the potential energy of the ram
at the height of the stroke, taken as the ram s = pile permanent set (in.)
weight times the stroke (ft-lbs)
4.4.5—Splicing of Piles
4.4.5.1—Steel Piles
Full-length piles shall be used where practical. Drive–fit mechanical splices are for compression
Where splicing is permitted, concrete pile splice details piles only. Mechanical splices designed for tension are
shall conform to the contract documents, or as approved available
by the Engineer. Mechanical splices including drive–fit
splices may also be used.
4.4.5.3—Timber Piles
• The pile is withdrawn if practicable, and The Engineer’s determination may be influenced by
replaced by a new and, if necessary, longer pile. the pile size and material and the soil conditions.
If piles are driven below cut-off elevation, build-ups
• One or more replacement piles are driven are generally required. The concrete at the top of the pile
adjacent to the defective pile. should be cut away, leaving the reinforcing steel
exposed for a length as specified in Section 5 of the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. The final
A pile driven below the specified butt elevation shall cut of the concrete should be perpendicular to the axis of
be corrected by one of the following methods approved the pile. Reinforcement similar to that used in the pile
by the Engineer for the pile in question. should be securely fastened to the projecting steel and
the necessary formwork shall be placed, with care being
• The pile is spliced or built up as otherwise taken to prevent leakage along the pile. The concrete
provided herein. should be equal to or higher than the quality used in the
pile. Just before placing concrete, the top of the pile
• A sufficient portion of the footing is extended should be thoroughly flushed with water, allowed to dry,
down to properly embed the pile. and then covered with a thin coating of neat cement,
mortar, or other suitable bonding material. The forms
A pile driven out of its proper location, specified in should remain in place for at least seven days and should
the contract documents or by the Engineer, shall be then be carefully removed and the entire exposed surface
corrected by one of the following methods approved by of the pile finished as previously specified.
the Engineer for the pile in question:
4.4.7—Pile Cut-Off
4.4.7.1—General
Timber piles shall be cut to the elevations shown on Disposal in landfills is the normal requirement. Cut-
the contract documents. The length of pile above the cut- off pile ends may not be burned in open fires, stoves, or
off elevation shall be sufficient to permit the complete fireplaces. Treated wood may be burned in commercial
removal of all material damaged by driving. or industrial incinerators or boilers. Burning should be in
Immediately after making final cut-off on treated compliance with local, state, and federal regulations.
timber foundation piles, the cut area shall be given a
liberal application of copper naphthenate until visible
evidence of further penetration has ceased. The copper
naphthenate solution shall have minimum two percent
copper metal.
4.5.1—Method of Measurement
4.5.1.1.1—Piles Furnished
4.5.1.1.2—Piles Driven
The quantity of static load tests to be paid for shall Not all static load tests yield the predicted results. A
be the number of load tests completed. properly performed test that fails to yield the predicted
Test piles for static load tests, whether incorporated results is still a successfully completed test and should be
into the permanent structure or not, shall be measured as paid for as such.
provided for the test piles furnished and test piles driven
and shall be paid for under the appropriate pay item.
4.5.2—Basis of Payment
The quantities, determined as specified, shall be paid Mobilization and demobilization is generally
for at the contract documents’ price per unit of considered to be for one each, and grouped as a single
measurement, respectively, for each of the general pay priced item (lump sum). For jobs that could have more
items listed below, for each size and type of pile shown than one mobilization and demobilization, such as
in the contract documents. sequenced jobs, it would be appropriate to use the term
“each,” rather than “lump sum.”
Pay Item Pay Unit It also may be appropriate to separate mobilization
and demobilization prices for major subcontractors.
Mobilization and Demobilization Lump Sum Piles whose price per foot changes with length (such
Piles Furnished LF or Each as timber piles) do not lend themselves well to unit price
Piles Driven LF or Each contracts. In the event that piles exceed the bid length by
Test Piles, Furnished LF or Each 5.0 ft or more, an adjustment in unit prices is probably
Test Piles, Driven LF or Each appropriate. Longer piles may cause transportation
Static Pile Load Test Each problems.
Dynamic Pile Test (during driving) Each Dynamic pile tests to evaluate hammer performance
Dynamic Pile Test (during restrike) Each and driving stresses during driving require a brief
Splices Each interruption to the driving of the Test Pile to attach the
Pile Shoes Each sensors to the pile.
Predrilling or Preaugering LF or Each Dynamic pile tests to evaluate capacity often are
Jetting LF or Each made during restrike to take advantage of the common
Cut-off (over 5.0 ft lengths only) Each setup or guard against relaxation. If the restrike is for a
Spudding (Punching) Per Hr. pile nearby the current crane location, the interruption
Delays, Downtime, or will be brief.
Out-of-Sequence Moves Per Hr. Some pay items (such as pile shoes) can be included
in the “furnished pile” pay item, if established before bid.
Note: LF = linear foot Spudding is generally driving or dropping a steel
member to create a pathway through obstructions.
Payment for piles furnished shall be taken to include If cut-off lengths become excessive, additional costs
full compensation for all costs involved in the furnishing will be incurred.
and delivery of all piles to the project site. Delays or downtime caused by the Owner, agent(s),
Payment for piles driven shall be taken to include or subcontractor(s), and out-of-sequence moves will be
full compensation for all costs involved in the actual charged at the rate established in the pay item.
driving and for all costs for which compensation is not
provided under other specified pay items involved with
the furnishing of labor, equipment, and materials used to
install the piles.
Payment for static or dynamic tests shall be taken to
include full compensation for providing labor,
equipment, and materials needed to perform the load
tests as specified. If the dynamic pile test requires
substantial repositioning or idle time of the crane,
additional compensation for out-of-sequence moves shall
be paid at the bid rate for this item.
Payment shall be a lump sum for the piles as This method of bidding may be useful in design
specified in the contract documents. build or for rapid construction situations. Many private
There shall be no change in contract price if the sector projects are bid on a lump sum basis
specified pile does not drive to the plan-tip elevation due The specification may call for predrilling or jetting
to refusal caused by soil strata or obstructions. to facilitate penetration.
The bid form shall include the following items to The unit prices apply to piles before manufacture.
accommodate changes in pile quantities. If the Engineer Pile lengths are determined by the Engineer. No credit is
determines that pile lengths or number of piles are to be due for any length of properly installed pile left above
changed, the lump sum shall be adjusted as follows: cut-off elevation. In the case of piles that are normally
supplied in stock increments (normally 5.0 ft), the unit
Pay Item Pay Unit price is to be applied to the entire length of pile ordered
(e.g., a 31.0-ft pile may be paid as 35.0 ft due to order
Increase (Add) lengths).
Longer piles, up to 5.0 ft LF
Longer piles, 6.0 to 10.0 ft LF
Decrease (Deduct)
Shorter piles, up to 5.0 ft LF
Shorter piles, 6.0 to 10.0 ft LF
Increase (Add)
Added piles Each
Decrease (Deduct)
Deleted piles Each
4.6—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2002. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition, HB-17, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
Includes AASHTO M, R, and T standards, which are also available individually in downloadable form.
ACI. 2005. “Durability Requirements,” Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary,
ACI 318, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, Chapter 4.
Allen, Tony M. 2005. Development of Geotechnical Resistance Factors and Downdrag Load Factors for LRFD
Foundation Strength Limit State Design, FHWA-NHI-05-052, National Highway Institute, Federal Highway
Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, February 2005.
API. March 2004. Specification for Line Pipe, 43rd Edition, API 5L, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
AWPA. 2002. Standard for the Care of Preservative-Treated Wood Products, AWPA M4-02, American Wood
Protection Association, Birmingham, AL.
AWPA. 2004. Use Category System: User Specification for Treated Wood. APWA U1-06, American Wood
Protection Association, Birmingham, AL.
Collin, James G., Ph.D., P.E. 2002. Timber Piling Design and Construction Manual, Timber Piling Council in
conjunction with American Wood Preservers Institute.
Engineering News-Record formula. Based on a formula published in 1888 by A. M. Wellington, editor of Engineering
News-Record, New York, NY.
Paikowsky, S. G., B. Birigisson, M. McVay, T. Nguyen, C. Kuo, G. Baecher, B. Ayyab, K. Stenersen, K. O’Malley,
L. Chernauskas, and M. O’Neill. 2004. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) for Deep Foundations, NCHRP
Final Report 507, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
PCI. 1999. Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products,
4th Edition, PCI MNL-116. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
PCI. 2004. “Precast Prestressed Concrete Piles,” PCI Bridge Design Manual, BM-20-04, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL, Chapter 20.
Peck, R. B., W. E. Hansen, and T. H. Thornburn. 1974. Foundation Engineering, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Son,
Inc., New York, NY.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DRILLED SHAFTS
5.1—DESCRIPTION
5-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
5-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
At least four weeks prior to the start of drilled shaft The agency should recognize that the depth of the
construction, the Contractor shall submit four copies of a requested narrative should be appropriate to the
drilled shaft installation plan narrative for acceptance by complexity of the project.
the Engineer. In preparing the narrative, the Contractor When the Contract requires a minimum penetration
shall reference the available subsurface geotechnical data into a bearing layer, as opposed to a specified shaft tip
provided in the contract boring logs and any geotechnical elevation, and the bearing layer elevation at each shaft
report(s) prepared for this project. This narrative shall cannot be accurately determined, insert the following:
provide at a minimum the following information: “Variations in the bearing layer elevation from that
shown in the Plans are anticipated. The Contractor shall
• Description of overall construction operation have equipment on-site capable of excavating an
sequence and the sequence of drilled shaft additional 20 percent of depth below that shown in the
construction when in groups or lines. Plans.”
• A list, description and capacities of proposed
equipment, including but not limited to cranes,
drills, augers, bailing buckets, final cleaning
equipment, and drilling unit. As appropriate, the
narrative shall describe why the equipment was
selected and describe equipment suitability to
the anticipated site and subsurface conditions.
The narrative shall include a project history of
the drilling equipment demonstrating the
successful use of the equipment on shafts of
equal or greater size in similar subsurface
geotechnical conditions.
• Details of drilled shaft excavation methods,
including proposed drilling methods, methods
for cleanout of the bottom of the excavation
hole, and a disposal plan for excavated material,
drilling slurry, and regulated/hazardous waste
(if applicable). If appropriate, this shall include
a review of method suitability to the anticipated
site and subsurface geotechnical conditions,
including boulders and obstruction removal
techniques if such are indicated in the contract
subsurface geotechnical information.
• Details of the method(s) to be used to ensure Where the installation of drilled shafts will take
drilled shaft hole stability (i.e., prevention of place adjacent to existing sensitive installations prone to
caving, bottom heave, etc., using temporary damage due to the instability of uncased drilled shaft
casing, slurry, or other means) during holes or where subsurface soil strata do not lend
excavation and concrete placement. The details themselves to an uncased construction technique due to
shall include a review of method suitability to stability concerns, the owner may specify the use and
the anticipated site and subsurface geotechnical limits of the temporary casing.
conditions.
• The method to be used to form a horizontal Horizontal construction joints may become
construction joint during concrete placement. necessary due to equipment breakdown or loss of
concrete supply during drilled shaft concrete placement.
Where top of drilled shafts cutoff elevations are
below the water surface, a sealed cofferdam arrangement
is generally required to construct the joint.
• Where applicable, a description of the material
to be used to temporarily backfill a drilled shaft
excavation hole during a stoppage of the
excavation operation, as well as the method
used to place and remove the material.
• A description of the method and materials that In seismic design situations, the backfill material
will be used to fill or eliminate all voids below and placement method should attempt to replicate the
the top of shaft between the plan shaft diameter existing ground conditions as closely as possible.
and excavated shaft diameter, or between the
shaft casing and surrounding soil, if permanent
casing is specified.
• Methods of the removal and disposal of
contaminated concrete.
5.2.4—Approvals
• The superintendent, on-site supervisors, and Meetings may need to be held in order to obtain
other key personnel identified by the Contractor agreement on the shaft submittal but the shaft conference
as being in charge of excavating the shaft, should only be held after approval.
placing the casing and slurry as applicable,
placing the steel reinforcing bars, and placing
the concrete. If slurry is used to construct the
shafts, the slurry manufacturer's representative
and a Contractor’s employee trained in the use
of the slurry, as identified to the Engineer in
accordance with Article 5.4.3.4.1, shall also
attend.
• The Project Engineer, key inspection personnel, Attendees on Owner’s behalf should include
and appropriate representatives of the Owner. representatives having experience in construction,
materials, structural and geotechnical design.
5.3—MATERIALS
5.3.1—Concrete C5.3.1
Reinforcing steel used in the construction of shafts Current practice regarding minimum clear space
shall conform to AASHTO M 31M/M 31. between reinforcement elements is to have clear distance
Reinforcing steel shall be bundled in order to meet between parallel longitudinal and parallel transverse
the clear spacing requirements between the vertical reinforcing bars not be less than five times the maximum
reinforcement bars. Rolled hoops or bundled spirals shall aggregate size or 5.0 in., whichever is greater, per
be used in order to maximize clear space between Article 5.13.4.5.2 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
horizontal reinforcement. Specifications. Recent research indicates that clear
distance between parallel longitudinal and parallel
transverse reinforcing bars of ten times the maximum
aggregate size provides for improved flow of concrete
through the cage to ensure the integrity of the concrete
outside of the reinforcing cage. Prevailing practice varies
regarding minimum opening size amongst the various
owners. Their experience indicates that the current
requirements contained in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications produce desired results when the
requirements in the construction specifications are fully
applied.
Reinforcing steel for shafts poured inside temporary
casings should not have hooks to the outside.
5.3.3—Casings C5.3.3
All permanent structural casing shall be of steel Permanent structural casing is defined as casing
conforming to ASTM A36/A36M or ASTM A252 Gr. 2 designed as part of the shaft structure providing stiffness
unless specified otherwise in the Plans. All splicing of or load carrying capacity and installed to remain in place
permanent structural casing shall be in accordance with after construction is complete.
Article 6.13.3, “Welded Connections,” of the AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
Mineral slurry shall be used in conformance with the Unit weights stated are exclusive of weighting
quality control plan specified in Article 5.2.2. agents that may be proposed by the contractor with the
Mineral slurry shall conform to the following agreement of the slurry manufacturer’s representative.
requirements: Some slurry systems incorporate a weighting agent
when utilizing salt water in slurry. This may add up to 5
Property Test Requirement lb/ft3 to the unit weight.
Density Mud Weight 64.3 to 72 Where it is necessary to use a mineral slurry in salt
(lb/ft3) (Density) water applications, it is recommended that attapulgite or
API 13B-1, sepiolite be used in lieu of bentonite.
Section 1
Viscosity Marsh 28 to 50
(s/qt) Funnel and
Cup
API 13B-1,
Section 2.2
pH Glass 8 to 11
Electrode,
pH Meter, or
pH Paper
Sand Sand 4.0 max
Content (%) API 13B-1,
(immediately Section 5
prior to
placing
concrete)
5.3.5—Polymer Slurry
Water may be used as slurry when casing is used for A water slurry is water that is maintained as clean as
the entire length of the drilled hole. possible during its use. The mixing of water with
Water slurry shall conform to the following naturally occurring site materials is not recommended.
requirements:
5.3.8—Grout
5.4—CONSTRUCTION
Shaft excavations shall not be left open overnight An open excavation is defined as a shaft that has not
unless cased full depth or otherwise protected against been filled with concrete, or temporarily backfilled with
sidewall instability. The use of slurry to protect a shaft a material approved by the Engineer in accordance with
during a drilling stoppage or overnight shutdown may be Article 5.2.2 or protected in accordance with
approved by the Engineer. Article 5.4.3.
Casing of shafts in stable rock formations during
stoppages shall not be required.
The Contractor shall bear full responsibility for Project specific requirements may dictate that
selection and execution of the method(s) of stabilizing specific shaft excavation protection methods should be
and maintaining the shaft excavation. The walls and used. For example, the Contract may require that
bottom of the shaft excavation shall be protected so that permanent casing be used if very soft soils are present
sidewall caving and bottom heave are prevented from that will not support the weight of the wet concrete when
occurring, and so that the soil adjacent to the shaft is not the casing is extracted, or if the foundations for an
disturbed. The Contractor may excavate the shaft without immediately adjacent structure are present and must be
excavation protection provided it can be demonstrated protected from movement.
that the soil/rock is stable within or above the zones of Acceptable protection methods include the use of
seepage. casing, drilling slurry, or both.
In stable soils, the Contractor shall conduct casing Disturbed soil is defined as soil whose geotechnical
installation and removal operations and shaft excavation properties have been changed from those of the original
operations such that the adjacent soil outside the casing in-situ soil, and whose altered condition adversely affects
and shaft excavation for the full height of the shaft is not the performance of the shaft foundation.
disturbed.
If the Contractor is utilizing casing that is adequately
sealed into competent soils such that the water cannot
enter the excavation, the Contractor may, with the
Engineer’s approval, continue excavation in soils below
the water table provided the water level within the casing
does not rise or exhibit flow.
As the temporary casing is withdrawn, a sufficient
head of fluid concrete shall be maintained to ensure that
water or slurry outside the temporary casing will not
breach the column of freshly placed concrete.
Casing extraction shall be at a slow, uniform rate Movement of the casing by rotation, exerting
with the pull in line with the axis shaft. Excessive downward pressure, and tapping to facilitate extraction
rotation of the casing shall be avoided to limit or extraction with a vibratory hammer is acceptable. The
deformation of the reinforcing steel cage. duration of vibration during casing extraction with a
vibratory hammer should be limited in order to minimize
potential segregation of the concrete.
The Contractor shall remove all temporary casings
from the excavation as concrete placement is completed,
unless permission has been received from the Engineer
to leave specified temporary casings in place.
Where permanent casing is specified, excavation As outlined in Article C5.2.2 the backfill of
shall conform to the specified outside diameter of the accidental over-excavation outside the casing may
shaft. After the casing has been filled with concrete, all require the use of materials which closely approximate
void space occurring between the casing and shaft the lateral response of the native soils.
excavation shall be filled with a material which In other cases the engineer may require that
approximates the geotechnical properties of the in-situ foundation materials be sealed against evaporation or
soils, in accordance with the shaft installation plan water introduction. In those cases, the engineer may
specified in Article 5.2.2 and as approved by the require that any annular space around a permanent casing
Engineer. be filled with structural grout.
Tops of permanent casings for the shafts shall be
removed to the top of the shaft or finished ground line,
whichever is lower, unless the top of the permanent
casing is shown in the Plans at a different elevation. For
those shafts constructed within a permanent body of
water, tops of permanent casings for shafts shall be
removed to the low water elevation, unless directed
otherwise by the Engineer.
Shaft casing shall be equipped with cutting teeth or a This alternative may be specified if vibratory
cutting shoe and installed by either rotating or oscillating placement or extraction of casing is not permitted.
the casing. Soils consisting of gravel and cobble mixtures, or
matrix supported boulders where the matrix is loose and
granular, tend to be susceptible to caving and sloughing,
and usually require casing to stabilize the shaft side
walls. These materials also make vibratory casing
installation very difficult and risky for both the
Contracting Agency and the Contractor. In such cases,
the installation of temporary and/or permanent casing by
either a rotating or an oscillating method may be
required.
5.4.3.4—Slurry C5.4.3.4
The Contractor shall use slurry, in accordance with Many situations will require the contractor to utilize
Article 5.3, to maintain a stable excavation during both slurry and casing techniques in the same hole.
excavation and concrete placement operations once
water begins to enter the shaft excavation and remain
present.
The Contractor shall use slurry to maintain stability
during shaft excavation and concrete placement
operations in the event water begins to enter the shaft
excavation at a rate greater than 12.0 in./h; or if the
Contactor is not able to restrict the amount of water in
the shaft to less than 3.0 in. prior to concreting, or to
equilibrate water pressure on the sides and base of the
shaft excavation when ground water is encountered or
anticipated based on the available subsurface data.
Where slurry is used to maintain a stable excavation, Recommended slurry levels are as follows:
the slurry level in the excavation shall be maintained to
obtain hydrostatic equilibrium throughout the • not less than 5.0 ft. for mineral slurries,
construction operation at a height required to provide and
• not less than 10.0 ft. for water slurries, and
maintain a stable hole, but not less than 5.0 ft. above the
water table. • not less than 10.0 ft. for polymer slurries, except
The Contractor shall provide casing, or other means, when a lesser dimension is specifically
as necessary to meet these requirements. recommended by the slurry manufacturer for the
The slurry level shall be maintained above all site conditions and construction.
unstable zones a sufficient distance to prevent bottom
heave, caving or sloughing of those zones. Artesian conditions may require slurry levels even
greater than noted for the above slurry types.
Throughout all stops in shaft excavation operations, the
Contractor shall monitor and maintain the slurry level in the
excavation to the greater of the following elevations:
5.4.3.4.3—Cleaning Slurry
5.4.4—Obstructions C5.4.4
When obstructions are encountered, the Contractor An obstruction is defined as a specific object
shall notify the Engineer promptly. When efforts to (including, but not limited to, boulders, logs, and man-
advance past the obstruction to the design shaft tip made objects) encountered during the shaft excavation
elevation results in a reduction in the rate of advance operation which prevents or hinders the advance of the
and/or change in approved means and methods relative shaft excavation.
to the approved shaft installation plans, then the If the agency chooses to limit obstruction removal to
Contractor shall remove, bypass or break up the “unknown obstructions” it places a heavy burden on the
obstruction under the provisions of Article 5.5.1.3. Foundation Report to accurately describe the
obstructions that a contractor should anticipate.
The Contractor shall control operations to prevent This Section will be used for site-specific issues
damage to existing structures and utilities. Preventative such as shallow foundations adjacent drilled shaft work
measures shall include, but are not limited to, selecting or adjacent vibration sensitive installations. The Agency
construction methods and procedures that will prevent may choose to specify casing installation in advance of
excessive caving of the shaft excavation and monitoring excavation or may restrict the amount of vibration a
and controlling the vibrations from the driving of casing contractor may use to install or remove casing or perform
or sheeting, drilling of the shaft, or from blasting, if drilling operations.
permitted.
The Contractor shall show bracing and any extra Allowable tolerance of the reinforcing cage is based
reinforcing steel required for fabrication of the cage on on minimum CRSI intersection tie requirements, plus
the shop drawings. The Contractor will be responsible whatever additional ties and bracing necessary to
for engineering the temporary support and bracing of maintain the cage shape.
reinforcing cages to ensure that they maintain their Recommended concrete cover to reinforcing steel:
planned configuration during assembly, transportation,
and installation. As a minimum: Shaft Diameter Minimum Concrete Cover
Less than or 3.0 in.
• At least 4 vertical bars of each cage, equally equal to 3.0 ft.
spaced around the circumference, shall be tied
at all reinforcement intersections with double Greater than 4.0 in.
wire ties. 3.0 ft. and less
than 5.0 ft.
• At least 25 percent of remaining reinforcement
intersections in each cage shall be tied with 5.0 ft. or larger 6.0 in.
single wire ties. Tied intersections shall be
staggered from adjacent ties.
• Bracing shall be provided to prevent collapse of
the cage during assembly, transportation, and
installation.
Concrete placement shall commence as soon as Free-fall concrete can be guided to the center of the
possible after completion of drilled shaft excavation by shaft with the use of a centering hopper.
the Contractor and inspection by the Engineer. Because of the nature of drilled shaft mix designs, it
Immediately prior to commencing concrete placement, is unnecessary to vibrate the concrete.
the shaft excavation and the properties of the slurry (if A practical definition of a dry shaft is when the
used) shall conform to Article 5.3. Concrete placement amount of standing water in the base of the shaft prior to
shall continue in one operation to the top of the shaft, or concreting is less than or equal to 3.0 in. and water is
as shown in the Plans. entering the shaft at a rate of less than 12.0 in./h.
If water is not present (a dry shaft), the concrete
shall be deposited through the center of the
reinforcement cage by a method that prevents
segregation of aggregates on the reinforcement cage. The
concrete shall be placed such that the free fall is vertical
down the center of the shaft without hitting the sides, the
steel reinforcing bars, or the steel reinforcing bar cage
bracing.
If water exists in amounts greater than 3.0 in. in
depth or enters at a rate of more than 12.0 in./h, then the
shaft excavation shall be filled with slurry to at least the
level specified in Article 5.4.3.4.2 and concrete placed
by tremie methods.
Throughout the underwater concrete placement In cases where it is possible to pour tremie placed
operation, the discharge end of the tube shall remain shafts to ground surface, the contractor should consider
submerged in the concrete at least 5.0 ft. and the tube placing concrete until a minimum of 18.0 in. of concrete,
shall always contain enough concrete to prevent water measured vertically, has been expelled to eliminate
from entering. The concrete placement shall be contaminates in the top of the shaft pour.
continuous until the work is completed, resulting in a
seamless, uniform shaft. If the concrete placement
operation is interrupted, the Engineer may require the
Contractor to prove by core drilling or other tests that the
5.4.10—Tremies C5.4.10
When placing concrete underwater, the Contractor A pig or rabbit is a flexible device that fills the
shall use a concrete pump or gravity tremie. A tremie entire cross-section (at least 110 percent) of the tremie
shall have a hopper at the top that empties into a tube and creates an impermeable separation between the
watertight tube at least 8.0 in. in diameter. If a pump is concrete in the tremie and the slurry.
used, a watertight tube shall be used with a minimum A tremie (with pig or end cap seal) or pump
diameter of 4.0 in., except as noted herein. The discharge extension should be used for all wet placements so that
end of the tube on the tremie or concrete pump shall the water does not mix with the concrete as it is being
include a device to seal out water while the tube is first placed in the excavation. Trapped air in the pump line or
filled with concrete. In lieu of a seal at the discharge end tremie will cause mixing of the concrete and any
of the pipe, the Contractor may opt to place a “pig” or available water.
“rabbit” in the hopper prior to concrete placement that Mark the tremie pipe so that tremie insertion and
moves through the tremie when pushed by the concrete concrete head may be determined. In addition, it is good
forcing water or slurry from the tremie pipe. practice to know the volume placed per stroke of the
concrete pump to validate the concrete head.
Reinsertion of a tremie or pump implies a loss of
head. Removal of contaminated concrete is advisable,
and coring or other Cross-hole Sonic Logging (CSL)
testing should be done.
Drilled shafts shall be constructed so that the center Lateral plan deviation less than specified should be
of the poured shaft at the top of the shaft or mudline, shown on the contract plans.
whichever is lower, is within the following horizontal
tolerances:
Cross-hole Sonic Logging (CSL) testing shall be CSL testing is used as a regular inspection method
performed on shafts as specified in the Contract. The for wet placement shafts using tremie concrete methods.
Contractor shall accommodate the CSL testing by Other Nondestructive Testing (NDT) methods available
furnishing and installing access tubes in accordance with include Gamma-Gamma (GG) testing and Pulse Echo
Article 5.3.7. Testing. Cave-ins along the outer perimeter of the cage
may not be detected by CSL testing which could lessen
the shaft capacity.
The Contractor shall install access tubes for CSL CSL testing should only be used for shafts placed in
testing in all drilled shafts, except as otherwise noted, to the dry where visual inspection indicates that
permit access for the CSL test probes. If, in the opinion irregularities in concrete placement may have occurred.
of the Engineer, the condition of the shaft excavation Tubes may be placed either with reinforcing steel or
permits shaft construction in the dry, the Engineer may midspan between vertical reinforcements. There are
specify that the testing be omitted. concerns that CSL tubes placed midspan will effectively
The Contractor shall securely attach the access tubes negate the clear spacing requirements specified in
to the interior of the reinforcement cage of the shaft. One Article C5.3.2 for the reinforcing steel. There are
access tube shall be furnished and installed for each foot competing concerns that CSL tubes bundled with large
of shaft diameter, rounded to the nearest whole number, reinforcing steel bundles will create a large blockage for
as shown in the Plans. A minimum of three tubes shall be proper flow of concrete. These issues must be resolved
required. The access tubes shall be placed around the on a case-by-case basis.
shaft, inside the spiral or hoop reinforcement and 3.0 in.
clear of the vertical reinforcement, at a uniform spacing
measured along the circle passing through the centers of
the access tubes. If these minimums cannot be met due to
close spacing of the vertical reinforcement, then the
access tubes shall be bundled with the vertical
reinforcement.
If trimming the cage is required and access tubes for If the reinforcing steel does not extend to the bottom
CSL testing are attached to the cage, the Contractor shall of the shaft, the CSL tubes should be extended to the
either shift the access tubes up the cage or cut the access shaft bottom.
tubes, provided that the cut tube ends are adapted to
receive the watertight cap, as specified.
The access tubes shall be installed in straight
alignment and as parallel to the vertical axis of the
reinforcement cage as possible. The access tubes shall
extend from the bottom of the shaft to at least 2.0 ft.
above the top of the shaft. Splice joints in the access
tubes, if required to achieve full length access tubes,
shall be watertight. The Contractor shall clear the access
tubes of all debris and extraneous materials before
installing the access tubes. Care shall be taken to prevent
damaging the access tubes during reinforcement cage
installation and concrete placement operations in the
shaft excavation.
Rock excavation for shaft including haul shall be Rock is defined as that consolidated mass of mineral
measured by the lineal feet of shaft excavated for each material having an Unconfined Compressive Strength
diameter. The lineal feet shall be computed using the (UCS) in an intact sample of at least one sample of 1000
shaft diameter shown in the Plans, the top of the rock psi minimum. This definition falls between class 1 and 2
line, defined as the highest bedrock point within the shaft of the relative rating system for rock classification
diameter, and the bottom elevation shown in the Plans, outlined in Table 10.4.6.4-1 of the AASHTO LRFD
unless adjusted by the Engineer. Bridge Design Specifications.
Top of rock elevation for bidding purposes shall be The geologic determination for measurement purposes
determined by the geologist’s determination in the may be different from top of rock for design purposes to
contract documents. Actual top of rock for payment account for decomposed, weathered, or shattered rock.
purposes may differ from that shown in the contract In some formations, such as pinnacle limestone, top
documents based on the rock definition contained in of rock elevations may vary widely across the shaft
Article C5.5.1.2. diameter, precluding the use of a single boring to
accurately determine top of rock.
Some regional practices, such as the use of rig
penetration rates to determine the top of rock, may need
to be considered when developing rock pay quantities.
Obstructions identified under Article 5.4.4 will be Alternatively, obstruction removal can be paid based
measured per hour of time spent working on on a force account basis.
obstructions. The use of an hourly rate eliminates the necessity to
maintain records of equipment on site and determine
whether equipment was being used, on standby or
available for use elsewhere.
The hourly rate method does leave the process open
to abuse through unbalanced bidding.
The alternative method of measuring and paying for
obstruction removal includes payment on Force Account.
While this eliminates the abuses of bid unbalancing, it
does create a tremendous amount of administration to
determine rates for equipment not commonly rated and
record all equipment used or on standby. In addition,
careful tracking of the equipment used and the effect of
the obstruction removal on the equipment on site not
used directly for obstruction removal, but subsequently
idled by the obstruction event, will be needed.
Obstruction measurement and payment can be limited
to unanticipated obstructions only. This method limits the
incidence of obstructions and their payment. However, it
places a heavy burden on the foundation report to accurately
describe all known obstructions and also encourages the
contractor to carry costly contingencies in its bid, thereby
potentially increasing bid prices unnecessarily.
5.5.1.5—Exploration Holes
• original ground or
• base of footing,
5.5.1.7—Load Tests
CSL access tube shall be measured by the linear feet When the Contract requires a minimum penetration
of tube furnished and installed. into a bearing layer, as opposed to a specified shaft tip
elevation, and the bearing layer elevation at each shaft
cannot be accurately determined, replace Article 5.5.1.8
with: CSL access tube will be measured by the linear
foot of tube required based on the design depth shown in
the Plans plus the length required to extend the shaft
reinforcement by set percentage of the length.
Concrete for shaft shall be measured by the cubic In cases where concrete is poured to limits of excavation
yard of concrete in place. The cubic yards shall be (i.e., to ground surface), serious consideration should given to
computed using the shaft diameter shown in the Plans combining bid items such as excavation, concrete placement,
and the top and bottom elevations shown in the Plans, and reinforcing steel placement (where rebar cages are
unless adjusted by the Engineer. constant in section throughout the entire shaft).
5.5.1.10—Reinforcing Steel
5.5.2—Payment
Payment for removing shaft obstructions shall be See commentary in Article 5.4.4 and 5.5.1.3 for
made for the changes in shaft construction methods additional guidance.
necessary to remove the obstruction based on hours spent
at contract bid rates.
5.5.2.5—Exploration Holes
5.5.2.7—Load Tests
Payment for the item “CSL Access Tube” shall be If CSL testing is to be provided by the Contractor, then
paid per linear foot installed. add the following Measurement and Payment specification.
Mobilization for CSL Test Paid per each
mobilization to test shafts.
5.5.2.10—Reinforcing Steel
5.6—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
API. 2003. Recommended Practice for Field Testing Water-Based Drilling Fluids, 3rd Edition, ANSI/API RP 13B-1.
American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 6
GROUND ANCHORS
6.1—DESCRIPTION C6.1
This work shall consist of designing, furnishing, If there is any doubt as to the feasibility of using
installing, testing, and stressing permanent cement-grouted ground anchors for a particular project, special test anchors
ground anchors in accordance with these Specifications and should be called for in the contract documents. Production
the contract documents. anchors are often nonredundant structural members,
difficult to inspect, and located in critical support areas.
Assurance of success may be worth the added expense.
At least four weeks before work is to begin, the The contract documents generally give the Contractor
Contractor shall submit to the Engineer for review and considerable latitude in the selection of materials and
approval complete working drawings and design method of installation that may be used; therefore,
calculations describing the ground anchor system or complete working drawings are required to control the
systems intended for use. The submittal shall include the work.
following:
6-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
6-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
6.3—MATERIALS
Ground anchor tendons shall consist of single or A positive Hoyer effect is present in all pretensioned
multiple elements of prestressing steel, anchorage devices, bonded members. The strand is pulled to and held at a high
and, if required, couplers conforming to the requirements tension while concrete is cast around it and cured. In the
described in Section 10, “Prestressing.” The following tensioned state, the diameter of the strand is reduced
materials are acceptable for use as ground anchor tendons: compared to the diameter in an untensioned state. When the
tension in the strand is transferred from the external
• AASHTO M 203M/M 203 (ASTM A416/A416M— anchors to the concrete, the stress in the strand at the end of
uncoated seven-wire strand) the concrete member goes from a high stress to zero stress.
At the points of reduced stress and zero stress, the diameter
• ASTM A886/A866M (indented, seven-wire of the wires increases and the wires press tightly against the
strand) surrounding concrete, creating a high friction which is an
important factor in transferring the total force. This is
• ASTM A882/A882M (epoxy-coated, seven-wire called the Hoyer effect, identified by Jack R. Janney in
strand) 1954, “Nature of Bond in Prestressed Concrete,” Journal of
American Concrete Institute, Volume 25, May 1954.
When a pull-out load is applied to an untensioned
smooth wire strand as it is in a ground anchor, the reduction
in the strand diameter due to a negative Hoyer effect
significantly decreases the capacity of the strand to transfer
its tension to the concrete surrounding it.
As its tension is increased and its diameter decreased,
the adhesive bond of the indented strand decreases in the
same manner as that of smooth wire strand, but the
mechanical bond provided by concrete in the indentations
remains effective, giving the indented strand much higher
capacity to transfer its tension under a pullout loading.
The tension in an epoxy-coated strand is transferred to
the concrete by the embedment of the grit on its surface
into the concrete around it. The reduction in strand
diameter due to the negative Hoyer effect is not large
enough to have any significant effect on the strand's
capacity to transfer tension.
6.3.2—Grout C6.3.2
Cement shall be Type I, II, or III portland cement Although sand is not generally used in grouting small
conforming to AASHTO M 85 (ASTM C150). Cement diameter holes, it may have advantages with larger
used for grouting shall be fresh and shall not contain any diameter holes. Fly ash and pozzolans are also occasionally
lumps or other indications of hydration or “pack set.” used as filler material. Accelerators are not permitted
Aggregate shall conform to the requirements for fine because of concern that some may cause corrosion of the
aggregate described in Section 8, “Concrete Structures.” prestressing steel.
Admixtures may be used in the grout subject to the
approval of the Engineer. Expansive admixtures may only
be added to the grout used for filling sealed encapsulations,
trumpets, and anchorage covers. Accelerators shall not be
used.
Water for mixing grout shall be potable, clean, and free
of injurious quantities of substances known to be harmful
to portland cement or prestressing steel.
6.3.3—Steel Elements
6.3.5—Miscellaneous Elements
6.4—FABRICATION
The tendon bond length shall be encapsulated by a Fusion-bonded epoxy encapsulations may have
grout-filled corrugated plastic or deformed steel tube, or by holidays present in the coating. Electrical isolation of the
a fusion-bonded epoxy coating. The tendon shall be tendon from the structure will prevent the development of a
grouted inside the encapsulation either prior to inserting the long-line galvanic corrosion cell between the structure and
tendon in the drill hole or after the tendon has been placed the tendon bond length portion.
in the drill hole. Punching holes in the encapsulation and
allowing the grout to flow from the encapsulation to the
drill hole, or vice versa, shall not be permitted. The tendon
shall be centralized within the encapsulation and the tube
sized to provide an average of 0.20 in. of grout cover for
the prestressing steel. For grout-protected ground anchor
tendons, spacers and centralizers shall be used to satisfy the
same requirements specified in Article 6.4.1.1, “Grout-
Protected Ground Anchor Tendons.” The anchorage device
of tendons protected with fusion-bonded epoxy shall be
electrically isolated from the structure.
6.4.2—Unbonded Length
Nonrestressable anchorages may be used unless The nominal resistance of bearing plates refers to
restressable anchorages are specified in the contract Article 5.10.9.7.2, “Bearing Resistances,” of the AASHTO
documents. LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2004.
Bearing plates shall be sized so that the bending
stresses in the plate and average bearing stress on the
concrete, if applicable, do not exceed the nominal
resistances described in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications, Article 5.10.9.7.2. The size of bearing plates
shall not be less than that shown in the contract documents
or on the approved working drawings.
The trumpet shall be welded to the bearing plate. The
trumpet shall have an inside diameter at least 0.25 in.
greater than the diameter of the tendon at the anchorage.
The trumpet shall be long enough to accommodate
movements of the structure during testing and stressing. For
strand tendons with encapsulation over the unbonded
length, the trumpet shall be long enough to enable the
tendons to make a transition from the diameter of the
tendon in the unbonded length to the diameter of the tendon
at the anchorhead without damaging the encapsulation.
Trumpets filled with corrosion-inhibiting grease shall have
a permanent Buna-N rubber or approved equal seal
provided between the trumpet and the unbonded length
corrosion protection. Trumpets filled with grout shall have
a temporary seal provided between the trumpet and the
unbonded length corrosion protection.
6.5—INSTALLATION
6.5.1—Drilling C6.5.1
The drilling method used may be core drilling, rotary The longitudinal axis of the drilled hole and that of the
drilling, percussion drilling, auger drilling, or driven tendon must be parallel. The tendon must not be bent to
casing. The method of drilling used shall prevent loss of accommodate connecting the bearing plate to the structure.
ground above the drilled hole that may be detrimental to the
structure or existing structures. Casing for anchor holes, if
used, shall be removed, unless permitted by the Engineer to
be left in place. The location, inclination, and alignment of
the drilled hole shall be as shown in the contract
documents. Inclination and alignment shall be within
±3 degrees of the planned angle at the bearing plate, and
within ±1.0 ft of the planned location at the ground surface
(point of entry).
6.5.2—Tendon Insertion
6.5.3—Grouting
The corrosion protection surrounding the unbonded The most critical area to protect from corrosion is in
length of the tendon shall extend into the trumpet a the vicinity of the anchorage. Below the bearing plate, the
minimum of 6.0 in. beyond the bottom seal in the trumpet. corrosion protection over the unbonded length is usually
The corrosion protection surrounding the unbonded terminated to expose the bare tendon. Above the bearing
length of the tendon shall not contact the bearing plate or plate, the bare tendon is gripped by either wedges, nuts, or
the anchorhead during load testing or stressing. deformations in the case of wires. Regardless of the type of
The bearing plate and anchorhead shall be placed tendon, the gripping mechanism creates stress
perpendicular to the axis of the tendon. concentrations at the connection. In addition, an aggressive
The trumpet shall be completely filled with corrosion- corrosive environment may exist at the anchorhead since
inhibiting grease or grout. The grease may be placed any time oxygen is readily available. The vulnerability of this area is
during construction. The grout shall be placed after the ground demonstrated by the fact that most tendon failures occur
anchor has been load-tested. The Contractor shall demonstrate within a short distance of the anchorhead. Extreme care is
that the procedures selected for placement of either grease or required in order to ensure that the prestressing steel is well
grout will produce a completely filled trumpet. protected in this area.
Load Load
AL AL
0.25DL* 0.25DL
AL 0.50DL
0.25DL 0.75DL
0.50DL* 1.00DL
AL 1.20DL*
0.25DL AL
0.50DL 0.25DL
0.75DL* 0.50DL
AL 0.75DL
0.25DL 1.00DL
0.50DL 1.20DL
0.75DL 1.33DL*
(Max. test load)
1.00DL* Reduce to lock-off load
(Article 6.5.5.6)
Load Load
AL 1.00DL
0.25DL 1.20DL
0.50DL 1.33DL
(max. test load)
0.75DL Reduce to lock-off load
where:
AL = Alignment load
Creep tests shall be performed if specified in the If creep tests are required, at least two ground anchors
contract documents. The Engineer shall select the ground should be creep-tested. If a different maximum test load is
anchors to be creep tested. to be required, a schedule similar to this one should be
The creep test shall be made by incrementally loading described in the contract documents.
and unloading the ground anchor in accordance with the
performance test schedule used. At the end of each loading
cycle, the load shall be held constant for the observation
period indicated in the creep test schedule below unless a
different maximum test load is indicated in the contract
documents. The times for reading and recording the ground
anchor movement during each observation period shall be
1 min, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 100,
120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, and 300 min as appropriate.
Each load-hold period shall start as soon as the test load is
applied. In a creep test, the pressure gage and reference
pressure gage shall be used to measure the applied load,
and the load cell shall be used to monitor small changes of
load during a constant load-hold period. The jack shall be
repumped as necessary in order to maintain a constant load.
AL Observation Period,
min
0.25DL 10
0.50DL 30
0.75DL 30
1.00DL 45
1.20DL 60
1.33DL 300
6.5.5.6—Lock-Off
Ground anchors will be measured and paid for by the Some agencies prefer to pay for performance tests and
number of units installed and accepted as shown in the creep tests separately to avoid the uncertainty of testing
contract documents or ordered by the Engineer. No change costs. Local experience will determine the desirability of
in the number of ground anchors to be paid for will be such separate pay clauses.
made because of the use by the Contractor of an alternative
number of ground anchors.
The contract unit price paid for ground anchors shall
include full compensation for furnishing all labor,
materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing
all the work involved in installing the ground anchors
(including testing), complete in place, as specified in these
Specifications, the contract documents, and as directed by
the Engineer.
6.7—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
Janney, J. R. 1954. “Nature of Bond in Prestressed Concrete,” Journal of American Concrete Institute, American Concrete
Institute, Vol. 25, May 1954.
PTI. 2000. Specification for Unbonded Single Strand Tendons, 2nd Edition, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ,
Section 3.2.5.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7
7.1—DESCRIPTION .................................................................................................................................................... 7-1
7.2—WORKING DRAWINGS .................................................................................................................................... 7-1
7.3—MATERIALS ....................................................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.3.1—Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.3.1.1—Cast-in-Place .................................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.3.1.2—Pneumatically Applied Mortar ......................................................................................................... 7-2
7.3.1.3—Precast Elements .............................................................................................................................. 7-2
7.3.1.4—Segmental Concrete Facing Blocks ................................................................................................. 7-2
7.3.2—Reinforcing Steel ....................................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.3.3—Structural Steel ........................................................................................................................................... 7-3
7.3.4—Timber ........................................................................................................................................................ 7-3
7.3.5—Drainage Elements ..................................................................................................................................... 7-3
7.3.5.1—Pipe and Perforated Pipe .................................................................................................................. 7-3
7.3.5.2—Filter Fabric ..................................................................................................................................... 7-3
7.3.5.3—Permeable Material .......................................................................................................................... 7-3
7.3.5.4—Geocomposite Drainage Systems ..................................................................................................... 7-3
7.3.6—Structure Backfill Material......................................................................................................................... 7-3
7.3.6.1—General............................................................................................................................................. 7-3
7.3.6.2—Crib and Cellular Walls ................................................................................................................... 7-4
7.3.6.3—Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls ............................................................................................... 7-4
7.4—EARTHWORK .................................................................................................................................................... 7-5
7.4.1—Structure Excavation .................................................................................................................................. 7-5
7.4.2—Foundation Treatment ................................................................................................................................ 7-5
7.4.3—Structure Backfill ....................................................................................................................................... 7-5
7.5—DRAINAGE ......................................................................................................................................................... 7-5
7.5.1—Concrete Gutters ........................................................................................................................................ 7-5
7.5.2—Weep Holes ................................................................................................................................................ 7-6
7.5.3—Drainage Blankets ...................................................................................................................................... 7-6
7.5.4—Geocomposite Drainage Systems ............................................................................................................... 7-7
7.6—CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 7-7
7.6.1—Concrete and Masonry Gravity Walls, Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls .......................................... 7-7
7.6.2—Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls ............................................................................................................... 7-7
7.6.2.1—Sheet Pile Walls ............................................................................................................................... 7-7
7.6.2.2—Soldier Pile Walls ............................................................................................................................ 7-8
7.6.2.3—Anchored Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls .................................................................................... 7-9
7.6.2.3.1—General .................................................................................................................................. 7-9
7.6.2.3.2—Wales ................................................................................................................................... 7-10
7.6.2.3.3—Concrete Anchor System ..................................................................................................... 7-10
7.6.2.3.4—Tie-Rods .............................................................................................................................. 7-10
7.6.2.3.5—Ground Anchors .................................................................................................................. 7-10
7.6.2.3.6—Earthwork ............................................................................................................................ 7-10
7.6.3—Crib Walls and Cellular Walls ................................................................................................................. 7-11
7.6.3.1—Foundation ..................................................................................................................................... 7-11
7.6.3.2—Crib Members ................................................................................................................................ 7-11
7.6.3.3—Concrete Monolithic Cell Members ............................................................................................... 7-12
7.6.3.4—Member Placement ........................................................................................................................ 7-12
7.6.3.5—Backfilling ..................................................................................................................................... 7-12
7.6.4—Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls ....................................................................................................... 7-13
7.6.4.1—Facing ............................................................................................................................................ 7-13
7.6.4.2—Soil Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................ 7-13
7.6.4.3—Construction ................................................................................................................................... 7-14
7.7—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ................................................................................................................ 7-14
7.8—REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................... 7-15
7-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 7
EARTH-RETAINING SYSTEMS
7
7.1—DESCRIPTION C7.1
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing Earth-retaining systems include concrete and masonry
earth-retaining systems in accordance with the contract gravity walls, reinforced concrete retaining walls, sheet pile
documents and these specifications. and soldier pile walls (with and without ground anchors or
other anchorage systems), crib and cellular walls, and
mechanically stabilized earth walls.
7.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
7-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
7-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
7.3—MATERIALS
7.3.1—Concrete
7.3.1.1—Cast-in-Place
7.3.1.3—Precast Elements
7.3.2—Reinforcing Steel
7.3.3—Structural Steel
7.3.4—Timber
7.3.5—Drainage Elements
7.3.5.2—Filter Fabric
7.3.5.3—Permeable Material
7.3.6.1—General
• pH of 5 to 10,
7.4—EARTHWORK
7.4.1—Structure Excavation
7.4.2—Foundation Treatment
7.4.3—Structure Backfill
7.5—DRAINAGE
7.5.1—Concrete Gutters
7.5.2—Weep Holes
7.5.3—Drainage Blankets
7.6—CONSTRUCTION
7.6.2.3.1—General
7.6.2.3.2—Wales
7.6.2.3.4—Tie-Rods
7.6.2.3.5—Ground Anchors
7.6.2.3.6—Earthwork
7.6.3.1—Foundation
7.6.3.2—Crib Members
7.6.3.4—Member Placement
7.6.3.5—Backfilling
7.6.4.1—Facing
7.6.4.2—Soil Reinforcement
7.6.4.3—Construction
7.8—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2008. AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway Construction, Ninth Edition, GSH-9, American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
GSA. 1966. Adhesive, Bonding Vulcanized Rubber to Steel, Federal Specification MMM-A-121, U.S. General Services
Administration.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1—GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.1.1—Description ................................................................................................................................................. 8-1
8.1.2—Related Work ............................................................................................................................................. 8-1
8.1.3—Construction Methods ................................................................................................................................ 8-1
8.2—CLASSES OF CONCRETE ................................................................................................................................. 8-1
8.2.1—General ....................................................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2.2—Normal-Weight (-Density) Concrete ......................................................................................................... 8-2
8.2.3—Lightweight (Low-Density) Concrete ........................................................................................................ 8-3
8.3—MATERIALS....................................................................................................................................................... 8-3
8.3.1—Cements ..................................................................................................................................................... 8-3
8.3.2—Water ......................................................................................................................................................... 8-4
8.3.3—Fine Aggregate........................................................................................................................................... 8-4
8.3.4—Coarse Aggregate....................................................................................................................................... 8-4
8.3.5—Combined Aggregates................................................................................................................................ 8-4
8.3.6—Lightweight (Low-Density) Aggregate ...................................................................................................... 8-5
8.3.7—Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures ................................................................................................. 8-5
8.3.8—Mineral Admixtures ................................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.3.9—Steel ........................................................................................................................................................... 8-6
8.4—PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE .................................................................................................................. 8-6
8.4.1—Mix Design ................................................................................................................................................ 8-6
8.4.1.1—Responsibility and Criteria .............................................................................................................. 8-6
8.4.1.2—Trial Batch Tests .............................................................................................................................. 8-7
8.4.1.3—Approval .......................................................................................................................................... 8-7
8.4.2—Water Content ............................................................................................................................................ 8-7
8.4.3—Cement Content ......................................................................................................................................... 8-8
8.4.4—Mineral Admixtures ................................................................................................................................... 8-8
8.4.5—Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures ................................................................................................. 8-9
8.5—MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE ................................................................................................................... 8-9
8.5.1—Storage of Aggregates ................................................................................................................................ 8-9
8.5.2—Storage of Cement ..................................................................................................................................... 8-9
8.5.3—Measurement of Materials ....................................................................................................................... 8-10
8.5.4—Batching and Mixing Concrete ................................................................................................................ 8-10
8.5.4.1—Batching ......................................................................................................................................... 8-10
8.5.4.2—Mixing ........................................................................................................................................... 8-10
8.5.5—Delivery ................................................................................................................................................... 8-11
8.5.6—Sampling and Testing .............................................................................................................................. 8-11
8.5.7—Evaluation of Concrete Strength .............................................................................................................. 8-12
8.5.7.1—Tests ............................................................................................................................................... 8-12
8.5.7.2—For Controlling Construction Operations ...................................................................................... 8-12
8.5.7.3—For Acceptance of Concrete .......................................................................................................... 8-13
8.5.7.4—For Control of Mix Design ............................................................................................................ 8-13
8.5.7.5—Precast Concrete Cured by the Waterproof Cover Method, Steam, or Radiant Heat ................... 8-14
8.6—PROTECTION OF CONCRETE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ............................................... 8-14
8.6.1—General ..................................................................................................................................................... 8-14
8.6.2—Rain Protection ........................................................................................................................................ 8-15
8.6.3—Hot-Weather Protection ........................................................................................................................... 8-15
8.6.4—Cold-Weather Protection ......................................................................................................................... 8-15
8.6.4.1—Protection during Cure ................................................................................................................... 8-15
8.6.4.2—Mixing and Placing ........................................................................................................................ 8-16
8.6.4.3—Heating of Mix............................................................................................................................... 8-16
8.6.5—Special Requirements for Bridge Decks .................................................................................................. 8-16
8.6.6—Concrete Exposed to Salt Water .............................................................................................................. 8-17
8.6.7—Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Soils or Sulfate Water ................................................................................ 8-17
8.7—HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE ..................................................................................................... 8-18
8.7.1—General ..................................................................................................................................................... 8-18
8-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
8-ii TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
8.1—GENERAL
8.1.1—Description
8.1.2—Related Work
8.1.3—Construction Methods
8.2—CLASSES OF CONCRETE
8.2.1—General
8-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
8-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
Ten classes of normal-weight (-density) concrete are With high performance concrete, it is desirable that
provided for in these specifications as listed in the specifications be performance-based. Class P(HPC)
Table 8.2.2-1, except that for concrete on or over is intended for use in prestressed concrete members with
saltwater or exposed to deicing chemicals, the maximum a specified concrete compressive strength greater than
water/cement ratio shall be 0.45. 6.0 ksi and should always be used for specified concrete
Coarse aggregate for Class B and Class B(AE) shall strengths greater than 10.0 ksi. Class A(HPC) is intended
be furnished into separate sizes as shown in for use in cast-in-place construction where performance
Table 8.2.2-1. criteria in addition to concrete compressive strengths are
specified. Other criteria might include shrinkage,
chloride permeability, freeze-thaw resistance, deicer
scaling resistance, abrasion resistance, or heat of
hydration.
For both classes of concrete, a minimum cement
content is not included since this should be selected by
the producer based on the specified performance criteria.
Maximum water-cementitious materials ratios have been
included. The value of 0.40 for Class P(HPC) is less than
the value of 0.49 for Class P, whereas the value of 0.45
for Class A(HPC) is the same as that for Class A(AE).
For Class P(HPC) concrete, a maximum size of coarse
aggregate is specified since it is difficult to achieve the
higher concrete compressive strengths with aggregates
larger than 0.75 in. For Class A(HPC) concrete, the
maximum aggregate size should be selected by the
producer based on the specified performance criteria.
Air content for Class A(HPC) and P(HPC) should be
set with trial tests but a minimum of two percent is
recommended.
The 28-day specified compression strength may not
be appropriate for strengths greater than 6.0 ksi.
Maximum
Water/ Size of Coarse
Minimum Cementitious Air Aggregate Per Specified
Cement Material Content AASHTO M 43 Compressive
Content Ratio Range (ASTM D448) Size Number a Strength
Class of
lb/yd3 lb per lb % Nominal Size ksi at days
Concrete
A 611 0.49 — 1.0 in. to No. 4 57 4.0 at 28
A(AE) 611 0.45 6 ± 1.5 1.0 in. to No. 4 57 4.0 at 28
B 517 0.58 — 2.0 in. to 1.0 in. 3 2.4 at 28
and 57
1.0 in. to No. 4
B(AE) 517 0.55 5 ± 1.5 2.0 in. to 1.0 in. 3 2.4 at 2p8
and 57
1.0 in. to No. 4
C 658 0.49 — 0.5 in. to No. 4 7 4.0 at 28
C(AE) 658 0.45 7 ± 1.5 0.5 in. to No. 4 7 4.0 at 28
b
P 564 0.49 — 1.0 in. to No. 4 or 7 ≤ 6.0 at b
0.75 in. to No. 4 67
S 658 0.58 — 1.0 in. to No. 4 7 —
P(HPC) —c 0.40 —b ≤0.75 in. 67 > 6.0 at b
A(HPC) —c 0.45 —b —c —c ≤ 6.0 at b
Notes:
a
As noted in AASHTO M 43 (ASTM D448), Table 1–Standard Sizes of Processed Aggregate.
b
As specified in the contract documents.
c
Minimum cementitious materials content and coarse aggregate size to be selected to meet other performance criteria specified in
the contract.
8.3—MATERIALS
8.3.1—Cements C8.3.1
Portland cements shall conform to the requirements ASTM C1157 is a performance specification that
of AASHTO M 85 (ASTM C150) and blended hydraulic does not require restrictions on the composition of the
cements shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO cement or its constituents. It can be used to accept
M 240 (ASTM C595) or ASTM C1157. For Type 1P cements not conforming to AASHTO M 85 (ASTM
portland-pozzolan cement, the pozzolan constituent shall C150) and AASHTO M 240 (ASTM C595).
not exceed 20 percent of the weight (mass) of the blend The low alkali requirement of AASHTO M 85
and the loss on ignition of the pozzolan shall not exceed (ASTM C150) does not provide protection against alkali-
five percent. silica reactivity in all cases. A better approach is
Except for Class P(HPC) and Class A(HPC) or when provided in AASHTO M 6 and M 80.
otherwise specified in the contract documents, only
Type I, II, or III portland cement; Types IA, IIA, or IIIA
8.3.2—Water
8.3.3—Fine Aggregate
8.3.4—Coarse Aggregate
Blends of fine and coarse aggregates shall conform The use of a combined aggregate grading can result
to the requirements of AASHTO M XXI. in the use of less water, cementitious materials, and paste
and lead to improved fresh and hardened concrete
properties.
See attached Appendix A8 for proposed AASHTO
M XXI.
Air-entraining admixtures shall conform to the The types of chemical admixtures are as follows:
requirements of AASHTO M 154 (ASTM C260).
Chemical admixtures shall conform to the • Type A—Water-reducing
requirements of AASHTO M 194 (ASTM
C494/C494M). Unless otherwise specified in the contract • Type B—Retarding
documents, only Type A, Type B, Type D, Type F, or
Type G shall be used. • Type D—Water-reducing and retarding
Admixtures containing chloride ion (CL) in excess
of one percent by weight (mass) of the admixture shall • Type F—Water-reducing and high-range
not be used in reinforced concrete. Admixtures in excess
of 0.1 percent shall not be used in prestressed concrete. • Type G—Water-reducing, high-range, and
A Certificate of Compliance signed by the retarding
Manufacturer of the admixture shall be furnished to the
Engineer for each shipment of admixture used in the
work. Said Certificate shall be based upon laboratory test
results from an approved testing facility and shall certify
that the admixture meets the above specifications.
If more than one admixture is used, documentation
demonstrating the compatibility of each admixture with
all other proposed admixtures, and the sequence of
application to obtain the desired effects, shall be
submitted by the Contractor.
Air-entraining and chemical admixtures shall be
incorporated into the concrete mix in a water solution.
The water so included shall be considered to be a portion
of the allowed mixing water.
Mineral admixtures in concrete shall conform to the Pozzolans (fly ash, silica fume) and slag are used in
following requirements: the production of Class P(HPC) and Class A(HPC)
concretes to extend the service life.
• Fly ash pozzolans and calcined natural
pozzolans—AASHTO M 295 (ASTM C618)
Where special materials other than those identified Occasionally, it may be appropriate to use other
above are included in a concrete mix design, the materials; for example, when concretes are modified to
properties of those materials shall be determined by obtain very high strengths through the introduction of
methods specified in the contract documents. special materials, such as:
• Silica fume,
8.3.9—Steel
8.4—PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
8.4.1—Mix Design
For classes A, A(AE), P, P(HPC), and A(HPC) In Class P(HPC) and Class A(HPC) concretes,
concrete; for lightweight (low-density) concrete; and for properties other than compressive strength are also
other classes of concrete when specified in the contract important. However, if only compressive strength is
documents or ordered by the Engineer, satisfactory specified, AASHTO M 241 (ASTM C685/C685M)
performance of the proposed mix design shall be verified provides the method to determine the required average
by laboratory tests on trial batches. The results of such strength.
tests shall be furnished to the Engineer by the Contractor
or the Manufacturer of precast elements at the time the
proposed mix design is submitted.
If materials and a mix design identical to those
proposed for use have been used on other work within the
previous year, certified copies of concrete test results from
this work that indicate full compliance with these
specifications may be substituted for such laboratory tests.
The average values obtained from trial batches for
the specified properties, such as strength, shall exceed
design values by a certain amount based on variability.
For compressive strength, the required average strength
used as a basis for selection of concrete proportions shall
be determined in accordance with AASHTO M 241
(ASTM C685/C685M).
8.4.1.3—Approval
8.4.2—Water Content
The minimum cement content shall be as listed in Many high-strength concretes require a cementitious
Table 8.2.2-1 or otherwise specified in the contract materials content greater than the traditional AASHTO
documents. For Class P(HPC), the total cementitious limit of 800 lb/yd3. However, when cementitious
materials content shall be specified not to exceed materials contents in excess of 1000.0 lb/yd3 are required
1000 lb/yd3 of concrete. For other classes of concrete, in high-strength concrete, optimization of other
maximum cement or cement plus mineral admixture constituent materials or alternative constituent materials
content shall not exceed 800 lb/yd3 of concrete. The should be considered.
actual cement content used shall be within these limits
and shall be sufficient to produce concrete of the
required strength, consistency, and performance.
Mineral admixtures shall be used in the amounts Mineral admixtures are widely used in concrete in
specified in the contract documents. For all classes of the percentages given. For Class P(HPC) and
concrete except Classes P(HPC) and A(HPC), when Class A(HPC) concretes, different percentages may be
Types I, II, IV, or V AASHTO M 85 (ASTM C150) used if trial batches substantiate that such amounts
cements are used and mineral admixtures are neither provide the specified properties.
specified in the contract documents nor prohibited, the A 25-percent maximum of portland cement
Contractor will be permitted to replace: replacement is permitted for all classes, except for
Classes P(HPC) and A(HPC), which have a 50-percent
• up to 25 percent of the required portland cement maximum portland cement replacement.
with fly ash or other pozzolan conforming to
AASHTO M 295 (ASTM C618),
8.5—MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE
8.5.1—Storage of Aggregates
8.5.2—Storage of Cement
Materials shall be measured by weighing, except as The conventional sack of cement has a volume of
otherwise specified in the contract documents or where 1.0 ft3 and a weight of 94.0 lb.
other methods are specifically authorized. The apparatus
provided for weighing the aggregates and cement shall
be suitably designed and constructed for this purpose.
Each size of aggregate and the cement shall be weighed
separately. The accuracy of all weighing devices shall be
such that successive quantities can be measured to within
one percent of the desired amount. Cement in standard
packages need not be weighed but bulk cement shall be
weighed. The mixing water shall be measured by volume
or by weight (mass). The accuracy of measuring the
water shall be within a range of error of not over
one percent. All measuring devices shall be subject to
approval and shall be tested, at the Contractor's expense,
when deemed necessary by the Engineer.
When volumetric measurements are authorized for
projects, the weight (mass) proportions shall be
converted to equivalent volumetric proportions. In such
cases, suitable allowance shall be made for variations in
the moisture condition of the aggregates, including the
bulking effect in the fine aggregate.
When sacked cement is used, the quantities of
aggregates for each batch shall be exactly sufficient for
one or more full sacks of cement and no batch requiring
fractional sacks of cement will be permitted.
8.5.4.1—Batching
8.5.4.2—Mixing
8.5.5—Delivery
8.5.7.1—Tests C8.5.7.1
A strength test shall consist of the average strength The use of 4.0 × 8.0-in. cylinders for measuring
of at least two 6.0 × 12.0-in. or at least three 4.0 × 8.0-in. concrete compressive strengths is increasing. Test results
compressive strength test cylinders fabricated from using the smaller size cylinder have a higher variability
material taken from a single randomly selected batch of compared to 6.0 × 12.0-in. cylinders. This can be offset
concrete, except that, if any cylinder should show by requiring three cylinders of the smaller size compared
evidence of improper sampling, molding, or testing, said to two for the larger size. Since measurement of
cylinder shall be discarded and the strength test shall compressive strength is more critical for high-strength
consist of the strength of the remaining cylinder(s). A concrete, three cylinders are required for both cylinder
minimum of three cylinders shall be fabricated for each sizes.
strength test when the specified strength exceeds 5.0 ksi.
For determining compliance of concrete with a The concrete age when the specified strength is to be
specified strength, test cylinders shall be cured under achieved must be shown in the contract documents.
controlled conditions as described in Article 9.3 of
AASHTO T 23 (ASTM C31/C31M) and tested at the
specified age. Samples for acceptance tests for each class
of concrete shall be taken not less than once a day nor
less than once for each 150.0 yd3 of concrete, or once for
each major placement.
Except for Class P(HPC) and Class A(HPC) concrete, The 28-day strength has historically been used for
any concrete represented by a test that indicates a strength strengths under 6.0 ksi. With the longer time frame
that is less than the specified compressive strength at the involved with HPC, 56 days or later may be more
specified age by more than 0.500 ksi will be rejected and appropriate. Setting the 56-day strength as f′c with a
shall be removed and replaced with acceptable concrete. 28-day goal may also be appropriate.
Such rejection shall prevail unless either:
8.6.1—General
8.6.2—Rain Protection
8.6.3—Hot-Weather Protection
8.6.4—Cold-Weather Protection
Percentage of
Cement Required
Replaced, by Period of
Weight (Mass), Controlled
with Pozzolans Slag Temperature
10% 25% 8 Days
11–15% 26–35% 9 Days
16–25% 36–50% 10 Days
8.6.4.3—Heating of Mix
Unless otherwise specified in the contract Penetration of harmful solutions accelerates the
documents, concrete for structures exposed to salt or deterioration of concrete. The most widely experienced
brackish water shall comply with the requirements of environmental distress is the corrosion of the reinforcing
Class A(HPC) concrete. Such concrete shall be mixed for steel. Chloride solutions destroy the protective coating
a period of not less than 2 min and the water content of around the reinforcing steel, initiating and accelerating
the mixture shall be carefully controlled and regulated so the corrosion of the steel. Concrete should be prepared
as to produce concrete of maximum impermeability. The using the proper ingredients and proportions and cured
concrete shall be thoroughly consolidated as necessary to for a period of time before exposure to the severe
produce maximum density and a complete lack of rock environment such that the penetration of the harmful
pockets. Unless otherwise indicated in the contract solutions is minimized.
documents, the clear distance from the face of the
concrete to the reinforcing steel shall be not less than
4.0 in. No construction joints shall be formed between
levels of extreme low water and extreme high water or
the upper limit of wave action as determined by the
Engineer. Between these levels, the forms shall not be
removed, or other means provided, to prevent salt water
from coming in direct contact with the concrete for a
period of not less than 30 days after placement. Except
for the repair of any rock pockets and the plugging of
form tie holes, the original surface as the concrete comes
from the forms shall be left undisturbed. Special
handling shall be provided for precast members to avoid
even slight deformation cracks.
When the contract documents identify the area as Sulfate soils or water may contain high levels of
containing sulfate soils or sulfate water, the concrete that sulfates of sodium, potassium, calcium, or magnesia.
will be in contact with such soil or water shall be Penetration of sulfate solutions into concrete may result
Class A(HPC) and shall be mixed, placed, and protected in chemical reactions that cause disintegration of
from contact with soil or water as required for concrete concrete. Therefore, special precautions may be needed
exposed to salt water, except that the protection period to minimize the intrusion of harmful sulfate solutions.
shall be not less than 72 h. Avoidance of construction joints that may facilitate the
intrusion of sulfate solutions, proper material selection
and proportioning, production of low permeability
concrete, and avoidance of cracking through proper
curing are needed.
8.7.1—General
8.7.2—Sequence of Placement
8.7.2.1—Vertical Members
8.7.2.2—Superstructures
8.7.2.3—Arches
8.7.2.4—Box Culverts
8.7.2.5—Precast Elements
8.7.3—Placing Methods
8.7.3.1—General
8.7.3.2—Equipment
8.7.4—Consolidation
8.7.5—Underwater Placement
8.7.5.1—General
Only concrete used in cofferdams to seal out water
may be placed under water, unless otherwise specified in
the contract documents or specifically approved by the
Engineer. If other than Class S concrete is to be placed
under water, the minimum cement content of the mix
shall be increased by ten percent to compensate for loss
due to wash.
To prevent segregation, concrete placed under water
shall be carefully placed in a compact mass, in its final
position, by means of a tremie, concrete pump, or other
approved method and shall not be disturbed after being
deposited. Still water shall be maintained at the point of
deposit and the forms under water shall be watertight.
Cofferdams shall be vented during the placement and
cure of concrete to equalize the hydrostatic pressure and
thus prevent flow of water through the concrete.
Concrete placed under water shall be placed
continuously from start to finish. The surface of the
concrete shall be kept as nearly horizontal as practicable.
To ensure thorough bonding, each succeeding layer of
seal shall be placed before the preceding layer has taken
initial set. For large pours, more than one tremie or pump
shall be used to ensure compliance with this requirement.
8.7.5.2—Equipment
8.7.5.3—Clean-Up
8.8—CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
8.8.1—General
8.8.2—Bonding
8.9.1—General
8.9.2—Materials
8.9.2.5—Metal Armor
8.9.2.6—Waterstops
8.9.2.6.1—Rubber Waterstops
8.9.2.6.3—Copper Waterstops
8.9.3—Installation
8.9.3.1—Open Joints
8.9.3.2—Filled Joints
8.9.3.3—Sealed Joints
8.9.3.4—Waterstops
8.10.1—General
8.10.2.2—Straightedging
8.10.2.3—Texturing
8.10.2.3.1—Dragged
8.10.2.3.2—Broomed
8.10.2.3.3—Tined
8.11—CURING CONCRETE
8.11.1—General
8.11.2—Materials
8.11.2.1—Water
8.11.2.2—Liquid Membranes
8.11.3—Methods
8.11.3.1—Forms-in-Place Method
8.11.3.2—Water Method
This method may be used only for precast concrete Since high-strength concrete generates more heat of
members manufactured in established plants. hydration than conventional strength concretes, it is
Steam curing or radiant-heat curing shall be done important that concrete temperatures be monitored rather
under a suitable enclosure to contain the live steam or the than enclosure temperatures. It is also important that
heat. Steam shall be low-pressure and saturated. transfer of prestressing force to the concrete occur before
Temperature recording devices shall be employed as the temperature of the concrete decreases. Otherwise,
necessary to verify that temperatures are uniform vertical cracking in the girders may result.
throughout the enclosure and within the limits specified For Class P(HPC) concrete, temperature-sensing
in the contract documents. devices should be placed within the concrete to verify
The initial application of the steam or of the heat that temperatures are uniform throughout the concrete
shall not occur prior to initial set of the concrete except and within the limits specified.
to maintain the temperature within the curing chamber
above the specified minimum temperature. The time of
initial set may be determined by the Standard Method of
Test for Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by
Penetration Resistance, AASHTO T 197 (ASTM
C403/C403M).
During the waiting period, the temperature within
the curing chamber shall not be less than 50°F and live
steam or radiant heat may be used to maintain the curing
chamber at the proper minimum temperature. During this
period the concrete shall be kept wet.
The top surfaces of bridge decks shall be cured by a High performance concrete tends to have very little
combination of the liquid membrane curing compound bleed water, especially when a low water-cementitious
method and the water method. The liquid membrane materials ratio is used with mineral admixtures. As a
shall be Type 2, white pigmented, and shall be applied result, the evaporation protection of the bleed water on
from finishing bridges progressively and immediately the fresh concrete is lost. The most effective way to
after finishing operations are complete on each portion of protect the concrete is by application of water curing as
the deck. The water cure shall be applied not later than soon as screeding or tining of the concrete is complete,
4 h after completion of deck finishing or, for portions of but no later than 15 min after the concrete is placed in
the decks on which finishing is completed. any portion of the deck. If this is not possible, the next
When Class A(HPC) concrete is used in bridge best alternative is to prevent or reduce moisture loss from
decks, water cure shall be applied immediately after the the concrete until the water cure can be applied.
finishing of any portion of the deck is complete and shall In the water cure method, the concrete surface is kept
remain in place for a minimum period of seven days continuously wet. The most appropriate method is to cover
irrespective of concrete strength. If conditions prevent the deck with materials such as cotton mats, multiple
immediate application of the water cure, an evaporation layers of burlap, or other materials that do not discolor or
retardant shall be applied immediately after completion damage the concrete surface and to keep these materials
of finishing or fogging shall be used to maintain a high continuously and thoroughly wet. The water cure needs to
relative humidity above the concrete to prevent drying of continue for a minimum of seven days irrespective of
the concrete surface. Following the water cure period, concrete strength. The use of a curing compound after the
liquid membrane curing compound may be applied to water cure extends the curing period while allowing the
extend the curing period. Contractor to have access to the bridge deck.
The liquid membrane, Type 2, white pigmented is as
defined in AASHTO M 148 (ASTM C309).
8.12.1—General
Finish of this character for panels and other like A tooled finish surface shows a grouping of broken
work may be secured by the use of a bushhammer, pick, aggregate particles in a matrix of mortar, each aggregate
crandall, or other approved tool. Air tools, preferably, particle being in slight relief.
shall be employed. No tooling shall be done until the
concrete has set for at least 14 days and as much longer
as may be necessary to prevent the aggregate particles
from being “picked” out of the surface.
8.13.1—General
8.13.2—Working Drawings
8.13.4—Curing C8.13.4
Unless otherwise permitted, precast members shall All curing methods require concrete temperatures to
be cured by the water method, waterproof cover method, be within the 50°F to 160°F range. The use of the
or the steam or radiant-heat method. The use of insulated waterproof cover method allows high-strength concretes
blankets is permitted with the waterproof cover method. to self-cure without the addition of steam or radiant heat.
When the waterproof cover method is used, the air The use of insulated blankets will depend on the external
temperature beneath the cover shall not be less than 50°F weather conditions.
and live steam or radiant heat may be used to maintain
the temperature above the minimum value. The
maximum concrete temperature during the curing cycle
shall not exceed 160°F. The waterproof cover shall
remain in place until such time as the compressive
strength of the concrete reaches the strength specified for
detensioning or stripping.
8.13.6—Erection
8.13.7.1—Materials
Testing Method: No testing is required. The sag flow test of mixed epoxy-bonding agent is
Specification: Mixed epoxy-bonding agent must be not directly measured. Table 1 of AASHTO
an AASHTO M 235M/M 235 Type VI, Grade 3 (non- M 235M/M 235 specifies the properties for the various
sagging) consistency at the designated application types, grades, and classes of bonding agents.
temperature class for the bonding agents used.
Testing Method: ASTM D2471 (except that 1.0-qt Gel time is determined on samples mixed as
and 1.0-gal quantities shall be tested). specified in the testing method. It provides a guide for
Specification: 30 min minimum on 1.0-qt and 1.0-gal the period of time the mixing bonding agent remains
quantities at the maximum temperature of the designated workable in the mixing container during which it must be
application temperature range. (Note: Gel time is not to be applied to the match-cast joint surfaces.
confused with open time specified in Test 3).
Testing Method: Open time is determined using test Open time of bonding agent test measures
specimens as detailed in Article 8.13.7.1.4, “Test 4— workability of the epoxy-bonding agent for the erection
Three-Point Tensile Bending Test.” The epoxy-bonding and post-tensioning operations.
agent, at the highest specified application temperature, is As tested here, open time is defined as the minimum
mixed together and applied as instructed in Test 4 to the allowable period of elapsed time from the application of
concrete prisms, which shall also be at the highest the mixed epoxy-bonding agent to the precast segments
specified application temperature. The adhesive coated until the two segments have been assembled together and
prisms shall be maintained for 60 min at the highest temporarily post-tensioned.
specified application temperature with the adhesive
coated surface or surfaces exposed and uncovered before
joining together. The assembled prisms are then curved
and tested as instructed in Test 4.
The epoxy-bonding agent shall be deemed
acceptable for the specified application temperature only
when essentially total fracturing of concrete paste and
aggregate occurs with no evidence of adhesive failure.
Testing Method: ASTM C192 6.0 × 6.0 × 9.0-in. The three-point tensile bending test performed on a
concrete prisms of 6.0-ksi compressive strength at pair of concrete prisms bonded together with epoxy-
28 days shall be sand-blasted on one 6.0 × 6.0-in. side to bonding agent, determines the bonding strength between
remove mold release agent, laitance, etc., and shall be the bonding agent and concrete. The bonded concrete
submerged in clean water at the lower temperature of the prisms are compared to a reference test beam of concrete
specified application temperature range for 72 h. 6.0 × 6.0 × 18.0 in.
Immediately on removing the concrete prisms from the
water, the sandblasted surfaces shall be air-dried for 1 h
at the same temperature and 50-percent relative humidity
and each shall be coated with approximately a 0.0625-in
layer of the mixed bonding agent. The adhesive-coated
faces of two prisms shall then be placed together and
held with a clamping force normal to the bonded
interface of 0.05 ksi. The assembly shall then be wrapped
in a damp cloth that is kept wet during the curing period
of 24 h at the lower temperature of the specified
application temperature range.
After 24 h curing at the lower temperature of the
application temperature range specified for the epoxy-
bonding agent, the bonded specimen shall be unwrapped,
removed from the clamping assembly, and immediately
tested. The test shall be conducted using the standard
AASHTO T 97 (ASTM C78) test for flexural strength
with third-point loading and the standard MR unit. At the
same time the two prisms are prepared and cured, a
companion test beam shall be prepared of the same
concrete, cured for the same period, and tested following
AASHTO T 97 (ASTM C78).
Specification: The epoxy-bonding agent is acceptable
if the load on the prisms at failure is greater than
90 percent of the load on the reference test beam at failure.
Testing Method: A test specimen of concrete is Compression and shear strength test of cured epoxy-
prepared in a standard 6.0 × 12.0-in. cylinder mold to bonding agent is a measure of the compressive strength
have a height at midpoint of 6.0 in. and an upper surface and shear strength of the epoxy-bonding agent compared
with a 30-degree slope from the vertical. The upper and to the concrete to which it bonds. The “slant cylinder”
lower portions of the specimen with the slant surfaces specimen with the epoxy-bonding agent is compared to a
may be formed through the use of an elliptical insert or reference test cylinder of concrete only.
by sawing a full-sized 6.0 × 12.0-in. cylinder. If desired,
3.0 × 6.0-in. or 4.0 × 8.0-in. specimens may be used.
After the specimens have been moist cured for 14 days,
the slant surfaces shall be prepared by light sandblasting,
stoning, or acid etching, then by washing and drying the
surfaces, and finally by coating one of the surfaces with a
10-mil thickness of the epoxy-bonding agent under test.
The specimens shall then be pressed together and held in
position for 24 h. The assembly shall then be wrapped in
a damp cloth that shall be kept wet during an additional
curing period of 24 h at the minimum temperature of the
designated application temperature range. The specimen
shall then be tested at 77°F following AASHTO T 22
(ASTM C39/C39M) procedures. At the same time as the
slant cylinder specimens are made and cured, a
companion standard test cylinder of the same concrete
shall be made, cured for the same period, and tested
following AASHTO T 22 (ASTM C39/C39M).
Specification: The epoxy-bonding agent is
acceptable for the designated application temperature
range if the load on the slant cylinder specimen is greater
than 90 percent of the load on the companion cylinder.
8.14.1—General
8.15—APPLICATION OF LOADS
8.15.1—General
8.15.2—Earth Loads
8.15.4—Traffic Loads
8.16.1—Geometry Control
The Contractor shall submit to the Engineer for It is recommended that the Engineer make
approval a geometric control plan which shall indicate in independent checks of the elevation and alignment of the
detail how the survey is to be performed and the structure.
Contractor's proposed actions to assure proper erection of
the structure to the final grade shown on the design
plans. The geometric control plan shall provide for
regular monitoring of the superstructure deflections
beginning with the addition of the first cantilever
segments and concluding with the last cantilever
segment. The plan shall include the adjusting procedure
to be utilized, should the cantilever, as erected, deviate
from the predicted alignment by more than 1.0 in.
The Contractor shall check the elevations and Independent checks of measurements and
alignment of the structure at every stage of construction computations of geometry by the Engineer are
and must maintain a record of all these checks and of all recommended before segments are moved from their
adjustments and corrections made. All surveying shall be casting position.
performed at a time that will minimize the influence of
temperature. Corrections by shimming shall be done only
when approved by the Engineer.
For precast segmental construction using short line
forming techniques, precision surveying systems shall be
provided so that levels and horizontal alignment during
precasting are measured to an accuracy of ±0.01 in. For
all other types of segmental construction and for erection
of segmental bridges, surveying shall be provided to an
accuracy of ±0.125 in.
For precast segmental construction using match-cast Twist errors are calculated as the actual twist minus
segments, careful checks of both measurements and the design superelevation, if any.
computations of geometry shall be made by the
Contractor before moving segments from their casting
position. Computed coordinates of all sections cast shall
be completed before casting a new segment. In addition
to the computed as-built casting curves for vertical and
horizontal deflections, a cumulative twist curve shall be
computed using the measured cross slopes of the
individual units as a check on the extrapolated
deflections. In computing set-up elevations in the match-
cast process, priority shall be given to correcting twist
errors by proper counter-rotation. The segment in the
match-cast position shall not be subjected to a stress-
inducing twist.
8.16.2—Tolerances
Tolerance on
Tolerance Minimum
on d Cover
8.0 in. or less ±0.375 in. –0.375 in.
More than 8.0 in. ±0.5 in. –0.5 in.
Table 8.16.2-1—Completed Segment Tolerance for Segmental Box Girder Bridge Construction
8.16.3.1—General
Design calculations shall be submitted for Load testing of special erection equipment is
falsework, erection devices, formwork, or other recommended.
temporary construction which may be required and
which will be subject to calculated stresses.
Design of the falsework or erection devices for all Note that reinforcement for anchor blocks, as
superstructure concrete shall be done under the direction required under these specifications, is not the
of and sealed by a registered professional engineer. reinforcement required for global bursting and
Calculations shall also be submitted to substantiate the directional forces due to post-tensioning.
system and method of stressing proposed by the
Contractor. Such calculations shall include the required
jacking force and elongation of tendons at time of
tensioning, tendon stress level at stressing ends after
seating, stresses in anchorage zones and distribution
plates, stress-strain curves typical of the prestressing
steel to be furnished, seating losses, temporary
overstresses, and reinforcement required to resist anchor
block stresses.
In addition to the above, computations shall be
submitted for approval for the following:
8.16.3.3—Shop Drawings
8.16.4—Forms
8.16.4.1—General
8.16.5—Permanent Bearings
8.16.6.1—General
8.16.6.2—Forming System
8.16.6.3—Superstructure Construction
8.16.7.1—General C8.16.7.1
8.16.7.2—Fabrication C8.16.7.2
Reinforcing steel shall be fabricated and placed Use of integrated shop drawings is recommended to
according to the contract documents. Any conflict or locate conflicts in reinforcement placement.
interference with the proper location of ducts and/or
reinforcing, or blockouts shall be promptly resolved and
corrections made as directed by the Engineer. No
reinforcing steel shall be cut and removed to permit
proper alignment of stressing conduits. Any bar that
cannot be fabricated to clear the post-tensioning duct
shall be replaced by additional bars with adequate lap
lengths and shall be submitted to the Engineer for
approval.
All segments shall be marked on the inside with a
unique identification at the time of form removal. This
identification shall be used to identify each segment on
shop plans, post-tensioning details and calculations, and
any other document pertaining to the fabrication and
erection of precast concrete segments.
Positive means of holding the conduit in its correct
position shall be provided in all cases and shall be
indicated on the working drawings submitted for
approval. The conduit shall be supported at intervals as
specified in Article 10.4.1, “Placement of Ducts,” or as
shown in the contract documents, and shall be securely
fastened to prevent movement during placement of
concrete.
8.16.8.1—General
8.16.8.2—Casting of Segments
8.16.8.3—Geometric Tolerances
• In the Forms:
The launching force shall be monitored continuously Grease may be used on the sliding plates as required
and checked against the theoretical value. A friction to maintain friction values.
value between zero and four percent shall be maintained.
The friction value of zero shall be considered in
calculation of the force required to hold back a structure
launched on a negative gradient.
8.16.8.5—Pier Monitoring
8.17.1—Measurement
8.17.2—Payment
8.18—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
ACI Committee 209. 1982. Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures, ACI
209R-82, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
ACI Committee 211. 1991. Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete, ACI 211.1-91,
American Concrete Institute
ACI Committee 211. 1993. Guide for Selecting Proportions for High-Strength Concrete with Portland Cement and
Fly Ash, ACI 211.4-93, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. Reapproved 2002.
ACI Committee 211. 1998. Selecting Proportions for Structural Lightweight Concrete, ACI 211.2-98, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. Reapproved 2004.
ACI Committee 222. 1996. Corrosion of Metals in Concrete, ACI 222R-96, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI.
ACI Committee 318. 1995. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318-95, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
ACI Committee 318. 2002. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI 318-02 and Commentary, ACI
318R-02, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
ACI Committee 363. 1998. Guide to Quality Control and Testing of High-Strength Concrete, ACI 363.2R-98,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
ACI Committee 363. 1992. State-of-the-Art Report on High-Strength Concrete, ACI 363R-92, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
ANSI and AHA. 2004. Basic Hardboard, ANSI/AHA A135.4, American National Standards Institute, New
York, NY.
Cagley, J. R. 2001. “Changing from ACI 318-99 to ACI 318-02,” Concrete International, June 2001.
Comite Euro-International de Beton (CEB). 1978. CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures. Available from
Lewis Brooks, 2 Blagdon Road, New Malden, Surrey, KT3 4AD, England.
CRSI. 2001. Manual of Standard Practice, 27th Edition, MSP-1, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Chicago, IL.
Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte. 1981. “Recommendations for Acceptance and Application of Post-
Tensioning Systems,” Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte, Paris, France.
FHWA. 2003. High Performance Concrete, Federal Highway Administration, HPC Internet Conference, Baltimore,
March 2003. Compact Disc.
FHWA and NCBC. 2001. HPC Bridge Views, Issue No. 1, Federal Highway Administration and the National
Concrete Bridge Council, Skokie, IL, May/June 2001.
Goodspeed, C. H., S. Vanikar, and R. Cook. 1996. “High Performance Concrete Defined for Highway Structures,”
Concrete International, Vol. 18, No. 2, February 1996, pp. 62–67.
GSA. 1996. Sealing Compound: Silicone Rubber Bases (for Caulking, Sealing, and Glazing in Buildings and Other
Structures), Federal Specification TT-S-1543B, U.S. General Services Administration, Washington, DC.
Meyers, J. J. and R. L. Carrasquillo. 2000. Production and Quality Control of High Performance Concrete in Texas
Bridge Structures, Research Report 580/589-1, Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at
Austin.
Ozyildirim, C., 1984. 4 × 8 Inch Concrete Cylinders versus 6 × 12 Inch Cylinders, VHTRC 84-R44, Virginia
Transportation Research Council, Charlottesville, VA, May 1984.
PCI. 1999. Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products,
MNL-116-99, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
Preston, H. K. 1985. “Testing 7-Wire Strand for Prestressed Concrete: The State of the Art,” Journal of the
Prestressed Concrete Institute, Vol. 30, No. 3, May/June 1985.
PTI. 1990. Guide Specification for Post-Tensioning Materials. In Post-Tensioning Manual, 5th Edition, Post-
Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ.
PTI. 1990. Recommended Practice for Grouting of Post-Tensioned Prestressed Concrete. In Post-Tensioning Manual,
5th Edition, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ.
Zia, P. and A. Caner. 1993. Cracking in Large-Sized Long Span Prestressed Concrete AASHTO Girders, Report No.
FHWA/NC/94-003, Center for Transportation Engineering Studies, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
The following is a proposed standard specification for combined aggregates for hydraulic cement concrete to be
included in the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling,
Part 1: Specifications.
It is suggested that the proposed standard for combined aggregates for hydraulic cement concrete be grouped with
M 6-02, Fine Aggregates for Portland Cement Concrete, and M 80-87 (1999), Coarse Aggregate for Portland Cement
Concrete, in the table of contents under Aggregates with a heading of “Combined Aggregates for Hydraulic Cement
Concrete.”
APPENDIX A8
1. SCOPE
1.1 This specification covers the requirements for combined aggregates for hydraulic cement concrete having a
nominal maximum aggregate size of 50 mm (2.0 in.) or less. Fine and coarse aggregate shall be blended to
achieve the desired properties. Two approaches are given. One is based on performance and the other on
method type.
2. REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
2.1 AASHTO Standards:
M 6 Fine Aggregate for Portland Cement Concrete
M 43 Sizes of Aggregate for Road and Bridge Construction
M 80 Coarse Aggregate for Portland Cement Concrete
M 195 Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
T 22 Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
T 23 Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
T 97 Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading)
T 119 Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete
T 141 Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete
T 160 Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic Cement Mortar and Concrete
T 198 Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
T 259 Resistance of Concrete to Chloride Ion Penetration
T 277 Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration
PP 34 Estimating the Cracking Tendency of Concrete
4. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
4.1 Fine and coarse aggregates used shall comply with the relevant provisions of AASHTO M 6, M 43, M 80,
and M 195 for ordering information, grading (M 43 shall be used unless otherwise permitted) based on a
nominal maximum size, uniformity of grading, deleterious substances, and, if specified, reactive aggregates.
Tests for performance characteristics of the concrete shall comply with the relevant specifications and
specified AASHTO Test Methods for sampling (T 141), making test specimens (T 23), slump (T 119), crack
tendency (PP 34), or other test methods as specified.
Proportions of fine and coarse aggregate shall be selected using the performance-based approach of Section 5
or the method-type approach of Section 6.
5. PERFORMANCE-BASED APPROACH
5.1 Contractor shall select the combined aggregate grading and demonstrate with trial batches that the specified
properties are achieved (Note 1). It shall be the Contractor’s responsibility to ensure that the combined
grading provides the specified properties for the project.
Note 1—For proportioning hydraulic cement concrete, the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications,
Article 8.4.1.1 specify the use of the absolute volume method for normal-density (normal-weight) concrete such as
described in ACI publication 211.1 and the use of trial mixes for structural low-density (lightweight) concrete using
methods such as described in ACI publication 211.2.
6. METHOD-TYPE APPROACH
6.1 One of the following procedures shall be used to determine combined aggregate grading:
Combined fineness modulus
Coarse factor chart
Power chart
Percent retained on each sieve
6.2 The specific combined grading to which the aggregate is to be blended, along with the tolerances for quality
control, shall be submitted for approval. Concrete characteristics shall be verified by trial batches to ensure
that the specified properties are achieved.
APPENDIX
Nonmandatory Information
45
IV
III
40
II
Workability Factor, %
35
I
30
V
25
20
100 80 60 40 20 0
Coarseness Factor, %
A1.2.2. The workability factor is the percent passing the 2.36-mm (No. 8) sieve adjusted for cementitious materials
content of the proposed concrete mix. The measured percent passing the 2.36-mm (No. 8) sieve is increased
or decreased by one percentage point for each 22 kg/m3 (37 lb/cu yd) that the cementitious materials content
is above or below 334 kg/m3 (563 lb/cu yd), respectively.
A1.2.3. The coarseness factor is the cumulative percent retained on the 9.5-mm (3/8-in.) sieve divided by the
cumulative percent retained on the 2.36-mm (No. 8) sieve.
A1.2.4. The five zones in the chart represent the following types of concretes:
I “Gap-graded” and tends to segregate
II Well graded 37.5 to 12.5 mm (11/2 to 1/2 in.)
III 12.5 mm (1/2 in.) and finer
IV Sticky
V Rocky
A1.2.5. Example
Cement Content 362 kg/m3
Aggregate Data: As shown in Table A1.2.1
Aggregate ID Size 57 Sand
SSD Weight, kg 856 503
Specific Gravity 2.77 2.61
Aggregate, % by weight 63 37
When the values of CF and WF are plotted on the Coarseness Factor Chart of Figure 1, they fall in Zone II.
1 00
90
80
Percent Passing
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
200 100 50 30 1 8 4 3/8 " 1/2 " 3/4" 1"
S iev e S iz e
A 1.4.1 In this method , the percent retained on each sieve size is kept to a limited range and the difference between
percent retained on consecutive sieve sizes should be less than ten percentage points.
A1.4.2 ACI 302 suggests limits for the material retained on each sieve for satisfactory reduction in water demand
while providing good workability. 4 If the largest size aggregate is 37.5 mm (1.5 in.), the percentage of
material retained on each sieve size below the top size and above the 500 μm (No. 100) sieve shall be
between 8 and 18. If the largest size aggregate is 25 mm or 19 mm (1.0 in. or 0.75 in.), the range shall be 8 to
22 percent. The ideal range for 600 μm (No. 30) and 300 μm (No. 50) sieves is eight percent to 15 percent
retained on each. These ranges are illustrated in Figure 3 together with the data from Table A1.2.1.
25
Upper Bound
Data
20 Lower Bound
15
% Retained
10
0
2 1/2 2 1 1/2 1 3/4 1/2 3/8 #4 #8 #16 #30 #50 #100 #200
63 50 37.5 25 19 12.5 S
9.5 S4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075 mm
Sieve Size
1
Cement and Concrete Technology, ACI 116-R, ACI Committee 116. 2000.
2
“Concrete Mixture Optimization,” Concrete International, Vol. 12, No. 6, June 1990, pp. 33–39.
3
Properties of Concrete, 4th Edition, A. M. Neville, 1996.
4
Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction, ACI 302.1R, ACI Committee 302. 1996.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9
9.1—DESCRIPTION .................................................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2—MATERIAL ......................................................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2.1—Uncoated Reinforcing ................................................................................................................................ 9-1
9.2.2—Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing ........................................................................................................................ 9-1
9.2.3—Stainless Steel Reinforcing Bars ................................................................................................................ 9-2
9.2.4—Low Carbon, Chromium, Steel Reinforcing Bars......................................................................................... 9-2
9.2.5—Mill Test Reports ....................................................................................................................................... 9-2
9.3—BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS ........................................................................................................ 9-3
9.4—FABRICATION ................................................................................................................................................... 9-3
9.4.1—Bending ...................................................................................................................................................... 9-3
9.4.2—Hooks and Bend Dimensions ..................................................................................................................... 9-3
9.4.3—Identification .............................................................................................................................................. 9-3
9.5—HANDLING, STORING, AND SURFACE CONDITION OF REINFORCEMENT .......................................... 9-3
9.6—PLACING AND FASTENING ............................................................................................................................ 9-4
9.6.1—General ....................................................................................................................................................... 9-4
9.6.2—Support Systems......................................................................................................................................... 9-4
9.6.3—Precast Concrete Blocks ............................................................................................................................ 9-4
9.6.4—Wire Bar Supports...................................................................................................................................... 9-5
9.6.5—Adjustments ............................................................................................................................................... 9-5
9.6.6—Repair of Damaged Epoxy Coating ........................................................................................................... 9-5
9.7—SPLICING OF BARS........................................................................................................................................... 9-6
9.7.1—General ....................................................................................................................................................... 9-6
9.7.2—Lap Splices ................................................................................................................................................. 9-6
9.7.3—Welded Splices .......................................................................................................................................... 9-6
9.7.4—Mechanical Splices .................................................................................................................................... 9-6
9.8—SPLICING OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC .......................................................................................................... 9-7
9.9—SUBSTITUTIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 9-7
9.10—MEASUREMENT ............................................................................................................................................. 9-7
9.11—PAYMENT ........................................................................................................................................................ 9-8
9.12—REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................... 9-8
9-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 9
REINFORCING STEEL
9
9.1—DESCRIPTION
9.2—MATERIAL
• Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars Grade 60 (Grade 420) in ASTM A615/A615M.
for Concrete Reinforcement—AASHTO
M 31M/M 31 (ASTM A615/A615M). Grade 60
(Grade 420) shall be used unless otherwise
specified in the contract documents.
• Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Plain Bars for Concrete Grade 60 (Grade 420) in ASTM A615/A615M.
Reinforcement—AASHTO M 322M/M 322
(ASTM A996/A996M). Grade 60 (Grade 420)
steel shall be used unless otherwise specified in
the contract documents.
9.2.2—Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing
9-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
9-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
9.4—FABRICATION
9.4.1—Bending
The dimensions of hooks and the diameters of bends Hook and bend dimensions are specified in
measured on the inside of the bar shall be as shown in the Article 5.10.2, “Hooks and Bends,” of the AASHTO LRFD
contract documents. When the dimensions of hooks or the Bridge Design Specifications.
diameter of bends are not shown, they shall be in
accordance with Article 5.10.2 of the AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications or ACI 318/318R-95,
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete.
9.4.3—Identification C9.4.3
Bar reinforcement shall be shipped in standard bundles, The standard for bar reinforcement identification refers
tagged and marked in accordance with the Manual of to the CRSI Manual of Standard Practice, 1996.
Standard Practice of the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute.
9.6.1—General
9.6.2—Support Systems
Wire bar supports, such as ferrous metal chairs and The standard for wire bar supports refers to the CRSI
bolsters, shall conform to industry practice as described in Manual of Standard Practice, 1996.
the Manual of Standard Practice of the Concrete
Reinforcing Steel Institute. Such chairs or bolsters which
bear against the forms for exposed surfaces shall be either
Class 1—Maximum Protection (Plastic Protected) or
Class 2, Type B—Moderate Protection (Stainless Steel
Tipped) for which the stainless steel conforms to ASTM
A493, Type 430. For epoxy-coated reinforcement, all wire
bar supports and bar clips shall be plastic-coated or
epoxy-coated.
9.6.5—Adjustments
9.7—SPLICING OF BARS
9.7.1—General
Lap splices shall be of the lengths specified in the Lap splice requirements refers to Article 5.11.5.3.1,
contract documents. If not specified in the contract “Lap Splices in Tension,” and Article 5.11.5.5.1, “Lap
documents, the length of lap splices shall be in accordance Splices in Compression,” of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
with Article 5.11.5.3.1 or Article 5.11.5.5.1 of the AASHTO Design Specifications.
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, or as approved by the
Engineer.
In lap splices, the bars shall be placed and tied in such Lap splice requirements refer to Article 5.11.5.2.1,
a manner as to maintain the minimum distance to the “Lap Splices,” of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
surface of the concrete shown in the contract documents. Specifications.
Lap splices shall not be used for No. 14 and No. 18 (No. 43
and No. 57) bars, except as provided in either
Article 5.11.5.2.1 or Article 5.11.5.5.1 of the AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
9.7.3—Welded Splices
9.7.4—Mechanical Splices
9.9—SUBSTITUTIONS C9.9
Substitution of different size reinforcing bars shall be Substitution of different size reinforcing bars refers to
permitted only when authorized by the Engineer. The Article 5.7.3.4, “Control of Cracking by Distribution of
substituted bars shall have an area equivalent to the design Reinforcement,” of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
area or larger, and shall be in accordance with Article 5.7.3.4 Specifications.
of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
9.10—MEASUREMENT
9.11—PAYMENT
9.12—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 29th
Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AWS. 1998. ANSI/AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code—Reinforcing Steel, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
CRSI. 1996. Manual of Standard Practice, MSP-1, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Chicago, IL.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10
10.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 10-1
10.1.1—Description ............................................................................................................................................. 10-1
10.1.2—Details of Design.................................................................................................................................... 10-1
10.2—SUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS ................................................................................................................. 10-2
10.2.1—Working Drawings and Shop Drawings................................................................................................. 10-2
10.2.2—Integrated Drawings ............................................................................................................................... 10-3
10.3—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 10-4
10.3.1—Prestressing Steel and Anchorages......................................................................................................... 10-4
10.3.1.1—Strand ........................................................................................................................................... 10-4
10.3.1.2—Wire ............................................................................................................................................. 10-4
10.3.1.3—Bars .............................................................................................................................................. 10-4
10.3.2—Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers ........................................................................................... 10-4
10.3.2.1—Bonded Systems ........................................................................................................................... 10-5
10.3.2.2—Unbonded Systems ...................................................................................................................... 10-5
10.3.2.3—Special Anchorage Device Acceptance Test................................................................................ 10-6
10.3.2.3.1—Test Block Requirements ................................................................................................... 10-6
10.3.2.3.2—Test Block Dimensions ...................................................................................................... 10-6
10.3.2.3.3—Local Zone Reinforcement ................................................................................................ 10-6
10.3.2.3.4—Skin Reinforcement ........................................................................................................... 10-7
10.3.2.3.5—Concrete Strength .............................................................................................................. 10-7
10.3.2.3.6—Test Procedures.................................................................................................................. 10-7
10.3.2.3.7—Cyclic Loading Test ........................................................................................................... 10-7
10.3.2.3.7a—General...................................................................................................................... 10-7
10.3.2.3.7b—Crack Widths and Patterns........................................................................................ 10-8
10.3.2.3.8—Sustained Loading Test ...................................................................................................... 10-8
10.3.2.3.8a—General...................................................................................................................... 10-8
10.3.2.3.8b—Crack Widths and Patterns........................................................................................ 10-8
10.3.2.3.9—Monotonic Loading Test .................................................................................................... 10-8
10.3.2.3.9a—General...................................................................................................................... 10-8
10.3.2.3.9b—Crack Widths and Patterns........................................................................................ 10-8
10.3.2.3.10—Anchorage Zone Requirements........................................................................................ 10-9
10.3.2.3.11—Test Series Requirements................................................................................................. 10-9
10.3.2.3.12—Records of the Anchorage Device ................................................................................... 10-9
10.4—PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND ANCHORAGE HARDWARE ................................................... 10-10
10.4.1—Placement of Ducts .............................................................................................................................. 10-10
10.4.1.1—General....................................................................................................................................... 10-10
10.4.1.2—Duct Inlets and Outlets .............................................................................................................. 10-12
10.4.1.3—Proving of Post-Tensioning Ducts ............................................................................................. 10-12
10.4.1.4—Duct Pressure Field Test ............................................................................................................ 10-12
10.4.2—Placement of Prestressing Steel ........................................................................................................... 10-12
10.4.2.1—Placement for Pretensioning ...................................................................................................... 10-12
10.4.2.2—Placement for Post-Tensioning .................................................................................................. 10-13
10.4.2.2.1—Protection of Steel After Installation ............................................................................... 10-13
10.4.3—Placement of Anchorage Hardware...................................................................................................... 10-14
10.5—IDENTIFICATION AND TESTING ............................................................................................................. 10-14
10.5.1—Pretensioning Tendons ......................................................................................................................... 10-15
10.5.2—Post-Tensioning Tendons ..................................................................................................................... 10-15
10.5.3—Anchorage Assemblies and Couplers ................................................................................................... 10-15
10.6—PROTECTION OF PRESTRESSING STEEL ............................................................................................... 10-16
10.7—CORROSION INHIBITOR............................................................................................................................ 10-16
10.8—DUCTS .......................................................................................................................................................... 10-16
10.8.1—General ................................................................................................................................................. 10-16
10.8.2—Metal Ducts .......................................................................................................................................... 10-17
10-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
10-ii TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRESTRESSING
10
10.1—GENERAL
10.1.1—Description C10.1.1
This work shall consist of prestressing precast or cast- For cast-in-place prestressed concrete, the term
in-place concrete by furnishing, placing, and tensioning of “member” as used in this Section is considered to mean the
prestressing steel in accordance with details shown in the concrete which is to be prestressed.
contract documents and as specified in these Specifications.
It includes prestressing by either the pretensioning or
post-tensioning methods or by a combination of these
methods.
This work shall include the furnishing and installation
of any appurtenant items necessary for the particular
prestressing system to be used, including but not limited to
ducts, anchorage assemblies, and grout used for pressure
grouting ducts.
When members are to be constructed with part of the
reinforcement pretensioned and part post-tensioned, the
applicable requirement of this Specification shall apply to
each method.
Where the design for the prestressing work is not fully The “details of prestressing design” refers to the
detailed in the contract documents, the Contractor shall AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2007, and
determine the details or type of prestressing system for use Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of
and select materials and details conforming to these Segmental Concrete Bridges, 1999.
Specifications as needed to satisfy the prestressing Structural designers of post-tensioned bridges should
requirements specified. The system selected shall provide review the Post-Tensioning Institute's guide specifications:
the magnitude and distribution of prestressing force and Acceptable Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems and
ultimate strength required by the contract documents Guide Specification for Grouting of Post-Tension
without exceeding allowable temporary stresses. Unless Structures.
otherwise shown in the contract documents, all design Contract documents should include a description of
procedures, coefficients and allowable stresses, friction, one construction method upon which the design is based.
and prestress losses, as well as tendon spacing and Where the design for the prestressing work is fully detailed
clearances, shall be in accordance with either or both the in the contract documents, contract drawings should
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications and the normally be developed in sufficient detail to ensure that the
Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of design provides for interference-free placement of
Segmental Concrete Bridges, as applicable. structural items embedded in the concrete. If the contract
The prestressing may be performed by either contemplates additional engineering in order to complete
pretensioning or post-tensioning methods unless the design details for post-tensioning, the plans should clearly
contract documents only specify pretensioning details. If state both the requirements and specific acceptance
the contract documents only specify pretensioning details, standards for the additional engineering. Acceptance
the use of a post-tensioning system shall be allowed only if standards for design and detailing, if different from those
complete details of any necessary modifications are established in either or both the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
approved by the Engineer. Design Specifications and the Guide Specifications for
Where the effective or working force or stress is Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges,
specified in the contract documents, it shall be considered 2nd Edition, should be specified in such detail that
to be the force or stress remaining in the prestressing steel requirements can be met without additional input from the
after all losses, including creep and shrinkage of concrete, Engineer. For the purposes of this provision, fully detailed
elastic shortening of concrete, relaxation of steel, friction prestressing systems are indicated by the presentation of
and take up or seating of anchorages, and all other losses tendon sizes, duct sizes, and anchorage hardware details on
peculiar to the method or system of prestressing have taken the plans.
10-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
10-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
place or have been provided for. Where the jacking force is Where the Contractor proposes changes to prestressing
specified in the contract documents, it shall be considered details shown on the contract drawings, the contract
to be the force applied to the tendon prior to anchorage and documents shall clearly state that it is the Contractor’s
the occurrence of any losses, including the anchor set loss. responsibility to complete the details of the prestressing
system in accordance with Article 10.1.2 and to prepare
supplementary working drawings of the prestressing
system proposed for use in accordance with Article 10.2.1.
The provisions of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications Article 5.14.2.3.9 “Plan Presentation” were
developed in 1987 for Section 28, “Specifications, Contract
Drawings, and Alternate Construction Methods,” of the
first edition of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for
Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges
published by AASHTO in 1989. The provisions of
Section 28 were republished in 1999 without change in the
second edition of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for
Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges.
Under Design-Bid-Build provisions for development of
contract drawings it is normally considered to be within the
Engineer’s design responsibility to prepare complete contract
drawings, including drawings in sufficient detail to ensure
interference-free placement of all embedded items in the
concrete. Where this requirement is not included in the scope
of the Engineer’s responsibility for development of contract
drawings, or where the Contractor proposes substantive
changes to the contract drawings, the contract documents
should clearly state that it is the Contractor’s responsibility to
determine details of the post-tensioning system in accordance
with Article 10.1.2 of these Specifications and to prepare
working drawings of the post-tensioning system proposed for
use in accordance with Article 10.2.1 of these Specifications.
However, this requirement should not alter the Engineer’s
responsibilities for assurance that the balance of the design
detailing is complete and constructible. Where required by
the contract documents, in addition to all working drawings,
the Contractor shall prepare integrated placing drawings for
all items to be embedded in the concrete in accordance with
Article 10.2.2 of these Specifications.
10.2—SUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS
10.2.2—Integrated Drawings
10.3—MATERIALS
10.3.1—Prestressing Steel and Anchorages
Prestressing reinforcement shall be high-strength
seven-wire strand, high-strength steel wire, or high-strength
alloy bars of the grade and type called for in the contract
documents and shall conform to the requirements of the
following Specifications.
10.3.1.1—Strand
Uncoated seven-wire strand shall conform to the
requirements of AASHTO M 203M/M 203 (ASTM
A416/A416M). Supplement S1 (Low-Relaxation) shall
apply when specified.
10.3.1.2—Wire
Uncoated stress-relieved steel wire shall conform to
the requirements of AASHTO M 204M/M 204 (ASTM
A421/A421M).
10.3.1.3—Bars
Uncoated high-strength bars shall conform to the
requirements of AASHTO M 275M/M 275 (ASTM
A722/A722M). Bars with greater minimum ultimate
strength, but otherwise produced and tested in accordance
with AASHTO M 275M/M 275 (ASTM A722/A722M),
may be used provided they have no properties that make
them less satisfactory than the specified material.
10.3.2.1—Bonded Systems
10.3.2.2—Unbonded Systems
The test block shall be a rectangular prism. It shall Figure C10.3.2.3.1-1 shows a local zone specimen with
contain those anchorage components which will also be the local zone confining reinforcement in the upper portion
embedded in the structure's concrete. Their arrangement of the specimen and the optional supplementary
shall comply with the practical application and the reinforcement of Article 10.3.2.3.4, “Skin Reinforcement,”
suppliers’ specifications. The test block shall contain an over the full-length of the specimen. However, an
empty duct of size appropriate for the maximum tendon anchorage device supplier could also choose to eliminate
size which can be accommodated by the anchorage device. such reinforcement in either or both portions of the block.
In addition to the anchorage device and its specified The supplementary reinforcement in the specimen is
confining reinforcement steel, supplementary skin specified by the anchorage device supplier within the limits
reinforcement may be provided throughout the specimen. of Article 10.3.2.3.4, “Skin Reinforcement.” The same
This supplementary skin reinforcement shall be specified amount of reinforcement is also required in the actual
by the anchorage device supplier but shall not exceed a structure, as stipulated in Article 9.2.1, “Uncoated
volumetric ratio of 0.01. Reinforcing.” However, other reinforcement in the
corresponding portion of the structure (such as minimum
reinforcement for creep and shrinkage or bursting
reinforcement) may be counted towards this requirement.
Since the confinement and supplementary reinforcement in
the test specimens will generally be provided in orthogonal
directions, similar reinforcement in the actual structure
must be furnished to achieve an equivalent orthogonal
action.
10.3.2.3.5—Concrete Strength
Any of the following three test procedures may be Long-term loading has been found to be more critical
deemed to be acceptable: for the behavior of the local zone than short-term loading.
A cyclic loading test gives comparable results to sustained
• Cyclic loading described in Article 10.3.2.3.7, loading tests, but is less time consuming than the sustained
loading test (FIB 2000). A monotonic short-term loading
• Sustained loading described in Article 10.3.2.3.8, test procedure is also included in the provisions. Stricter
or acceptance criteria are necessary to make the short-term
loading test comparable to the other test methods.
• Monotonic loading described in Loading in accordance with normal usage of the
Article 10.3.2.3.9. anchorage device in post-tensioning applications means
loading through the wedge plate if available, or over an
The loads specified for the tests are given in fractions area formed by the perimeter of the wedge openings
of the ultimate load Fpu of the largest tendon that the pattern. It is not required to load the specimen through the
anchorage device is designed to accommodate. The tendon.
specimen shall be loaded in accordance with normal usage
of the device in post-tensioning applications, except that
load can be applied directly to the wedge plate or
equivalent area.
10.3.2.3.7a—General C10.3.2.3.7a
In a cyclic loading test, the load shall be increased to The required minimum failure load of 1.1 Fpu for
0.8 Fpu. The load shall then be cycled between 0.1 Fpu and cyclic and sustained loading tests reflects the incorporation
0.8 Fpu until crack widths stabilize, but for not less than of the maximum allowable stressing level of 0.8 Fpu with a
10 cycles. Crack widths are considered stabilized if they do load factor of 1.2 and a φ-factor of 0.80. Alternatively, if
not change by more than 0.001 in. over the last three limited by test equipment capacity, a minimum failure load
readings. Upon completion of the cyclic loading the of 1.0 Fpu can be specified, provided the actual concrete
specimen shall be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited strength of the specimen is reduced proportionately.
by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.1 Fpu.
10.3.2.3.8a—General
10.3.2.3.9a—General C10.3.2.3.9a
In a monotonic loading test, the load shall be increased In the monotonic loading test the required minimum
to 0.9 Fpu and held constant for 1 h. The specimen shall failure load is increased to 1.2 Fpu, reflecting comparative
then be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited by the test experience with monotonic, sustained and cyclic
capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.2 Fpu. loading procedures. Alternatively, if limited by test
equipment capacity, a minimum failure load of 1.0 Fpu can
be specified, provided the actual concrete strength of the
specimen is reduced proportionately.
If representative samples out of a series of similar
anchorage devices pass the acceptance test, the anchorage
device supplier may elect not to test the other anchorage
devices in the series. However, the responsibility for the
proper performance of such untested anchorage devices
remains with the supplier.
The strength of the anchorage zone shall exceed: The crack width requirements of Article 10.3.2.3.10
are based on recommendations in Article 5.9.1.5, “Crack
• Specimens tested under cyclic or sustained Control” of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
loading………………………………….1.1 Fpu Specifications, 2007. A moderately aggressive environment
is characterized by moist environments where deicing or
• Specimens tested under monotonic sea salts may be present in mists, but where direct exposure
loading………………………………….1.2 Fpu to corrosive agents is prevented. This should include most
bridge applications.
The maximum crack width criteria specified below Records of the anchorage device acceptance test have
shall be met for moderately aggressive environments: to be provided by the anchorage device supplier to the
Engineer-of-Record and to the constructor. These records
• No cracks greater than 0.010 in. at 0.8 Fpu after must include all the necessary information for proper
completion of the cyclic or sustained loading, or installation of the anchorage device including all confining
at 0.9 Fpu after the 1-h period for monotonic and supplementary reinforcement.
loading.
10.4.1—Placement of Ducts
10.4.1.1—General
All ducts for continuous structures shall be supplied See Section 2.8, “Inlets and Outlets,” of PTI’s
with outlets at the high and low points of the duct profile, Specification for Grouting of Post-Tension Structures,
except where the profile changes are small, as in 2001.
continuous slabs, and at additional locations as specified in
the contract documents. Low-point outlets shall remain
open until grouting is started.
Upon completion of concrete placement, the Proving the ducts by use of a manually inserted
Contractor shall prove that the post-tensioning ducts are torpedo is intended for segmental construction only. For
free and clear of any obstructions or damage and are able to cast-in-place construction, the Contractor may propose an
accept the intended post-tensioning tendons by passing a alternate method acceptable to the Engineer.
torpedo through the ducts. The torpedo shall have the same
cross-sectional shape as the duct, and 0.25 in. smaller all
around than the clear nominal inside dimensions of the
duct. No deductions shall be made to the torpedo section
dimensions for tolerances allowed in the manufacture or
fixing of the ducts. For straight ducts, a torpedo at least
2.0 ft long shall be used. For curved ducts, the length shall
be determined so that when both ends touch the outermost
wall of the duct, the torpedo is 0.25 in. clear of the
innermost wall. If the torpedo will not travel completely
through the duct, the Engineer shall reject the member,
unless a workable repair can be made to clear the duct, to
the satisfaction of the Engineer. Upon completion of the
repairs, the torpedo shall pass through the duct easily, by
hand, without resorting to excessive effort or mechanical
assistance.
Before stressing and grouting internal or external For an external tendon, pressure testing after stressing
tendons, install all grout caps, inlets and outlets and test the and before grouting may be specified to verify that the duct
tendon with compressed air to determine if duct was not damaged during stressing.
connections require repair. In the presence of the Engineer, Use a filtered air supply unless oil and moisture free
pressurize the tendon to 50 psi and lock-off the outside air air can be demonstrated. The air may be tested prior to use
source. Record pressure loss for 1 min. A pressure loss of by passing air through a white cotton rag for 2 min. If the
25 psi is acceptable for tendons having a length of equal to rag is contaminated, use filtered air.
or less than 150 ft and a pressure loss of 15 psi is
acceptable for tendons longer than 150 ft. If the pressure
loss exceeds the allowable, repair leaking connections
using methods approved by the Engineer and retest.
Prestressing steel used in post tensioned concrete Prestressing steel installed in members prior to placing
members that is not grouted within the time limit specified and curing of the concrete, is not recommended. If
below, shall be continuously protected against rust or other installed in the duct, but not grouted within the time limit
corrosion by means of a corrosion inhibitor placed in the specified, a corrosion inhibitor placed in the ducts may only
ducts or directly applied to the steel. The prestressing steel be used when directed by the engineer. Most inhibitors are
shall be so protected until grouted or encased in concrete. detrimental to bond and removal and reinstallation of strand
Prestressing steel installed and tensioned in members after may be required at the direction of the Engineer.
placing and curing of the concrete and grouted within the
time limit specified below will not require the use of a
corrosion inhibitor described herein and rust which may
form during the interval between tendon installation and
grouting will not be cause for rejection of the steel.
The permissible interval between tendon installation
and grouting without use of a corrosion inhibitor for
various exposure conditions shall be taken as follows:
The Contractor is responsible for the proper placement Anchorage zones are very critical regions of a
of all materials according to the design documents of the structure. Therefore, construction should follow exactly the
Engineer-of-Record and the requirements stipulated by the specifications by the Engineer-of-Record and the anchorage
anchorage device supplier. The Contractor shall exercise all device supplier. Change of anchorage zone details have to
due care and attention in the placement of anchorage be approved by the Engineer-of-Record and the anchorage
hardware, reinforcement, concrete and consolidation of device supplier.
concrete in anchorage zones. Modifications to the local Modifications to the local zone details refer to
zone details verified under provisions of Article 5.10.9.7.3 Article 5.10.9.7.3, “Special Anchorage Devices,” of the
of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications and LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2007.
Article 10.3.2.3, “Special Anchorage Device Acceptance
Test,” herein shall be approved by both the Engineer-of-
Record and the anchorage device supplier.
• Cross-sectional area,
• Elongation at rupture,
10.5.1—Pretensioning Tendons
10.5.2—Post-Tensioning Tendons
10.8—DUCTS
10.8.1—General
Ducts used to provide holes or voids in the concrete for
the placement of post-tensioned bonded tendons may be
either formed with removable cores or may consist of rigid
or semi-rigid ducts which are cast into the concrete.
10.8.2—Metal Ducts
For locations in saltwater environment or exposure to The cell class includes carbon black for sunlight and
deicing chemicals, plastic duct material shall be considered ultraviolet light protection.
and is recommended.
Corrugated plastic duct to be completely embedded
in concrete shall be constructed from either polyethylene
or polypropylene. The minimum acceptable radius of
curvature shall be established by the duct supplier
according to standard test methods. The duct shall have a
thickness as shown in Table 10.8.3-1. Ducts shall have a
white coating on the outside or shall be of white material
with ultraviolet stabilizers added. Polyethylene duct shall
be fabricated from resins meeting or exceeding the
requirements of ASTM D3350 with a cell classification of
345464A. Polypropylene duct shall be fabricated from
resins meeting or exceeding the requirements of ASTM
D4101 with a cell classification range of PP0340B14541
to PP0340B67884. Use resin containing antioxidant(s)
with a minimum Oxidation Induction Time (OIT)
according to ASTM D3895 of not less than 20 min. The
OIT test shall be performed on samples taken from the
finished product.
10.8.4—Duct Area
10.8.5—Duct Fittings
10.9—GROUT
• Fluidity,
• Bleed at 3 h, and
• Permeability.
10.9.1—Approval
10.9.2—Mixing C10.9.2
The material shall be mixed in accordance with the See Article 10.11.4, “Mixing of Grout.”
Manufacturer’s recommendations.
The water used in the grout shall be potable, clean, and
free of injurious quantities of substances known to be
harmful to Portland Cement or prestressing steel.
Grouts shall achieve a nonbleeding characteristic. Bleed characteristics of cementitious grouts are
Grout shall contain no aluminum powder or gas generating documented in numerous reports, as well as the report titled
system that produces hydrogen, carbon dioxide, or oxygen. Development of High Performance Grouts for Bonded
Cementitious grout shall meet or exceed the specified Post-Tensioned Structures by A. J. Schokker, B. D.
physical properties stated herein as determined by the Koester, J. E. Brean, and M. E. Kreger.
following standard and modified ASTM test methods.
Grout Classes shall be taken as specified in
Table 10.9.3-1 and Grout Properties shall be as specified in
Table 10.9.3-2.
Notes:
a
Percent of cement substitute.
b
Type D and E admixtures may be permitted with approval of the Designer.
c
Alternate corrosion inhibitors may be used.
d
Other admixtures such as anti-bleed admixtures, pumping aids, and air entraining agents.
e
No testing is required if material is prepackaged and the Manufacturer has conducted performance testing.
Notes:
10.10—TENSIONING
Prestressing steel shall be tensioned by hydraulic jacks The proposed changes result from changes made to
so as to produce the forces shown in the contract clarify provisions of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
documents or on the approved working drawing with Specifications, 2007, Article 5.9.3, “Stress Limitations for
appropriate allowances for all losses. Losses to be provided Prestressing Tendons.”
for shall be as specified in Article 5.9.5, “Loss of
Prestress,” of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications, 2007. For post-tensioned work, the losses
shall also include the anchor set loss appropriate for the
anchorage system employed.
For pretensioned members, the strand stress prior to For pretensioned members, the existing second
seating (jacking stress) shall not exceed 80 percent of the paragraph of this Article has been expanded to include the
minimum ultimate tensile strength of the prestressing steel permitted increase in strand stress prior to seating. This
(0.80 f′s). This allowable stress, which slightly exceeds the limit is placed here after being removed from AASHTO
values allowed in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Article 5.9.3. The
Specifications, Article 5.9.3, may be permitted to offset wording “shall not exceed 80 percent of the minimum
seating losses and to accommodate compensation for ultimate tensile strength of the prestressing steel” is taken
temperature differences specified in Article 10.10.2, directly from Article 10.10.2. A reference is added
“Pretensioning Requirements.” regarding compensation for temperature differences which
is specified in Article 10.10.2.
For post-tensioned members, the standard stress prior For post-tensioned members, the existing second
to seating (jacking stress) and the stress in the steel paragraph of this Article is revised to be consistent with the
immediately after seating shall not exceed the values revised wording of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
allowed in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Specifications, Article 5.9.3.
Article 5.9.3.
Tensioning may be accomplished by pretensioning, The methods of tensioning may be defined as follows:
post-tensioning, or the combined method; as specified in
the contract documents, or on the approved working • Pretensioning—The prestressing strand or tendons
drawings, or approved in writing by the Engineer. are stressed prior to being embedded in the
During stressing of strand, individual wire failures may concrete placed for the member. After the
be accepted by the Engineer, provided not more than one concrete has attained the required strength, the
wire in any strand is broken and the area of broken wires prestressing force is released from the external
does not exceed two percent of the total area of the anchorages and transferred, by bond, into the
prestressing steel in the member. concrete.
10.10.1.1—Concrete Strength
10.10.1.2—Prestressing Equipment
10.10.1.3—Sequence of Stressing
10.10.1.4—Measurement of Stress
10.10.2—Pretensioning Requirements
10.10.3—Post-Tensioning Requirements
• Date stressed,
• Gage pressures,
10.10.5—Protection of Tendon
10.11—GROUTING
10.11.1—General
• Direction of grouting;
Each duct shall be air pressure tested prior to the The purpose of the test is to find the location of any
installation of the prestressing steel into the ducts. If leaks leaks.
are indicated during the test, the duct shall be repaired to
eliminate the leakage or minimize the consequences of the
leakage.
All ducts shall be clean and free of deleterious
materials that would impair bonding or interfere with
grouting procedures.
Ducts with concrete walls (cored ducts) shall be
flushed to ensure that the concrete is thoroughly wetted.
Metal ducts shall be flushed if necessary to remove
deleterious material.
Water used for flushing ducts may contain slack lime
(calcium hydroxide) or quicklime (calcium oxide) in the
amount of 0.1 lb/gal.
After flushing, all water shall be blown out of the duct
with oil-free compressed air.
10.11.3—Equipment
10.11.4—Mixing of Grout
All grout vents shall be opened before grouting starts. To minimize potential for bleed water, especially on
Injection and ejection vents with positive shut-offs shall be vertical ducts, a secondary shot of grout can be given to the
provided. Grout shall be allowed to flow from the first duct approximately 2 to 3 min after initial completion of the
injection vent until any residual flushing water or grouting.
entrapped air has been removed prior to closing that vent.
Remaining vents shall be closed in sequence in the same
manner. A continuous flow of grout at a rate between 35.0
and 50.0 ft of duct per min shall be maintained.
The pumping pressure at the injection vent should not
exceed 0.150 ksi. Normal operations shall be performed at
approximately 0.075 ksi. If the actual grouting pressure
exceeds the maximum allowed, the injection vent shall be
closed and the grout shall be injected at the next vent that
has been, or is ready to be closed, as long as a one-way
flow is maintained. Grout shall not be injected into a
succeeding vent from which grout has not yet flowed.
Grout shall be pumped through the duct and
continuously wasted at the ejection vent until no visible
slugs of water or air are ejected. A fluidity test shall be
performed on each tendon in accordance with
Article 10.9.3, “Grout Physical Properties,” measuring the
grout fluidity from the discharge outlet. The measured
grout efflux time shall not be faster than the efflux time
measured at the inlet or the minimum efflux time
established in Article 10.9.3. If the grout efflux time is not
acceptable, additional grout shall be discharged from the
discharge outlet. Grout efflux time shall be tested. This
cycle shall be continued until acceptable grout fluidity is
10.11.6—Temperature Considerations
10.11.7—Vertical Grouting
10.11.8—Post-Grouting Inspection
10.11.9—Finishing C10.11.9
The following requirements apply: Miscellaneous materials include paper, tie wire, duct
tape, etc.
• Valves, caps and vent pipes shall not be removed
or opened until the grout has set.
Permanent grout caps constructed from either stainless Permanent polymer grout caps, with or without fibers,
steel or polymer shall be specified. are adequate for use.
The following requirements apply:
For the designated period of time after grouting of a Recent (2003) research has demonstrated that traffic-
tendon begins, vibrations from all sources such as moving induced vibrations (5 Hz) of post-tensioning tendons 4 h
vehicles, jackhammers, compressors, generators, etc., that after grouting with prequalified anti-bleed grout does not
are operating within the affected bridge superstructure have detrimental effects in generating bleed water in the
shall be eliminated and pile driving and soil compaction tendon, and does not have significant effect on the bond
within 300 ft of the affected superstructure shall not be between the grout and tendon following hardening of the
permitted. The designated period of time shall be taken as grout. Accordingly, there is no need for restriction of traffic
4 h for prequalified anti-bleed grout and 24 h for plain for more than 4 h after grouting of tendons with prequalified
grout. The affected bridge superstructure shall be taken as anti-bleed grout on any type of post-tensioned bridge.
that portion of the total superstructure that is 300 ft up or Research also shows that traffic-induced vibrations (5 Hz)
down-station of the ends of the span in which grouting is of post-tensioning tendons following grouting with plain
taking place. grout (water-cement) significantly increases bleed, and 24-h
traffic restrictions are necessary when plain grout is used.
10.12.1—Measurement
10.12.2—Payment
10.13—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 1987. Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges, 1st Edition,
GSCB-1, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 1999. Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges, 2nd Edition,
GSCB-2, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
DeSalvo Jessica, and Andrea Schokker. “Guide Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned Structures,” PTI
Committee on Grouting Specifications, Influence of Vibration during Setting of Post-Tensioned Grout: Effects of
Bleed and Bond.
DOD. U.S. Military Specification MIL-P-24441/20 for zinc-rich paint, U.S. Department of Defense, Washington, DC. See
https://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/.
FIB. 2000. “Corrugated Plastic Ducts for Internal Bonded Post-Tensioning,” Bulletin No. 7, Task Group 9.6 Plastic
Ducts of FIB Commission 9, Federale Internationale du Beton (International Federation of Structural Concrete),
Lausanne, Switzerland.
FL DOT. 2002. New Direction for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges, Florida Department of Transportation,
Tallahassee, FL, June 2002.
FL DOT. 2003. New Direction for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges: Final Phase of Implementation, Florida
Department of Transportation, Tallahassee, FL, July 2003.
Hsuan, Grace Y. “Protocol for 100 Years Service Life of Corrugated High Density Polyethylene Pipes, Part II – Stress
Crack Resistance, Oxidation Resistance and Viscoelastic Properties of Finished Corrugated Pipes”.
PTI. 1998. Acceptable Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ.
PTI. 2001. Guide Specification for Grouting of Post-Tension Structures, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ.
Schokker, A.J., et al. 1999. Development of High Performance Grouts for Bonded Post-Tensioned Structures, Research
Report 1405-2, University of Texas, Center for Transportation Research, Austin, TX.
USACE. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Method CRD C79 for grout fluidity, USACE Publication Dept, Hyattsville, MD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11
11.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 11-1
11.1.1—Description ............................................................................................................................................. 11-1
11.1.2—Notice of Beginning of Work ................................................................................................................ 11-1
11.1.3—Inspection ............................................................................................................................................... 11-1
11.1.4—Inspector’s Authority ............................................................................................................................. 11-2
11.2—WORKING DRAWINGS ................................................................................................................................ 11-2
11.2.1—Shop Drawings ....................................................................................................................................... 11-2
11.2.2—Erection Drawings ................................................................................................................................. 11-3
11.2.3—Camber Diagram .................................................................................................................................... 11-3
11.3—MATERIALS................................................................................................................................................... 11-3
11.3.1—Structural Steel ....................................................................................................................................... 11-3
11.3.1.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 11-3
11.3.1.2—Carbon Steel ................................................................................................................................ 11-3
11.3.1.3—High-Strength, Low-Alloy Structural Steel ................................................................................. 11-4
11.3.1.4—High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Quenched, and Tempered Structural Steel Plate ............................. 11-4
11.3.1.5—High-Yield-Strength, Quenched, and Tempered Alloy-Steel Plate ............................................. 11-4
11.3.1.6—Eyebars ........................................................................................................................................ 11-4
11.3.1.7—Structural Tubing ......................................................................................................................... 11-5
11.3.2—High-Strength Fasteners......................................................................................................................... 11-5
11.3.2.1—Material ........................................................................................................................................ 11-5
11.3.2.2—Identifying Marks ........................................................................................................................ 11-6
11.3.2.3—Dimensions .................................................................................................................................. 11-6
11.3.2.4—Galvanized High-Strength Fasteners ........................................................................................... 11-6
11.3.2.5—Alternative Fasteners ................................................................................................................... 11-7
11.3.2.6—Load-Indicator Devices................................................................................................................ 11-7
11.3.3—Welded Stud Shear Connectors ............................................................................................................. 11-8
11.3.3.1—Materials ...................................................................................................................................... 11-8
11.3.3.2—Test Methods ............................................................................................................................... 11-8
11.3.3.3—Finish ........................................................................................................................................... 11-8
11.3.3.4—Certification ................................................................................................................................. 11-8
11.3.3.5—Check Samples ............................................................................................................................ 11-8
11.3.4—Steel Forgings and Steel Shafting .......................................................................................................... 11-9
11.3.4.1—Steel Forgings .............................................................................................................................. 11-9
11.3.4.2—Cold-Finished Carbon Steel Shafting .......................................................................................... 11-9
11.3.5—Steel Castings ......................................................................................................................................... 11-9
11.3.5.1—Mild Steel Castings ...................................................................................................................... 11-9
11.3.5.2—Chromium Alloy-Steel Castings .................................................................................................. 11-9
11.3.6—Iron Castings .......................................................................................................................................... 11-9
11.3.6.1—Materials ...................................................................................................................................... 11-9
11.3.6.2—Work Quality and Finish............................................................................................................ 11-10
11.3.6.3—Cleaning ..................................................................................................................................... 11-10
11.3.7—Galvanizing .......................................................................................................................................... 11-10
11.4—FABRICATION ............................................................................................................................................. 11-10
11.4.1—Identification of Steels During Fabrication .......................................................................................... 11-10
11.4.2—Storage of Materials ............................................................................................................................. 11-11
11.4.3—Plates .................................................................................................................................................... 11-11
11.4.3.1—Direction of Rolling ................................................................................................................... 11-11
11.4.3.2—Plate-Cut Edges ......................................................................................................................... 11-11
11.4.3.2.1—Edge Planing .................................................................................................................... 11-11
11.4.3.2.2—Oxygen Cutting ............................................................................................................... 11-11
11.4.3.2.3—Visual Inspection and Repair of Plate-Cut Edges ............................................................ 11-11
11.4.3.3—Bent Plates ................................................................................................................................. 11-11
11-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
11-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
STEEL STRUCTURES
11.1—GENERAL
11.1.1—Description
The Contractor shall give the Engineer ample notice of The term “mill” means any rolling mill or foundry
the beginning of work at the mill or in the shop so that where material for the work is to be manufactured.
inspection may be provided. No material shall be
manufactured or work done in the shop before the Engineer
has been so notified.
11.1.3—Inspection
11.1.4—Inspector’s Authority
11.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
11.2.1—Shop Drawings
11.2.2—Erection Drawings
11.2.3—Camber Diagram
11.3—MATERIALS
11.3.1—Structural Steel
11.3.1.1—General
11.3.1.2—Carbon Steel
11.3.1.6—Eyebars
Structural tubing shall be either cold-formed welded or ASTM A500 cautions that structural tubing
seamless tubing conforming to ASTM A500, Grade B or manufactured to that specification may not be suitable for
Grade C, or ASTM A 847; or hot-formed welded or applications involving dynamically loaded elements in
seamless tubing conforming to ASTM A501 or ASTM welded structures where low-temperature notch-toughness
A618. properties may be important. As such, the use of this
material should be carefully examined with respect to its
specific application in consultation with the Owner. Where
this material is contemplated for use in applications where
low-temperature notch-toughness properties are deemed
important, consideration should be given to requiring that
the material satisfy the Charpy V-notch fracture toughness
requirements specified in Article 6.6.2 of the AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
11.3.2—High-Strength Fasteners
11.3.2.1—Material C11.3.2.1
High-strength bolts for structural steel joints shall Type 2 bolts have been withdrawn from AASHTO
conform to either AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325) or M 164 (ASTM A325) and AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A490)
AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A490). When high-strength bolts and, therefore, are no longer manufactured. However,
are used with unpainted weathering grades of steel, the Type 2 bolts manufactured before this discontinuation may
bolts shall be Type 3. still be in inventory and are considered acceptable.
The supplier shall provide a lot of number appearing
on the shipping package and a certification noting when
and where all testing was done, including rotational
capacity tests, and zinc thickness when galvanized bolts
and nuts are used.
The maximum hardness for AASHTO M 164 (ASTM
A325) bolts shall be 33 HRC.
Proof-load tests (ASTM F606, Method 1) shall be
required for the bolts. Wedge tests of full-size bolts are
required in accordance with Section 8.3 of AASHTO
M 164 (ASTM A325). Galvanized bolts shall be wedge
tested after galvanizing. Proof-load tests of AASHTO
M 291 (ASTM A563) are required for the nuts. The proof-
load tests for nuts to be used with galvanized bolts shall be
performed after galvanizing, overtapping, and lubricating.
Except as noted below:
• Nuts for AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325) bolts Grade DH (Property Class 10S) nuts are recommended
shall conform to AASHTO M 291 (ASTM A563), for all Type 1 and Type 2 bolts. Grade DH3 (Property
Grades DH, DH3, C, C3, and D (Property Class 10S3) nuts are not recommended for Type 1 and
Class 8S, 8S3, 10S, or 10S3). Type 2 bolts. Grade DH3 (Property Class 10S3) nuts must
be used for Type 3 bolts.
• Nuts for AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A490) bolts
shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO
M 291 (ASTM A563), Grades DH and DH3
(Property Class 10S or 10S3).
11.3.2.2—Identifying Marks
11.3.2.3—Dimensions
AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A490) bolts shall not be AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325) Type 2 bolts shall be
galvanized. mechanically galvanized only.
When fasteners are galvanized, they shall be specified
to be hot-dip galvanized in accordance with AASHTO
M 232M/M 232 (ASTM A153/A153M), Class C or
mechanically galvanized in accordance with AASHTO
M 298 (ASTM B695), Class 50 (Class 345). Bolts to be
galvanized shall be either AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325)
Type 1. Galvanized bolts shall be tension tested after
11.3.2.5—Alternative Fasteners
11.3.2.6—Load-Indicator Devices
11.3.3.1—Materials
11.3.3.2—Test Methods
11.3.3.3—Finish
11.3.3.4—Certification
11.3.3.5—Check Samples
11.3.4.1—Steel Forgings
11.3.5—Steel Castings
11.3.6—Iron Castings
11.3.6.1—Materials
11.3.6.3—Cleaning
11.3.7—Galvanizing
11.4—FABRICATION
The Contractor’s system of assembly-marking Assembly-marking individual pieces and the issuance
individual pieces, and the issuance of cutting instructions to of cutting instructions to the shop are generally done by
the shop shall be such as to maintain identity of the original cross-referencing of the assembly marks shown on the shop
piece. drawings with the corresponding item covered on the mill
The Contractor may furnish material that can be purchase order.
identified by heat number and mill test report from stock. Color codes for steels, as noted in previous versions of
During fabrication, up to the point of assembling the AASHTO M 160M/M 160 (ASTM A6/A6M)
members, each piece of steel, other than Grade 36 (Grade 250) Specifications, may also be used for identification
steel, shall show clearly and legibly its specification. purposes. This method, which will no longer be shown in
Any piece of steel, other than Grade 36 (Grade 250) either of these Specifications, is also being eliminated by
steel, which will be subject to fabricating operations such many Owners due to the complexity of the code with the
as blast cleaning, galvanizing, heating for forming, or many new material grades.
painting which might obliterate marking prior to
assembling into members, shall be marked for grade by
steel die stamping or by a substantial tag firmly attached.
Steel die stamps shall be low stress-type.
11.4.2—Storage of Materials
11.4.3—Plates
11.4.3.1—Direction of Rolling
11.4.3.2—Plate-Cut Edges
11.4.3.2.1—Edge Planing
11.4.3.2.2—Oxygen Cutting
11.4.3.3—Bent Plates
11.4.3.3.1—General
11.4.3.3.2—Cold-Bending C11.4.3.3.2
Unless otherwise approved, the minimum bend radii For bent plates, the bend radius and the radius of the
for cold-forming (at room temperature), measured to the male die should be as liberal as the finished part will
concave face of the plate, are given in Table 11.4.3.3.2-1. If permit. The width across the shoulders of the female die
a smaller radius is required, heat may need to be applied as should be at least eight times the plate thickness for
a part of the bending procedure. Provide the heating Grade 36 (Grade 250) steel. Higher-strength steels require
procedure for review by the Engineer. For grades not larger die openings. The surface of the dies in the area of
included in Table 11.4.3.3.2-1, follow minimum bend radii radius should be smooth.
recommendations of the plate Producer. Where the concave face of a bent plate must fit tightly
If possible, orient bend lines perpendicular to the against another surface, the male die should be sufficiently
direction of final rolling of the plate. If the bend line is thick and have the proper radius to ensure that the bent
parallel to the direction of final rolling, multiply the plate has the required concave surface.
suggested minimum radii in Table 11.4.3.3.2-1 by 1.5. Since cracks in cold-bending commonly originate from
the outside edges, shear burrs and gas-cut edges should be
removed by grinding. Sharp corners on edges and on
punched or gas-cut holes should be removed by chamfering
or grinding to a radius.
11.4.3.3.3—Hot-Bending C11.4.3.3.3
If a radius shorter than the minimum specified for The temperature limitation for hot bending, along with
cold-bending is essential, the plates shall be bent hot at a the subsequent temperature limitations for heat
temperature not greater than 1200°F, except for AASHTO straightening and heat curving, of quenched and tempered
M 270M/M 270 (ASTM A709/A709M), Grades HPS 70W steel plate are based on the traditional practice of limiting
and HPS 100W (Grades HPS 485W and HPS 690W) for such heating to 50°F below the minimum required
which plates shall be bent hot at a temperature not greater tempering temperature so as not to adversely affect the
than 1100°F. strength of the material. In the absence of other data, the
temperature limitation for AASHTO M 270M/M 270
(ASTM A709/A709M) Grade HPS 70W (Grade HPS
485W) would be specified as 1050°F since the minimum
tempering temperature is 1100°F; however, Grade HPS
70W (Grade HPS 485W) steels have been tested by the
New York State Thruway Authority (NYSTA) at short-
time heating temperatures as high as 1250°F, High Steel
Structures (FHWA, 1999), with minimal effect on the
strength properties of this grade. Therefore, the limitation
of 1100°F was selected for Grade HPS 70W (Grade HPS
485W) to be consistent with the limitation of 1100°F
specified for AASHTO M 270M/M 270 (ASTM
A709/A709M) Grade HPS 100W (Grade HPS 690W),
which is based on the traditional 50°F limit below its
minimum tempering temperature of 1150°F.
11.4.4—Fit of Stiffeners
11.4.5—Abutting Joints
11.4.7—Straightening Material
11.4.8—Bolt Holes
11.4.8.1.1—General C11.4.8.1.1
All holes for bolts shall be either punched or drilled, Previous punching restrictions whenever the thickness
except as noted herein. The width of each standard of the material was not greater than 0.75 in. for structural
hole shall be the nominal diameter of the bolt plus steel, 0.625 in. for high strength steel, or 0.5 in. for
0.0625 in. The standard hole diameter for metric bolts M24 quenched-and-tempered alloy steel, are upper limits but
and smaller shall be the nominal diameter of the bolt plus punching equipment may be more restrictive.
2 mm. For metric bolts M27 and larger, the standard hole
diameter shall be the nominal diameter of the bolt plus
3 mm.
Except as noted in the articles below, material forming For other dimensional criteria assumed in the design of
parts of a member composed of not more than five bolted details, e.g., oversize holes, slotted holes, edge
thicknesses of metal may be punched full-size. distances, and end distances, see Article 6.13.2, “Bolted
When more than five thicknesses of material are joined Connections,” of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
or, as required by Article 11.4.8.5, material shall be Specifications.
subdrilled or subpunched and then reamed full-size, or
drilled full-size while in assembly.
When required, all holes shall be either subpunched
or subdrilled 0.1875 in. smaller and, after assembling,
reamed or drilled to full size.
Holes in cross frames, lateral bracing components, and
the corresponding holes in connection plates between
girders and cross frames or lateral components may be
punched full size. Holes in longitudinal main load-carrying
members, transverse floorbeams, and any components
designated as fracture critical (FCMs) shall not be punched
full-size.
When shown in the contract documents, enlarged or
slotted holes are allowed with high-strength bolts.
With the owner’s approval, round or slotted holes for With the owner’s approval, round or slotted holes for
non-main members in thin plate may be thermally cut by non-main members in thin plate may successfully be
plasma, laser, or oxygen-acetylene methods subject to the thermally cut by plasma, laser, or oxygen-acetylene means.
requirements herein. The maximum surface roughness of ANSI 1000 μin. and
the conical taper of the hole must be maintained within
tolerance. See references AISC Steel Construction Manual,
13th Edition, Section M2.5; RCSC Specification for
Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts,
Section 3.3; and NSBA Steel Bridge Fabrication, S2.1.
11.4.8.1.2—Punched Holes
11.4.8.1.4—Accuracy of Holes
11.4.9.1—General
11.4.10—Eyebars
11.4.12—Curved Girders
11.4.12.1—General
11.4.12.2.1—Materials C11.4.12.2.1
Beams and girders may be curved by either continuous Additional references on heat-curved girders include:
or V-type heating as approved by the Engineer. For the
continuous method, a strip or intermittent strips along the • ASCE. 1970. “Experimental Stresses and Strains
edge of the top and bottom flange shall be heated from Heat Curving,” Journal of the Structural
approximately simultaneously depending on flange widths Division, Volume 96, No. ST7, American Society
and thicknesses; the strip shall be of sufficient width and of Civil Engineers, New York.
temperature to obtain the required curvature. For the
V-type heating, the top and bottom flanges shall be heated • ASCE. 1970. “Theoretical Stresses and Strains
in truncated triangular or wedge-shaped areas having their from Heat Curving,” Journal of the Structural
base along the flange edge and spaced at regular intervals Division, Volume 96, No. ST7, American Society
along each flange; the spacing and temperature shall be as of Civil Engineers, New York.
required to obtain the required curvature and heating shall
progress along the top and bottom flange at approximately • ASCE. 1970. “Criteria for Heat Curving Steel
the same rate. Beams and Girders,” Journal of the Structural
For the V-type heating, the apex of the truncated Division, Volume 96, No. ST7, American Society
triangular area applied to the inside flange surface shall of Civil Engineers, New York.
terminate just before the juncture of the web and the flange
is reached. To avoid unnecessary web distortion, special • U.S. Steel. 2001. Fabrication Aids for
care shall be taken when heating the inside flange surfaces Continuously Heat-Curved Girders, ADUSS
(the surfaces that intersect the web) so that heat is not 88-5538-01, United States Steel Corporation,
applied directly to the web. When the radius of curvature is Pittsburgh.
1000 ft or more, the apex of the truncated triangular
heating pattern applied to the outside flange surface shall • U.S. Steel. 2002. Fabrication Aids for Girders
extend to the juncture of the flange and web. When the Curved with V-Heats, ADUSS 88-5539-02,
radius of curvature is less than 1000 ft, the apex of the United States Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh.
11.4.12.2.3—Temperature
11.4.12.2.5—Sequence of Operations
11.4.12.2.6—Camber
11.4.13—Orthotropic-Deck Superstructures
11.4.13.1—General C11.4.13.1
Dimensional tolerance limits for orthotropic-deck The term element as used herein refers to individual
bridge members shall be applied to each completed but panels, stiffeners, flanges, or other pieces.
unloaded member and shall be as specified in paragraph
3.5 of the current AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge
Welding Code, except as follows:
The maximum deviation, δ, from detailed flatness or The term “panel” as used in this Article means a clear
curvature of a panel shall not exceed the greater of area of steel plate surface bounded by stiffeners, webs,
0.1875 in. or: flanges, or plate edges and not further subdivided by any
such elements. The provisions of this Article apply to all
D panels in the bridge; for plates stiffened on one side only
δ≤ (11.4.13.2-1) such as orthotropic-deck plates or flanges of box girders,
144 T this includes the total clear width on the side without
stiffeners as well as the panels between stiffeners on the
side with stiffeners.
where:
11.4.13.3—Straightness of Longitudinal
Stiffeners Subject to Calculated Compressive
Stress, Including Orthotropic-Deck Ribs
L
δ ≤ (11.4.13.3-1)
480
where:
L
δ ≤ (11.4.13.4-1)
240
where:
11.4.14—Full-Size Tests
11.5—ASSEMBLY
11.5.1—Bolting
11.5.2—Welded Connections
11.5.3.1—General
11.5.3.2—Bolted Connections
If the check assembly fails in some specific manner to The check assemblies shall preferably be the first
demonstrate that the required accuracy is being obtained, sections of each major structural type to be fabricated.
further check assemblies may be required by the Engineer
for which there shall be no additional cost to the Owner.
Each assembly, including camber, alignment, accuracy Shop assemblies other than the check assemblies will
of holes, and fit of milled joints, shall be approved by the not be required.
Engineer before reaming is commenced or before an N/C
drilled check assembly is dismantled.
11.5.3.4—Field-Welded Connections
11.5.4—Match-Marking
11.5.5.1—General
11.5.5.2—Turned Bolts
11.5.5.3—Ribbed Bolts
11.5.6.1—General C11.5.6.1
This Article covers the assembly of structural joints Information is found in the Structural Bolting
using AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325) or AASHTO Handbook, SBH-1 (1996).
M 253 (ASTM A490) high-strength bolts or equivalent
fasteners, installed so as to develop the minimum required
bolt tension specified in Table 11.5.6.4.1-1. The bolts are
used in holes conforming to the requirements of
Article 11.4.8, “Bolt Holes.”
11.5.6.2—Bolted Parts
11.5.6.4—Installation
11.5.6.4.1—General C11.5.6.4.1
Table 11.5.6.4.1-2—Nut Rotation from the Snug Condition for Inch Series Fasteners
• In a tension-measuring device, the minimum The ten percent of the minimum required tension is
rotation from an initial tension of ten percent of assumed to bring the connection to a snug condition.
the minimum required tension shall be two times
the required number of turns indicated in
Table 11.5.6.4.1-2 without stripping or failure.
where:
When Direct Tension Indicators (DTIs) meeting the The procedures contained in ASTM F959 are designed to
requirements of Article 11.3.2.6 are used with high- provide an easy method for using Direct Tension Indicators
strength bolts to indicate bolt tension, they shall be to indicate proper bolt tension. DTIs measure load by
subjected to the verification testing described below and compressing the protrusions on the DTI with a
installed in accordance with the method specified below. corresponding reduction in the gap in the spaces between
Unless otherwise approved by the Engineer-of-Record, the the protrusions. The method of measurement is based upon
DTIs shall be installed under the head of the bolt and the the criteria that a DTI with half or more of its spaces less
nut turned to tension the bolt. The Manufacturer’s than 0.005 in. indicates a bolt tension above the required
recommendations shall be followed for the proper minimum tension. In order to verify that DTI will provide
orientation of the DTI and additional washers, if any, this performance, the DTI is checked at 1.05 times the
required for the correct use of the DTI. Installation of a required installation tension. One less than half of the
DTI under the turned element may be permitted if a washer number of spaces must be greater than 0.005 in. at this
is used to separate the turned element from the DTI. load. Consequently, in the structure, if half or more of the
spaces are less than 0.005 in. (number of refusals greater
than half the number of spaces), the fastener is properly
installed at a tension above the required minimum
installation tension.
An upper limit on the DTI deformation allowed in the
structure is imposed to ensure that bolt failure will not occur
during installation. A visible gap must remain in any space
after installation. This requirement is necessary since ASTM
F959 accepts DTIs with an average gap of 0.015 in. and loads
higher than the required minimum tension. Consequently, the
load required to reduce the gaps to less than 0.005 in. may
exceed the minimum tensile strength of the fastener
assembly. The capability of the fastener to tolerate this small
gap is determined in one of two ways. The simplest is to turn
the nut by hand down the thread. If the nut can be assembled
for the length of the thread, the bolt has not undergone
significant inelastic deformation and, therefore, the tension
required is much less than the installation strength of the
fastener assembly. If the bolt does not pass this inelastic
deformation test, the load must be less than 95 percent of the
average load measured at the end of the rotational capacity
test for the rotational capacity lot of the fastener assembly.
Note that the tension capacity of the fastener assembly may
be less than the minimum required tensile strength of the
bolts due to the reduction in tensile strength from the torque
applied to the bolt during tightening.
11.5.6.4.7a—Verification C11.5.6.4.7a
Verification testing shall be performed in a calibrated The purpose of the verification testing is to ensure that
bolt-tension measuring device. A special flat insert shall be the fastener will be at or above the desired installation
used in place of the normal bolt head holding insert. Three tension when half or more of the spaces in the DTI have a
verification tests shall be required for each combination of gap less than 0.005 in. and that the bolt will not have
fastener assembly rotational-capacity lot, DTI lot, and DTI excessive plastic deformation at the minimum gap allowed
position relative to the turned element (bolt head or nut) to on the project.
be used on the project. The fastener assembly shall be
installed in the tension-measuring device with the DTI
located in the same position as in the work. The element
intended to be stationary (bolt or nut) shall be restrained
from rotation.
The verification tests shall be conducted in two stages.
The bolt nut and DTI assembly shall be installed in a
manner so that at least three and preferably not more than
five threads are located between the bearing face of the nut
and the bolt head. The bolt shall be tensioned first to the
load equal to that listed in Table 11.5.6.4.7a-1 under
Verification Tension for the grade and diameter of the bolt.
If an impact wrench is used, the tension developed using
the impact wrench shall be no more than two-thirds of the
required tension. Subsequently, a manual wrench shall be
Maximum
Bolt Verification Minimum
Size, in. Verification Tension, kips Refusals DTI Spaces Installation Refusals
A325 A490 A325 A490 A325 A490 A325 A490
0.5 13 16 1 2 4 5 2 3
0.625 20 25 1 2 4 5 2 3
0.75 29 37 2 2 5 6 3 3
0.875 41 51 2 2 5 6 3 3
1.0 54 67 2 3 6 7 3 4
1.125 59 84 2 3 6 7 3 4
1.25 75 107 3 3 7 8 4 4
1.375 89 127 3 3 7 8 4 4
1.5 108 155 3 4 8 9 4 5
11.5.6.4.7b—Installation C11.5.6.4.7b
Installation of fastener assemblies using DTIs shall be Turning of the element against the DTI will reduce the
performed in two stages. The stationary element shall be gap at a given tension and cause the DTI to indicate a load
held against rotation during each stage of the installation. higher than the actual load in the fastener.
The connection shall be first snugged with bolts installed in Since the fastener tension may have relaxed during the
all the holes of the connection and tensioned sufficiently to snugging of adjacent fasteners, the number of refusals after
bring all the plies of the connection into firm contact. The snugging is required not to exceed the maximum allowed
number of spaces in which a 0.005-in. feeler gage is during verification.
refused in the DTI after snugging shall not exceed those A DTI does not rebound when the fastener tension is
listed under Maximum Verification Refusals in reduced. If a DTI which exceeds the number of refusals is
Table 11.5.6.4.7a-1. If the number exceeds the values in the not replaced, it would give a false indication of bolt
table, the fastener assembly shall be removed and another tension.
DTI installed and snugged.
For uncoated DTIs used under a stationary or turned A visible gap must remain in any space after
element and for coated DTIs used under stationary element, installation to ensure that the fasteners are not tensioned to
the bolts shall be further tensioned until the number of their ultimate strength.
refusals of the 0.005-in. feeler gage shall be equal to or
greater than the number listed under Minimum Installation
Refusals in Table 11.5.6.4.7a-1. If the bolt is tensioned so
that no visible gap in any space remains, the bolt and DTI
shall be removed and replaced by a new properly tensioned
bolt and DTI.
When coated DTIs (galvanized, painted, or epoxy-
coated) are used under a turned element, the 0.005-in.
feeler gage shall be refused in all spaces.
11.5.6.4.9—Inspection
11.5.6.4.9a—General
Either the Engineer or the Contractor, in the presence The 24-hour time lapse for inspection tests on installed
of the Engineer at the Engineer’s option, shall inspect the bolts required by earlier editions of Division I of the
tensioned bolts using an inspection torque wrench, unless Standard Specifications was thought to be too restrictive.
alternate fasteners or direct tension indicator devices are Since the effects of loss of lubricant or initiation of
used, allowing verification by other methods. Inspection corrosion on the internal threads of installed fasteners is
tests should be conducted prior to possible loss of dependent on environmental conditions at the site, it was
lubrication or corrosion influence on tightening torque. decided to leave the lapse time between installation and
Three fastener assembly lots in the same condition as verification to the discretion of the Engineer/Owner rather
those under inspection shall be placed individually in a than specifying one fixed time for all sites.
device calibrated to measure bolt tension. This calibration
operation shall be done at least once each inspection day. Where the elapsed time between installation (bolt
There shall be a washer under the turned element in insertion) and final tensioning is more than ten days,
tensioning each bolt if washers are used on the structure. If sample fastener assemblies should be removed from joints
washers are not used on the structure, the material used in that are to be tensioned. At least three assemblies for each
the tension-measuring device which abuts the part turned size and length should be used to verify that the loss of
shall be of the same specification as that used on the lubricant will not hinder achieving the required tension.
structure. In the calibrated device, each bolt shall be These assemblies should be used to establish the inspection
tensioning by any convenient means to the specified torque. The Rotational Capacity test on the sample
tension. The inspecting wrench shall then be applied to the assemblies can be used to demonstrate whether or not the
tensioned bolt to determine the torque required to turn the assembly will tension satisfactorily.
nut or head five degrees (approximately 1.0 in. at a 12.0-in. After assemblies have been either found acceptable
radius) in the tensioning direction. The average of the torque based on additional RoCap testing or replaced, all should
required for all three bolts shall be taken as the job- be brought to the snug condition and then tightened by the
inspection torque. selected method. The Contractor should then apply the
Ten percent (at least two) of the tensioned bolts on the appropriate inspection torque to at least 10 percent of bolts
structure represented by the test bolts shall be selected at which had delayed tightening while the owner’s
random in each connection. The job-inspection torque shall representative observes. Any fastener assembly rotated by
then be applied to each with the inspecting wrench turned in the torque wrench indicates improper tightening, and that
the tensioning direction. If this torque turns no bolt head or fastener should be removed and inspected for galling or
nut, the bolts in the connection shall be considered to be other signs of improper lubrication, and more bolts should
properly tensioned. If the torque turns one or more boltheads be checked with the torque wrench until the owner’s
or nuts, the job-inspection torque shall then be applied to all representative is satisfied the bolts are properly tightened.
bolts in the connection. Any bolt whose head or nut turns at All bolts in a common connection should have
this stage shall be retorqued and reinspected. The Contractor approximately equal exposed tip lengths. Any bolts with
may, however, retorque all the bolts in the connection and significantly more or less stick-through than others should
resubmit it for inspection, so long as DTIs are not be removed and replaced unless the Contractor can explain
overtensioned and fastener assemblies are not damaged. the variation.
11.5.7—Welding
11.6—ERECTION
11.6.1—General C11.6.1
The Contractor shall provide all tools, machinery, and See also the Steel Bridge Erection Guide Specification,
equipment necessary to erect the structure. S10.1, NSBEGS-1 (2007).
Falsework and forms shall be in accordance with the
requirements of Section 3, “Temporary Works.”
11.6.4—Erection Procedure
11.6.4.1—Conformance to Drawings
11.6.4.2—Erection Stresses
11.6.5—Field Assembly
11.6.6—Pin Connections
11.6.7—Misfits
11.7.1—Method of Measurement
11.7.2—Basis of Payment
11.8.1—General
11.8.1.1—Scope
The Engineer’s construction plan, if shown in the The Engineer’s construction plan, if provided in the
contract documents, shall not be taken as supplanting or contract documents, shows the construction plan considered
implying any supplantation of the Contractor’s in design of the bridge and is only one possible means of
responsibility for the fabrication, erection, or construction construction of the bridge. However, the Contractor/
of any part of the bridge. Fabricator/Erector is not required to build the bridge
The Contractor shall provide a construction plan which according to this plan, subject to approval of the Engineer.
details fabrication, procedures for erection, and deck A construction plan provided on the contract
placement, and which shall be referred to herein as the documents indicates what considerations were made in the
Contractor’s construction plan. This plan may be based on the design. In most instances, the actual plan of construction of
plan shown in the contract documents, if one is provided, or the bridge would not be expected to differ significantly
may be developed entirely by the Contractor. In either event, it enough from the Engineer’s construction plan that a
shall demonstrate the general stability of the structure and redesign of the bridge would be required.
individual components during each stage of construction, Although a construction plan may be provided in the
including while supported on any temporary jacks. The contract documents, the Contractor is responsible for the
Contractor’s construction plan shall be stamped by a Contractor’s construction plan even if there are no
Professional Engineer and be accepted by the Owner. Where modifications of the construction plan provided in the
the Contractor’s construction plan causes a difference in contract documents. The Contractor’s construction plan
camber of the girders for dead load from that presented on the will be considerably more detailed than the construction
contract documents, acceptance by the Owner shall be plan provided in the contract documents.
obtained prior to commencement of fabrication. The Because of the complexity of curved steel bridges, the
Contractor’s construction plan shall include: Contractor’s construction plan must be stamped and signed
by a Professional Engineer.
• Fabrication procedures, including method of
curving the girders,
11.8.3—Fabrication
11.8.3.1—General
11.8.3.2—Handling
11.8.3.3—Girders
Horizontal curvature may be obtained by heat-curving. Research has indicated that heat-curving has no
Heat-curving of beams shall be performed in accordance deleterious effect on the fatigue strength of curved beams
with the provisions of Article 6.7.7, “Heat-Curved Rolled or girders (Daniels and Bacheler, 1979).
Beams and Welded Plate Girders,” of the AASHTO LRFD Experience has shown that additional camber may not
Bridge Design Specifications and Article 11.4.12.2 of these be needed to compensate for camber loss after heat-curving
Specifications. The Owner shall determine the necessity of (Hilton, 1984).
11.8.3.3.2—Welded I-Girders
Box flanges shall be cut-curved. Top flanges of tub girders are treated as I-girder
Top flanges of tub girders may be curved according to flanges and may be heat-curved after they are welded to the
the provisions of Article 11.8.3.3.2. webs.
11.8.3.4—Web Attachments
Transverse stiffeners shall be bolted to the web or Transverse stiffeners are required to be attached to
welded to the web with continuous fillet welds on both longitudinal stiffeners because the full depth of the web is
sides of the stiffener. These welds shall be terminated considered for shear and transverse stiffeners are designed
between 4tw and the lesser of 6tw and 4.0 in. from the near to stiffen the web over that depth. Bearing stiffeners and
edge of the adjacent flange or longitudinal web stiffener connection plates also are designed as a single element
welds. If transverse stiffeners or transverse web elements over the web depth.
serving as stiffeners are interrupted by a longitudinal In regions of reverse bending, the stiffeners may have
stiffener, the transverse stiffeners shall be attached to the to be attached to both flanges. A bolted detail may be
longitudinal stiffener to develop the flexural and axial substituted for the end welds on tension flanges.
resistance of the transverse stiffener. If single-sided
transverse stiffeners are used, the end of the stiffener
should be attached to both flanges. Fillet welds on both
sides of the stiffener may be used.
When pairs of transverse stiffeners are used, they shall
be fitted tightly to both flanges.
Connection plates, otherwise identified as transverse Connection plates are connected to the flanges to
stiffeners at cross-frames and diaphragms, shall be attached prevent flange rotation or raking relative to the web and to
to both flanges by either welding or bolting. If a bolted transfer lateral forces from the cross-frames or diaphragms
connection is shown on the contract documents, a directly to the flanges. By direct connection to the flanges,
welded connection may not be substituted without through-thickness bending stresses in the web are
permission from the Engineer. minimized (Wilson et al., 1988).
Wherever practical, longitudinal stiffeners shall extend Longitudinal web stiffeners are designed as continuous
uninterrupted over their specified length unless otherwise members. Therefore, except as noted herein, the
permitted in the contract documents. Longitudinal longitudinal stiffeners must be made continuous wherever
stiffeners shall be bolted to the web or welded to the web practical. Base metal at ends of longitudinal stiffeners
with continuous fillet welds on both sides of the stiffener. should be investigated for fatigue. Copies should always be
Where longitudinal stiffeners are interrupted, they provided to avoid intersecting welds.
should be fitted to, and attached to, the continuous element
sufficiently to develop the required strength and stiffness of
the longitudinal stiffener.
11.8.3.5—Bolt Holes
11.8.3.6—Tolerances
Webs shall meet dimensional tolerances specified in Web flatness can be measured from a straightedge
the AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. oriented along the shortest line between flange-to-web
Flatness shall be measured with respect to a straightedge welds. The tolerance for unstiffened webs is determined
oriented perpendicular to the flanges. using the vertical distance along the web between flanges.
11.8.3.6.2—Camber C11.8.3.6.2
Cambers provided on the contract documents shall be The provisions of Article 6.7.2, “Dead Load Camber,”
adhered to unless steel erection or deck placement is to be of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
performed in a manner that will lead to deflections contain general instructions to the Engineer regarding the
different from those used to determine the camber camber of girders in straight skewed I-girder bridges and
specified. If the Contractor or the Contractor’s horizontally curved I-girder bridges with and without
Fabricator/Detailer or Erector intends other procedures or skewed supports.
outcomes, the approach shall be confirmed with the Camber is difficult to measure on curved girders. The
Owner’s Engineer, and any documentation required for vertical camber of I-girders may best be measured by
approval shall be provided at no cost to the Owner. Any laying the girder sections on their sides with the webs
required submissions should be made and approved prior to horizontal if twist camber is not provided. Camber may
the submission of the shop drawings for approval. also be checked by blocking the girders into their no-load
positions with their webs plumb. If a twist is cambered into
the girders, the vertical camber can best be checked by
blocking the girders to the near vertical position while
maintaining the no-load out-of-plumb orientation of the
webs along the girder length.
11.8.3.6.3—Sweep C11.8.3.6.3
Sweep tolerance shall meet the requirements of the The theoretical curve may be a constant radius, a
AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. compound radius, or a spiral. The theoretical offsets from a
Sweep tolerance shall be measured radially from the chord can be computed so that deviations from the
theoretical curve of the girder. theoretical offsets can be compared to the AASHTO/AWS
D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code (2002) permissible
values for sweep of a straight girder. These measurements
should be made with the girder vertical and in the no-load
condition.
Girder lengths shall be determined based on an Girder length is important with respect to location of
ambient temperature of 68°F. Girder length shall be anchor bolts. If a laser instrument, which is free from
measured along the arc. temperature effect, is used to survey either the anchor bolt
locations and/or the girder length, it is important that
compensation be made for temperature of the girder.
11.8.3.7—Fit-Up
11.8.3.7.1—General C11.8.3.7.1
Fit-up of girder sections shall meet the provisions of Article 11.5.3.1 requires that girder sections be fit up
Article 11.5.3, “Preassembly of Field Connections,” of to ensure proper fit in the field. This requirement generally
these Specifications. Unless otherwise specified in the is applied only to girder splices on multistringer bridges. If
Contractor’s construction plan, fit-up shall be assumed to numerically controlled drilling is used, only trial fit-up is
be performed under the no-load condition. usually required of cross-frames or diaphragms unless the
When numerically controlled drilling is employed, construction plan specifies that full fit-up is required. In
trial fit-up of cross-frames or diaphragms between properly special instances, three sections of the bridge may need to
positioned girder sections shall be performed as specified be fitted at one time. This requirement would normally be
in Article 11.5.3.3 of these specifications. applied to structures with particularly rigid or complex
Shop fit-up of bolted connections in load-carrying framing, or if numerically controlled drilling is not used.
connections of cross-frames and diaphragms to the girders
may be required for structures with complex geometry or
stiff elements.
Field splices may be fit up in either the vertical or Fit-up of girder splices can be performed in the same
horizontal position. Girder splices may be fit up prior to manner as for straight girders in most cases if the girder is
heat-curving. to be heat-curved. The web can have either a vertical or a
horizontal orientation. If the flanges are cut-curved, fit-up
of I-girder splices is usually performed with the flanges
horizontal after welding of the flanges to the web.
The design vertical camber must be in the girder when
girder splices are fit.
A Transportation Plan may be required by the Owner A Transportation Plan may be required if the girder
for complex or large structures. The type of girder supports sections are heavier, wider, deeper, or longer than normally
required and their locations shall be identified. The types, permitted by the selected transportation mode.
size, and locations of tie-downs shall be shown. A During transportation, the girders should not be
sufficient number of tie-downs shall be specified to provide subjected to stresses that could damage them by either
adequate redundancy. overstressing or by fatigue. Fatigue can be caused by
Girder stresses due to selfweight while being shipped longitudinal stresses in the girders or by through-thickness
shall be computed with a dynamic load allowance of stresses due to raking of the section. Where the stress range
100 percent. is less than the constant-amplitude fatigue threshold, the
The computed girder stresses shall satisfy the detail will theoretically provide infinite life. A 100 percent
provisions of Article 6.10.3.2 or 6.11.3.2 of the AASHTO dynamic load allowance is provided to account for
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, as applicable. dropping the girders on rigid supports.
Fatigue stresses shall not exceed the constant- In lieu of any alternative criteria, for control of
amplitude fatigue threshold for the appropriate categories dynamic lateral bending stresses during shipment, the
in Table 6.6.1.2.5-3 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design following limit on the length, Lc, in ft, of a single unbraced
Specifications. curved I-girder cantilever may be considered:
Wherever practical, girder sections should be shipped
0.25
in the same orientation as in the completed structure. ⎛I⎞
Girders shall be supported in such a manner that their Lc ≤ 36.0⎜ ⎟ (C11.8.4-1)
⎝ w⎠
cross-section shape is maintained and through-thickness
stresses are minimized. where:
Supports should be such to ensure that dynamic lateral
bending stresses are controlled. I = moment of inertia of the I-girder cross-section about
Temporary stiffening trusses or beams, if required to the vertical axis in the plane of the web (ft4)
meet the requirements of this section, shall be specified in
the Transportation Plan. w = I-girder weight per unit length (kip/ft)
11.8.5—Steel Erection
11.8.5.1—General C11.8.5.1
Erection shall be performed in accordance with the Article 11.2.2 requires that the Contractor supply
Contractor’s construction plan as approved by the erection drawings showing how the bridge will be erected,
Engineer. including falsework. Calculations are required to show that
Factored stresses due to selfweight of the steel and allowable stresses in the steel are not exceeded during
wind at each stage of erection shall not exceed those erection. Steel that does not fit in the field implies that
computed according to the provisions of Article 6.10.3 or stresses in the steel are inconsistent with those computed in
6.11.3, as applicable, of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design design. Excessive stresses may be relieved by temporary
Specifications and Article 11.6.4.2 of these Specifications. supports. If reaming is necessary, it should be done only
Reaming of bolt holes during erection shall be after the resulting stress state and the deflections have been
permitted only with the approval of the Engineer. investigated.
The bolted girder splices shall be field assembled The use of an adequate number of pins and bolts in
according to the provisions of Article 11.6.5 of these girder splices during fit-up, as specified in Article 11.6.5 of
Specifications. these Specifications, is important.
11.8.5.2—Falsework C11.8.5.2
Falsework shall be designed to carry vertical and Temporary supports are more often employed for
lateral loads that are specified in the construction plan. The curved girders than for straight girders of similar span
elevation of falsework shall be such as to support the because of the need to provide stability to the curved
girders at the cambered no-load elevation. Jacks used in girders.
conjunction with the falsework shall have a stroke adequate The elevation of the temporary supports must allow for
to permit full unloading. Unloading of temporary supports deflection of the erected steel after the temporary
should be performed such that all temporary supports at support(s) are removed. All jacks at a location should be
each cross-section are unloaded uniformly. released at once through a manifold arrangement to
Where appropriate, cranes may be substituted for minimize twisting of the steel.
falsework.
11.8.5.3—Bearings C11.8.5.3
Computed bearing rotation during construction shall During erection, the girder may be rotated beyond the
not exceed the rotational capacity of the bearing. Bearings rotational capacity of the bearing even if the load at the
shall be installed such that, after dead load has been time is within permitted limits. Skewed structures are
applied, sufficient rotation capacity shall be available to particularly susceptible to twisting about the longitudinal
accommodate rotations due to environmental loads and live axis of the girders.
load. Expansion bearings shall be installed so that they
will be in the center of the permitted travel at the ambient
temperature of 60°F unless otherwise specified by the
Owner.
11.8.5.4—I-Girders C11.8.5.4
The Contractor shall ensure that girders are stable Torsional restraint of curved I-girders is required at all
throughout the erection process. The stage of completeness times. Instability is manifest in greater lateral movement
of the bolted connections shall be considered when and rotation about the longitudinal axis of the girder that
evaluating the strength and stability of the steel during cannot be maintained by internal bracing.
erection.
The Contractor shall ensure that the cross-section Erection of closed box and tub girders is complicated by
shape of each box is maintained during erection. their large torsional stiffness. Shop fit-up of external
Top lateral bracing should be installed in tub girders diaphragms and cross-frames is important because the
prior to shipping and erection of the field pieces. torsional stiffness of the box makes field adjustment difficult.
11.8.6—Deck
11.8.6.1—Forms
11.8.6.1.1—General C11.8.6.1.1
Plywood, permanent metal forms, or concrete panels Deck forms should be attached firmly to the top flange
may be used as deck forms as approved by the Owner. in a manner approved by the Engineer. The forms should
Proprietary forms shall be placed in accordance with the not be considered to have adequate stiffness to act as bracing
Manufacturer’s specifications incorporating any for curved flanges.
modifications to those Specifications approved by the
Engineer. Form work shall be supported by the
superstructure.
11.8.6.1.2—Overhangs C11.8.6.1.2
Overhang forms shall be removed after the deck has Overhang forms are usually removed when the
cured. Wherever practical, overhang brackets should bear concrete has hardened.
near the bottom flange and be attached to the top flange. If Concrete and other loads on the overhangs cause
overhang brackets bear against the web, the Contractor’s eccentric loading on the girder. The result is additional
Engineer shall ensure that precautions have been taken to torsional forces on the exterior girder.
prevent permanent deformation of the web and excessive
deflection of the wet slab and forms. The lateral force on
the top flange due to overhang brackets shall be
investigated to ensure that the flange is adequate as
specified in Article 6.10.3.4, “Deck Placement,” of the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
Loads applied on the overhang brackets shall be
considered in determining lateral flange bending stresses,
cross-frame forces, and associated web and top flange
deformations. If the loads or their application are to be
different than those provided for in the contract documents,
an additional analysis shall be made by the Contractor and
approved by the Engineer.
Deck forms shall not be supported at locations other Since it is extremely difficult to remove deck forms
than girder flanges unless specifically considered in the from inside tub girders, permanent deck forms are
design. desirable.
Debris should not be allowed to remain in the box
because it obstructs subsequent inspection.
Concrete placements shall be made in the sequence When concrete is placed in a span adjacent to a span
specified in the approved construction plan. The time that already has a hardened deck, negative moment in the
between placements shall be such that the concrete in prior adjacent span causes tensile stresses and torsional shear
pours has reached an age or strength specified in the stress in the cured concrete.
construction plan. Any accelerating or retarding agents to If long placements are made such that the negative
be used in the concrete mix shall be specified. moment region is poured first, it is possible that this region
The duration of each placement shall be specified in will harden and be stressed in tension during the remainder of
the construction plan. Placements that include both the placement. This may cause early cracking of the deck.
negative and positive dead load moment regions should be It has been determined that placed concrete obtains
placed such that the positive moment region is poured first. composite action in a matter of hours. Therefore, the
appropriate age and strength of the freshly placed concrete
should be determined in part by the stress that will be
induced during subsequent deck section placements.
11.8.7—Reports
11.9.1—General C11.9.1
11.9.2—Procedure
11.10—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2002. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition, HB-17, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2003. Guide Specifications for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS70W Steel, HBF-2, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO and AWS. 2008. AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5:2008 Bridge Welding Code, Fifth Edition, BWC-5, American
Welding Society, Washington, DC.
AISC. 2003. LRFD Manual of Steel Construction, 3rd Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.
AISC. 2005. Steel Construction Manual, 13th Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.
AISC Quality Certification Program, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, Category I: Structural Steel
and Category III: Fracture-Critical. See http://www.aisc.org.
ASCE. 1970. “Experimental Stresses and Strains from Heat Curving,” Journal of the Structural Division, Volume 96,
No. ST7, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. Journal published since 1983 (vol. 109) under the title Journal
of Structural Engineering.
ASCE. 1970. “Theoretical Stresses and Strains from Heat Curving,” Journal of the Structural Division, Volume 96,
No. ST7, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. Journal published since 1983 (vol. 109) under the title Journal
of Structural Engineering.
ASCE. 1970. “Criteria for Heat Curving Steel Beams and Girders,” Journal of the Structural Division, Volume 96,
No. ST7, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. Journal published since 1983 (vol. 109) under the title Journal
of Structural Engineering.
ASME. Daniels, J. H., and R. P. Bacheler. 1979. Fatigue of Curved Steel Bridge Elements: Effect of Heat Curving on the
Fatigue Strength of Plate Girders, Report No. FHWA-RD-79-136, Federal Highway Administration, August 1979,
Washington, DC.
FHWA. 1999. Summary of High-Performance Steel Grade 70W Studies, Demonstration Project No. TE-50, High-
Performance for Bridges, Turner-Fairbank Highway Laboratories, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, VA,
October 1999.
Hilton, M. H. 1984. “Deflections and Camber Loss in Heat-Curved Girders.” Transportation Research Record 950, Vol. 2,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, pp. 51–59.
NSBA. 2007. Steel Bridge Erection Guide Specification, S10.1, National Steel Bridge Alliance, Chicago, IL. See also
AASHTO NSBASBEGS-1, 2007.
NSBA. 2008. Steel Bridge Fabrication Guide Specifications, S2.1, National Steel Bridge Alliance, Chicago, IL. See also
AASHTO NSBASBF-2, 2008.
Research Council on Structural Connections (RCSC). 2004. Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490
Bolts. American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.
S. Roy, J. W. Fisher, and B. T. Yen. 2005. Post-weld Enhancement in Fatigue Strength of Transverse Stiffeners and
Cover-plates using Ultrasonic Impact Treatment (UIT), Draft Report of FHWA. Report No. 05-12, ATLSS Engineering
Research Center, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.
S. Roy, J. W. Fisher. 2005. “Enhancing Fatigue Strength by Ultrasonic Impact Treatment.” International Journal of
Steel Structures, Vol. 5, pp. 241–252.
SSTC. 1996. Structural Bolting Handbook, SBH-1, Steel Structures Technology Center, Inc., Novi, MI.
U.S. Steel. 2001. Fabrication Aids for Continuously Heat-Curved Girders, ADUSS 88-5538-01, United States Steel
Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA.
U.S. Steel. 2002. Fabrication Aids for Girders Curved with V-Heats, ADUSS 88-5539-02, United States Steel
Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA.
Wilson, P. J., R. R. Duncan, III, and J. W. Fisher. 1988. Repair of Fatigue Cracks in Steel Box Girder Bridges on I-110.
Proceedings of the 5th Annual International Bridge Conference. Paper IBC-88-44, Pittsburgh, PA, pp. 234–241.
W. C. Young, and R. G. Budynas. 2002. Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 7th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12
12.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 12-1
12.1.1—Description ............................................................................................................................................. 12-1
12.1.2—Working Drawings ................................................................................................................................. 12-1
12.2—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 12-1
12.2.1—Steel ....................................................................................................................................................... 12-1
12.2.2—Protective Treatment .............................................................................................................................. 12-1
12.2.3—Concrete ................................................................................................................................................. 12-2
12.2.4—Skid Resistance ...................................................................................................................................... 12-2
12.3—ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS.................................................................................................................. 12-2
12.4—PROVISION FOR CAMBER .......................................................................................................................... 12-2
12.5—FIELD ASSEMBLY ........................................................................................................................................ 12-3
12.6—CONNECTION TO SUPPORTS ..................................................................................................................... 12-3
12.7—WELDING ....................................................................................................................................................... 12-3
12.8—REPAIRING DAMAGED GALVANIZED COATINGS ................................................................................ 12-4
12.9—PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE FILLER ........................................................................................................ 12-4
12.9.1—Forms ..................................................................................................................................................... 12-4
12.9.2—Placement ............................................................................................................................................... 12-4
12.10—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ............................................................................................................ 12-5
12.11—REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................... 12-5
12-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 12
12.1—GENERAL
12.1.1—Description C12.1.1
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing Steel grid flooring requirements refers to
steel grid flooring of the open type or of the concrete-filled Article 4.6.2.1, “Approximate Methods of Analysis for
type, as specified in the contract documents. When the Decks,” and Article 9.8.2, “Metal Grid Decks,” of the
Contractor is allowed to select any details of the design, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2007.
said details shall meet the requirements for the design of
steel grid floors specified in Articles 4.6.2.1 and 9.8.2 of
the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
12.1.2—Working Drawings
12.2—MATERIALS
12.2.1—Steel
12.2.2—Protective Treatment
12-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
12-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
12.2.3—Concrete
12.2.4—Skid Resistance
12.3—ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
12.5—FIELD ASSEMBLY
12.6—CONNECTION TO SUPPORTS
12.7—WELDING
12.9.1—Forms
12.9.2—Placement
12.11—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4, American
Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO and AWS. 2008. AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5:2008 Bridge Welding Code, Fifth Edition, BWC-5, American
Welding Society, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
13
13.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 13-1
13.1.1—Description ............................................................................................................................................. 13-1
13.1.2—Protection of Public and Property .......................................................................................................... 13-1
13.1.3—Protection of the Work ........................................................................................................................... 13-1
13.1.4—Thickness and Color .............................................................................................................................. 13-2
13.2—PAINTING METAL STRUCTURES .............................................................................................................. 13-2
13.2.1—Coating Systems and Paints ................................................................................................................... 13-2
13.2.2—Weather Conditions ............................................................................................................................... 13-2
13.2.3—Surface Preparation ................................................................................................................................ 13-3
13.2.3.1—Blast Cleaning .............................................................................................................................. 13-3
13.2.3.2—Steam Cleaning ............................................................................................................................ 13-4
13.2.3.3—Solvent Cleaning .......................................................................................................................... 13-4
13.2.3.4—Hand Cleaning ............................................................................................................................. 13-4
13.2.3.5—Power Washing ............................................................................................................................ 13-4
13.2.4—Application of Paints.............................................................................................................................. 13-4
13.2.4.1—Application of Zinc-Rich Primers ................................................................................................ 13-6
13.2.5—Measurement and Payment .................................................................................................................... 13-7
13.3—PAINTING GALVANIZED SURFACES ....................................................................................................... 13-7
13.4—PAINTING TIMBER ....................................................................................................................................... 13-7
13.4.1—General ................................................................................................................................................... 13-7
13.4.2—Preparation of Surfaces .......................................................................................................................... 13-7
13.4.3—Paint ....................................................................................................................................................... 13-8
13.4.4—Application............................................................................................................................................. 13-8
13.4.5—Painting Treated Timber ........................................................................................................................ 13-8
13.4.6—Payment ................................................................................................................................................. 13-8
13.5—PAINTING CONCRETE ................................................................................................................................. 13-9
13.5.1—Surface Preparation ................................................................................................................................ 13-9
13.5.2—Paint ....................................................................................................................................................... 13-9
13.5.3—Application............................................................................................................................................. 13-9
13.5.4—Measurement and Payment .................................................................................................................... 13-9
13.6—REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................... 13-10
13-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 13
PAINTING
13.1—GENERAL
13.1.1—Description
13-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
13-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
The dry film thickness of each coat and total thickness These provisions are taken from the AASHTO Guide
of the finished product shall be in accordance with the for Painting Steel Structures, AASHTO, 1997, which has
contract documents. The thickness of previously applied been discontinued. Please see the AASHTO–NSBA steel
coatings or of an existing coating that is to be top coated bridge collaboration document, Guide Specifications for
shall be determined in accordance with SSPC-PA 2, Application of Coating Systems with Zinc-Rich Primer to
Measurement of Dry Paint Thickness with Magnetic Gages, Steel Bridges. [SSPC is the Society for Protective Coatings,
prior to applying the next coat. formerly known as the Steel Structures Painting Council.]
Each coat of paint should be separately colored to
ensure complete coverage, and such that the previous coat
can be hidden by a single coat of the next application.
The coating system and paints to be applied shall Please see the AASHTO–NSBA steel bridge
consist of the system in the contract documents. collaboration document, Guide Specifications for Application
of Coating Systems with Zinc-Rich Primer to Steel Bridges.
13.2.2—Weather Conditions
All exposed surfaces of structural steel, except Please see the AASHTO–NSBA steel bridge
galvanized or metalized surfaces, shall be cleaned and collaboration document, Guide Specifications for
painted. Application of Coating Systems with Zinc-Rich Primer to
All surfaces of new structural steel shall be cleaned by Steel Bridges.
the blast-cleaning method unless otherwise specified in the
contract documents or approved in writing by the Engineer.
In repainting existing steel structures, the method of
cleaning shall be as specified in the contract documents.
Any damage to sound paint, on areas not designated for
treatment, resulting from the Contractor's operations shall
be repaired by the Contractor at the Contractor's expense to
the satisfaction of the Engineer.
The methods used in the cleaning of metal surfaces
shall conform to the specifications herein.
13.2.3.2—Steam Cleaning
Unless otherwise prohibited by the contract Solvent cleaning shall conform to Steel Structures
documents, solvents shall be used to remove oil, grease, Painting Council, SSPC-SP 1, November 1982.
and other soluble contaminants in accordance with the
requirements of SSPC-SP 1, Solvent Cleaning. Solvent
cleaning shall be performed prior to blast cleaning. If
contamination remains after blasting, the area shall be
recleaned with solvent.
13.2.3.4—Hand Cleaning
Power washing shall utilize water at a pressure Please see the AASHTO–NSBA steel bridge
between 0.8 to 1.5 ksi, applied with the nozzle no further collaboration document, Guide Specifications for
than 1.0 ft from the surface of the steel. Application of Coating Systems with Zinc-Rich Primer to
Steel Bridges.
The Contractor shall notify the Engineer, in writing, at Please see the AASHTO–NSBA steel bridge
least one week in advance of the date that cleaning and collaboration document, Guide Specifications for Application
painting operations are to begin. of Coating Systems with Zinc-Rich Primer to Steel Bridges.
13.4—PAINTING TIMBER
13.4.1—General
13.4.2—Preparation of Surfaces
13.4.3—Paint
13.4.4—Application
13.4.6—Payment
13.5—PAINTING CONCRETE
13.5.1—Surface Preparation
13.5.2—Paint C13.5.2
Unless otherwise specified in the contract documents, Prior to 2005, these Specifications referred to Federal
paint to be applied to concrete surfaces shall be acrylic Specification TT-P-19, which was superseded in April
emulsion and shall comply in all respects to the following 2000. Federal Specification TT-P-19 specified a 60-degree
Master Painters Institute Detailed Performance Standards: specular gloss between 0 and 20 units. The current MPI
specifications have 60-degree specular glosses as follows:
• MPI—#10 for flat paint, • MPI—#10 Flat (Gloss Level 1) 0–5 units
13.5.3—Application
13.6—REFERENCES
GSA. 60-Degree Specular Gloss, Federal Specification TT-P-19, U.S. General Services Administration. Cancelled; see
MPI #10, #11, #15, and #119 listed below.
MPI. 2001. MPI Detailed Performance Standard—#10. Master Painters Institute, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
MPI. 2001. MPI Detailed Performance Standard—#11. Master Painters Institute, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
MPI. 2001. MPI Detailed Performance Standard—#15. Master Painters Institute, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
MPI. 2001. MPI Detailed Performance Standard—#119. Master Painters Institute, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
NSBA. 2006. Guide Specifications for Application of Coating Systems with Zinc-Rich Primer to Steel Bridges, S8.1,. National
Steel Bridge Alliance, Chicago, IL. See also AASHTO NSBASBCS-2, 2006.
SSPC. 1982. Solvent Cleaning, SSPC-SP 1,. Steel Structures Painting Council, [now the Society for Protective Coatings],
Pittsburgh, PA.
SSPC. 1991. Measurement of Dry Coating Thickness with Magnetic Gages, SSPC-PA 2, Steel Structures Painting Council,
[now the Society for Protective Coatings], Pittsburgh, PA.
SSPC. 1991. Near-White Blast Cleaning, SSPC-SP 10, Steel Structures Painting Council, [now the Society for Protective
Coatings], Pittsburgh, PA.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
14
14.1—DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................................ 14-1
14.1.1—Rubble Masonry ..................................................................................................................................... 14-1
14.1.2—Ashlar Masonry...................................................................................................................................... 14-1
14.2—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 14-1
14.2.1—General ................................................................................................................................................... 14-1
14.2.1.1—Rubble Stone ................................................................................................................................ 14-1
14.2.1.2—Ashlar Stone................................................................................................................................. 14-1
14.2.2—Shipment and Storage of Stone .............................................................................................................. 14-2
14.2.3—Mortar .................................................................................................................................................... 14-2
14.3—MANUFACTURE OF STONE FOR MASONRY ........................................................................................... 14-2
14.3.1—General ................................................................................................................................................... 14-2
14.3.2—Surface Finishes of Stone ....................................................................................................................... 14-3
14.3.3—Rubble Masonry ..................................................................................................................................... 14-3
14.3.3.1—Size .............................................................................................................................................. 14-3
14.3.3.2—Shape ........................................................................................................................................... 14-3
14.3.3.3—Dressing ....................................................................................................................................... 14-4
14.3.4—Ashlar Masonry...................................................................................................................................... 14-4
14.3.4.1—Size .............................................................................................................................................. 14-4
14.3.4.2—Dressing ....................................................................................................................................... 14-4
14.3.4.3—Stretchers ..................................................................................................................................... 14-4
14.3.5—Arch Ring Stones ................................................................................................................................... 14-4
14.4—CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 14-5
14.4.1—Weather Conditions ............................................................................................................................... 14-5
14.4.2—Mixing Mortar........................................................................................................................................ 14-5
14.4.3—Selection and Placing of Stone ............................................................................................................... 14-5
14.4.3.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 14-5
14.4.3.2—Rubble Masonry........................................................................................................................... 14-6
14.4.3.3—Ashlar Masonry ........................................................................................................................... 14-6
14.4.4—Beds and Joints ...................................................................................................................................... 14-6
14.4.5—Headers .................................................................................................................................................. 14-7
14.4.6—Cores and Backing ................................................................................................................................. 14-7
14.4.6.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 14-7
14.4.6.2—Stone ............................................................................................................................................ 14-7
14.4.6.3—Concrete ....................................................................................................................................... 14-7
14.4.6.4—Leveling Courses ......................................................................................................................... 14-8
14.4.7—Facing for Concrete................................................................................................................................ 14-8
14.4.8—Copings .................................................................................................................................................. 14-8
14.4.8.1—Stone ............................................................................................................................................ 14-8
14.4.8.2—Concrete ....................................................................................................................................... 14-9
14.4.9—Dowels and Cramps ............................................................................................................................... 14-9
14.4.10—Weep Holes .......................................................................................................................................... 14-9
14.4.11—Pointing ................................................................................................................................................ 14-9
14.4.12—Arches ................................................................................................................................................ 14-10
14.5—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ............................................................................................................ 14-10
14.6—REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................... 14-11
14-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 14
STONE MASONRY
14
14.1—DESCRIPTION C14.1
This work shall consist of the construction of stone The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications do
masonry structures and the stone masonry portions of not cover stone masonry. The provisions of the
composite structures, in accordance with these 17th Edition of the AASHTO Standard Specification for
Specifications and in reasonably close conformity with the Highway Bridges shall be used.
lines and grades shown in the contract documents or
established by the Engineer.
14.1.1—Rubble Masonry
14.1.2—Ashlar Masonry
14.2—MATERIALS
14.2.1—General
14.2.1.1—Rubble Stone
14.2.1.2—Ashlar Stone
14-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
14-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
14.2.3—Mortar
14.3.1—General
14.3.3—Rubble Masonry
14.3.3.1—Size
14.3.3.2—Shape
14.3.3.3—Dressing
14.3.4—Ashlar Masonry
14.3.4.1—Size
14.3.4.2—Dressing
14.3.4.3—Stretchers
14.4—CONSTRUCTION
14.4.1—Weather Conditions
14.4.2—Mixing Mortar
14.4.3.1—General
When masonry is placed on a prepared foundation bed,
the bed shall be firm and normal to, or in steps normal to,
the face of the wall, and approved by the Engineer before
any stone is placed. When it is placed on foundation
masonry, the bearing surface of the foundation masonry
shall be cleaned thoroughly and in a saturated-surface dry
condition when the mortar bed is spread.
All masonry shall be constructed by experienced
workers. Face stones shall be set in random bond to
produce the effect specified in the contract documents.
Care shall be taken to prevent the bunching of small
stones or stones of the same size. When weathered or colored
stones or stones of varying texture are being used, care shall
be exercised to distribute the various kinds of stones
uniformly throughout the exposed faces of the work. Large
stones shall be used for the bottom courses and large, selected
stones shall be used in the corners. In general, the stones shall
decrease in size from the bottom to the top of work.
14.4.5—Headers
14.4.6.1—General
14.4.6.2—Stone
14.4.6.3—Concrete
14.4.6.4—Leveling Courses
14.4.8—Copings
14.4.8.1—Stone
14.4.8.2—Concrete
14.4.10—Weep Holes
14.4.11—Pointing
14.4.12—Arches
14.6—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2002. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition, HB-17, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
15
15.1—DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................................ 15-1
15.2—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 15-1
15.2.1—Concrete Block ...................................................................................................................................... 15-1
15.2.2—Brick ...................................................................................................................................................... 15-1
15.2.3—Reinforcing Steel ................................................................................................................................... 15-1
15.2.4—Mortar .................................................................................................................................................... 15-1
15.2.5—Grout ...................................................................................................................................................... 15-2
15.2.6—Sampling and Testing............................................................................................................................. 15-2
15.2.6.1—Mortar .......................................................................................................................................... 15-2
15.2.6.2—Grout ............................................................................................................................................ 15-2
15.3—CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 15-3
15.3.1—Weather Conditions ............................................................................................................................... 15-3
15.3.2—Laying Block and Brick ......................................................................................................................... 15-3
15.3.3—Placement of Reinforcement .................................................................................................................. 15-4
15.3.4—Grouting of Voids .................................................................................................................................. 15-4
15.3.5—Copings, Bridge Seats, and Backwalls ................................................................................................... 15-5
15.4—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT .............................................................................................................. 15-6
15.5—REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................. 15-6
15-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 15
Concrete block and brick masonry shall consist of The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications do
concrete blocks or brick laid in cement mortar and may be not cover concrete block and brick masonry. The
unreinforced or reinforced with steel reinforcing. Block or provisions of the 17th Edition of the AASHTO Standard
brick pavements are not included under this designation. Specifications for Highway Bridges shall be used.
15.2—MATERIALS
15.2.1—Concrete Block
15.2.2—Brick
15.2.3—Reinforcing Steel
15.2.4—Mortar
15-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
15-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
15.2.5—Grout
15.2.6.1—Mortar
15.2.6.2—Grout
15.3—CONSTRUCTION
15.3.1—Weather Conditions
15.3.3—Placement of Reinforcement
15.3.4—Grouting of Voids
15.5—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2002. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition, HB-17, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
16-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 16
TIMBER STURCTURES
16.1—GENERAL
16.1.1—Related Work
16.2—MATERIALS
Sawn lumber and timber shall conform to the Structural glue laminated timber, as employed in
Specifications for Wood Products, AASHTO M 168. ANSI/AITC A-190.1, is an engineered, stress-rated product
Structural glue laminated timber shall conform to the of a timber laminating plant, comprising assemblies of
American National Standard ANSI/AITC A-190.1, suitably selected and prepared wood laminations securely
Specification for Structural Glue Laminated Timber. The bonded together with wet-use adhesives. The grain of all
separate laminations may not exceed 2.0 in. in net laminations is approximately parallel longitudinally.
thickness. They may be comprised of pieces end-joined to
form any length, of pieces placed or glued edge to edge to
make wider ones, or of pieces bent to curved form during
gluing. On glue laminated structural members that are not
to be preservatively treated, an approved end sealer shall be
applied after end trimming of each completed member.
The grades of timber used for various structural
purposes shall be as specified in the contract documents.
Structural lumber and timber, solid sawn or glue
laminated, in exposed permanent structures, other than
running planks on decks, shall be treated in conformance
with the requirements of Section 17, “Preservative Treatment
of Wood.” Preservative treatment may be omitted for
temporary structures or lumber and timber of certain species
with adequate heartwood requirements, as listed in AASHTO
M 168, when permitted by the contract documents.
16-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
16-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
16.2.2—Steel Components
16.2.3—Castings
16.2.4—Hardware
16.2.5—Galvanizing
16.2.5.1—General
16.2.6—Timber Connectors
16.2.6.1—Dimensions
Split Rings
2.5 in. 4.0 in.
Split Ring
Inside Diameter at Center 2.500 4.00
When Closed
Thickness of Metal at Center 0.163 0.193
Depth of Metal (Width of 0.750 1.00
Ring)
Groove
Inside Diameter 2.56 4.08
Width 0.18 0.21
Depth 0.375 0.50
Bolt Diameter 0.5 0.75
Hole Diameter 0.5625 0.8125
Washers, Standard
Round, Cast or Malleable Iron
Diameter 2.625 3.0
Round, Mild Steel
Diameter 1.375 2.0
Thickness 0.09375 0.15625
Square Plate, Mild Steel
Length of Side 2.0 3.0
Thickness 0.125 0.1875
Split rings of 2.5-in. inside diameter and 4.0-in. inside Split ring connector dimensions refer to SAE 1010
diameter shall be manufactured from hot-rolled carbon steel carbon steel located in the Society of Automotive Engineers
conforming to the Society of Automotive Engineers Specification Manual, Volume 1, 1995.
Specification SAE 1010. Each ring shall form a closed true
circle with the principal axis of the cross section of the ring
metal parallel to the geometric axis of the ring. The metal
section shall be beveled from the central portion toward the
edges to a thickness less than the midsection. It shall be cut
through in one place in its circumference to form a tongue
and slot.
Pressed steel shear-plates of 2.625-in. diameter shall be Split ring connector dimensions refer to SAE 1010
manufactured from hot-rolled carbon steel conforming to carbon steel located in the Society of Automotive Engineers
the Society of Automotive Engineers Specification Specification Manual, Volume 1, 1995.
SAE 1010. Each plate shall be a true circle with a flange
around the edge, extending at right angles to the face of the
plate and extending from one face only, the plate portion
having a central bolt hole and two small perforations on
opposite sides of the hole and midway from the center and
circumference.
Malleable iron shear-plates of 4.0-in. diameter shall be
manufactured according to ASTM A47/A47M,
Grade 32510 (Grade 22010), for malleable iron casting.
Each casting shall consist of a perforated round plate with a
flange around the edge extending at right angles to the face
of the plate and projecting from one face only, the plate
portion having a central bolt hole reamed to size with an
integral hub concentric to the bolt hole and extending from
the same face as the flange.
16.2.6.4—Spike-Grid Connectors
16.3.1—Quality
16.3.2—Storage of Material
16.3.3—Treated Timber
16.3.3.1—Handling
16.3.3.4—Bored Holes
16.3.3.5—Temporary Attachment
16.3.4—Installation of Connectors
16.3.7—Countersinking
16.3.8—Framing
16.3.9—Framed Bents
16.3.9.1—Mud Sills
16.3.9.2—Concrete Pedestals
16.3.9.3—Sills
16.3.9.4—Posts
16.3.9.5—Caps
16.3.9.6—Bracing
16.3.10—Stringers
16.3.11—Plank Floors
16.3.16—Trusses
16.4—PAINTING
16.5—MEASUREMENT
16.6—PAYMENT
16.7—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
ANSI and AITC. 2002. American National Standard for Structural Glued Laminated Timber, ANSI/AITC A190.1,
American Institute of Timber Construction, Englewood, CO.
ASME. 1979. Metric Heavy Hex Nuts, B18.2.4.6M, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Fairfield, NJ.
Reaffirmed 1998.
ASME. 1987. Square and Hex Nuts, B18.2.2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Fairfield, NJ. Inch series.
Reaffirmed 1999.
AWPA. 2002. Standard for the Care of Preservative-Treated Wood Products, AWPA M4-02, American Wood-Preservers’
Association, Selma, AL.
SAE. 1995. Society of Automotive Engineers Specification Manual, Volume 1, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
17
17.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 17-1
17.2—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 17-1
17.2.1—Wood...................................................................................................................................................... 17-1
17.2.2—Preservatives and Treatments ................................................................................................................. 17-1
17.2.3—Coal-Tar Roofing Cement ...................................................................................................................... 17-1
17.3—IDENTIFICATION AND INSPECTION......................................................................................................... 17-2
17.3.1—Branding and Job Site Inspection ........................................................................................................... 17-2
17.3.2—Inspection at Treatment Plant................................................................................................................. 17-2
17.3.3—Certificate of Compliance ...................................................................................................................... 17-2
17.4—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT .............................................................................................................. 17-2
17.5—REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................. 17-3
17-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 17
17.2—MATERIALS
17.2.1—Wood
Timber preservatives and treatment methods shall AASHTO M 133 designates the preservatives and
conform to AASHTO M 133. The type of preservative retentions recommended for coastal waters and in marine
furnished shall be in accordance with that specified in the structures and further that timber for use in “ground or
contract documents. water contact” has requirements that differ from timbers for
Unless otherwise specified in the contract documents, use “not in ground or water contact.” In some instances,
timber railings and posts and timber that are to be painted there is a range of retentions offered which provides for
shall be treated with pentachlorophenol with a Type C different degrees of exposure based on climate or degree of
solvent or with a water-borne preservative of either insect infestation. Unless the higher retentions are specified
Type CCA or ACZA. in the contract documents, not less than the minimum
retention is required.
For purposes of these Specifications, pitch, coal-tar Coal-tar roofing cement is a residue of the
pitch, coal-tar roofing pitch, or coal-tar roofing compound manufacturing of coke and creosote from bituminous coal.
shall mean coal-tar roofing cement wherever the terms are It shall be a thick, heavy-bodied, and paste-like material.
used. When called for, it can be mixed with creosote. It may or
may not contain fibrous material.
17-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
17-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
Unless otherwise specified in the contract documents, The AWPB “FDN” grademark is applied only to wood
inspection of materials and preservative treatment shall be treated under the quality control provisions of the American
the responsibility of the Contractor and the supplier of Wood Preservers Bureau, P.O. Box 6085, 2772 South
treated wood products. Inspections shall be conducted in Randolph Street, Arlington, VA 22206. This grademark
accordance with AASHTO M 133 by the treater or an provides assurance that the products meet the treatment
independent commercial inspection agency approved by the level required by the standards of the AWPB.
American Wood Preservers Bureau (AWPB) and the
Engineer.
The inspection agency shall be engaged by the
Contractor directly or through the Contractor’s supplier. No
direct compensation will be made for these inspection
costs, it being understood that the costs of inspection shall
be included in the contract bid prices for treated wood
products or construction items of work.
17.3.3—Certificate of Compliance
17.5—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BEARING DEVICES
18.1—GENERAL C18.1
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing Bearing types include, but are not limited to,
bridge bearings and the bedding of materials used under elastomeric pad, rocker, roller, pot, spherical, disc, and
masonry plates. sliding plate bearings. Included as components of bearings
Bearings shall be constructed in accordance with the are masonry, sole and shim plates, bronze or
details shown in the contract documents. When complete copper-alloyed bearing and expansion plates, anchor bolts,
details are not provided, bearings shall be furnished that guide devices, Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) sheets or
conform to the limited details shown in the contract surfacing, lubricants, and adhesives.
documents and shall provide the design capacities for loads The Designer and the Contractor must provide sufficient
and movements shown or specified and the performance information to permit manufacture and certification of the
characteristics specified. bearing. This requires additional information when a higher
level certification is required. The design load is required
because it is needed in some of the test procedures.
Designing bearings for replacement is important
because even high-quality bearings have in some cases
been known to fail because of unanticipated forces or other
conditions. Setting the bearing in a shallow recess in the
masonry plate is a simple way of making replacement easy.
The mating parts of each bearing, especially machined
metal bearings such as self-lubricating bronze bearings,
should be furnished by a single Manufacturer in order to
ensure proper fitting of the mating surfaces.
18.1.1—Working Drawings
18-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
18-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
18.1.2—Materials
18.1.2.1—Rolled Steel
18.1.2.2—Steel Laminates
18.1.2.3—Cast Steel
18.1.2.4—Forged Steel
Stainless steel shall conform to the requirements of Stainless steel welding is sometimes used to create a
ASTM A167, Type 304 or ASTM A240/A240M, Type 304 continuous overlay over carbon steel plate, for example, in
and shall have a minimum thickness of 20 gage (0.91 mm) spherical sliding bearings. The stainless steel layer so
and a surface finish in the finished bearing better than or created is then machined to give a smooth surface.
equal to 8.0 μin. Stainless steel in contact with PTFE sheet
shall be polished to a finish no less than 20 μin.
Prior to shipment from the point of manufacture, Small amounts of grit, dirt, or other contamination can
bearings shall be packaged in such a manner to ensure that seriously detract from the good performance which could
during shipment and storage the bearings will be protected otherwise be obtained from a bearing. It is, therefore, very
against damage from handling, weather, or any normal important that the bearing should not be opened up on site,
hazard. Each completed bearing shall have its components except under the supervision of the Manufacturer or his
clearly identified, be securely bolted, strapped, or otherwise agent.
fastened to prevent any relative movement, and be marked
on its top as to location and orientation in each structure in
the project in conformity with the contract documents.
All bearing devices and components shall be stored at
the work site in an area that provides protection from
environmental and physical damage. When installed,
bearings shall be clean and free of all foreign substances.
Dismantling of bearings at the site shall not be done
unless absolutely necessary for inspection or installation.
Bearings shall not be opened or dismantled at the site
except under the direct supervision of or with the approval
of the Manufacturer.
18.1.4—Manufacture or Fabrication
18.1.4.1—General C18.1.4.1
The Manufacturer shall certify that each bearing In the short term, marking simplifies the identification
satisfies the requirements of the contract documents and of the correct bearings and establishing which way up they
these Specifications, and shall supply the Engineer a should be placed at the job site. In the long term, it may
certified copy of material test results. Each reinforced permit the removal of bearings after a number of years of
bearing shall be marked in indelible ink or flexible paint. service to check the change in material properties over
The marking shall consist of the orientation, the order time. It also helps in settling disputes.
number, lot number, bearing identification number, and
elastomer type and grade number. Unless otherwise
specified in the contract documents, the marking shall be
on the face that is visible after erection of the bridge.
Unless otherwise specified in the contract documents,
the surface finish of bearing components that come into
contact with each other or with concrete, but are not
embedded in concrete, shall conform to the requirements of
Section 11, “Steel Structures.”
Bearing assemblies shall be preassembled in the shop
by the supplier and checked for proper completeness and
geometry before shipping to the site.
Unless otherwise specified in the contract documents,
steel bearing components other than stainless steel,
including anchor bolts, shall be galvanized in accordance
with Article 11.3.7, “Galvanizing.”
18.1.4.2—Fabrication Tolerances
Flatness or Surface
Thickness Dimension Out-of-Round Finish,
Item Tolerance, in. Tolerance, in. Tolerance, in. μin.(rms)
Metal Rocker & Roller Bearings —
Single Roller: Diameter — –0.063, +0.063 -0.001, +0.001 63
Nested Roller: Diameter — –0.002, +0.002 –0.001, +0.001 63
Rockers: Diameter — –0.125, +0.125 –0.001, +0.001 125
Pins: Diameter — –0.005, +0.000 –0.002, +0.002 32
Bushings: Diameter — –0.000, +0.005 –0.002, +0.002 32
Pot Bearings
Overall Dimensions –0.000, +0.250 –0.000, +0.125 — —
Pot Depth (Inside) — –0.000, +0.025 — —
Pot Wall: Thickness and Average Inside –0.000, +0.125 –0.003, +0.003 –0.001, +0.001 32
Diameter
Pot Base: Top and Bottom Surfaces –0.000, +0.025 — Class C 63
Piston: Rim –0.000, +0.063 –0.003, +0.003 –0.001, +0.001 32
Piston: Top and Bottom Surfaces –0.000, +0.025 — Class C 63
Elastomeric Disc (Unstressed) –0.000, +0.125 –0.000, +0.063 — —
Disc Bearings
Overall Dimensions –0.000, +0.250 –0.000, +0.125 — —
Shear-Restricting Element — –0.000, +0.005 Class A 32
Other Machined Parts –0.000, +0.063 –0.000, +0.063 Class B 63
Urethane Disc –0.000, +0.063 –0.000, +0.125 Class B 63
Flat PTFE Sliding Bearings
PTFE –0.000, +0.063 –0.000, +0.030 Class A —
Stainless Steel –0.000, +0.063 –0.000, +0.125 Class A #8 Mirror
Flat Bronze and Copper Alloy Sliding Bearings
Sliding Surfaces –0.000, +0.125 –0.000, +0.125 Class A 32
Curved PTFE Sliding Bearings
Convex Radius — –0.010, +0.000 –0.002, +0.002 #8 Mirror
Concave Radius — –0.000, +0.010 –0.002, +0.002 125
Curved Bronze and Copper Alloy Sliding
Bearings
Convex Radius — –0.010, +0.000 –0.002, +0.002 32
Concave Radius — –0.000, +0.010 –0.002, +0.002 32
Guides
Contact Surface — –0.000, +0.125 Class A 32
Distance between Guides — –0.000, +0.030 — —
Parallelism of Guides — ±0.005 rad — —
Load Plates
Overall Dimensions –0.063, +0.063 –0.250, +0.250 Class A 125
Bevel Slope ±0.002 rad — — —
18.1.5.1—General
18.1.5.1.1—Scope C18.1.5.1.1
Testing and acceptance criteria for bearings shall The purpose of testing is to ensure a good quality
conform to the minimum requirements specified in Article finished bearing. The obvious way to achieve this is to
18.1.5.2. The Engineer may require more stringent conduct rigorous tests on every bearing. However, this is
standards. economically infeasible and resorting to other methods
When bearings are manufactured from a number of may be necessary for certain tests.
components, each component shall satisfy the testing
requirements from the applicable article.
The Engineer shall be given free access to inspect the
manufacture of the bearings at all times.
18.1.5.2—Tests
18.1.5.2.1—General
The coefficient of friction between the two mating It is important that the material tested here is identical
surfaces shall be measured. Tests shall be made on samples to that used in the finished bearing. In particular, no
taken from the same batch of materials as those used in the lubricant whatsoever should be applied during the test
bearings. Only new materials shall be used and no material unless it is also required in the finished bearing and the
that has been previously tested shall be used. stainless steel mating surface should be new for every piece
The surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned with a of material tested. Thus, the same piece of stainless steel
degreasing solvent. No lubrication other than that specified should not be used for more than one PTFE specimen in
for the bearings shall be used. The mating surfaces for the the PTFE material tests. The friction coefficients which
test pieces shall have a common area no less than the constitute the performance criteria for the tests are directly
smaller of the bearing area or 7.0 in.2. related to the values used in design.
The test pieces shall be loaded in compression to a The friction coefficient decreases with increasing
stress corresponding to the service limit state design compressive stress, while it increases with velocity. As
capacity of the bearings, which shall be held constant for such, testing at the design capacity (which is typically
1 h prior to and throughout the duration of the sliding test. greater than the design load and provided by the Owner)
At least 100 cycles of sliding, each consisting of at least will tend to underestimate the coefficient of friction. A
±1.0 in. of movement, shall then be applied at a testing speed of 2.5 in. per min. is faster than what would
temperature of 68°F ± 2°F. The uniform sliding speed shall be expected in service. Consequently, the biasing effects
be 2.5 in. per min. caused by the compressive stress and speed at which this
test is conducted may be somewhat offset.
The sliding friction coefficient shall be computed for Static friction is larger than dynamic or sliding friction,
each direction of each cycle. The initial static breakaway and the dynamic coefficient of friction is larger for the first
coefficient of friction for the first cycle shall not exceed cycle of movement than it is for later cycles.
twice the design coefficient of friction. The maximum
sliding coefficient of friction for all subsequent cycles shall
not exceed the design coefficient of friction. Failure of a
single sample shall result in rejection of the entire lot.
Following the 100 cycles of testing, the sliding coefficient
of friction shall be determined again and shall not exceed the
initial value. The bearing or specimen shall show no
appreciable sign of wear, bond failure, or other defects.
The dimensions of all bearings shall be checked by the An accumulation of dimensional tolerances may still
Manufacturer and shall be recorded and provided to the result in a bearing not functioning properly. The clearance
Engineer. Failure of a bearing dimension to satisfy any test, as provided in Article 18.1.5.2.5, provides an
dimensional tolerance shall be cause, at the discretion of additional safeguard for these cases.
the Engineer, for rejection of the bearing or a lot. Flatness
shall be checked by placing a precision straightedge on the
surface to be checked and by inserting feeler gages
between the two. The straightedge shall be placed at
different orientations and the worst condition shall be
established. No more than three feeler gages may be
stacked on top of one another. The straightedge shall be as
long as the largest dimension of the flat surface.
All dimension checks shall satisfy the tolerances of
Article 18.1.4.2.
18.1.5.2.5—Clearance Test
No lubrication shall be applied except that used for the The purpose of the bearing friction test is to verify
whole lot of bearings. The bearing shall be loaded in that the friction values achieved in the material friction tests are
compression at its service limit state design capacity, which adequate predictors of the friction in the finished bearing.
shall be held constant for 1 h prior to and throughout the
duration of the sliding test. At least 12 cycles of sliding,
each consisting of the smaller of the design displacement
and ±1.0 in. of movement, shall then be applied. The
average sliding speed shall be between 0.1 and 1.0 in.
per min. When the test is applied to curved sliding bearings,
the design rotation shall be used in place of the
displacement.
For flat sliding bearings, the sliding friction coefficient Because this test is conducted at the service limit state
shall be computed for each direction of each cycle, and its design capacity at slower speeds than those specified in
mean and standard deviation shall be computed for the Article 18.1.5.2.3, the measured coefficient of friction may
sixth through twelfth cycles. Neither the friction coefficient be lower. As such, the pass/fail criteria for this test can be
for the first movement nor the mean plus two standard more refined than that given in Article 18.1.5.2.3. See also
deviations for the sixth through twelfth cycles shall exceed Article C18.1.5.2.3 for further information.
the value used in design, and the mean value for the sixth
through the twelfth cycles shall not exceed two-thirds of
the value used in design.
In curved sliding surfaces, the moment corresponding
to the design rotation shall be established at each peak
movement (positive and negative) during the first and last
six full cycles of testing. The corresponding load
eccentricity shall be calculated by dividing the moment by
the total compressive load acting. The eccentricity shall be
small enough that the allowable stresses on the PTFE used
in design are not violated.
At the discretion of the Owner, the contract documents The purpose of the long-term deterioration test is to
shall specify if the long-term deterioration test is to be verify the long-term resistance of the materials to creep,
conducted on a per lot basis or if the test is satisfied by pre- wear, and deterioration. The long-term deterioration test
qualification. The Owner’s pre-qualification criteria or may be conducted on a pair of bearings placed back-to-
contract documents, as applicable, shall specify whether back.
the test is to be conducted on full size bearings, scaled Because the long-term tests require more complicated
down versions of the bearings, components of bearings, test machinery and a longer test time, they are inevitably
samples of the materials used in the bearings, or a more expensive than short-term ones. Therefore, the
combination of these. Other pre-qualification criteria frequency of and manner in which each of these tests are
associated with the long-term deterioration test shall be as conducted may be determined separately by the Owner.
specified by the Owner. The considerations Owners should take into account
The samples shall have an area not less than 7.0 in.2. include, but are not limited to:
The test piece shall first be loaded in compression to a
stress corresponding to the service limit state design • Schedule of project,
capacity of the bearings. Flat sliding systems shall then be
displaced through at least 1000 cycles with an amplitude of • Pre-qualification, and
at least ±1.0 in. (2.0 in. peak to peak). Curved sliding
systems and rotational systems that depend on deformation • Appropriate bearing test configuration.
of an elastomeric element shall be subjected to 5000 cycles
or displacements corresponding to a rotation of plus or Changes in the design configuration of a pre-qualified
minus the design amplitude. The sliding may take place at bearing will necessitate re-qualification via re-testing. At
up to 10.0 in. per min, except when readings of the the Owner’s discretion, however, the requirement to re-test
coefficient of friction are taken, at which time the sliding may be waived if the change or changes to a pre-qualified
speed shall be 2.5 in. per min. bearing design may not fundamentally alter its long term
performance.
One or more loading combinations, consisting of a This test is only for bearings which must resist
horizontal and vertical service-load which could exist prescribed horizontal forces. The purpose of the test is to
simultaneously in the structure, shall be selected. The verify that the bearing is stable and that the guide or restraint
vertical load shall be applied first, at 1.0 times its nominal system has adequate strength under the most severe realistic
value. The horizontal load shall be applied in stages, up to combination of horizontal and vertical loads. Selection of an
1.5 times its nominal value. Failure or excessive deflection impossible load combination may result in unwarranted
of any of the components shall be cause for rejection. rejection of the bearing. Bearings which must carry a large
ratio of horizontal to vertical force are frequently an
indicator of a poorly thought-out bearing system.
18.1.6—Performance Criteria
18.2—ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS
18.2.1—Scope
18.2.2—General Requirements
18.2.3—Materials C18.2.3
The raw elastomer shall be either virgin Neoprene At present, only natural rubber (polyisoprene) and
(polychloroprene) or virgin natural rubber (polyisoprene). Neoprene (polychloroprene) are permitted. This is because
The elastomer compound shall be classified as being of both have an extensive history of satisfactory use. In
low-temperature Grade 0, 2, 3, 4, or 5. The grades and addition, much more field experience exists with these two
other material properties are defined in the AASHTO LRFD materials than with any other and almost all of it is
Bridge Design Specifications, Section 14 and AASHTO satisfactory.
M 251. A higher grade of elastomer may be substituted for The low-temperature grading system addresses the
a lower one. problem of stiffening of the elastomer at low temperatures.
Special compounding and curing are needed to avoid the
problem, but they increase cost and, in extreme cases, may
adversely affect some other properties. These adverse
effects can be minimized by choosing a grade of elastomer
appropriate for the conditions prevailing at the site. The
grades follow the approach of AASHTO M 251 with some
stringent low-temperature test criteria for higher grades.
18.2.4—Fabrication
18.2.5—Testing C18.2.5
Materials for elastomeric bearings and the finished Testing requirements fall into two main categories:
bearings themselves shall be subjected to the tests material quality-control tests and load tests on the finished
described in AASHTO M 251. bearings to detect poor fabrication.
Complete bearings may be tested and this is most
easily done using two identical bearings on top of one
another with a shear load plate between them. However, in
bearings with more than two or three layers, bending and
buckling effects may reduce the shear stiffness of the
complete bearing below the value GA/hrt given by the
simple shear model. It is important to distinguish between
unacceptable material and failure to analyze the rather
complicated behavior with sufficient accuracy.
18.2.6—Installation C18.2.6
Elastomeric bearings without external load plates may If the bearing seat is not horizontal, gravity loads will
be placed directly on a concrete or steel surface provided cause shear in the elastomer. The underside of the girder
that it is flat to within a tolerance of 0.005 of the nominal and the top surface of the bearing must also be parallel to
dimension for steel reinforced bearings and 0.01 of the avoid imposing excessive rotation and the stresses it causes
nominal dimension for others. Bearings shall be placed on in the bearing.
surfaces that are horizontal to within 0.01 rad. Any lack of
parallelism between the top of the bearing and the
underside of the girder that exceeds 0.01 rad shall be
corrected by grouting or as otherwise directed by the
Engineer.
Exterior plates of the bearing shall not be welded Welding to load plates should be avoided if possible. If
unless at least 1.5 in. of the steel exists between the weld it must be done, proper precautions should be taken to
and the elastomer. In no case shall the elastomer or the avoid damaging the bond by heat.
bond be subjected to temperature higher than 400°F.
18.3.1—General
18.3.2—Materials
18.3.2.1—General
18.3.2.2—Steel
18.3.2.3—Stainless Steel
The sealing rings between the steel piston and the See Article 14.7.4.5, “Sealing Rings,” of the AASHTO
elastomeric rotational element of pot bearings shall be made of LRFD Bridge Design Specifications for sealing ring
brass conforming to ASTM B36/B36M for rings of rectangular requirements.
cross-section and ASTM B121/B121M for circular sections.
The Engineer may approve other sealing ring material on the
basis of test evidence conforming to Article 14.7.4.5 of the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
The polyether urethane structural element used in the Polyether urethane is a hard tough plastic material.
construction of disc bearings shall be molded from a However, its tensile strength varies significantly depending
monolithic polyether urethane compound. The physical on the quality-control exercised during processing. The
properties of the polyether urethane shall conform to the properties required here are intended to ensure a good
minimum requirements listed in Table 18.3.2.8-1. quality material.
Required minimums for tensile stress at specific
elongations, tensile strength, ultimate elongation, and
compression set may be interpolated for durometer
hardness values between 45 and 55, and 55 and 65.
ASTM Test
Physical Properties Method Requirements
Hardness, Type D Durometer D2240 45 55 65
Minimum Tensile Stress, ksi D412
At 100% elongation 1.5 1.9 2.3
At 200% elongation 2.8 3.4 4.0
Minimum Tensile Strength, ksi D412 4.0 5.0 6.0
Minimum Ultimate Elongation, % D412 350 285 220
Maximum Compression Set, 22 h at 158°F D395 40 40 40
Method B, %
18.3.3—Fabrication Details
18.3.3.1—General C18.3.3.1
The pot shall be manufactured by welding or The most common way of fabricating a pot is to
machining from a single piece of plate. In pots made by machine it from a single piece of steel plate. However, for
welding a ring to a base plate, the weld shall be a full- very large pots, this may be uneconomical because it means
penetration butt weld. a large amount of machining. In such cases, casting,
forging, or fabrication by welding are possible but they
introduce extra difficulties beyond those found in pots
machined from a single plate. If the pot is made by welding
a ring to a base plate, the weld is critically important. The
weld must be made on both the inside and outside of the
ring and then the weld on the inside must be machined, if
necessary, to give the correct final profile. The welds must
be verified by suitable ultrasonic or radiographic
examination methods and the flatness of the plates after
welding must be ensured.
The piston shall be machined from a single piece of
steel. The outside diameter of the piston shall be no more
than 0.030 in. less than the inside diameter of the pot at the
level of interface between the piston and elastomeric
rotational element. The sides of the piston shall be beveled
to facilitate rotation.
If guides are used, they shall be attached to the pot by
welding or bolting.
The sealing rings shall be recessed into the elastomeric Sealing rings are presently made from brass in the
disc and shall fit snugly against the pot wall. Rings of United States. Attempts were made to use PTFE in the past
rectangular cross-section shall be installed with their gaps but these were unsuccessful because the PTFE ring
equally spaced round the circumference. The gap between squeezed out through the gap between the pot and the
the ring and the wall shall nowhere exceed 0.01 in. The gap piston and, thereafter, was ineffective as a seal. However,
between the cut ends of the ring shall not exceed 0.05 in. certain proprietary materials have also been used in Europe
with success. They would require verification testing
before being accepted in the United States.
The elastomeric pad shall have the same nominal The rotational element should be made from a flexible
diameter as the pot. The elastomeric pad shall be elastomer. The elastomer is fully confined in the pot and,
individually molded or cut from sheet and shall be made of therefore, cannot undergo large deflections so no advantage
no more than three separate layers, of which none may is gained by using a stiffer elastomer as might be the case
have a nominal thickness of less than 0.5 in. The sealing in a laminated elastomeric bearing.
ring recess depth shall be the same as the total ring
thickness if rectangular rings are used.
18.3.3.3.1—Steel Housing
Sampling, testing, and acceptance consideration shall A lot may be further defined as those bearings
be made on a lot basis. A lot shall be the smallest number presented for inspection at a specific time or date.
of bearings as determined by the following criteria:
The Manufacturer shall sample, at random, a minimum Individual bearing components sampled for material
of two (2) bearings and, as permitted or required, a certification or performance testing should be sampled
minimum of two (2) individual bearing components from from the materials used to fabricate a lot of bearings, and
each completed lot of bearings for material certification not from completed bearings.
and performance testing by the Manufacturer. The
Manufacturer shall complete the required testing and
determine compliance with this specification before
submitting the lot(s) for quality-assurance inspection,
testing, and acceptance consideration. The results of the
Manufacturer's tests shall be furnished to the Engineer.
Table 18.3.4.3-1—Sampling
18.3.4.4—Performance Testing
Dimensions and clearances shall be checked for all The clearance test between the piston and the pot on a
bearings according to Articles 18.1.5.2.4 and 18.1.5.2.5. pot bearing and the clearance between the shear-restricting
element and disc on a disc bearing are two examples of
critical clearances that are verified through the clearance
test, described in Article 18.1.5.2.5, to ensure proper
functioning of the bearing through its entire design
displacement and rotation.
Sampled bearings shall be short-term load-tested to For manufactured bearings, the specified rated
150 percent of the specified rated capacity at 0.02 rad. If capacity is typically greater than the service limit state
the size of the bearing prohibits adequate testing with reaction used for design.
available equipment, the Owner may specify a test on one
(1) scaled down bearing with comparable requirements.
The load shall be held for 5 minutes, removed, then
reapplied for 5 minutes. If the load drops below the
required value during either application, the test shall be
restarted from the beginning.
At the discretion of the Owner, a long-term proof load
test may also be specified or substituted for the short-term
proof load test. Except as specified below, the magnitude
of the loading, test procedures, and failure criteria for the
long-term test shall be identical to that of the short-term
test. The first loading shall be held for 5 minutes and the
second loading shall be held for 15 hours. If the load drops
below 90 percent of its target value during this time, the
load shall be increased to the target value and the test
duration shall be increased by the period of time for which
the load was below the required value.
During the test, the steel bearing plate and steel piston
shall maintain continuous and uniform contact for the
duration of the test.
The bearing shall be visually examined both during the Visual defects include, but are not limited to, bond
test and upon disassembly after the test. Any resultant failure, physical destruction, cold flow of PTFE to the point
visual defects, such as extruded or deformed elastomer, of debonding, or damaged components.
polyether urethane, or PTFE; damaged seals or limiting
rings; evidence of metal-to-metal contact between the pot
wall and the top plate; or cracked steel, shall be cause for
rejection of the lot.
For disc bearings, continuous and uniform contact
shall be maintained between the polyether urethane
element and the bearing plates and between the sliding
steel top plate and the upper bearing plate for the duration
of the test. Any observed lift-off shall be cause for rejection
of the lot.
For all guided and nonguided expansion-type bearings, At the Owner’s discretion, the requirement to test
the sliding coefficient of friction shall be measured at the according to Article 18.1.5.2.3 may be waived. Testing
bearing’s design capacity for each sampled bearing and according to Article 18.1.5.2.6 verifies that the friction
bearing component in accordance with Articles 18.1.5.2.3 values achieved in the material friction tests conducted
and 18.1.5.2.6. according to Article 18.1.5.2.3 are adequate predictors of
The sliding coefficient of friction shall be calculated as the friction in the finished bearing.
the horizontal load required to maintain continuous sliding
of one bearing, divided by the bearing's vertical design
capacity.
• For bearings tested according to Article 18.1.5.2.6, Visual defects include, but are not limited to, bond
the bearings will be visually examined both during failure, physical destruction, cold flow of PTFE to the point
and after the test. Any resultant visual defects, such of debonding, or damaged components.
as bond failure, physical destruction, cold flow of
PTFE to the point of debonding, or damaged
components, shall be cause for rejection of the lot.
18.3.5—Installation C18.3.5
Pot and disc bearings shall be installed in accordance The Owner may require a Manufacturer’s technical
with the contract documents and on the approved working representative to be on-site during the installation of the
drawings. A technical representative of the bearing bearings. The Manufacturer’s representative should be
Manufacturer shall be readily available to provide guidance independent of the Contractor’s work force or display proof
to the Contractor during the entire installation process. of certification to install materials from the Manufacturer.
Upon final installation of the bearings, the Engineer shall The Contractor should discuss the work to be done with the
inspect the bearing components to assure that they are level Manufacturer’s representative to review the methods of
and parallel to within 0.03125 in./ft. Any deviations in installation and the equipment needed prior to beginning
excess of the allowed tolerances shall be corrected. the work.
The Manufacturer’s representative should advise both
the Engineer and the Contractor regarding proper
installation procedures to correctly install the bearings.
18.4.1—Materials
18.4.2—Fabrication
18.4.2.1—Steel
18.4.2.2—Lubrication
18.4.3—Installation
18.5—SPHERICAL BEARINGS
18.6.3—Test Requirements
18.7.1—Materials
18.7.2—Fabrication
18.7.3—Installation
18.8—POLYTETRAFLUORETHYLENE (PTFE)
SURFACES FOR BEARINGS
18.8.1—General
18.8.2—Materials
PTFE resin shall be 100 percent pure, new material Testing of PTFE is intended to determine the purity
meeting the requirements of ASTM D4894 or D4895. It and crystallinity of the PTFE. The purity influences the
shall satisfy the requirements of Table 18.8.2.6-1. No coefficient of friction which can be obtained and the
reclaimed material shall be used. crystallinity influences both the resistance to wear and the
Finished PTFE sheet, strip, and fabric shall be: friction coefficient. The specific gravity of PTFE is
indirectly a measure of the crystallinity.
• resistant to acids, alkalis, and petroleum products,
• nonflammable, and
• nonabsorbing of water.
18.8.2.3—Filler Material
18.8.2.4—Adhesive Material
Sheet with
Sheet Sheet with 15% 25% Carbon Woven
Mechanical ASTM Method Unfilled Glass Fibers Fibers Fabric
Tensile Strength min. D638 or D2256 2.8 2.0 1.3 2.4
ksi
Elongation min. % D638 or D2256 200 150 75 35
Specific Gravity, min. D792 623 ± 2 2.20 ± 0.03 2.10 ± 0.03 —
Melting Point, °F D4894, D4895 622 ± 3 621 ± 18 621 ± 18 —
or D5977
18.8.2.8—Lubricants C18.8.2.8
Lubricants, if used, shall consist of a combination of The lubricant most frequently used in Europe with
solids which does not react chemically or electrolytically sheet PTFE is based on lithium grease. It has proved to be
with the PTFE and its mating surface and shall remain effective and stable over long periods.
stable in the environmental conditions expected at the
bridge site.
18.8.2.10—Surface Treatment
18.8.3—Fabrication Requirements
18.8.3.1—GENERAL
18.8.3.2.1—General
All flat sheet PTFE attached to a metal backing plate PTFE sheets should be both recessed and bonded to
shall be attached by recessing into the backing of the plate obtain the best performance. The recessing inhibits creep or
for one-half of the PTFE thickness and bonding. PTFE cold flow and the bonding keeps the PTFE in the recess when
attached to other materials, such as elastomers, shall be the mating surface of stainless steel slides over it. Without the
attached by a method specified in the contract documents bond, there is a risk that conditions such as eccentric loading
or approved by the Engineer. would cause the PTFE to come out of the recess.
The PTFE shall be factory-bonded, using an adhesive The minimum bonding pressure of 0.100 ksi is
that is approved by the Engineer, in accordance with the intended to ensure that the adhesive under the PTFE is well
instructions of the adhesive's Manufacturer. Prior to distributed and that the final PTFE surface will be flat.
bonding, the surface shall be etched by an approved
Manufacturer using sodium naphthalene or sodium
ammonia process. When the backing plate is metal, the
bonding shall be conducted under a uniform pressure
greater than 0.100 ksi.
The peel strength of the bond shall not be less than Filled PTFE is much rougher and leads to higher
20.0 lb/in., tested in accordance with ASTM D429, Method friction coefficients than pure PTFE. Polishing is intended
B. The finished surface of the PTFE shall be smooth, free to minimize the adverse effects of the filler.
from bubbles, and shall conform to the tolerances shown in
Table 18.1.4.2-1. Filled PTFE sheets shall be polished after
bonding.
18.8.3.2.3—Curved Sheet
Fabric made from woven PTFE fibers shall be bonded Woven PTFE cannot be kept in place by a recess in the
or mechanically attached to a rigid substrate. The fabric same way that sheet PTFE can so some other means is
shall be capable of carrying unit loads of 10.0 ksi without necessary. It can be attached to its backing substrate, either
cold flow. The fabric-substrate bond shall be capable of by bonding or by forming in the metal substrate mechanical
withstanding, without delamination, a shear force equal to indentations into which the PTFE weave is pressed. The
(0.1 + μ)P at the same time as the normal load P, where μ effectiveness of such a mechanical connection can be
is the design coefficient of friction between the PTFE and judged by a test in which one piece of woven PTFE is
its mating surface and P is the design load acting compressed between two indented metal substrates and the
perpendicularly to the interface. PTFE is pulled out from between them.
Each stainless steel element specified in the contract Stainless steel should be attached by welding all
documents as a single piece shall be so supplied. Each around. This not only ensures a uniform transfer of stress
sheet shall be attached to its backing material by seal- from the PTFE to the backing plate when the stainless steel
welding around the entire perimeter so as to prevent entry is subjected to shear from sliding forces but it also
of moisture between the stainless steel and the backing minimizes the corrosion which can occur behind the
material. Welds shall conform to the current stainless steel plate.
AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. After
welding, the stainless steel sheet shall be flat, free from
wrinkles, and in continuous contact with its backing plate.
18.8.3.4—Lubrication
18.8.4.1—General C18.8.4.1
Inspection of the completed bearings or representative The tests described in this Section are intended to
samples of bearings with PTFE surfaces shall be required determine the purity and crystallinity of the PTFE. Test
by the Engineer. Inspectors, if appointed, shall be allowed results shall conform to the requirements of
free access to the necessary part of the Manufacturer's plant Table 18.8.2.6-1. The purity influences the friction factor
and test facility. When testing is performed by the which
Manufacturer, copies of the test results shall be submitted can be obtained, and the crystallinity influences both the
to the Engineer. resistance to wear and the friction. The specific gravity test
The Manufacturer is required to perform material tests is indirectly a test of the crystallinity. The strength tests are
on the materials used in the sliding surface in accordance necessary to make sure that the PTFE does not creep
with Article 18.1.5.2.3. A minimum of one test shall be excessively and does not fail in direct tension. The test
performed for each lot of bearings. strength required of woven fabric material is extremely
If requested by the Engineer and available test high because it is at present conducted on a single strand of
facilities permit, complete bearings shall be tested for PTFE fiber. This is a carry-over from the existing practice
complete bearing friction as defined in Article 18.1.5.2.6. If but a strength test which measures the strength of the
the test facility does not permit testing complete bearings, finished fabric in pounds per inch of fabric would probably
at the direction of the Engineer, extra bearings may be be better.
manufactured by the Contractor and samples of at least
100-kip capacity at normal working stresses prepared by
sectioning the bearings. As soon as all bearings have been
manufactured for a given project, notification shall be
given to the Engineer who will select the prescribed test
bearings at random from the lot. Manufacturer's
18.8.5—Installation
18.9—ANCHOR BOLTS
18.9.1—Materials
18.9.2—Fabrication
18.9.3—Installation
The Contractor shall drill holes for anchor bolts and set
them in portland cement grout, or preset them as shown in
the contract documents or as specified or directed by the
Engineer.
Location of anchor bolts shall take into account any
variation from mean temperature of the superstructure at
time of setting and anticipated lengthening of bottom chord
or bottom flange due to dead load after setting; the
intention being that, as near as practicable, at mean
temperature and under dead load, the anchor bolts at
expansion bearings will center their slots. Care shall be
taken that full and free movement of the superstructure at
movable bearings is not restricted by anchor bolts or nuts.
18.10.1—General
18.10.2—Materials
18.12—LOAD PLATES
18.13—MEASUREMENT
18.14—PAYMENT
18.15—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. Includes
AASHTO M, R, and T standards, which are also available individually in downloadable form.
AASHTO and AWS. 2008. AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5:2008 Bridge Welding Code, Fifth Edition, BWC-5, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
ASME. 2002. Surface Texture, Surface Roughness, Waviness and Lay, B46.1, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Fairfield, NJ.
RMA. 1992. Rubber Handbook for Molded, Extruded, Lathe Cut and Cellular Products, 5th Edition, Rubber
Manufacturers Association, Inc., Washington, DC.
SAE. 1995. Society of Automotive Engineers Specification Manual, Volume 1, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA.
SAE. 2004. “Chemical Composition of SAE Carbon Steels,” SAE J403, SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
19
19.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 19-1
19.2—WORKING DRAWINGS ................................................................................................................................ 19-1
19.2.1—General ................................................................................................................................................... 19-1
19.2.2—Special Contract-Document Requirements for Modular Bridge Joint Systems (MBJS) ........................ 19-1
19.3—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 19-5
19.3.1—Bridge Deck Joint Seal Materials and Joint Seal Assemblies Other than Modular
Bridge Joint Systems ........................................................................................................................................... 19-5
19.3.2—Modular Bridge Joint Systems ............................................................................................................... 19-5
19.4—MANUFACTURE AND FABRICATION....................................................................................................... 19-6
19.4.1—Compression Seal Joints ........................................................................................................................ 19-6
19.4.2—Joint Seal Assemblies Other than Modular Bridge Joint Systems ......................................................... 19-7
19.4.3—Modular Bridge Joint Systems ............................................................................................................... 19-7
19.4.3.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 19-7
19.4.3.2—Edgebeam Profile and Anchorage ................................................................................................ 19-8
19.4.3.3—Centerbeam and Support Bar ....................................................................................................... 19-8
19.4.3.4—Seals ............................................................................................................................................. 19-8
19.4.3.5—Support Boxes .............................................................................................................................. 19-9
19.4.3.6—PTFE Sliding Surface .................................................................................................................. 19-9
19.4.3.7—Stainless Steel Sliding Surface for MBJS .................................................................................... 19-9
19.4.3.8—Corrosion Protection .................................................................................................................... 19-9
19.5—INSTALLATION ............................................................................................................................................. 19-9
19.5.1—General ................................................................................................................................................... 19-9
19.5.2—Compression Seal Joints ...................................................................................................................... 19-10
19.5.3—Joint Seal Assemblies Other than Modular Bridge Joint Systems ....................................................... 19-10
19.5.4—Modular Bridge Joint Systems ............................................................................................................. 19-11
19.5.4.1—Shipping and Handling .............................................................................................................. 19-11
19.5.4.2—Preinstallation Inspection ........................................................................................................... 19-11
19.5.4.3—Installation ................................................................................................................................. 19-12
19.5.4.3.1—Setting Gap Opening........................................................................................................ 19-12
19.5.4.3.2—Formwork ........................................................................................................................ 19-12
19.5.4.3.3—Supporting MBJS during Placing of Concrete ................................................................. 19-12
19.5.4.3.4—Placing the Concrete ........................................................................................................ 19-13
19.5.4.3.5—Finished MBJS Tolerances .............................................................................................. 19-13
19.5.4.3.6—Bridging MBJS After Installation .................................................................................... 19-13
19.5.4.3.7—Removal of Forms and Debris ......................................................................................... 19-13
19.5.4.3.8—Watertightness Test ......................................................................................................... 19-13
19.5.4.3.9—Acceptance....................................................................................................................... 19-14
19.6—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ............................................................................................................ 19-14
19.7—REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................... 19-14
19-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 19
19.1—GENERAL C19.1
This work shall consist of the furnishing and installing Bridge deck joint seals include compression seal joints
of joint sealing systems in bridge decks of the types used consisting of preformed elastomeric material compressed
where significant movements are expected across the joint. and installed in specially prepared joints and joint seal
Joint seals specified in the contract documents as assemblies consisting of assemblies of metal and
poured joint seals shall conform to the requirement of elastomeric materials installed in recesses in the deck
Article 8.9, “Expansion and Contraction Joints.” surface.
The type and dimensions or movement rating for
bridge deck joint seals at each location shall be as shown in
the contract documents or as ordered by the Engineer.
All joint seals shall prevent the intrusion of material
and water through the joint system.
19.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
19.2.1—General
The MBJS axis is defined as any axis paralleled to the Close cooperation is required between the Designer,
axes of the edgebeams and seals of the MBJS. The skew Contractor, and joint Manufacturer to ensure a quality joint
angle is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the installation. For example, Designers should work with the
support bars and a line perpendicular to the MBJS axis. Manufacturers when detailing blockout reinforcement. By
Movements parallel to the longitudinal axis of the support working together, experienced Designers (typically more
bars will be referred to as longitudinal movements. The familiar with reinforcement needs or details of the adjacent
longitudinal axis of the support bars is typically coincident structural elements) and Manufacturers (often more familiar
with the direction of the net expected thermal movement. with installation problems and factors affecting MBJS
Movements perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the durability) will likely develop good details that reduce
support bars will be referred to as transverse movements. placement problems during construction. Unfortunately, it
is difficult to anticipate reinforcement requirements during
design because the joint system and Manufacturer are not
known until after contract award.
Many MBJS durability problems are a result of poor
detailing. Problems with poor detail design include
improper detailing of superstructure elements and
reinforcement steel, reflective cracking in the concrete
cover directly above support boxes, and lack of access to
the underside of the MBJS for inspection and maintenance.
19-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
19-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
The contract documents shall include the following: Usually, the abutment shelf or the pier caps provide an
adequate work surface for inspection and maintenance.
• A cross-section of the deck at every unique MBJS
configuration shall be shown. The MBJS shall be • A unique configuration of MBJS may represent
shown near midrange of its movement capacity. many essentially similar MBJS at various
The total gap dimension between a reference locations in a project. Minor variations in
vertical plane near the inside surfaces of the dimensions and location or of nonstructural
edgebeams and the bridge temperature details such as the support boxes, curb upturn, or
corresponding to this position shall be clearly slider plates at barriers are permitted for a given
noted. configuration and may be covered by special
details and/or notes. Variation in the gap opening
• If the support boxes are supported by the deck or not requiring a different size or number of seals
abutment, there shall be adequate space, a may be covered in a special note.
minimum of 2.0 in., between the bottom surfaces
of the MBJS and the deck blockouts to allow easy • This provision is only applicable when the wheel-
placement of concrete and allow for adequate load reactions of the support box are not
consolidation of concrete under and around all transferred directly through positive attachment to
parts of the MBJS, especially under any superstructure elements other than the deck or
horizontal surfaces such as the bottom of support abutment. It has been suggested that 2.0 in. has
boxes. If a 2.0-in. space cannot be provided, the been sufficient in the past (especially if aggregate
support boxes shall be set on a grout pad. size is limited), however, 3.0 in. is recommended,
if possible. Grout pads increase costs and should
• There shall be at least 6.0 in. of clear space only be used when adequate space cannot be
between the support boxes or anchorages on the provided.
ends of support boxes and the periphery of the
blockout to permit placing of concrete around the
MBJS.
19.3—MATERIALS
MBJS shall conform to the following specifications: Modular bridge joint systems (MBJS) are sealed joints
with two or more elastomeric seals held in place by
• MBJS shall conform to the specifications provided edgebeams that are anchored to the structural elements
by the Manufacturer at the time of approval. (deck, abutment, etc.) and one or more transverse
centerbeams that are parallel to the edgebeams.
• MBJS shall be prequalified by satisfying all Large movement ranges can be accommodated by
testing requirements detailed in Appendix A19, modular bridge joint systems (MBJS). Present designs for
which are designed to allow approved MBJS to be MBJS typically use one or more transverse centerbeams to
used for a limited range of applications. separate two or more seals. Because it must accommodate
larger expansion movements, an MBJS must structurally
• MBJS shall be designed in accordance with support the wheel-loads across the gap between bridge
Article 14.5, “Bridge Joints,” of the AASHTO elements.
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. There are two basic types of support-bar MBJS:
• Preformed elastomeric joint seals of multiple-web multiple- and single-support-bar systems. Multiple-support-
design shall conform to AASHTO M 297 (ASTM bar (MSB) MBJS have centerbeams that are
D3542). rigidly connected to support bars. Each support bar
supports only one centerbeam. For the MSB system, a
• Preformed elastomeric joint seals of the strip type support box will hold as many support bars as there are
shall conform to ASTM D5973. centerbeams.
• Seals shall be continuous and splices are not Single-support-bar (SSB) MBJS have transverse
permitted unless specifically approved by the centerbeams that are attached to only one support bar at
Engineer. each support box location using steel yokes and elastomeric
springs and bearings. One special type of SSB MBJS is the
• Lubricant-adhesive for use with preformed swivel-joist system, in which the support bar swivels as
elastomeric seals shall conform to ASTM D4070. well as slides in the support boxes.
• Springs, bearings, and equidistant devices The MSB and SSB types of MBJS are the most
(sometimes referred to as control springs) shall be common and, therefore, will be the focus of these
the same material composition and formulation, Specifications. Certain parts of these Specifications may
Manufacturer, fabrication procedure, and not be applicable to alternative types of MBJS. These
configuration as the ones used in the Specifications permit alternative designs that meet the
prequalification test. prequalification tests requirements in Article 19.3.2,
“Modular Bridge Joint Systems.”
• Urethane foam shall conform to ASTM D3574. In MBJS that use a support bar that slides on bearings,
the support bar usually has thin, stainless steel cover plates
• Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) shall be joined to the top and bottom of the support bar to provide
100-percent virgin Teflon®, woven PTFE fabric, smooth sliding surfaces. The support bars slide between
or dimpled PTFE conforming to the requirements elastomeric bearings and springs that are fixed in the
of Section 18.8, “Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) support boxes, usually by a round boss or protrusion that
Surfaces for Bearings,” and shall be provided on fits into a hole in the steel plate of the support box. The
every sliding surface. bearings and springs typically have low-friction
polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) pads bonded to the sliding
• Stainless steel sheets conforming to ASTM surface of the spring or bearing.
A240/A240M, Type 304, shall be provided on The elastomeric bearings and springs are both
sliding surfaces. ASTM A240/A240M, Type 316 precompressed and located atop and below the support bar,
is recommended for a severe environment. with the bearing on the bottom and the spring on top. The
springs exert compression to keep the bearing in place. The
vertical component of each wheel-load applied to the
centerbeam and transmitted through the support bar
compresses the bearings and reacts against the support box
and the deck. There is a significant upward rebound of each
wheel-load cycle that compresses the springs and reacts on
the top plate of the support box, imposing an upward load
on the deck.
• Steel and fabricated steel components shall The wheel-load may also impart a horizontal force to
conform to the applicable requirements of the centerbeam and an associated rebound. The horizontal
Section 11, “Steel Structures,” for nonfracture- load is transmitted through the centerbeam, into the support
critical members, with the following exceptions: bar, and into the springs and bearings through friction.
Ultimately, the horizontal force is resisted by the small
o Welding shall conform to ANSI/AWS bosses in the springs and bearings into the support box and
D1.1/D1.1M Structural Welding Code— deck. These small bosses are subjected to millions of cycles
Steel. of this reversible shearing action. Shear failure of the
bosses leads to systemic failure of the MBJS. The
o Fasteners and their holes need not conform movements of bridge elements provide the necessary forces
to Section 11, “Steel Structures,” provided to open and close the MBJS. An equidistant device is
they were used in the prequalification tests. typically required to maintain an approximately equal gap
between centerbeams and between centerbeam and
edgebeam. A common equidistant device used in support-
bar systems is comprised of a series of horizontal
elastomeric springs sometimes called control springs. In
some MBJS, the equidistant devices tend to close the gap,
while in other MBJS, the equidistant devices tend to open
the gap between centerbeams.
19.4.3.1—General C19.4.3.1
The following requirements apply to both shop welds Whenever possible, fillet welds shall be on both sides
and field welds (if any) unless specifically noted otherwise. of an attachment. The MBJS shall be shipped and installed
The MBJS shall be fabricated in accordance with the in one piece, wherever possible, to avoid field splicing.
dimensions, shapes, details, material specifications, and
procedures shown in the approved shop plans Fillet welds
shall be welded continuously. Intermittent fillet welds are
not permitted.
Field splices should be avoided if at all possible and
the entire MBJS shipped and installed as one unit. If field
splices cannot be avoided, it is recommended that the
splices be located away from potential wheel paths and
preferred that splices be located under the median traffic
barrier. Only field-splice details that have been fatigue-
tested in accordance with the prequalification tests in
Article 19.3.2 may be used for MBJS. Typically, the
fatigue design will dictate that the span of the centerbeam
with the splice must be smaller than the continuous spans;
generally, it is best to make this span as small as possible.
A full-penetration field weld can sometimes be made
from the deck when there is only one centerbeam and it can
be lifted out enough to access the bottom of the
centerbeam. Care must be taken to avoid weld metal getting
into the seal retainer grooves, which can lead to seal pullout
and leaking. Fillet or partial penetration welds are not
permitted. Welded splices are not permitted if there is more
than one centerbeam. Edgebeam profiles may be field-
spliced with fillet welds across only part of the profile.
Lifting devices shall be provided, and devices to If it can be assured that a splice will remain under a
maintain the preset opening of the joint shall be provided at median barrier and it can be assured that water cannot get
a uniform spacing not greater than 15.0 ft along the length to this area, it may be permitted to butt the ends of the two
of the MBJS. At least three devices shall be used per segments of MBJS together, but not splice them.
segment of MBJS.
When the fabrication is completed, the Manufacturer
shall perform the preinstallation inspection described in
Article 19.5.4.2 to assure that the MBJS will pass this
inspection.
The edgebeams shall be fabricated from structural The use of a horizontal element in the edgebeam cross-
steel. The web of the edgebeam cross-section shall be at section is not recommended due to difficulty with
least 0.375 in. in thickness. The same cross-section must be consolidating concrete under the horizontal flanges. If a
used that was used in the prequalification test. Shop splices horizontal element is used, it shall have 0.75-in. diameter air
in the edgebeam profile shall be two-sided, complete-joint- holes spaced every 18.0 in. to improve consolidation of the
penetration groove welds. The edgebeam shall be concrete under the horizontal element. If there is no horizontal
continuously fillet welded to the support boxes. element, the top of the profile shall be located between 0 and
The anchorage shall be designed in accordance with 0.25 in. below the top of the wearing surface of the deck.
Article 14.5.6.9, “Modular Bridge Joint Systems (MBJS),” Best results have been obtained with solid shapes with
of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. If machine-cut grooves in the side to retain the seals. One
there is a horizontal element in the edgebeam cross-section, design that satisfies the load requirements and has been
the horizontal element shall also be anchored to resist the designed according to ACI requirements is a 1.5-in. thick
full value of the wheel-load with impact acting upward edgebeam with no horizontal element and Grade 50 (345),
(from rebound). 0.5-in. diameter welded, headed concrete anchor studs
6.0 in. long, spaced at 12.0 in. on center. This design
requires at least 3.0 in. of cover above the anchors
(measured from the centerline of the anchor to the surface
of the concrete). There is no need to bend the studs, unless
the anchor stud falls at an overlay/ structural slab interface.
The centerbeams, support bars, and connection details Best results have been obtained with solid-steel bars.
shall be the same type as were used in the prequalification For the centerbeam, best results have been obtained with
tests. Shop splices in the centerbeam profile shall be two- machine-cut grooves in the side to retain the seals.
sided, complete-joint-penetration groove welds. In welded Techniques to avoid loosening of the bolts include using
multiple-support-bar MBJS, the weld joint between the adhesives, welding the outer surface of the nut to the
centerbeam and support bar shall be a full-penetration exposed threads, or galling the threads.
groove weld.
After welding, the centerbeam/support bar assembly
shall be placed on a flat surface and it shall be verified that
the support bars lie in a single plane, with no part of the
bottom of any support bars exceeding 0.25 in. off the
surface. The subassembly may be straightened. No more
than three attempts may be made to heat-straighten the
subassembly.
19.4.3.4—Seals C19.4.3.4
Seals shall be installed by the Manufacturer before Movement joint seals usually have a maximum
shipping unless centerbeam field splices are used. If field movement range of 3.0 in. Seals up to 5.0 in. have been
splices are necessary, continuous seals (without splices) used successfully. However, the maximum opening for
shall be installed in the field after the construction is seals is set by AASHTO requirements. Seals used for
complete. In either case, the same lubricant-adhesive that in-service MBJS must be the size that was tested in the
was used in the prequalification tests shall be used when prequalification tests required in Article 19.3.2.
installing the seals. The seals shall extend out from the ends The ASTM specifications for the seal material appear to
of the edgebeams and centerbeams by at least 2.0 in. be sufficient to assure adequate durability under normal wear
and tear and environmental exposure. Some agencies do not
allow the seal to be installed in the field because of the
potential for detachment. However, if the MBJS is installed
in stages, for the rehabilitation of an existing bridge or new
installations on wide bridges, a seal field splice will be
required if the seal is installed in the shop. Field splices of the
seals should be avoided. The performance of spliced seals is
not adequate in protecting the bridge superstructure from
deck drainage. Therefore, in the case of staged construction,
seals should be installed in the field in one continuous piece.
Support boxes shall be made from steel plate or tubes The top plate is required to support traffic-loading.
at least 0.375 in. thick continuously welded. If the support Excessive flexibility can result in reflective cracking above
boxes are more than 16.0 in. wide, the thickness of the top the support boxes. If 3.0 in. of cover cannot be provided
plate shall increase so that the width-to-thickness ratio does above the top plate, the top plate may need to be thicker or
not exceed 45 or stiffening must be used. If the support box stiffened to adequately support the traffic loads.
is made of nested tubes, the diameter or width-to-thickness
ratio of each tube shall not exceed 45.
All steel surfaces, except the surfaces under stainless Corrosion of steel sections that have been damaged or
steel or those to be bonded to PTFE, shall be protected exposed has been observed in a number of MBJS. Metallic
against corrosion. components of MBJS such as bolts, stainless steel sliding
plates, and anchors have failed due to corrosion.
Accumulation of damp debris in the recesses of the MBJS
has been the cause of severe corrosion.
19.5—INSTALLATION
19.5.1—General
Immediately prior to installation, the MBJS and the If the bridge deck or abutment reinforcement has not
blockout shall be inspected by the Engineer for: been designed to accommodate the configuration of the
MBJS, the reinforcement may have to be altered.
• Proper alignment. Plastic wrap or foam covers should be placed over the
interior opening of the support boxes. These will aid in
• Complete bond between the seals and the steel. preventing debris and animals from entering the support
box. These should not be added until the MBJS is ready to
• Proper placement and effectiveness of studs or
be installed so that the preinstallation inspection can be
other anchorage devices.
performed on the interior components of the support box.
The wrap or covers should be easy to remove for future
• Proper placement of elastomeric springs and
inspections.
bearings.
19.5.4.3—Installation
19.5.4.3.2—Formwork
The MBJS shall be fully supported during the MBJS have been supported during installation (prior to
placement of the concrete. Welds for temporary placement of the deck concrete) in a number of ways. The
attachments to the centerbeams or support bars for erection preferred method of supporting the MBJS during
purposes must be removed and the surface ground smooth. installation is to suspend it from a series of beams spaced at
The corrosion protection system shall be repaired to the no more than 10.0 ft spanning the blockout between the
satisfaction of the Engineer using a method approved by deck and abutment or between adjacent decks. These
the Engineer. To reduce corrosion of the MBJS, it should beams allow for more precise setting of the joint height and
be electrically isolated by not connecting the bridge deck grade. The deck provides a reference to establish the final
reinforcement to the MBJS. MBJS profile.
One common practice has been to weld joint anchorages
to the deck reinforcing steel for support. This practice is not
recommended because it is desired to keep the MBJS and the
deck reinforcement electrically separated from each other in
order to reduce corrosion and because of concern for cracking
in either the reinforcing steel, the anchorage, or both. If the
MBJS is tack welded to deck reinforcement, deflection of the
reinforcement must be considered.
In some installations, leveling bolts attached to girder
top flanges are used to support the joint. These bolts permit
adjustment of the joint height during installation as well as
provide support. At least two problems have been reported
with the use of leveling bolts. First, some larger MBJS are
so heavy that the leveling bolts fail. A second problem with
these bolts is that they may carry wheel-loads directly from
the edgebeam to the bridge girder, which may not have
been considered in the design. The wheel-loads may
eventually cause movement of the leveling bolts, which can
result in problems.
Temporary connectors between edgebeams (for
shipping and handling) should be removed before placing
concrete.
The concrete shall be controlled, mixed, and handled The bridge deck concrete may be finished to the top of
as specified in Section 8, “Concrete Structures,” and/or a MBJS that is set at a slightly incorrect elevation when the
Agency construction specifications. Very-high-slump local change in deck profile could cause increased impact
concrete shall not be used in the blockout. Concrete shall forces on the MBJS.
not be deposited in the forms until the Engineer has
inspected and approved the placement of the reinforcement,
conduits, anchorages, and prestressing steel.
If there is a vertical grade, concrete shall be placed on
the downhill side of the blockout first. The concrete shall
be vibrated thoroughly so as to adequately consolidate
concrete underneath the support boxes and edgebeams.
Care should be taken to avoid displacement of the forms
and reinforcing steel. The concrete shall not be placed
during extremely cold weather or during heavy rain.
• The top surfaces of the MBJS shall be recessed A 0.125- to 0.25-in. recess of the MBJS is
from the finished roadway profile 0 to 0.25 in. recommended to minimize potential snowplow collision
effects; however, the deck may be finished to the top of the
• There shall be no more than 0.125-in. difference in joint for rideability if desired.
elevation among the tops of any of the centerbeams
or edgebeams. This variation shall be measured
vertically from a straight line connecting the top of
the deck profile on each side of the MBJS.
Construction loads shall not be allowed on the MBJS Movements of the edgebeam prior to complete
for at least 72 h after installation is completed. If it is concrete curing may cause gaps or openings between the
necessary to cross the MBJS, the Contractor shall bridge edgebeam or anchorage and the plastic deck concrete.
over the MBJS in a manner approved by the Engineer. These gaps may result in movement of the edgebeam under
traffic-loading and associated rapid deterioration.
All forms and debris shall be removed after Forms and debris tend to interfere with the free action
installation. of the MBJS. They may also interfere with the inspection
of the MBJS.
19.5.4.3.8—Watertightness Test
19.5.4.3.9—Acceptance
19.7—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 29th
Edition, HM-29, American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AWS. 2004. AWS D1.1M/D1.1 Structural Welding Code—Steel, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
APPENDIX A19—PROPOSED STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR MODULAR BRIDGE JOINT SYSTEMS
The following is a proposed standard test method for modular bridge joint systems to be included in the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling, Part 2: Test Methods.
It is suggested that the proposed standard test methods for modular bridge joint systems be grouped with T 42,
Preformed Expansion Joint Filler for Concrete Construction, in the table of contents under a revised heading of “Expansion
Joints, Joint Filler, and Asphalt Plank" (currently “Joint Filler and Asphalt Plank”).
APPENDIX A19
1. SCOPE
1.1 This specification describes three test procedures for modular bridge joint systems (MBJS):
Opening movement and vibration test………….……………….Section 5.1
Seal push-out test ……….…………………………………..…. Section 5.2
Fatigue test ……………………………………………………...Section 5.3
These test procedures are applicable to all types of MBJS, including (but not limited to) multiple-support-bar systems,
welded or bolted single-support-bar systems, scissor joints, and swivel joints. The test procedures are not intended to be
applied to deck joints other than MBJS (e.g., finger joints, roller joints, cushion joints, strip seal joints, compression seals,
etc.) used in bridge structures. The functional design of MBJS is left to the discretion of the Manufacturer. These
Specifications will only test the performance of those designs.
2. REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
2.1 AASHTO Standards
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications
M 297 (ASTM D3542) Preformed Polychloroprene Elastomeric Joint Seals for Bridges
3. TERMINOLOGY
3.1 Definitions
3.1.1 Modular Bridge Joint System (MBJS)—A sealed joint with two or more elastomeric seals held in
place by edgebeams that are anchored to the structural elements (deck, abutment, etc.) and one or more
transverse centerbeams that are parallel to the edgebeams (see Figures 1–3). Typically used for
movement ranges greater than 100 mm (4.0 in.).
3.1.2 Single-Support-Bar System (SSB)—An MBJS designed so that only one support bar is connected to
all of the centerbeams. The centerbeam/support bar connection typically consists of a yoke through
which the support-bar slides (see Figure 2).
3.1.3 Strip Seal—A sealed joint with an extruded elastomeric seal retained by edgebeams that are anchored to
the structural elements (deck, abutment, etc). Typically used for expected total movement ranges from
40 to 100 mm (1.5 to 4.0 in.), although single seals capable of spanning a 125-mm (5.0-in.) gap are also
available.
3.1.4 Swivel-Joint System—Sometimes also called Swivel-Joist System; a special type of SSB system
designed so that the support bars (joists) also swivel about the centerbeam support-bar yoke connection.
The largest known swivel joint has a 1220-mm (48.0-in.) movement range (see Figure 3).
3.1.5 Welded Multiple-Support-Bar System (WMSB)—A MBJS designed so that each support bar is
welded to only one centerbeam (see Figure 1). Although some larger WMSB systems have been built
and are performing well, WMSB systems are typically impractical for more than nine seals or for
movement ranges larger than 680 mm (27.0 in.).
3.1.6 The MBJS axis is defined to be parallel to the axes of the edgebeams and centerbeams of the MBJS.
3.1.7 The skew angle is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the support bars and a line perpendicular to
the MBJS axis.
3.1.8 Movements parallel to the longitudinal axis of the support bars will be referred to as longitudinal
movements.
Edgebeams
Centerbeams
Blockout
Spring
Edgebeams
Centerbeams
Spring
Blockout
Support Bar
Bearing
Yoke
5. TEST METHODS
5.1 Opening Movement and Vibration (OMV) Test
5.1.1 Apparatus
5.1.1.1 Actuator to open and close MBJS with stroke control and ability to measure load
5.1.1.2 Controller to control the frequency and count the cycles applied
5.1.1.3 Test fixture to restrain the specimen. Fixtures shall be capable of adequately supporting and
securing the specimen during test. All support boxes shall be supported throughout the test.
The fixtures shall be designed so that the specimen is supported at a minimum height of
760 mm (30.0 in.) to allow for the visual inspection of all components of the specimen during
testing, as shown in Figure 4. It is recommended that the fixtures provide a 1:10 slope, i.e.
5.7 degrees, to facilitate movement of the springs and bearings. One side of the specimen shall
be securely attached (no movement) to the fixtures. The other side shall be free to move in the
longitudinal direction (parallel to the support bars of the MBJS). It is recommended that linear
bearings be attached to the testing fixtures. These devices will allow for movement only in the
longitudinal direction. Verification testing has shown that only one linear bearing is required
per specimen. More than two linear bearings is not recommended due to the possibility of
nonparallel movement and binding of the bearings. The opening and closing displacement shall
be applied at the horizontal center of the specimen. The displacement shall be applied to a
spreader beam that is attached to the edgebeam and each support box on the freely moving side
of the MBJS. The center of the simulated longitudinal opening movement displacement shall
be at a height of 100 mm (4.0 in.) above the top of the support box. The spreader beam shall be
capable of withstanding all displacements and loads applied to it and transferring those
displacements and loads to the specimen.
Spreader
Vibrator
Beam
Specimen Actuator
Linear
Bearing
Stand
5.1.1.4 Vibrator to apply simulated traffic loads. The vibrator shall produce a force amplitude of at
least 22 kN (5.0 kip) at a frequency of between 70 and 100 Hz (total force range of at least
44 kN (10.0 kip). Any suitable vibrator may be used, however a Vibco SVRLS 8000
pneumatic high-frequency vibrator has been found to meet the requirements. The required
force amplitude of another type of vibrator shall be verified by either:
instrumenting the centerbeam to which the vibrator is attached and measuring the strain
response or
attaching the vibrator to any instrumented beam with known boundary conditions and
measuring the strain response.
The vibrator typically has its own fixture that should be welded to a plate. A clamping
device should be made from the plate with the vibrator welded to it and another similarly sized
plate with four 25-mm (1.0-in.) minimum diameter threaded rods. (Rods of any strength or
grade are suitable). The vibrator shall be securely fixed to one centerbeam. The seals may be
cut for the threaded rods to pass through. The vibrator shall be placed as close as possible to
the center centerbeam/support bar connection, with its centerline not to exceed 300 mm
(12.0 in.) from center of connection to center of vibration. The clamp fixture shall not interfere
with the opening and closing action of the MBJS other than to prevent it from closing all the
way.
5.1.2 Sampling
A Manufacturer shall submit for testing one sample of each basic type of MBJS. Successful
completion of fatigue tests described in Section 5.3 and passing both this OMV test and the SPO test
described in Section 5.2 prequalifies a specific configuration MBJS with specific components. The
following limited variations of that configuration are allowed and the MBJS shall still be considered
prequalified:
MBJS with any number of support boxes,
MBJS with from one to n + 4 centerbeams (where n is the number of centerbeams in the
configuration that was tested),
MBJS with a support bar with any span, any depth up to twice as deep as what was tested, and
with a width 1.25 times greater than was tested,
MBJS with any centerbeam span less than 1.25 times the span that was tested,
MBJS with smaller skew,
MBJS with a lower angle of upturn or no upturn,
MBJS with a flatter vertical crown or less of a horizontal kink, or
MBJS with centerbeams or edgebeams of the same shape and relative proportions with cross-
sectional area that is from 75 percent to 125 percent of the shape that was tested.
However, if the MBJS parameters are outside of these limits, then the OMV, Seal-Push-Out and
Fatigue tests will need to be performed again. Additionally, any change to the following MBJS
characteristics will necessitate complete retesting:
• specification of the material or component supplier changes, other than the steel components,
weld metal, or the studs,
To prequalify MBJS with more than six centerbeams, a specimen with a larger number of
centerbeams must be tested and, if successful, this test shall prequalify similar MBJS with from seven to
the number of centerbeams in the test specimen.
5.1.4 Procedures
5.1.4.1 General
Prior to testing, specimens shall be visually inspected for any flaws, loose fasteners, etc.
that could possibly affect the performance of the specimen. Any observed problem shall also
be reported with the data.
Simulated longitudinal opening and closing movement ranges shall be applied through the
actuator. The specimen shall be cycled at a frequency not to exceed 0.1 Hz. The specimen shall
be cycled with a displacement of ±50.8 mm (±2.0 in.) about the mid-opening. The load
requirements of the specimen shall be monitored continuously throughout the test as a function
of the MBJS actuator stroke. The displacement shall be applied as described in Section 5.1.1.3
above.
Simulated traffic vibration loads shall be applied by a high-frequency vibrator as described
in Section 5.1.1.4 above. The vibrator shall be run continuously while the specimen is
undergoing simulated opening and closing movement cycles.
5.1.4.2 Definition of Failure
If the functioning of any component of the specimen during the test reduces the load
capacity of the MBJS or inhibits the correct functioning of the MBJS, then the test shall be
deemed to be a failure. The following criteria have been observed in preliminary tests and,
although not a complete list of possible failure modes, are typical.
Welded connections: Occurrence of fatigue cracks or fractures in any weld shall be
considered as failure.
Elastomeric components: The movement out of designed placement of springs or bearings
shall be considered as failure. The movement out of designed placement of the equidistant
devices shall be considered as failure. The equidistant devices shall be considered failed if the
largest gap between any two adjacent edgebeams or centerbeams is greater than twice the
smallest gap. The loss of seal bond or integrity against passage of water through the seal
(except at the location where the seals have been cut for the vibrator clamping device) shall be
considered a failure if it occurs before 9,130 simulated longitudinal movements (equivalent to a
25-y life).
Bolted connections: The loosening, fracture, or movement out of place of bolts used in any
connection shall be considered a failure.
5.1.4.3 Termination of Test
The test shall be continued through failures until:
27,400 simulated longitudinal cycling movements have been completed (equivalent to
a 75-y life),
the MBJS is not functioning properly,
5.1.4.4 Report
This OMV test approximately simulates a 75-y service life with 27,400 opening and
closing movement cycles, which is approximately the number of days in 75 y. At a frequency
of about 0.1 Hz, this number of cycles is applied in approximately 76 h of continuous testing.
Data shall be reported in a tabular format and shall contain the following information:
Cumulative number of simulated longitudinal movement cycles until failure(s) or end
of test.
Relative in-service life. Each simulated cycle shall represent one daily movement
cycle.
Cumulative number of simulated vibration cycles until each failure or until end of
test.
Failure mode(s).
Hydraulic
Cylinder
Spreader
Beam
Specimen
5.2.2 Sampling
A minimum of five consecutive SPO tests shall be performed on each specimen.
Successful completion of fatigue tests described in Section 5.3, and passing both the OMV test
described in Section 5.1 and this SPO test prequalifies a specific configuration MBJS with specific
components, with the variations in configuration allowed as specified in Section 5.1.2.
5.2.4 Procedures
5.2.4.1 General
Prior to testing, specimens shall be visually inspected for any flaws, loose fasteners, etc.
that could possibly affect the performance of the specimen. Any observed problem shall also
be reported with the data.
5.2.4.2 Application of Load
The displacement shall be applied perpendicular to the plane of the centerbeams. The load
shall be applied in displacement control at a stroke rate of 10 mm/s (0.4 in./s).
5.2.5 Report
Data shall be reported in tabular format and shall include the following information:
Manufacturer of MBJS and supplier of seals (if different),
type of seal (box or strip),
lubricant-adhesive use, Manufacturer of lubricant-adhesive, and chemical formulation and
material properties of lubricant-adhesive,
load at failure,
description of failure mode,
length of failure, and
a drawing showing the loading rod, the centerbeam, edgebeam, seal cross-sections, and
connection method.
5.3.1 Apparatus
5.3.1.1 Controller to control the frequency and count the cycles applied
5.3.1.2 Actuator to apply axle loads with load control. Vertical loads and horizontal loads equal to
20 percent of the vertical loads shall be applied. This may be accomplished by holding the
specimen in the fixture at an angle 11.3 degrees off of the horizontal plane and applying load
through actuators oriented in the vertical plane. Load shall be applied through two 250-mm
(10.0-in.) long patches, typically steel plates with hard rubber bearing pads, placed in contact
with the centerbeam. Each patch shall be located in the center of each outer span and need not
be 1.8 m (6.0 ft) apart. Load may be supplied through one actuator and a spreader beam or
through two actuators. Figure 6 shows a typical fixture to deliver the vertical and horizontal
loads (P) to the inclined specimen. The specimen may be tested in the normal configuration
with the centerbeams on top of the support bars or upside down, with the centerbeam below the
support bars. In either case, the load fixture may be designed so that the applied load vector
intersects the centerline of the centerbeam cross-section somewhere within the cross-section;
i.e., the vector need not be applied to the centerline at the top surface. In the normal
configuration, the loads shall be entirely upward. In the upside-down configuration, the loads
shall be entirely in compression. This specified loading creates a tensile force reaction in the
centerbeam/support bar connection to avoid long crack propagation lives that result in greater
variability.
5.3.1.3 Test fixture to restrain the specimen. Fixtures shall be capable of adequately supporting and
securing the specimen during test. To provide vertical and horizontal loading through one
actuator, the fixture will typically hold the specimen at an angle 11.3 degrees off of the
horizontal plane (with a slope of 20 percent). The fixture shall be fabricated to sufficient
tolerance so that additional stresses are not generated in the specimen as a result of fixture
misalignment.
Horizontal Plane
P
Bevelled Plate to Allow
Application of Vertical
and Horizontal Loads
5.3.2 Sampling
Ten reportable fatigue cracks (data) in separate connections must be acquired for each detail.
This will usually require at least three specimens. Reportable data should be in the very long life range,
i.e., as close to the threshold as practical but in no case less than 200,000 cycles. The lower bound S-N
curve to the data is used for design. Reportable data will consist of the number of cycles and nominal
stress range at the detail either at the occurrence of a crack (criteria for the size of the crack are given
later) or, if no crack occurs, after the number of cycles exceeds the S-N curve that is anticipated to be the
lower bound to the data by at least ten percent. The data point when no crack occurs is called a run-out.
More than ten data may be obtained, but none of these data may be ignored in the data analysis
except as allowed in the following. In the event that all but one of ten or more data points fall above a
given lower-bound S-N curve, that one data point may be discarded and replaced by three new data
obtained through additional testing. The additional testing shall be conducted at the same stress range at
which the discarded data point was obtained. These three additional data shall be plotted along with the
remaining nine or more data. None of the additional data acquired shall be discarded.
5.3.3.2 Instrumentation
Each specimen shall be sufficiently instrumented to measure static nominal strain ranges in the
specimen for a specific interval of loading. Best results can usually be obtained when the loading
interval for the static calibration tests does not pass through zero load. Strain measurements shall be
made at locations not influenced by local effects (i.e., away from weld toes or boltholes). As a
minimum, specimens shall be instrumented as illustrated in Figures 8a and 8b.
d
d
d
d
d
d
5.3.4 Procedures
5.3.4.1 Preliminary inspection
Prior to testing, specimens shall be visually inspected for any flaws, defects, loose
fasteners, etc. that could possibly affect the fatigue resistance of the detail under consideration.
Defects and flaws shall be defined as per the appropriate governing Specification. Data
obtained from specimens containing defects shall not be excluded from the data set. Any
observed defect shall also be reported with the data.
The load ranges used in the test shall not be so large as to alter the observed failure
mode from that which would be observed under service conditions. Under no circumstance
shall applied stresses exceed the yield stress of the material in any portion of the specimen.
Testing shall be performed at a minimum of two different load (stress) ranges.
Multiple-Support-Bar Systems
The direction of loading shall be either all tension or all compression and
shall be applied at a constant amplitude at any desired frequency. The applied load
range shall be in a direction such that the reaction force between the centerbeam and
support bar is tensile. The load range shall not pass through the zero-load position and
a minimum preload shall be maintained throughout the test.
Single-Support-Bar Systems
Single-support-bar systems may be loaded using the same procedures as
specified above for multiple-support-bar systems. In the event that premature failure
of the stirrup occurs, a load range may be used which is 70 percent downward and
30 percent uplift.
5.3.5 Reporting
5.3.5.1 Nominal Stress Range
The nominal stress ranges (Sr) at all fatigue-critical details shall be obtained from
structural analyses of the modular joint system due to the simultaneous application of vertical
and horizontal loads. The nominal stress ranges (Sr) shall be calculated as follows for specific
types of MBJS:
Single-Support-Bar Systems
- Centerbeam: The nominal stress range (Sr) in the centerbeam at a
critical section adjacent to a welded or bolted stirrup shall be the sum of
the stress ranges in the centerbeam resulting from horizontal and
vertical bending at the critical section. The effects of stresses in any
load-bearing attachments such as the stirrup or yoke need not be
considered when calculating the stress range in the centerbeam. For
bolted single-support-bar systems, stress ranges shall be calculated on
the net section.
- Stirrup: The nominal stress range (Sr) in the stirrup or yoke shall
consider the force effects of the vertical reaction force range between
the centerbeam and support bar. The stress range shall be calculated by
assuming a load range in the stirrup that is equal to the tensile part of
the applied vertical load range. The calculation of the nominal stress
range in the stirrup or yoke need not consider the effects of stresses in
the centerbeam. The effects of horizontal loads may be neglected in
calculating the nominal stress range in the stirrup.
where: MV = vertical bending moment range in the centerbeam on the critical section located at the weld
toe due to the vertical force range,
MH = horizontal bending moment range in the centerbeam on the critical section located at the
weld toe due to horizontal force range,
SXcb = vertical section modulus to the bottom of the centerbeam, and
SYcb = horizontal section modulus of the centerbeam.
SrZ = vertical stress range in the top of the centerbeam/support bar weld from the concurrent
reaction of the support beam:
M OT R
S rZ = + V (3)
SWtop AWtop
S r = Sr B +Sr Z
2 2
(4)
where: SrB = bending stress range in the support bar due to maximum moment including moment from
vertical reaction and overturning at the connection:
⎡ ⎛ d ⎞⎤
RH ⎢ d cb + hW + ⎜ sb ⎟ ⎥
M 1 ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
S rB = V + (5)
S Xsb 2 S Xsb
where: MV = component of vertical bending moment range in the support bar due to the vertical reaction
force range in the connection located on the critical section at the weld toe,
SXsb = vertical section modulus of the support bar to the top of the support bar, and
hw = height of the weld,
dsb = depth of support bar,
SrZ = vertical stress range in the bottom of the centerbeam/support bar weld from the vertical and
horizontal reaction force ranges in the connection:
RH (d cb + hW ) RV
S rZ = + (6)
SWbot Awbot
where: SWbot = section modulus of the weld at the bottom for bending in the direction of the support-bar
axis and
AWbot = area of weld at the bottom.
⎡ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
RH ⎢ d cb + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
W
RV ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
Sr = + (7)
AWmid SWmid
where:
SWmid = section modulus of the weld at the most narrow cross-section for bending in the direction
normal to the centerbeam axis and
AWmid = minimum cross-sectional area of weld.
Mh
RH
Mv
Rv
Mh
M OT
Mv
RH
Rv
MOT
MOT + Mv
RH
Weld Metal Rv
MOT
N = A /(Sr) 3 (8)
* See Table 6.6.1.2.5-1 Detail Category Constant, A, in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
Since it is possible with so few fatigue-test data to get an overly optimistic result,
maximum fatigue-resistance categories have been established through prior testing. The
maximum fatigue resistance of any detail shall not exceed that prescribed in Table 1 below.
Notes:
1. The maximum permitted category applies only to the S-N curve at stress ranges above the constant-amplitude fatigue
limit (CAFL). A CAFL that is higher than the CAFL associated with these categories may be used if the CAFL is
established with a minimum of ten test data.
2. Groove-welded, full-penetration splices may be increased to category B if weld soundness is established by NDT.
3. Miscellaneous connections include attachments for equidistant devices.
Alternatively, if the data are all run-outs, the fatigue category shall be the category
associated with the largest constant-amplitude fatigue threshold that is less than the stress range
associated with at least two run-out data. The constant-amplitude fatigue thresholds for the
AASHTO fatigue categories are shown in Table 6.6.1.2.5-3 in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications. In this case, all the data used to infer the constant-amplitude fatigue
threshold must be within 28 MPa (4.0 ksi) of the constant-amplitude fatigue threshold. There is
no maximum fatigue-resistance category when the constant-amplitude fatigue threshold has
been established.
5.3.5.3 Summary
In addition, the data shall also be reported in a table including the following
information:
Nominal stress range at detail of interest (Sr).
6. KEYWORDS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
206
20.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 20-1
20.1.1—Description ............................................................................................................................................. 20-1
20.1.2—Materials ................................................................................................................................................ 20-1
20.1.3—Construction ........................................................................................................................................... 20-1
20.1.4—Line and Grade....................................................................................................................................... 20-1
20.2—METAL RAILING ........................................................................................................................................... 20-1
20.2.1—Materials and Fabrication....................................................................................................................... 20-1
20.2.1.1—Steel Railing................................................................................................................................. 20-1
20.2.1.2—Aluminum Railing ....................................................................................................................... 20-1
20.2.1.3—Metal Beam Railing ..................................................................................................................... 20-2
20.2.1.4—Welding ....................................................................................................................................... 20-2
20.2.2—Installation ............................................................................................................................................. 20-2
20.2.3—Finish ..................................................................................................................................................... 20-2
20.3—CONCRETE RAILING ................................................................................................................................... 20-2
20.3.1—Materials and Construction .................................................................................................................... 20-2
20.4—TIMBER RAILING ......................................................................................................................................... 20-3
20.5—STONE AND BRICK RAILINGS ................................................................................................................... 20-3
20.6—TEMPORARY RAILING ................................................................................................................................ 20-3
20.7—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT .............................................................................................................. 20-3
20.7.1—Measurement .......................................................................................................................................... 20-3
20.7.2—Payment ................................................................................................................................................. 20-4
20.8—REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................. 20-4
20-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 20
RAILINGS
20.1—GENERAL
20.1.1—Description C20.1.1
This work shall consist of furnishing all materials and The types of railings included in this work consist of
constructing railings on structures. Railings constructed at hand railings; pedestrian railings; traffic railings, which are
each location shall conform to the type and details specified sometimes called barriers; and railings for other such
in the contract documents for that location. The work shall purposes.
include the furnishing and placing of mortar or concrete,
anchor bolts, reinforcing steel dowels, or other devices
used to attach the railing to the structure.
20.1.2—Materials
20.1.3—Construction
20.2—METAL RAILING
20.2.1.1—Steel Railing
For aluminum railings or portions of railings, cast AASHTO M 193 was discontinued in 1998 but is still
aluminum posts shall conform to the requirements of a valid specification for cast aluminum alloy railing posts.
AASHTO M 193 and extruded components shall conform
to the requirements of ASTM B221.
20-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
20-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
Metal beam rail, posts, and hardware shall conform to Metal beam railing requirements refer to Section 606
the requirements in Section 606 of the AASHTO Guide of the AASHTO Guide Specification for Highway
Specification for Highway Construction, Section 606. Construction.
20.2.1.4—Welding
20.2.2—Installation
20.2.3—Finish
20.3—CONCRETE RAILING
Unless otherwise specified in the contract documents, Acceptable sealers are urethane, shellac, latex epoxy,
posts, rails, and other timber for wood railings shall be enamel, and varnish.
constructed according to the requirements of Section 16,
“Timber Structures.” When treated wood is called for, the
preservative treatment shall conform to the requirements of
Section 17, “Preservative Treatment of Wood.” The
surfaces of all elements of treated wooden railings that are
located where contact with people could occur shall be
sealed with two coats of an acceptable sealer.
20.6—TEMPORARY RAILING
20.7.1—Measurement
20.7.2—Payment
20.8—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2008. AASHTO Guide Specification for Highway Construction, Ninth Edition, GSH-9, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
216
21.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 21-1
21.1.1—Waterproofing ........................................................................................................................................ 21-1
21.1.2—Dampproofing ........................................................................................................................................ 21-1
21.2—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 21-1
21.2.1—Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing System ............................................................................................ 21-1
21.2.1.1—Asphalt ......................................................................................................................................... 21-1
21.2.1.2—Primer .......................................................................................................................................... 21-1
21.2.1.3—Fabric ........................................................................................................................................... 21-1
21.2.2—Preformed Membrane Waterproofing Systems ...................................................................................... 21-2
21.2.2.1—Primer .......................................................................................................................................... 21-2
21.2.2.2—Preformed Membrane Sheet......................................................................................................... 21-2
21.2.2.3—Mastic .......................................................................................................................................... 21-3
21.2.3—Protective Covers ................................................................................................................................... 21-3
21.2.4—Dampproofing ........................................................................................................................................ 21-3
21.2.5—Inspection and Delivery ......................................................................................................................... 21-3
21.3—SURFACE PREPARATION............................................................................................................................ 21-4
21.4—APPLICATION ............................................................................................................................................... 21-4
21.4.1—Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing......................................................................................................... 21-4
21.4.1.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 21-4
21.4.1.2—Installation ................................................................................................................................... 21-4
21.4.1.3—Special Details ............................................................................................................................. 21-5
21.4.1.4—Damage Patching ......................................................................................................................... 21-6
21.4.2—Preformed Membrane Waterproofing Systems ...................................................................................... 21-6
21.4.2.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 21-6
21.4.2.2—Installation on Bridge Decks ........................................................................................................ 21-6
21.4.2.3—Installation on Other Surfaces ...................................................................................................... 21-7
21.4.3—Protective Cover..................................................................................................................................... 21-8
21.4.4—Dampproofing ........................................................................................................................................ 21-8
21.5—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT .............................................................................................................. 21-8
21-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 21
WATERPROOFING
21.1—GENERAL
21.1.1—Waterproofing
21.1.2—Dampproofing
21.2—MATERIALS
21.2.1.1—Asphalt
21.2.1.2—Primer
21.2.1.3—Fabric
21-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
21-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
21.2.2.1—Primer
Table 21.2.2.2-1—Preformed Membrane Sheet for Surfaces Other than Bridge Decks
Value
Property Test Rubberized Asphalt Type Modified Bitumen Type
Tensile Strength in Machine ASTM D882 20 lb/in. 20 lb/in.
Direction
% Elongation at break in ASTM D882 150% at 25% at
Machine Direction 73.4°F ± 3.6°F 73.4°F ± 3.6°F
Value
Rubberized Asphalt Type Modified Bitumen Type
Property Test
Tensile Strength in Machine ASTM D882 50 lb/in. 40 lb/in.
Direction
% Elongation at break in ASTM D882 15% at 10% at
Machine Direction 73.4°F ± 3.6°F 73.4°F ± 3.6°F
Pliability ASTM D146 No cracks No cracks
Thickness, minimum 65 mils 70 mils
Softening Point, minimum ASTM D36 165°F 210°F
21.2.2.3—Mastic
21.2.3—Protective Covers
21.2.4—Dampproofing
21.3—SURFACE PREPARATION
21.4—APPLICATION
21.4.1.1—General
21.4.1.2—Installation
21.4.1.3—Special Details
Joints that are essentially open joints, but that are not
designed to provide for expansion, shall first be caulked
with oakum or other material approved by the Engineer,
and then filled with hot joint filler.
Expansion joints, both horizontal and vertical, shall be
provided with sheet copper or lead in “U” or “V” form in
accordance with the contract documents. After the
membrane has been placed, the joint shall be filled with hot
joint filler. The membrane shall be carried continuously
across all expansion joints.
At the ends of the structure, the membrane shall be
carried well down on the abutments and suitable provision
made for all movement.
21.4.1.4—Damage Patching
21.4.2.1—General
21.4.3—Protective Cover
21.4.4—Dampproofing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
22
22.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 22-1
22.2—WORKING DRAWINGS ................................................................................................................................ 22-1
22.3—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 22-2
22.3.1—Aggregate ............................................................................................................................................... 22-2
22.3.2—Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) ........................................................................................................... 22-2
22.3.3—Filter Fabric............................................................................................................................................ 22-2
22.3.4—Grout ...................................................................................................................................................... 22-2
22.3.5—Sacked Concrete Riprap ......................................................................................................................... 22-2
22.3.6—Portland Cement Concrete ..................................................................................................................... 22-2
22.3.7—Pneumatically Applied Mortar ............................................................................................................... 22-3
22.3.8—Precast Portland Cement Concrete Blocks and Shapes .......................................................................... 22-3
22.3.9—Reinforcing Steel ................................................................................................................................... 22-3
22.3.10—Geocomposite Drain ............................................................................................................................ 22-3
22.4—CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 22-4
22.4.1—Preparation of Slopes ............................................................................................................................. 22-4
22.4.2—Bedding .................................................................................................................................................. 22-4
22.4.3—Filter Fabric............................................................................................................................................ 22-4
22.4.4—Geocomposite Drain .............................................................................................................................. 22-4
22.4.5—Hand-Placing Stones .............................................................................................................................. 22-5
22.4.6—Machine-Placed Stones .......................................................................................................................... 22-5
22.4.6.1—Dry Placement.............................................................................................................................. 22-5
22.4.6.2—Underwater Placement ................................................................................................................. 22-5
22.4.7—Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) ........................................................................................................... 22-5
22.4.7.1—Fabrication ................................................................................................................................... 22-5
22.4.7.2—Installation ................................................................................................................................... 22-6
22.4.8—Grouted Riprap....................................................................................................................................... 22-7
22.4.9—Sacked Concrete Riprap ......................................................................................................................... 22-7
22.4.10—Concrete Slope Paving ......................................................................................................................... 22-8
22.4.10.1—General....................................................................................................................................... 22-8
22.4.10.2—Cast-in-Place Slope Paving ........................................................................................................ 22-8
22.4.10.3—Precast Slope Paving .................................................................................................................. 22-9
22.5—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT .............................................................................................................. 22-9
22.5.1—Method of Measurement ........................................................................................................................ 22-9
22.5.1.1—Stone Riprap and Filter Blanket ................................................................................................... 22-9
22.5.1.2—Sacked Concrete Riprap ............................................................................................................... 22-9
22.5.1.3—Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) ............................................................................................... 22-10
22.5.1.4—Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving......................................................................................... 22-10
22.5.1.5—Precast Concrete Slope Paving .................................................................................................. 22-10
22.5.1.6—Filter Fabric ............................................................................................................................... 22-10
22.5.2—Payment ............................................................................................................................................... 22-10
22.5.2.1—General....................................................................................................................................... 22-10
22.5.2.2—Stone Riprap .............................................................................................................................. 22-10
22.5.2.3—Sacked Concrete Riprap ............................................................................................................. 22-11
22.5.2.4—Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) ............................................................................................... 22-11
22.5.2.5—Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving......................................................................................... 22-11
22.5.2.6—Precast Concrete Slope Paving .................................................................................................. 22-11
22.5.2.7—Filter Blanket ............................................................................................................................. 22-11
22.5.2.8—Filter Fabric ............................................................................................................................... 22-11
22.5.2.9—Geocomposite Drain System ...................................................................................................... 22-12
22.6—REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................... 22-12
22-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 22
SLOPE PROTECTION
22.1—GENERAL C22.1
This work shall consist of the construction of bank and Types of slope protection are designated as follows:
slope protection courses in accordance with these
specifications and in reasonably close conformity with the • Riprap
lines, grades, and thicknesses shown in the contract
documents or established by the Engineer. These provisions o Hand-Placed Riprap—Hand-placed stones
shall apply to riprap, concrete slope paving, and precast on earth or gravel bedding
concrete slope paving.
o Machine-Placed Riprap—Machine-placed
stones on earth or gravel bedding
22.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
22-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
22-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
22.3—MATERIALS
22.3.1—Aggregate C22.3.1
Aggregate for riprap shall conform to the requirements Aggregate for riprap and for underdrains and filter
of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway blankets refers to the AASHTO Guide Specifications for
Construction, Subsection 703.15, “Aggregate for Riprap.” Highway Construction.
Aggregate for under drains and filter blankets shall
conform to Section 704, “Aggregate for Drainage,” and
Subsection 705, “Stone Blanket Protection, Filter Blanket,
and Fabric,” respectively, of the AASHTO Guide
Specifications for Highway Construction.
Gabions shall be constructed of wire mesh. The wire Wire steel gages are in accordance with the “Wire and
mesh shall be made of galvanized steel wire having a Sheet Metal Gages” table in the AISC LRFD Manual of
minimum size of 0.120-in. diameter (U.S. Wire Gage Steel Construction.
No. 11). The tensile strength of the wire shall be in the
range of 60.0 to 85.0 ksi, determined in accordance with
ASTM A392. The minimum zinc coating of the wire shall
be 0.80 oz/ft2 of uncoated wire surface, as determined in
accordance with AASHTO T 65M/T 65 (ASTM
A90/A90M).
Selvage, tie, and connection wire shall meet the same
strength and coating requirements specified above for wire
used in the wire mesh.
Filter fabric shall meet the requirements of the Filter fabric requirements refer to the AASHTO Guide
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway Construction, Specifications for Highway Construction, 1998.
Subsection 705.03.
22.3.4—Grout
22.3.9—Reinforcing Steel
22.3.10—Geocomposite Drain
22.4—CONSTRUCTION
22.4.1—Preparation of Slopes
22.4.2—Bedding
22.4.3—Filter Fabric
22.4.4—Geocomposite Drain
Where hand-placing of stones is specified in the The foundation course is the course placed on the
contract documents, the larger stones shall be placed first slope in contact with the ground surface.
with close joints in the footing trench. Stones shall be
placed with their longitudinal axis normal to the
embankment face and arranged so that each stone above the
foundation course has a three-point bearing on the
underlying stones. Bearing on smaller stones that may be
used for chinking voids shall not be acceptable. Placing of
stones by dumping shall not be permitted. Interstices shall
be filled with smaller stones and spalls.
22.4.6—Machine-Placed Stones
22.4.6.1—Dry Placement
22.4.6.2—Underwater Placement
The wire mesh shall be twisted to form hexagonal Nonravelling is defined as the ability to resist pulling
openings of uniform size. The maximum linear dimension apart at any of the twists or connections forming the mesh
of the mesh opening shall not exceed 4.5 in. and the area of when a single wire strand in a section is cut.
the mesh opening shall not exceed 8.0 in.2. The mesh shall
be fabricated in such a manner as to be nonravelling.
Gabions shall be fabricated so the sides, ends, lid, and
diaphragms can be assembled at the construction site into
rectangular baskets of the specified size. Gabions shall be
of single-unit construction, i.e., base, lid, ends, and sides
shall be either woven into a single unit, or one edge of
these members connected to the base section of the gabion
in a manner such that strength and flexibility at the point of
connection is at least equal to that of the mesh.
Where the length of the gabion exceeds its horizontal
width, the gabion shall be equally divided by diaphragms of
the same mesh and gage as the body of the gabions, into cells
the length of which does not exceed the horizontal width.
The gabion shall be furnished with the necessary diaphragms
secured in proper position on the base in a manner that no
additional tying at this junction will be necessary.
22.4.7.2—Installation
22.4.8—Grouted Riprap
22.4.10.1—General
22.5.1—Method of Measurement
22.5.1.6—Filter Fabric
22.5.2—Payment
22.5.2.1—General
22.5.2.2—Stone Riprap
22.5.2.7—Filter Blanket
22.5.2.8—Filter Fabric
22.6—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 1998. AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway Construction, GSH-8 American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AISC. 2003. LRFD Manual of Steel Construction, 3rd Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL,
Table 17-10, “Wire and Sheet Metal Gages.”
TABLE OF CONTENTS
236
23.1—DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................................ 23-1
23.2—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 23-1
23.3—FABRICATION ............................................................................................................................................... 23-1
23.4—GALVANIZING .............................................................................................................................................. 23-2
23.5—MEASUREMENT ........................................................................................................................................... 23-2
23.6—PAYMENT ...................................................................................................................................................... 23-2
23.7—REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................................... 23-2
23-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 23
MISCELLANEOUS METAL
23.1—DESCRIPTION C23.1
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing Miscellaneous metalwork includes but is not limited to
metal items in structures which are not otherwise provided the following items:
for.
23.2—MATERIALS
Material Specification
23.3—FABRICATION
23-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
23-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
23.4—GALVANIZING
23.5—MEASUREMENT
23.6—PAYMENT
23.7—REFERENCE
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
246
24.1—DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................................ 24-1
24.2—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 24-1
24.2.1—Cement, Aggregate, Water, and Admixtures ......................................................................................... 24-1
24.2.2—Reinforcing Steel ................................................................................................................................... 24-1
24.2.3—Anchor Bolts or Studs ............................................................................................................................ 24-1
24.3—PROPORTIONING AND MIXING ................................................................................................................. 24-2
24.3.1—Proportioning ......................................................................................................................................... 24-2
24.3.2—Mixing.................................................................................................................................................... 24-2
24.4—SURFACE PREPARATION............................................................................................................................ 24-2
24.4.1—Earth ....................................................................................................................................................... 24-2
24.4.2—Forms ..................................................................................................................................................... 24-2
24.4.3—Concrete or Rock ................................................................................................................................... 24-3
24.5—INSTALLATION ............................................................................................................................................. 24-3
24.5.1—Placement of Reinforcing ....................................................................................................................... 24-3
24.5.2—Placement of Mortar............................................................................................................................... 24-4
24.5.2.1—Weather Limitations..................................................................................................................... 24-5
24.5.2.2—Protection of Adjacent Work ....................................................................................................... 24-5
24.5.3—Finishing ................................................................................................................................................ 24-5
24.5.4—Curing and Protecting ............................................................................................................................ 24-5
24.6—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT .............................................................................................................. 24-5
24.7—REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................. 24-6
24-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 24
This work shall consist of the furnishing and placing of The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
pneumatically applied mortar for the construction of 2007, do not cover pneumatically applied mortar. The
portions of structures, repairing concrete structures, provisions of the 17th Edition of the AASHTO Standard
texturing concrete surfaces, encasement of structural steel Specifications for Highway Bridges shall be used.
members, lining ditches and channels, paving slopes, and
for other miscellaneous work, all as specified in the
contract documents.
This work shall also include the preparation of surfaces
to receive the mortar and the furnishing and placing of any
reinforcing steel and anchors for reinforcement.
Pneumatically applied mortar shall consist of either dry
mixed fine aggregate and portland cement pneumatically
applied by a suitable mechanism, to which mixture the
water is added immediately previous to its expulsion from
the nozzle, or mortar premixed by mechanical methods and
pneumatically applied through a nozzle onto the prepared
surface.
24.2—MATERIALS
24.2.2—Reinforcing Steel
24-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
24-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
24.3.1—Proportioning
24.3.2—Mixing
24.4—SURFACE PREPARATION
24.4.1—Earth
24.4.2—Forms
24.4.3—Concrete or Rock
24.5—INSTALLATION
24.5.2—Placement of Mortar
24.5.2.1—Weather Limitations
24.5.3—Finishing
24.7—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2002. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition, HB-17, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
WRI. 2001. Structural Welded Wire Fabric Detailing Manual, Part I, WWR-500, Wire Reinforcement Institute,
Hartford, CT.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
256
25.1—SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................................. 25-1
25.2—DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................................ 25-1
25.3—MATERIALS AND FABRICATION .............................................................................................................. 25-1
25.3.1—General ................................................................................................................................................... 25-1
25.3.2—Forming and Punching of Steel Liner Plates .......................................................................................... 25-2
25.4—INSTALLATION ............................................................................................................................................. 25-2
25.4.1—Steel Liner Plates ................................................................................................................................... 25-2
25.4.2—Precast Concrete Liner Plates................................................................................................................. 25-2
25.4.3—Grouting ................................................................................................................................................. 25-2
25.5—MEASUREMENT ........................................................................................................................................... 25-3
25.6—PAYMENT ...................................................................................................................................................... 25-3
25.7—REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................. 25-3
25-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 25
These Specifications are intended to cover the For the purposes of these Specifications, tunnels
installation of tunnel liner plates in tunnels constructed by excavated by full face, heading and bench, or multiple drift
conventional tunnel methods. procedures are considered conventional methods.
Liner plates used with any construction procedure
utilizing a full or partial shield, a tunneling machine, or
other piece of equipment that will exert a force on the liner
plates for the purpose of propelling, steering, or stabilizing
the equipment are considered special cases and are not
covered by these Specifications.
25.2—DESCRIPTION
25.3.1—General C25.3.1
Steel liner plates herein described must meet the Liner plates shall be fabricated to fit the cross-section
sectional properties of thickness, area, and moment of of the tunnel.
inertia shown in the contract documents. If not shown in Steel liner plate requirements refer to Article 12.13.3,
the contract documents, the properties shall be as specified “Safety Against Structural Failure,” of the AASHTO LRFD
in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Bridge Design Specifications, 2007.
Article 12.13.3. Bolt size and property standards refer to
All steel plates shall be connected by bolts on both Article 12.13.3.1, “Section Properties,” of the AASHTO
longitudinal and circumferential seams or joints and shall LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2007.
be so fabricated as to permit complete erection from the
inside of the tunnel. Bolt sizes and properties shall be in
accordance with the Manufacturer's standard, but not less
than those specified in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications, Article 12.13.3.1.
Grout holes 2.0 in. or larger in diameter shall be
provided as shown in the contract documents to permit
grouting as the erection of tunnel liner plates progresses.
25-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
25-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
All plates shall be formed to provide circumferential Article 12.13.3.1, Bolt Size and Property Standards
flanged joints. Longitudinal joints may be flanged or of the refers to “Section Properties” of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
offset lap seam type. All plates shall be punched for bolting Design Specifications, 2007.
on both longitudinal and circumferential seams or joints.
Bolt spacing in circumferential flanges shall be in
accordance with the Manufacturer's standard spacing and
shall be a multiple of the plate length so that plates having
the same curvature shall be interchangeable and will permit
staggering of the longitudinal seams. Bolt spacing at
flanged longitudinal seams shall be in accordance with the
Manufacturer's standard spacing. For lapped longitudinal
seams, bolt size and spacing shall be in accordance with the
Manufacturer's standard but not less than that necessary to
meet the longitudinal seam strength requirements specified
in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
Article 12.13.3.1.
25.4—INSTALLATION
25.4.3—Grouting
25.5—MEASUREMENT
25.6—PAYMENT
25.7—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
266
26.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 26-1
26.1.1—Description ............................................................................................................................................. 26-1
26.2—WORKING DRAWINGS ................................................................................................................................ 26-1
26.3—MATERIALS................................................................................................................................................... 26-1
26.3.1—Corrugated Metal Pipe ........................................................................................................................... 26-1
26.3.2—Structural Plate ....................................................................................................................................... 26-1
26.3.3—Nuts and Bolts ........................................................................................................................................ 26-2
26.3.4—Mixing of Materials ............................................................................................................................... 26-2
26.3.5—Fabrication ............................................................................................................................................. 26-2
26.3.6—Welding.................................................................................................................................................. 26-2
26.3.7—Protective Coatings ................................................................................................................................ 26-2
26.3.8—Bedding and Backfill Materials ............................................................................................................. 26-3
26.3.8.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 26-3
26.3.8.2—Long-Span Structures .................................................................................................................. 26-3
26.3.8.3—Box Culverts ................................................................................................................................ 26-3
26.3.8.4—Deep Corrugated Structures ......................................................................................................... 26-3
26.4—ASSEMBLY .................................................................................................................................................... 26-3
26.4.1—General ................................................................................................................................................... 26-3
26.4.2—Joints ...................................................................................................................................................... 26-4
26.4.2.1—Field Joints ................................................................................................................................... 26-4
26.4.2.2—Joint Types ................................................................................................................................... 26-5
26.4.2.3—Soil Conditions ............................................................................................................................ 26-5
26.4.2.4—Joint Properties ............................................................................................................................ 26-5
26.4.3—Assembly of Long-Span Structures ....................................................................................................... 26-6
26.5—INSTALLATION ............................................................................................................................................ 26-7
26.5.1—General ................................................................................................................................................... 26-7
26.5.2—Foundation ............................................................................................................................................. 26-7
26.5.3—Bedding ................................................................................................................................................ 26-10
26.5.4—Structure Backfill ................................................................................................................................. 26-11
26.5.4.1—General....................................................................................................................................... 26-11
26.5.4.2—Arches ........................................................................................................................................ 26-12
26.5.4.3—Long-Span Structures ................................................................................................................ 26-12
26.5.4.4—Box Culverts .............................................................................................................................. 26-13
26.5.5—Bracing ................................................................................................................................................. 26-13
26.5.6—Arch Substructures and Headwalls ...................................................................................................... 26-14
26.5.7—Inspection Requirements for CMP ....................................................................................................... 26-15
26.5.7.1—Visual Inspection ....................................................................................................................... 26-15
26.5.7.2—Installation Deflection ............................................................................................................... 26-16
26.6—CONSTRUCTION PRECAUTIONS ............................................................................................................ 26-18
26.7—MEASUREMENT ......................................................................................................................................... 26-18
26.8—PAYMENT .................................................................................................................................................... 26-18
26.9—REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................................. 26-19
26-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 26
METAL CULVERTS
26.1—GENERAL
26.1.1—Description C26.1.1
This work shall consist of furnishing, fabricating, The terms “metal pipe” and “metal structural plate
installing, and inspecting metal pipe, structural plate metal pipe” includes circular and pipe arch, underpass and
pipe, arches, pipe arches, box structures, and deep elliptical shapes. “Metal structural plate arches” consist of
corrugated structures in conformance with these a metal plate arch supported on reinforced concrete
Specifications, and the details shown in the contract footings with or without a paved invert slab. “Pipe arches”
documents. As used in this specification, long-span are constructed to form a pipe having an arch-shaped
structures are metal plate horizontal elliptic, inverted pear crown and a relatively flat invert. “Structural plate metal
and multiple radius arch shapes, as well as special shape box structures” are conduits, rectangular in cross-section,
culverts as defined in Section 12 of the AASHTO LRFD constructed of metal plates.
Bridge Design Specifications. The metal culvert description refers to Section 12,
“Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners,” of the AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
26.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
26.3—MATERIALS
26.3.2—Structural Plate
26-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
26-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
Nuts and bolts for steel structural plate pipe, arches, pipe
arches, and box structures shall conform to the requirements
of AASHTO M 167M/M 167 (ASTM A761/A761M). Nuts
and bolts for aluminum structural plate shall be aluminum
conforming to the requirements of ASTM F468 or standard
strength steel conforming to ASTM A307.
26.3.4—Mixing of Materials
26.3.5—Fabrication
26.3.6—Welding C26.3.6
If required, welding of steel shall conform to the Welding references AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5
current AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Bridge Welding Code and ANSI/AWS D1.2/D1.2M
Code. All welding of steel plates, other than fittings, shall Structural Welding Code—Aluminum.
be performed prior to galvanizing.
If required, welding of aluminum shall conform to the
ANSI/AWS D1.2/D1.2M Structural Welding Code—
Aluminum.
26.3.7—Protective Coatings
26.3.8.1—General
26.3.8.2—Long-Span Structures
26.3.8.3—Box Culverts
26.4—ASSEMBLY
26.4.1—General C26.4.1
26.4.2—Joints
Transverse field joints shall be of such design that the Suitable transverse field joints, which satisfy the
successive connection of pipe sections form a continuous requirements for one or more of the subsequently defined
line free from appreciable irregularities in the flow line. In joint performance categories, can be obtained with the
addition, the joints shall meet the general performance following types of connecting bands furnished with the
requirements described in Articles 26.4.2.2 through suitable band-end fastening devices:
26.4.2.4.
• Corrugated bands
• Flat bands
The contract document should specify either Standard joints are for pipe not subject to large soil
“Standard” or “Special” joints as appropriate for the movements or disjointing forces. These joints are
requirements at hand. satisfactory for ordinary installations where simple slip-
type joints are typically used. Special joints are for more
severe requirements such as the need to withstand soil
movements or resist disjointing forces. Examples of
conditions leading to more severe requirements include
poor foundation conditions or conditions producing
longitudinal hydraulic forces requiring downdrain joints
such as pipes on steep slopes or sharp curves.
Special joints should be specified when poor soil An example of poor soil conditions is when the
conditions are encountered. backfill or foundation material is characterized by large
soft spots or voids. If construction in such soil is
unavoidable, this condition can only be tolerated for
relatively low fill heights, because the pipe must span the
soft spots and support imposed loads.
The requirements for joint properties shall be taken as The joint resistances in shear and flexure are given in
specified in Table 26.4.2.4-1. The values for various types Table 26.4.2.4-1 as a percentage of the respective
of pipe may be determined by a rational analysis or a resistance of a transverse cross-section remote of the joint.
suitable test. Tensile strength is required in a joint when the
The following design issues shall be considered in the possibility exists that a longitudinal load could develop
design of, or selection of, pipe joints: which would tend to separate adjacent pipe sections.
• Soil Tightness—No opening may exceed 1.0 in. In Soil tightness refers to openings in the joint through
addition, for all categories, if the size of the which soil may infiltrate. Soil tightness is influenced by the
opening exceeds 0.125 in., the length of the size of the opening (maximum dimension normal to the
channel shall be at least four times the size of the direction that the soil may infiltrate) and the length of the
opening. For nonerodible or erodible soils, the channel (length of the path along which the soil may
ratio of D85 soil size to size of opening must be infiltrate).
greater than 0.3 for medium to fine sand or 0.2 for As a general guideline, a backfill material containing a
uniform sand; these ratios need not be met for high percentage of fine-grained soils requires investigation
cohesive backfills where the plasticity index for the specific type of joint to be used to guard against soil
exceeds 12 percent. Alternatively, a joint which infiltration.
withstands 2 psi hydrostatic test without leakage Backfill which is not subject to piping action is
shall be considered soil tight. Joints that do not classified as “nonerodible.” Such backfill typically includes
meet these requirements may be made soil tight granular soil (with grain sizes equivalent to coarses and,
by wrapping with a suitable geotextile. small gravel, or larger) and cohesive soils.
Backfill that is subject to piping action, and would
tend to either infiltrate the pipe or to be easily washed by
exfiltration of water from the pipe, is classified as
“erodible.” Such backfill typically includes fine sands and
silts.
• Watertightness—The adjoining pipe ends in any Watertightness may be specified for joints of any
joint shall not vary more than 0.5 in. in diameter category where needed to satisfy other criteria. The leakage
or more than 1.5 in. in circumference for rate shall be measured with the pipe in place or at an
watertight joints. approved test facility. The tolerances indicated may be
attained by proper production controls or by
match-marking pipe ends.
Soil Condition
Nonerodible Erodible
Joint Type Joint Type
Joint Property Standard Special Standard Special Downdrain
Shear Resistance 2% 5% 2% 5% 2%
Moment Resistance 5% 15% 5% 15% 15%
Tensile Resistance 0 5.0 kips — 5.0 kips 5.0 kips
0–42.0 in. dia.
Tensile Resistance — 10.0 kips — 10.0 kips 10.0 kips
(48.0 in.–84.0 in.), dia.
Joint Overlap, 10.5 in. NA 10.5 in. NA NA
minimum
Soil tightness NA NA 0.3 or 0.2 0.3 or 0.2 0.3 or 0.2
Watertightness See Article
C26.4.2.4
Unless held in shape by cables, struts, or backfill, Long-span structures may require deviation from the
longitudinal seams should be tightened when the plates are normal practice of loose bolt assembly.
hung. Care shall be taken to align plates to ensure properly The process of erection specified herein may require
fitted seams prior to bolt tightening. The variation in temporary shoring.
structure dimensions before backfill shall comply with the
following provisions:
26.5—INSTALLATION
26.5.1—General
26.5.2—Foundation C26.5.2
Where relatively large-radius inverts adjoin small These pressures may be two to five times the loading
radius corners or sides for sections such as pipe arches, pressures on top of the pipe, depending on the pipe shape.
elliptic pipe or underpasses, the foundation shall be When corrective measures are necessary, providing
designed to support the radial pressures exerted by the less support under the invert allows the pipe to maintain its
smaller radius portions of the pipe. The principal shape as minor settlements occur as shown in
foundation support shall be provided in the area extending Figure C26.5.2-1.
radially outward from the smaller radius areas.
Where settlement of the pipe is expected to be so large The use of camber under a high fill is shown in
that the required grade under high fills will not be Figure C26.5.2-2.
maintained, pipe may be cambered to prevent excessive
sag. The amount of camber shall be determined based on
consideration of the flow line, gradient, fill height, the
compressive characteristics of the foundation material, and
the depth to incompressible strata.
26.5.3—Bedding C26.5.3
When, in the opinion of the Engineer, the natural soil The pipe bedding is a relatively thin layer of loosely-
does not provide a suitable bed, a bedding blanket shall be placed material that cushions the pipe invert and allows the
provided with a minimum thickness of twice the corrugation to nest or seat into it, thus supporting the
corrugation depth. corrugation.
Pipe arch, horizontal elliptic and underpass shapes
with spans exceeding 12.0 ft should be placed on a shaped
bed. The shaped area should be centered beneath the pipe
and should have a minimum width of one-half the span for
pipe arch and underpass shapes, and one-third the span for
horizontal elliptic shapes. Preshaping may consist of a
simple “V” graded into the soil as shown in
Figure 26.5.3-1.
26.5.4—Structure Backfill
26.5.4.1—General C26.5.4.1
Sufficient inspection and testing should be undertaken Quality control is of extreme importance because the
to be certain that the quality of the soil and the compactive structural integrity of the corrugated metal structure is
effort obtained is as specified. vitally affected by the quality of construction in the field.
Backfill material shall meet the requirements of
Article 26.3.8 and shall be placed in layers not exceeding
8.0-in. loose lift thickness to a minimum 90-percent
standard density per AASHTO T 99. Equipment used to
compact backfill within 3.0 ft from sides of pipe or from
edge of footing for arches and box culverts shall be
approved by the Engineer prior to use. Except as provided
below for long-span structures, the equipment used for
compacting backfill beyond these limits may be the same
as used for compacting embankment.
The backfill shall be placed and compacted with care
under the haunches of the pipe and shall be raised evenly
on both sides of the pipe by working backfill operations
from side to side. The side to side backfill differential shall
not exceed 24.0 in. or one-third of the rise of the structure,
whichever is less. Backfill shall continue to not less than
1.0 ft above the top for the full length of the pipe. Fill
above this level shall be embankment fill or other materials
as specified to support the pavement. The trench shall be
kept to the minimum width required for placing pipe,
placing adequate bedding and sidefill, and safe working
conditions. Ponding or jetting of backfill shall not be
permitted except upon written permission by the Engineer.
Where single or multiple structures are installed at a
skew to the embankment, proper support for the pipe shall
be provided. Support may be achieved with a rigid,
reinforced concrete headwall or by warping the
embankment fill to provide the necessary balanced side
support. Figure 26.5.4.1-1 provides guidelines for warping
the embankment.
26.5.4.2—Arches C26.5.4.2
Arches may require special shape control during the Pin connections at the footing restrict uniform shape
placement and compaction of structure backfill. change. Arches may peak excessively or experience
Prior to construction, the Manufacturer shall attend a curvature flattening in their upper quadrants during
preconstruction conference to advise the Contractor(s) and backfilling. Using lighter compaction equipment, more
Engineer of the more critical functions to be performed easily compacted structure backfill or top loading by
during backfilling and to present the intended quality placing a small load of structure backfill on the crown will
control steps to be used to control loads, shape and aid installation.
movements.
Prior to construction, the Manufacturer shall attend a Backfill requirements for long-span structural-plate
preconstruction conference to advise the Contractor(s) and structures are similar to those for smaller structures. Their
Engineer of the more critical functions to be performed size and flexibility require special control of backfill and
during backfilling and to present the intended quality continuous monitoring of structure shape.
control steps to be used to control loads, shape and
movements.
A preconstruction conference on backfilling shall be Metal box culverts are not long-span structures
required only when specified in the contract document or because they are relatively stiff, semi-rigid frames.
required by the Engineer. Shape control considerations
should be similar to those needed for a metal culvert.
Structure backfill material shall be placed in uniform,
horizontal layers not exceeding an 8-in. maximum loose lift
thickness and compacted to a density not less than
90 percent modified density per AASHTO T 180. The
structure backfill shall be constructed to the minimum lines
and grades shown in the contract documents, keeping it at
or below the level of the adjacent soil or embankment.
26.5.5—Bracing
CMP shall be inspected after placement in the trench, See Article 14.2, “Inspection,” of Highway Drainage
as required during backfilling, and after completion of Guidelines.
installation to ensure that final installation conditions allow Inspections at the appropriate times during installation
the pipe to perform as designed. Installation of bedding and allow corrections to be made in assembly and backfill
backfill materials, as well as their placement and practices. The timing and number of visual inspections depend
compaction, shall be determined to meet the requirements on the significance of the structure and its cover depth.
of this Section. Construction inspection during early stages of the project will
During the initial phase of the installation process, allow the contractor to evaluate and, if necessary, modify
inspection shall concentrate on detecting improper practice construction and quality control practices.
and poor workmanship. Errors in line and grade, as well as Deeply buried structures perform closer to their full,
any improper assembly or backfill techniques, shall be allowable strength level. Where the depth of cover will be
corrected prior to placing significant backfill or trench fill. significant, it is especially important to detect any problems
Coupling bands shall be properly indexed with the before the pipe is buried to a depth where repair will be
corrugation and tightened, and bell/spigot joints shall be difficult or expensive.
properly seated to prevent the infiltration of soil fines. Soil consolidation continues with time after
Where gaskets are used, they shall not bulge or hang into installation of the pipe. While 30 days will not encompass
the pipe and, if visible, should appear uniformly oriented the time frame for complete consolidation of the soil
around the pipe. surrounding the pipe, it is intended to give sufficient time to
Racking or denting of the pipe shall be taken to observe some of the effects that this consolidation will have.
indicate improper backfill placement. At the contractor’s However, occasionally pavement is placed over the pipe
expense, pipe sections damaged during installation shall be sooner than 30 days. While the 30-day time limit should be
evaluated by a Professional Engineer and when directed, maintained, a brief inspection of the pipe prior to paving
that section of the pipe shall be repaired or replaced. over it, particularly for the first few joints, may be prudent to
Coated pipes shall be inspected to ensure the coating ensure that good construction practices are being applied.
has no cracks, scratches, or locations of peeling. Coatings It is recommended that inspection personnel not enter
shall be repaired in accordance with material specification culverts less than 24.0 in. in diameter. Internal inspection
requirements. of culverts in this size range is best conducted using video
Final internal inspections shall be conducted on all cameras. Culverts should only be entered by inspection
buried CMP installations to evaluate issues that may affect personnel trained in working within confined spaces and
long-term performance. Final inspections shall be using procedures in full compliance with applicable Local,
conducted no sooner than 30 days after completion of State, and Federal OSHA regulations.
installation and final fill.
The inspection will verify that bedding, backfill, and Racking, or loss of symmetry, is structurally important
compaction requirements are followed during in larger pipes because a flattened area is formed on one
installation. The pipe shall be checked for alignment, side of the crown as the top centerline is racked to the
joint separation, cracking at bolt holes, localized opposite side. Differential shape changes at the joint, or
distortions, bulging, flattening, or racking. Shallow joint separation may allow exfiltration or infiltration
cover installations shall be checked to ensure the resulting in erosion of the backfill material.
minimum cover level is provided and inspected prior to Slight peaking of the cross-sectional shape should be
and immediately after vehicular load is applied. taken as indicative of achieving or exceeding minimum
compaction requirements.
The pipe shall be evaluated to determine whether the Ten percent of each pipe installation shall be defined as
internal diameter of the barrel has been reduced more than ten percent of the number of pipe runs, and not less than ten
the limits set forth in this Article when measured not less percent of the total length of installed pipe on the project.
than 30 days following completion of installation. The requirement of deflection testing ten percent of each
Because of their broad diameter tolerances, metal pipes pipe installation is intended to serve as a minimum and does
24 in. in diameter and smaller typically are not deflection not limit owners from more stringent requirements.
tested. A visual inspection should be performed to check for There are many appropriate methods for measuring
denting or other damage using a video camera or other deflection, including video inspection equipment and direct
means. If deflection testing is required by the owner or the measurement. Whichever method is used for deflection
visual inspection indicates excessive deflection, a device measurement, a minimum of ten percent of the total length
approved by the Engineer that can physically verify the of installed pipe shall be tested, in addition to any areas that
dimensions of the pipe and is not limited by poor lighting, were identified in the visual inspection as having
waterflow, pipe length, or other limiting conditions of the deflection.
installed environment shall be used. If deflection testing is The deflection limits provided are similar to the
performed, deflection for metal pipes 24 in. in diameter and deflection criteria for other flexible pipes in these
smaller shall not exceed 7.5 percent of the nominal diameter Specifications. These limits do not necessarily reflect the
of the pipe plus a manufacturing tolerance as determined to capability of the pipe, but were chosen as limits at which
be appropriate by the owner. the installation indicates poor workmanship that needs to
Pipes larger than 24 in. may be entered and deflection be corrected to prevent future maintenance problems. To
levels measured directly. In lieu of direct measurements, a prevent owners from having to measure every single pipe
calibrated video camera or any other device approved by to establish base dimensions, deflection measurements
the Engineer that can physically verify the dimensions of shall be based on nominal pipe dimensions. Manufacturing
the pipe and is not limited by poor lighting, waterflow, pipe tolerances per AASHTO M 36 for individual products were
length, or other limiting conditions of the installed added to a base deflection limit of 7.5 percent to arrive at
environment may be used. the limits as defined in this Article.
In all installations of pipes larger than 24 in. in
diameter, at least ten percent of the total number of pipe
runs representing at least ten percent of the total pipe
footage on the project shall be randomly selected by the
Engineer and inspected for deflection. Also, as determined
by the 100 percent visual inspection in Article 26.5.7.1, all
areas in which deflection can be visually detected shall be
inspected for deflection.
Where direct measurements are made, a measurement Due to the broad diameter tolerances on small
shall be taken once every 10 ft. for the length of the pipe, diameter metal pipes, it is difficult to perform deflection
and a minimum of four measurements per pipe installation testing as the pass/fail criterion are often inaccurate.
is required. However they do need to be checked for denting and other
Pipes larger than 24 in. in diameter should be damage. A thorough visual inspection for these pipes is
evaluated by direct measurement. Deflection shall be recommended rather than deflection testing. If owners
determined by comparing span and rise measurements with choose to deflection test small diameter pipes, they should
the nominal pipe diameter. Vertical deflection, as a keep in mind that the tolerances for round metal pipe are
percentage, shall be expressed as: 100((rise/diameter) – ±1 percent or ±0.5 in., whichever is greater. Manufacturing
1.0). Similarly, horizontal deflection shall be expressed as: processes use these tolerances and the diameter often varies
100((span/diameter) – 1). within the pipe. Especially in smaller pipes, this is
For all round pipes larger than 24 in. in diameter, significant to any perceived deflection. A –0.5 in. tolerance
including round and single radius arch structural plate, in a 12-in. pipe itself amounts to 4.2 percent of the
deflections exceeding 7.5 percent the nominal diameter of diameter. This manufacturing tolerance, if it is not taken
the pipe plus the manufacturing tolerance of either one into account, can result in the acceptance of poorly
percent of the nominal diameter or 0.5 in., whichever is installed pipe or the rejection of well installed pipe.
greater, shall be considered as indicative of poor backfill Alternatively, owners who choose to deflection test pipes
materials, poor workmanship or both. These pipes shall 24.0 in. and less in diameter can require a manufacturer’s
require remediation or replacement. Passing deflection certification of the mean diameter, and deflection test based
criterion shall not eliminate the need to evaluate associated on that data.
denting, racking or other shape damage. According to the tolerance limits established in
For pipe arches, deflections resulting in a decrease in AASHTO M 36 and AASHTO M 196, the tolerance for the
rise or increase in span exceeding 7.5 percent shall be rise in a pipe arch can vary greatly to the positive, but is
considered indicative of poor backfill materials, poor zero for negative tolerance. Additionally, the tolerance for
workmanship, or both. These pipes shall require span in a pipe arch is zero to the positive and can vary
remediation or replacement. Passing deflection criterion greatly to the negative. As such, the threshold criterion for
shall not eliminate the need to evaluate associated denting, deflection has been set at a 7.5 percent decrease for rise and
racking or other shape damage. at a 7.5 percent increase for span. This eliminates the large
Structural plate structures should be inspected by direct tolerances for pipe arches as a factor in checking for
measurement. They shall be assembled in accordance with deflection.
the shape tolerances of Article 26.4.3. Immediately after For structural plate structures, a ten percent increase in
backfilling, the structure shall be measured to check for any crown radius does not indicate a ten percent change in rise.
immediate deflections that occurred during the backfilling Depending on the shape, related rise deflections are more
operation. After 30 days, the structure shall be measured typically five percent or less. Since there are nearly an
again to check for any additional deflection. All deflection infinite number of possible design shapes for structural
measurements shall be based on design dimensions. For plate, the dimension change limits are compared to base
multiple radius structures such as ellipses, pipe-arches, and dimensions shown on the working drawings for that
low profile and high profile arches, the crown (top) radius particular structure. Measurements should be taken
shall not increase by more than ten percent of the design immediately after installation and backfilling, as well as
radius as calculated from the measured middle ordinate off a after 30 days, so that corrective measures can be taken if
suitable length straight edge. If the top radius exceeds the necessary before additional construction over the structure
design value by more than ten percent or if the structure is is completed.
racked or unsymmetrical by more than two percent, it shall
require remediation. The degree of racking or loss of
symmetry shall be determined by dropping a plumb line
from the actual top centerline of the installed structure and
measuring the half spans that exist on each side of the plumb
line to the maximum span line. For a symmetrical structure,
these measurements at each individual cross-section should
be equal. The degree of racking or loss of symmetry shall be
expressed as a percentage: 100 ((half span A – half span
B)/span) < 2.
The structures covered by this section shall be These structures can support the design loads once the
investigated for all critical stages in their installation and in backfill is placed and compacted to the minimum cover
the final intended purpose. For construction loads, level over the pipe, as defined in Section 12, “Buried
additional cover may be required beyond that required in Structures and Tunnel Liners,” AASHTO LRFD Bridge
the final condition to which the design loads apply. In the Design Specifications.
absence of more specific information, the cover depths in
Table 26.6-1 may be considered for the smaller structures
indicated. The minimum covers indicated should be
increased when site conditions so indicate. The Engineer or
the Manufacturer shall provide guidance for structure
spans or axle loads not listed.
26.7—MEASUREMENT
26.8—PAYMENT
26.9—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. Highway Drainage Guidelines, Fourth Edition, HDG-4, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. Includes
AASHTO M, R, and T standards, which are also available individually in downloadable form.
AASHTO and AWS. 2008. AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5:2008 Bridge Welding Code, Fifth Edition, BWC-5, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
AWS. 2003. ANSI/AWS D1.2/D1.2M Structural Welding Code—Aluminum, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
27.1—GENERAL ...................................................................................................................................................... 27-1
27.2—WORKING DRAWINGS ............................................................................................................................... 27-1
27.3—MATERIALS.................................................................................................................................................. 27-1
27.3.1—Reinforced Concrete Culverts ............................................................................................................... 27-1
27.3.2—Surface Finish ....................................................................................................................................... 27-2
27.3.3—Joint Sealants ........................................................................................................................................ 27-2
27.3.3.1—General........................................................................................................................................ 27-2
27.3.3.2—Cement Mortar ............................................................................................................................ 27-2
27.3.3.3—Flexible Watertight Gaskets........................................................................................................ 27-2
27.3.3.4—Other Joint Sealant Materials ...................................................................................................... 27-2
27.3.4—Bedding Material and Backfill .............................................................................................................. 27-2
27.4—ASSEMBLY ................................................................................................................................................... 27-3
27.4.1—General .................................................................................................................................................. 27-3
27.4.2—Joints ..................................................................................................................................................... 27-3
27.5—INSTALLATION ........................................................................................................................................... 27-3
27.5.1—General .................................................................................................................................................. 27-3
27.5.2—Foundation Bedding and Backfill ......................................................................................................... 27-3
27.5.2.1—General........................................................................................................................................ 27-3
27.5.2.2—Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe ................................................. 27-4
27.5.2.3—Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections ............................................................................... 27-10
27.5.3—Placing Culvert Sections ..................................................................................................................... 27-11
27.5.4—Haunch, Lower Side, and Backfill or Overfill .................................................................................... 27-12
27.5.4.1—Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe ............................................... 27-12
27.5.4.2—Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections ............................................................................... 27-12
27.5.4.3—Placing of Haunch, Lower Side, and Backfill or Overfill ......................................................... 27-12
27.5.4.4—Cover over Culvert During Construction .................................................................................. 27-13
27.6—FIELD INSPECTION ................................................................................................................................... 27-13
27.6.1—General ................................................................................................................................................ 27-13
27.6.2—Misalignment ...................................................................................................................................... 27-13
27.6.3—Joint Defects ....................................................................................................................................... 27-14
27.6.4—Longitudinal Cracks ............................................................................................................................ 27-14
27.6.5—Transverse Cracks ............................................................................................................................... 27-15
27.6.6—Spalls .................................................................................................................................................. 27-15
27.6.7—Slabbing .............................................................................................................................................. 27-15
27.6.8—End Section Drop-Off ......................................................................................................................... 27-15
27.6.9—Follow Up ........................................................................................................................................... 27-16
27.7—MEASUREMENT ........................................................................................................................................ 27-16
27.8—PAYMENT ................................................................................................................................................... 27-16
27.9—REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 27-16
27-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 27
CONCRETE CULVERTS
27.1—GENERAL C27.1
This work shall consist of fabricating, furnishing, The concrete culvert criteria refers to Section 12,
installing, and inspecting buried precast concrete culverts “Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners,” of the AASHTO
conforming to these Specifications, Section 12 of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2007.
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, and the
details shown in the contract documents. Precast reinforced
concrete pipe shall be circular, arch, or elliptical, as
specified in the contract documents. Precast reinforced
concrete box sections shall be of the dimensions specified
in the contract documents.
27.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
27.3—MATERIALS
Culvert
Type Specification
Circular AASHTO M 170 (ASTM C76)
Pipe or AASHTO M 242 (ASTM C655)
Arch AASHTO M 206M/M 206 (ASTM
Pipe C506)
Elliptical AASHTO M 207M/M 207 (ASTM
Pipe C507)
Box AASHTO M 259 and AASHTO M 273
Sections or ASTM C1433
27-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
27-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
27.3.2—Surface Finish
27.3.3—Joint Sealants
27.3.3.1—General
27.3.3.2—Cement Mortar
27.4—ASSEMBLY
27.4.1—General
27.4.2—Joints
27.5—INSTALLATION
27.5.1—General C27.5.1
For trench conditions, the trench shall be excavated to See ASTM C1479, Standard Practice for Installation
the dimensions and grade specified in the contract of Precast Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain, and Culvert Pipe
documents or ordered by the Engineer. The Contractor Using Standard Installations, for additional information.
shall make such provisions as required to insure adequate
drainage of the trench to protect the bedding during
construction operations.
Proper preparation of foundation, placement of
foundation material where required, and placement of
bedding material shall precede the installation of the
culvert. This work shall include necessary leveling of the
native trench bottom or the top of foundation materials as
well as placement and compaction of required bedding
material to a uniform grade so that the entire length of pipe
shall be supported on a uniformly slightly yield bedding.
The backfill material shall be placed and compacted around
the culvert in a manner to meet the requirements specified.
Materials used for foundation improvements, bedding,
and structure backfill shall have gradations compatible with
adjacent soils to avoid migration. Where material
gradations cannot be properly controlled, adjacent
materials shall be separated with a suitable geotextile.
27.5.2.1—General C27.5.2.1
If rock strata or boulders are encountered under the culvert If the foundation is rock or other unyielding soil, the
within the limits of the required bedding, the rock or minimum bedding of 6.0 in. may not be adequate for deep
boulders shall be removed and replaced with bedding fills. A minimum of 2 percent of the fill height should be
material. The foundation shall be comprised of stiff to hard considered.
in-situ soil, stabilized soil, or compacted fill material. If the
• The minimum width of a subtrench for Type 1 A subtrench is defined as a trench in the natural
through Type 3 installations shall be Bc + 24.0 in. material under an embankment used to retain bedding
or 1.33 Bc, whichever is greater, or wider if material with its top below finished grade by more than
required for adequate space to attain the specified ten percent of the depth of soil cover on the top of the
compaction in the haunch and bedding zones. culvert or pipe, or, for roadways, its top is at an elevation
lower than 1.0 ft below the bottom of the pavement base
material.
• For subtrenches with walls of natural soil, any
portion of the lower side zone in the subtrench
wall shall be at least as firm as an equivalent soil
placed to the compaction requirements specified
for the lower side zone and as firm as the majority
of soil in the overfill zone, or shall be removed
and replaced with soil compacted to the specified
level.
Table 27.5.2.2-3—Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications for SIDD Soil Designations
Backfill material shall be installed to the limits shown Although usually constructed with vertical walls,
in Figure 27.5.2.3-1 for the embankment or trench installation of precast box culverts in trenches with sloping
condition. sidewalls has not been a problem.
Fill material shall be placed in layers with a maximum Generally, compaction of fill material to the required
loose thickness of 8.0 in. and compacted to obtain the density is dependent on the thickness of the layer of fill
required density. The fill material shall be placed and being compacted, soil type, soil moisture content, type of
compacted with care under the haunches of the culvert and compaction equipment, and amount of compactive force
shall be raised evenly and simultaneously on both sides of and length of time the force is applied.
the culvert. The width of trench shall be kept to the
minimum required for installation of the culvert. Ponding
or jetting will be only by the permission of the Engineer.
27.6—FIELD INSPECTION
27.6.1—General C27.6.1
Internal inspections shall be conducted on all buried See Article 14.2, “Inspection,” of Highway Drainage
rigid pipe installations to evaluate issues that may affect Guidelines.
long-term performance, such as cracks, joint quality, and In order to evaluate the structural integrity of a culvert,
alignment. Inspections shall be conducted no sooner than it is necessary to perform an internal inspection of the
30 days after completion of installation and final fill. conduit. Soil consolidation continues with time after
installation of the pipe. While 30 days will not encompass
the time frame for complete consolidation of the soil
surrounding the pipe, it is intended to give sufficient time
to observe some of the effects that this consolidation will
have. However, occasionally pavement is placed over the
pipe sooner than 30 days. While the 30-day time limit
should be maintained, a brief inspection of the pipe prior to
paving over it may be prudent to ensure that good
construction practices are being applied.
It is recommended that inspection personnel not enter
culverts less than 2.0 ft in diameter. Internal inspection of
rigid culverts in this size range is best conducted using
video cameras. Culverts should only be entered by
inspection personnel trained in working within confined
spaces and using procedures in full compliance with
applicable State, Local, and Federal OSHA regulations.
27.6.2—Misalignment C27.6.2
Misalignment may be taken to indicate the presence of Rigid culverts such as precast concrete pipe do not
problems in the supporting soil or contractor grade control. deflect appreciably before cracking or fracturing. As a
The vertical and horizontal alignment of the culvert barrel result, shape inspections, while important in flexible
shall be checked by sighting along the crown, invert, and structures, are of little value in inspecting precast concrete
sides of the culvert, and by checking for differential culverts.
movement or settlement at joints between pipe sections. Sags, which trap water, may aggravate settlement
Vertical alignment shall be checked for sagging, faulting, problems by saturating the supporting soil, or lead to
and invert heaving. The inspector shall take into account sediment buildup in the pipe reducing conduit efficiency.
pipes laid with camber or a grade change. Improper installation, undermining, or uneven settlement of
Horizontal alignment shall be checked for straightness or fill may cause alignment problems.
smooth curvature.
Leaking joints may be detected during low flows by Joint defects can range from minor problems to
visual observation of the joints, by checking around the problems that are serious in nature. Typical joint defects
ends of the culvert for evidence of piping, and if required in include leakage (exfiltration and infiltration), cracks, and
the contract, by special testing methods typically employed joint separation. Exfiltration occurs when leaking joints
for sanitary sewers. allow water flowing through the pipe to leak into the
Differential movement, cracks, spalling, improper supporting material. Many culverts are constructed with
gasket placement, movement or settlement of pipe sections, joints that are not watertight or with mortar joints that may
and leakage shall be noted in the inspection report. Severe crack with minor deflection, movement, or settlement of
joint cracks are similar in significance to separated joints. the pipe. Minor leakage may not be a significant problem
Joint separations greater than pipe manufacturer’s unless soils are quite erosive. However, if leaking joints
maximum limit shall be considered significant because contribute to or cause piping, serious misalignment of the
they accelerate damage caused by exfiltration and culvert or even failure may result.
infiltration resulting in the erosion of the backfill material. Joint design criteria should be reviewed for allowance
Evidence of any soil migration through the joint of open joints to perform as subdrains.
warrants further investigation to determine the source and Infiltration is the reverse of exfiltration. Many culverts
if repair or replacement is required. are essentially empty except during peak flows. When the
water table is higher than the culvert invert, water may seep
into the culvert. This infiltration of water, if it carries fine-
grained soil particles from the surrounding backfill, can
cause settlement and misalignment problems.
Infiltration may be difficult to detect visually in its
early stages although it may be indicated by open joints,
staining at the joints on the sides and top of the culvert,
deposits of soil in the culvert, or by depressions over the
culvert.
Improper handling during installation, improper gasket
placement, and movement or settlement of pipe sections
may cause cracks in the joint area.
If no other problems are evident, such as differential
movement between pipe sections, and the cracks are not
wider than 0.1 in., spalling, or sheared, they may be
considered a minor problem. Cracked joints are more than
likely soil tight, but may not be watertight even if gaskets
were used.
Separated joints are often found when severe
misalignment is found. In fact, either problem may cause or
aggravate the other. Movement of the soil in the general
direction of the culvert’s centerline may cause sections to
gradually pull apart. Embankment slippage may also cause
separations to occur.
Hairline longitudinal cracks in the crown or invert Generally, in noncorrosive environments (pH > 5.5),
indicate that the steel has accepted part of the load. Cracks cracks 0.10 in. or less in width are considered acceptable.
equal to or less than 0.01 in. in width are considered minor Longitudinal cracking in excess of 0.10 in. in width may
and only need to be noted in the inspection report. indicate overloading or poor bedding. If pipe is placed on hard
Other signs of distress, such as differential movement, material and backfill is not adequately compacted around the
efflorescence, spalling, or rust stains shall also be noted. pipe or under the haunches of the pipe, loads will be
When cracks are wider than 0.01 in., measurements shall concentrated along the bottom of the pipe and may result in
be taken of the width, length, and locations of the cracks flexure or shear cracking. Use ofhydraulic compaction
and diameter of the pipe, both horizontally and vertically. equipment without adequate soil cover may result in
An evaluation shall be conducted by the Contractor and longitudinal cracks in the crown of the pipe.
shall be submitted to the Engineer for review and approval Cracking may also be caused by the improper act of
considering the structural integrity, environmental using construction equipment to push on the pipe to obtain
conditions, and the design service life of the culvert. proper grade.
Cracks having widths equal to or greater than 0.01 in. Displacement across the crack is shown by a differential
and determined to be detrimental shall be sealed by a movement or unevenness of the crack and is indicative of a
method approved by the Engineer. Pipes with cracks high shear condition. While flexural cracks appear at the
having widths greater than 0.1 in. and determined by the invert and crown locations of the pipe, cracks resulting
Engineer to be beyond satisfactory structural repair shall be from shear or spalling are more likely found in the haunch
remediated or replaced. Pipes having displacement across area of the pipe.
the crack shall be repaired or replaced.
Inspection records for pipes with crack widths
exceeding 0.01 in., shall be kept on file for monitoring
conditions during subsequent inspections. Crack
measurements and photographs shall be taken for
monitoring conditions during subsequent inspections.
Where transverse cracks are observed, they shall be Poor bedding may also cause transverse or
monitored as described in Article 27.6.4. circumferential cracks. Cracks can occur across the bottom
of the pipe (broken belly) when the pipe is only supported
at the ends of each section.
This is generally the result of poor installation
practices such as not providing indentations (bell holes) in
hard foundation material for the end of bell and spigot-type
pipe or not providing a sufficient depth of suitable bedding
material.
Cracks may occur across the top of pipe (broken back)
when settlement occurs and rocks or other areas of hard
foundation material near the midpoint of a pipe section are
not adequately covered with suitable bedding material.
27.6.6—Spalls C27.6.6
Spalling may be detected by visual examination of the Spalling is a fracture of the concrete parallel or
concrete along the edges of cracks. Tapping with a hammer inclined to the surface of the concrete. Minor or isolated
shall be performed along the cracks to check for areas that spalls are not a problem and are easily repaired to prevent
have fractured but are not visibly separated. Such areas will corrosion of the steel. In precast concrete pipe, spalls often
produce a hollow sound when tapped. These areas may be occur along the edges of either longitudinal or transverse
referred to as delaminations or incipient spalls. Pipe cracks when the crack is due to overloading or poor support
experiencing this type of problem shall be repaired or rather than simple tension cracking.
replaced.
27.6.7—Slabbing C27.6.7
Any pipe experiencing slabbing shall be repaired or Slabbing is a serious problem that can occur under
replaced. high fills.
The terms slabbing, shear slabbing, or slab shear refer
to a radial failure of the concrete which occurs from
straightening of the reinforcement cage due to excessive
tension.
Slabbing is characterized by large slabs of concrete
“peeling” away from the sides of the pipe and a
straightening of the reinforcing steel.
End drop-offs are caused by erosion of the material This type of distress is usually due to outlet soil
supporting the pipe sections on the outlet end of the culvert erosion.
barrel. The end section shall be reset.
27.6.9—Follow Up
27.7—MEASUREMENT
27.8—PAYMENT C27.8
The length determined as herein given shall be paid for Reinforced concrete headwalls and endwalls are
at the contract unit prices per linear foot bid for culverts of normally included in the payment. However, in some cases
the several sizes and shapes, as the case may be, which they are paid for as separate bid items, per each unit, and
prices and payments shall constitute full compensation for are not included in the per lineal unit price. Normally rock
furnishing, handling, and installing the culvert and for all excavation is not made incidental to earth excavation and is
materials, labor, equipment, tools, and incidentals paid for under a separate pay item.
necessary to complete this item. Such price and payment
shall also include excavation, bedding material, backfill,
reinforced concrete headwalls and endwalls, and any
required foundations.
27.9—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. Highway Drainage Guidelines, Fourth Edition, HDG-4, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
ASTM. 2001. Standard Practice for Installation of Precast Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain, and Culvert Pipe Using
Standard Installations, ASTM C1479, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
286
28.1—DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................................ 28-1
28.2—LATEX-MODIFIED CONCRETE TYPE WEARING SURFACE ................................................................. 28-1
28.2.1—General ................................................................................................................................................... 28-1
28.2.2—Materials ................................................................................................................................................ 28-1
28.2.2.1—Portland Cement .......................................................................................................................... 28-1
28.2.2.2—Aggregate ..................................................................................................................................... 28-2
28.2.2.3—Water ........................................................................................................................................... 28-2
28.2.2.4—Latex Emulsion ............................................................................................................................ 28-2
28.2.2.5—Latex-Modified Concrete ............................................................................................................. 28-2
28.2.3—Surface Preparation ................................................................................................................................ 28-3
28.2.3.1—New Decks ................................................................................................................................... 28-3
28.2.3.2—Existing Decks ............................................................................................................................. 28-4
28.2.4—Proportioning and Mixing ...................................................................................................................... 28-4
28.2.5—Installation ............................................................................................................................................. 28-5
28.2.5.1—Weather Restrictions .................................................................................................................... 28-5
28.2.5.2—Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 28-5
28.2.5.3—Placing and Finishing................................................................................................................... 28-6
28.2.5.3.1—Construction Joints ............................................................................................................ 28-6
28.2.5.3.2—Placing ............................................................................................................................... 28-7
28.2.5.3.3—Finishing ............................................................................................................................ 28-7
28.2.6—Curing .................................................................................................................................................... 28-7
28.2.7—Acceptance Testing ................................................................................................................................ 28-8
28.2.8—Measurement and Payment .................................................................................................................... 28-8
28.3—REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................................... 28-8
28-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 28
WEARING SURFACES
28.1—DESCRIPTION
28.2.1—General
28.2.2—Materials
28.2.2.1—Portland Cement
28-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
28-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
28.2.2.2—Aggregate
28.2.2.3—Water
28.2.2.4—Latex Emulsion
• Portland Cement
Composition Polydimethyl Siloxane
• Color White
28.2.2.5—Latex-Modified Concrete
28.2.3—Surface Preparation
28.2.3.1—New Decks
28.2.3.2—Existing Decks
28.2.5—Installation
28.2.5.1—Weather Restrictions
28.2.5.2—Equipment
28.2.5.3.1—Construction Joints
28.2.5.3.2—Placing
28.2.5.3.3—Finishing
28.2.6—Curing
28.2.7—Acceptance Testing
28.3—REFERENCE
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
296
29.1—DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................................ 29-1
29.2—PREQUALIFICATION ................................................................................................................................... 29-1
29.3—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 29-1
29.4—CONSTRUCTION METHODS ....................................................................................................................... 29-1
29.5—INSPECTION AND TESTING ........................................................................................................................ 29-2
29.6—MEASUREMENT ........................................................................................................................................... 29-2
29.7—PAYMENT ...................................................................................................................................................... 29-2
29.8—REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................................... 29-2
29-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 29
EMBEDMENT ANCHORS
29.1—DESCRIPTION C29.1
This work shall cover installation and field testing of The use of embedment anchors is prevalent but
cast-in-place, grouted, adhesive-bonded, expansion, and standardized installation and field testing is not. Therefore,
undercut steel anchors. a new section was created.
29.2—PREQUALIFICATION
29.3—MATERIALS
29.4—CONSTRUCTION METHODS
29.6—MEASUREMENT
29.7—PAYMENT
29.8—REFERENCE
ACI. 2001. Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety Related Concrete Structures, ACI 349-01, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, Appendix B: Steel Embedments.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
30-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 30
THERMOPLASTIC PIPE
30.1—GENERAL
30.1.1—Description C30.1.1
This work shall consist of furnishing, installing, and As used in this Specification, thermoplastic pipe is
inspecting thermoplastic pipe in conformance with these defined in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
Specifications and the contract documents. Section 12, “Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners.”
See AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
Section 12, “Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners,” and
ASTM D2321, Standard Practice for Underground
Installation of Thermoplastic Pipe for Sewers and Other
Gravity-Flow Applications, for additional guidance.
30.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
30.3—MATERIALS
30.3.1—Thermoplastic Pipe
30-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
30-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
30.4—ASSEMBLY
30.4.1—General
30.4.2—Joints
30.4.2.1—General C30.4.2.1
Joints for thermoplastic pipe shall meet the Watertightness shall be based on project requirements.
performance requirements for soiltightness unless Available watertightness pressure levels are 2, 5, and
watertightness is specified. 10 psi.
Joints shall be so installed that the connection of pipe Suitable field joints can be obtained with the following
sections will form a continuous line free from irregularities types of connections:
in the flow line.
• Corrugated bands (with or without gaskets)
30.5—INSTALLATION
Trench width shall be sufficient to ensure working Flexible pipe require soil support at the sides, and
room to properly and safely place and compact haunching unstable trench walls are an indication that a wider trench
and other backfill materials. The space between the pipe width is required. This criterion does not refer to trenches
and trench wall should be wider than the compaction for which trench supports are required only to comply with
equipment used in the pipe zone. Minimum trench width OSHA.
shall not be less than 1.5 times the pipe outside diameter
plus 12.0 in. Trenches shall be kept to the specified width,
as any increase in trench width will increase the load on the
pipe. Structural backfill shall be comprised of well-graded,
granular materials, such as AASHTO A-1, A-2-4, and A-2-
5 soils, to facilitate better consolidation around the pipe and
to minimize the possibility of soil migration and piping of
the in situ soils.
If the trench walls do not stand without support, the
trench width shall be increased in accordance with the
design criteria in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications, Article 12.12.3.4, “Thrust.”
30.5.4—Structural Backfill
A minimum depth of cover above the pipe should be Diameters greater than 4.0 ft in Table 30.5.5-1 are for
maintained before allowing vehicles or heavy construction information only. See Tables A12-11, A12-12, and A12-13
equipment to traverse the pipe trench. The minimum depth of of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications for
cover should be established by the Engineer based on an nominal sizes.
evaluation of specific project conditions. For embedment
materials installed to the minimum density given in
Article 30.5.4, “Structural Backfill,” cover of at least 2.0 ft
shall be provided before allowing vehicles or construction
equipment to cross the trench surface. Minimum cover for
construction loads shall be as shown in Table 30.5.5-1.
Hydrohammer type compactors shall not be used over the pipe.
30.5.6—Inspection Requirements
All pipes shall undergo inspection during and after Inspection at the appropriate times during installation
installation to ensure proper performance. Installation of will detect and allow correction of line and grade, jointing,
bedding and backfill materials, as well as their placement and shape change problems. The timing and number of
and compaction, shall be determined to meet the inspections required will vary with the significance and
requirements of this section. depth of the installation. The contractor is advised to
During the initial phases of the installation process, provide initial inspections himself to avoid problems later
inspection shall concentrate on detecting improper practice on. Racking or flattening of the pipe’s curvature indicates
and poor workmanship. Errors in line and grade, as well as improper backfill placement methods that must be
any improper assembly or backfill techniques, shall be corrected. Slight peaking of the cross-sectional shape
corrected prior to placing significant backfill or trench fill. should be taken as indicative of achieving proper
Coupling bands shall be properly indexed with the compaction requirements.
corrugation and tightened, and bell/spigot joints shall be Soil consolidation continues with time after installation
properly assembled to prevent the infiltration of soil fines. of the pipe. While 30 days will not encompass the time
Where gaskets are used, they shall be properly seated to frame for complete consolidation of the soil surrounding the
prevent groundwater infiltration and should appear pipe, it is intended to give sufficient time to observe some of
uniformly oriented around the pipe. In areas where the effects that this consolidation will have. However,
cracking or joint separation is found, a remediation or occasionally pavement is placed over the pipe sooner than 30
replacement plan shall be submitted for approval. days. While the 30-day time limit should be maintained, a
Final internal inspections shall be conducted on all brief inspection of the pipe prior to paving over it,
buried thermoplastic pipe installations to evaluate issues particularly for the first few joints, may be prudent to ensure
that may affect long-term performance. Final inspections that good construction practices are being applied.
shall be conducted no sooner than 30 days after completion It is recommended that inspection personnel not enter
of installation and final fill. culverts less than 24.0 in. in diameter. Internal inspection
Shallow cover installations shall be checked to ensure of culverts in this size range is best conducted using video
the minimum cover level is provided. cameras. Culverts should be entered only by inspection
personnel trained in working within confined spaces and
using procedures in full compliance with applicable State,
Local, and Federal OSHA regulations.
The pipe shall be evaluated to determine whether the Inspection criteria are newly added to the specification,
internal diameter of the barrel has been reduced more than as there was minimal guidance in the previous specification.
five percent when measured not less than 30 days Ten percent of each pipe installation shall be defined as
following completion of installation. ten percent of the number of pipe runs, and not less than
Pipes shall be checked for deflection using a mandrel ten percent of the total length of installed pipe on the project.
or any other device approved by the Engineer that can The requirement of deflection testing ten percent of each
physically verify the dimensions of the pipe and is not pipe installation is intended to serve as a minimum and does
limited by poor lighting, waterflow, pipe length, or other not limit owners from more stringent requirements.
limiting conditions of the installed environment. Pipes The pipe inside diameters should be provided by the
larger than 24.0 in. may be entered and deflection levels pipe manufacturer for every size and type of pipe delivered.
measured directly. If the pipe inside diameter is not provided, or is not
In all pipe installations, at least ten percent of the total available, pipe inside diameter can be developed by
number of pipe runs representing at least ten percent of the averaging the diameters measured at eight equally spaced
total pipe footage on the project shall be randomly selected locations around a section of unloaded pipe for every given
by the Engineer and inspected for deflection. Also, as size and manufacturer.
determined by the 100 percent visual inspection in There are many appropriate methods suitable for
Article 30.5.6.1, all areas in which deflection can be measuring deflection, including video inspection
visually detected shall be inspected for deflection. equipment, mandrels, and other direct measurement
Where direct measurements are made, a measurement devices. For pipes tested by a mandrel, the mandrel shall be
shall be taken once every 10.0 ft for the length of the pipe, pulled through the entire pipe. Whichever method is used
and a minimum of four measurements per pipe installation for deflection measurement, a minimum of ten percent of
is required. the total length of installed pipe shall be tested, in addition
If a mandrel is used for the deflection test, it shall be a to any areas that were identified in the visual inspection as
nine (or greater odd number) arm mandrel, and shall be having deflection.
sized and inspected by the Engineer prior to testing. A Installed pipe deflections that exceed five percent of
properly sized proving ring shall be used to check or test the initial inside diameter may indicate that the installation
the mandrel for accuracy. The mandrel shall be pulled was substandard. Appropriate remediation, if any, will
through the pipe by hand with a rope or cable. Where depend upon the severity of the deflection, the condition of
applicable, pulleys may be incorporated into the system to the pipe, and evaluation of the factor of safety using
change the direction of pull so that inspection personnel Section 12, “Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners,” of the
need not physically enter the pipe or manhole. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. Installed
For locations where pipe deflection exceeds five percent pipe deflections that exceed 7.5 percent of the initial inside
of the inside diameter, an evaluation shall be conducted by diameter will require remediation or replacement of the
the Contractor utilizing a Professional Engineer and pipe.
submitted to the Engineer for review and approval
considering the severity of the deflection, structural integrity,
environmental conditions, and the design service life of the
pipe. Pipe remediation or replacement shall be required for
locations where the evaluation finds that the deflection could
be problematic. For locations where pipe deflection exceeds
7.5 percent of the inside diameter, remediation or
replacement of the pipe is required.
30.6—MEASUREMENT
30.7—PAYMENT
30.8—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. Includes
AASHTO M, R, and T standards, which are also available individually in downloadable form.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
316
31.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 31-1
31.1.1—Description ............................................................................................................................................. 31-1
31.1.2—Notice of Beginning of Work................................................................................................................. 31-1
31.1.3—Inspection ............................................................................................................................................... 31-1
31.1.4—Inspector's Authority .............................................................................................................................. 31-2
31.2—WORKING DRAWINGS ................................................................................................................................ 31-2
31.2.1—Shop Drawings ....................................................................................................................................... 31-2
31.2.2—Erection Drawings ................................................................................................................................. 31-2
31.2.3—Camber Diagram .................................................................................................................................... 31-3
31.3—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 31-3
31.3.1—Structural Aluminum.............................................................................................................................. 31-3
31.3.1.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 31-3
31.3.1.2—Aluminum Plate ........................................................................................................................... 31-3
31.3.1.3—Aluminum Extrusions .................................................................................................................. 31-3
31.3.2—Fasteners ................................................................................................................................................ 31-3
31.3.2.1—High-Strength Steel Fasteners ...................................................................................................... 31-3
31.3.2.1.1—Material.............................................................................................................................. 31-3
31.3.2.1.2—Identifying Marks .............................................................................................................. 31-4
31.3.2.1.3—Dimensions ........................................................................................................................ 31-4
31.3.2.1.4—Galvanizing ........................................................................................................................ 31-4
31.3.2.1.5—Alternative Fasteners ......................................................................................................... 31-4
31.3.2.2—Aluminum Rivets ......................................................................................................................... 31-5
31.3.2.3—Stainless Steel Bolts ..................................................................................................................... 31-5
31.3.2.4—Lock-Pin and Collar Fasteners ..................................................................................................... 31-5
31.3.3—Welded Stud Shear Connectors .............................................................................................................. 31-6
31.3.4—Aluminum Forgings ............................................................................................................................... 31-6
31.3.5—Aluminum Castings................................................................................................................................ 31-6
31.4—FABRICATION ............................................................................................................................................... 31-6
31.4.1—Identification of Aluminum Alloys during Fabrication .......................................................................... 31-6
31.4.2—Storage of Materials ............................................................................................................................... 31-7
31.4.3—Plates ...................................................................................................................................................... 31-7
31.4.3.1—Direction of Rolling ..................................................................................................................... 31-7
31.4.3.2—Plate Edges................................................................................................................................... 31-7
31.4.3.3—Bent Plates ................................................................................................................................... 31-7
31.4.3.3.1—General .............................................................................................................................. 31-7
31.4.3.3.2—Cold Bending ..................................................................................................................... 31-7
31.4.4—Fit of Stiffeners ...................................................................................................................................... 31-8
31.4.5—Abutting Joints ....................................................................................................................................... 31-8
31.4.6—Facing of Bearing Surfaces .................................................................................................................... 31-8
31.4.7—Straightening Material............................................................................................................................ 31-8
31.4.8—Holes ...................................................................................................................................................... 31-8
31.4.8.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 31-8
31.4.8.2—Reamed or Drilled Holes ............................................................................................................. 31-9
31.4.8.3—Accuracy of Hole Groups ............................................................................................................ 31-9
31.4.8.3.1—Accuracy before Reaming ................................................................................................. 31-9
31.4.8.3.2—Accuracy after Reaming or Drilling................................................................................... 31-9
31.4.8.4—Locating Holes ............................................................................................................................. 31-9
31.4.9—Pins and Rollers ..................................................................................................................................... 31-9
31.4.9.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 31-9
31.4.9.2—Pin Holes.................................................................................................................................... 31-10
31.4.10—Annealing and Stress Relieving ......................................................................................................... 31-10
31.4.11—Aluminum Bridge Decks.................................................................................................................... 31-10
31.4.11.1—General..................................................................................................................................... 31-10
31.4.11.2—Flatness of Panels..................................................................................................................... 31-10
31.4.11.3—Straightness of Longitudinal Stiffeners Subject to Calculated Compressive Stress ................. 31-10
31-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
31-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
ALUMINUM STRUCTURES
31.1—GENERAL
31.1.1—Description C31.1.1
This work shall consist of furnishing, fabricating, and Additional information on aluminum structural design
erecting aluminum structures and structural aluminum is available from the Aluminum Association, 900 19th
portions of other structures in accordance with these Street, NW, Washington, DC 20006. Aluminum Standards
Specifications, and the contract documents. and Data 2003 (Metric SI), published by the Aluminum
Unless otherwise specified, the structural aluminum Association, gives information on aluminum alloys.
fabricating plant shall be certified under the AISC Quality
Certification Program, Category I. Fracture-critical
members shall be fabricated in plants certified as
Category III.
Details of design which are permitted to be selected by
the Contractor shall conform to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications, 2007, and subsequent interim
specifications.
Falsework used in the erection of structural aluminum
shall conform to the provisions of Section 3, “Temporary
Works.”
Structural components designated in the contract
documents as “fracture-critical” shall conform to the
provisions of the AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge
Welding Code, Section 12, “Fracture Control Plan (FCP)
for Non-Redundant Members.”
Welding and weld qualification tests shall conform to
the provisions of the current ANSI/AWS D1.2/D1.2M
Structural Welding Code—Aluminum.
31.1.3—Inspection C31.1.3
31-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
31-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
mill test reports, and for items such as fills, minor gusset
plates, and similar material when quantities are small and
the material is taken from stock.
Material to be used shall be made available to the
Engineer so that each piece can be examined. The Engineer
shall have free access at all times to any portion of the
fabrication site where the material is stored or where work
on the material is being performed.
31.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
31.2.1—Shop Drawings
31.2.2—Erection Drawings
31.2.3—Camber Diagram
31.3—MATERIALS
31.3.1—Structural Aluminum
31.3.1.1—General
31.3.1.2—Aluminum Plate
31.3.1.3—Aluminum Extrusions
31.3.2—Fasteners
31.3.2.1.1—Material C31.3.2.1.1
High-strength bolts for structural aluminum joints shall AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A490), high-strength steel
conform to AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325), Type 1. bolts are not used in aluminum structures because they may
The supplier shall provide a lot number appearing on become embrittled by galvanizing. Galvanizing is typically
the shipping package and a certification noting when and required to prevent galvanic corrosion of aluminum in
where all testing was done, including rotational capacity contact with steel.
tests and galvanizing thickness.
The maximum hardness for AASHTO M 164 Type 2 bolts have been withdrawn from AASHTO
(ASTM A325) bolts shall be 33 HRC. M 164 (ASTM A325) and AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A490)
Proof load tests complying with ASTM F606, and, therefore, are no longer manufactured. However,
Method 1, shall be required for the bolts. Wedge tests of Type 2 bolts manufactured before this discontinuation may
full-size bolts are required in accordance with Section 8.3 still be in inventory and are considered acceptable.
of AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325). Galvanized bolts shall
be wedge tested after galvanizing. Proof load tests of
AASHTO M 291 (ASTM A563) shall be required for the
nuts. The proof load tests for nuts shall be performed after
galvanizing, overtapping, and lubricating.
31.3.2.1.2—Identifying Marks
31.3.2.1.3—Dimensions
31.3.2.1.4—Galvanizing C31.3.2.1.4
High-strength steel fasteners used in aluminum AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325) Type 2 bolts shall be
structures shall either be hot-dip galvanized in accordance mechanically galvanized only.
with AASHTO M 232M/M 232 (ASTM A153/A153M),
Class C, or mechanically galvanized in accordance with
AASHTO M 298 (ASTM B695), Class 50 (Class 345).
Galvanized bolts shall be tension tested after galvanizing.
Washers, nuts, and bolts of an assembly shall be galvanized
by the same process. The nuts shall be overtapped to the
minimum amount required for the fastener assembly, and
shall be lubricated with a lubricant containing a visible dye
so a visual check can be made for the lubricant at the time
of installation.
31.3.2.1.5—Alternative Fasteners
31.3.2.2—Aluminum Rivets
Stainless steel bolts shall conform to ASTM F593 ASTM F593 Alloy Groups 1, 2, and 3 are 300 series
Alloy Groups 1, 2, or 3. Stainless steel nuts shall conform stainless steel alloys. Fastener of Stainless Steel Alloys
to ASTM F594. 304 and 316 are often used uncoated in aluminum
structures.
Aluminum, stainless steel, and steel lock-pin and collar Lock-pin and collar fasteners, also called lockbolts, are
fasteners shall conform to MIL-P-23469D. The shank and available in aluminum, stainless steel, and steel. Steel lock-
head of lock-pin and collar fasteners shall meet the pin and collar fasteners are usually zinc-plated when used
requirements of Article 31.3.2.1.3, “Dimensions.” Each in aluminum parts to discourage galvanic corrosion.
fastener shall:
Welded stud shear connectors shall conform to ANSI/AWS D1.2/D1.2M, Section 6, contains
ANSI/AWS D1.2/D1.2M Structural Welding Code— requirements for aluminum stud welding and contains
Aluminum. material requirements for aluminum stud welding in
Section 6.10. The largest aluminum stud diameter
manufactured is 0.5 in. Shear connectors made from shapes
that are bolted or welded to girders may also be used.
31.3.4—Aluminum Forgings
31.3.5—Aluminum Castings
31.4—FABRICATION
The Contractor shall issue cutting instructions and Aluminum Standards and Data gives color codes for
mark individual pieces so as to be able to identify the additional alloys and other information on identification
material used for each piece. Metal stamping marks, scribe marking used by aluminum producers in Section 4.
lines, and center punch marks shall not be used where they
will remain on fabricated material.
The Contractor may furnish material that can be
identified by lot and mill test report from stock.
During fabrication prior to assembly, each piece shall
clearly show its material specification. Writing the material
specification number on the piece or by using the
identification color codes shown in Table 31.4.1-1 shall be
taken as compliance with this provision.
Alloy Color
5083 Red and Gray
5086 Red and Orange
6061 Blue
6063 Yellow and Green
31.4.2—Storage of Materials
31.4.3—Plates
31.4.3.1—Direction of Rolling
31.4.3.2—Plate Edges
Plates more than 0.5 in. thick carrying calculated stress
shall not be sheared. All edges that have been cut by the arc
process shall be planed to remove edge cracks. Oxygen
cutting shall not be used. Re-entrant corners shall be
filleted to a radius of 0.75 in. or more.
31.4.3.3—Bent Plates
31.4.3.3.1—General
Cold bending shall not produce cracking. For Recommended bend radii for 90-degree cold bends for
90-degree bends, bend radii measured to the concave face other alloys may be found in Table 7.6 of Aluminum
of the metal shall not be less than those listed in Standards and Data, 2003 (Metric SI).
Table 31.4.3.3.2-1.
End bearing stiffeners for girders and stiffeners Full bearing may be obtained by milling, grinding, or
intended as supports for concentrated loads shall bear fully in the case of compression regions of flanges, by welding.
on the flanges to which they transmit load or from which
they receive load. Intermediate stiffeners not intended to
support concentrated loads shall have a tight fit against the
compression flange, unless specified otherwise.
31.4.5—Abutting Joints
Milled ends of compression members, milled or ground ends of ANSI 500 μin. (12.5 μm) (RMS)
stiffeners and fillers
Bridge rollers and rockers fillers ANSI 250 μin. (6.3 μm) (RMS)
Pins and pin holes fillers ANSI 125 μin. (3.2 μm) (RMS)
Sliding bearings fillers ANSI 125 μin. (3.2 μm) (RMS)
The straightening of plates, angles, other shapes, and Aluminum may be heated for short periods of time to
built-up members, when permitted by the Engineer, shall be temperatures up to 400°F without significant loss of
done by methods that will not produce fracture or other strength. Temperature and duration limits are given in
damage to the metal. Distorted members shall be ANSI/AWS D1.2/D1.2M Table 3.2. Heating aluminum
straightened by mechanical means or by heat straightening. alloys with magnesium contents greater than three percent,
Heat straightening of non heat-treatable alloys and of heat- which includes 5083, 5086, and 5456, to temperatures
treatable alloys after heat treatment shall be done only between 150°F and 450°F will also result in decreased
under controlled procedures and with the approval of the resistance to exfoliation corrosion.
Engineer. Heat straightening shall conform to ANSI/AWS
D1.2/D1.2M Structural Welding Code—Aluminum.
31.4.8—Holes
31.4.8.1—General C31.4.8.1
31.4.8.4—Locating Holes
31.4.9.1—General
31.4.9.2—Pin Holes
31.4.11.1—General
31.4.11.2—Flatness of Panels
D
δ ≤ ≤ 0.1875 in. (31.4.11.2-1)
144 T
where:
L
δ ≤ (31.4.11.3-1)
480
where:
L
δ ≤ (31.4.11.4-1)
240
where:
31.4.12—Full-Size Tests
31.4.14.1—General
31.4.14.2—Painting
31.5—ASSEMBLY
31.5.1.1—Bolts
31.5.1.3—Rivets
31.5.2—Welded Connections
31.5.3.1—General
31.5.3.4—Field-Welded Connections
31.5.4—Match-Marking
31.5.5—Welding
31.6—ERECTION
31.6.1—General
Material to be stored at the job site shall be placed on Where moisture is trapped between adjacent surfaces
skids above the ground and kept clean and well drained. of closely packed aluminum, white or gray stains, referred
Girders and beams shall be placed upright and shored. If to as water stains, may result. Alloys having a high
the Contractor's scope of work is for erection only, the magnesium content are affected to a greater degree, but all
Contractor shall check the material received against the aluminum alloys can be affected. Water staining is a
shipping lists and report promptly in writing any shortage superficial condition and does not affect the strength of the
or damage. After material is received by the Contractor, the material, nor will it progress once the conditions that
Contractor shall be responsible for any damage to or loss of caused it are removed. It can be avoided by keeping the
material. material dry.
31.6.4—Erection Procedure
31.6.4.2—Erection Stresses
31.6.5—Field Assembly
31.6.6—Pin Connections
31.6.7—Misfits
Table 31.7.1-1—Unit Weights (Mass Densities) of Densities for other aluminum alloys are listed in
Aluminum Alloys Table 2.4 of Aluminum Standards and Data 2003 (Metric
SI).
Alloy Unit Weight, kip/ft3
5083 0.166
5086 0.166
5456 0.166
6061 0.169
6063 0.168
31.7.2—Basis of Payment
31.8—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 1991. Guide Specifications for Aluminum Highway Bridges, GSAHB-1, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO and AWS. 2008. AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5:2008 Bridge Welding Code, Fifth Edition, BWC-5, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
AISC Quality Certification Program, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, Category I: Structural
Steel and Category III: Fracture-Critical. See http://www.aisc.org.
Aluminum Association. 2003. Aluminum Standards and Data 2003 (Metric SI), Aluminum Association, Washington, DC.
ASME. 1979. Metric Heavy Hex Nuts, B18.2.4.6M, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Fairfield, NJ.
Reaffirmed 1998.
ASME. 1979. Metric Heavy Hex Structural Bolts, B18.2.3.7M, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Fairfield, NJ.
Reaffirmed 1995.
ASME. 1987. Square and Hex Nuts, B18.2.2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Fairfield, NJ. Inch series.
Reaffirmed 1999.
ASME. 1996. Square and Hex Bolts and Screws, Inch Series, B18.2.1, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Fairfield, NJ.
ASME. 2002. Surface Texture, Surface Roughness, Waviness and Lay, B46.1, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Fairfield, NJ.
AWS. 2003. ANSI/AWS D1.2/D1.2M Structural Welding Code—Aluminum, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
DOD. U.S. Military Specification MIL-P-23469D for aluminum, stainless steel, and steel lock-pin and collar fasteners,
U.S. Department of Defense, Washington, DC. See https://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/.
DOD. U.S. Military Specification MIL-R-1150F for rivets, U.S. Department of Defense, Washington, DC.
See https://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
326
32.1—GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 32-1
32.2—WORKING DRAWINGS ................................................................................................................................ 32-1
32.3—MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................... 32-2
32.3.1—Steel ....................................................................................................................................................... 32-2
32.3.2—Internal Fluid.......................................................................................................................................... 32-3
32.3.3—Packaging, Handling, and Storage ......................................................................................................... 32-3
32.3.4—Manufacture/Fabrication ........................................................................................................................ 32-3
32.3.4.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 32-3
32.3.4.2—Connecting Hardware .................................................................................................................. 32-3
32.3.4.3—Connection Tolerances................................................................................................................. 32-3
32.4—TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE ..................................................................................................................... 32-4
32.4.1—Prequalification Tests ............................................................................................................................. 32-4
32.4.2—Prototype Tests....................................................................................................................................... 32-4
32.4.2.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 32-4
32.4.2.2—Hydrostatic Pressure Test ............................................................................................................ 32-4
32.4.2.3—Slow Movement Test (Thermal) .................................................................................................. 32-5
32.4.2.4—Fast Movement Test..................................................................................................................... 32-5
32.4.2.5—Simulated Dynamic Test .............................................................................................................. 32-5
32.4.2.6—Overload Test............................................................................................................................... 32-5
32.4.2.7—Fatigue Load Test ........................................................................................................................ 32-6
32.4.3—Proof Testing (Quality Control) ............................................................................................................. 32-6
32.4.3.1—General......................................................................................................................................... 32-6
32.4.3.2—Hydrostatic Pressure Test ............................................................................................................ 32-6
32.4.3.3—Slow Movement Test (Thermal) .................................................................................................. 32-6
32.4.3.4—Fast Movement Test..................................................................................................................... 32-7
32.5—MANUALS ...................................................................................................................................................... 32-7
32.5.1—Installation Manuals ............................................................................................................................... 32-7
32.5.2—Maintenance and Inspection Manual ..................................................................................................... 32-7
32.6—MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT .............................................................................................................. 32-9
32.7—REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................. 32-9
32-i
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
SECTION 32
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing A Shock Transmission Unit (STU) is a fabricated
shock transmission units (STUs) and hardware for component that is designed to be connected between bridge
attaching to bridge structures. members which moves freely when loads are slowly
STUs and hardware shall be constructed in accordance applied such as would be caused by temperature changes,
with the details shown in the contract documents and these but acts as a rigid link capable of transmitting a force under
specifications. When complete details are not provided, rapidly applied loads caused by vehicle braking or impact
STUs and hardware shall be furnished that conform to the and earthquakes.
limited details shown in the contract documents and shall
provide the design capacities for minimum and maximum
loads and movements, and the performance characteristics
specified.
32.2—WORKING DRAWINGS
32-1
© 2010 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
32-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
• installation schemes,
32.3—MATERIALS
32.3.1—Steel C32.3.1
Unless noted otherwise in the contract documents, The corrosion protection system used on STUs should
attachment hardware shall meet the requirements of be the same as used on the bridge. Uncoated weathering
AASHTO M 270M/M 270 (ASTM A709/A709M), steel is preferred to reduce maintenance requirements.
Grade 50 (Grade 345) steel. All other metal components of However, STUs can be furnished with a standard
the STU, except for the piston rod, shall meet the galvanized finish on all exposed parts. The boot protecting
requirements of SAE 1026 (SAE Handbook, 2004), or the piston rod is made of a durable reinforced neoprene
equivalent. material. The stainless steel piston rod is protected by
The piston rod shall meet the requirements of ASTM grease packed into the neoprene boot. It is the
A240/A240M, Type 304L, stainless steel, or equivalent. responsibility of the designer to determine if this protection
Bolts shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M 164 “package” is satisfactory for the exposure conditions
(ASTM A325), Type 1, unless noted otherwise in the expected over the service life of the STU. If additional
contract documents. protection is required, it shall be so noted in the project
special provisions. If specific durability testing is required
as a condition of acceptance, the requirements shall be so
specified by the designer as a part of the order. Particular
attention must be directed to whether corrosion protection
beyond that provided for other bridge components is
necessary for the anchorage system(s).
Environmental conditions to be considered are:
• industrial,
32.3.2—Internal Fluid
32.3.4—Manufacture/Fabrication
32.3.4.1—General
32.3.4.2—Connecting Hardware
32.3.4.3—Connection Tolerances
All shock transmission units shall be tested to verify The testing requirements and service life of the device
their performance and design properties under slow are to be chosen by the designer and can be 25 to 75 yr,
movement, fast movement, and cyclic loading. In general, subject to the appropriate maintenance being performed by
there are three types of tests to be performed on an STU: the Owner. If a particular application requires a
significantly longer or shorter service life, appropriate
• prequalification test (system characterization modifications to the test requirements for a fatigue life
tests), described in Article 32.4.1, should be considered.
The performance and fundamental properties of the These prequalification tests usually are not project
STU shall be verified by testing before it can be adapted for specific. They are conducted to establish the properties of
use. These tests include component tests of individual units, the unit when a new STU is being developed or a
assembled units, and scaled structure complete with STUs. substantially different version of an existing unit is being
At a minimum, these tests shall be conducted according to evaluated.
the testing guidelines developed by the Highway
Innovative Technology Center (HITEC) evaluation panel.
32.4.2—Prototype Tests
32.4.2.1—General C32.4.2.1
The resistance and the stroke under slow movement and The objectives of these tests are to evaluate the
the lock-up force under fast movement of the STU used in performance of STUs for two design conditions consisting
the design and in the analysis shall be verified by prototype of slow movements that will not lock up the device, and
tests. All testing shall be performed at an independent testing fast movements that will lock up the device within
laboratory approved by the Engineer. All testing shall be temperature and loading conditions at least equal to those at
performed in the presence of the Engineer unless otherwise the project site.
approved in writing by the Engineer. These tests can be
conducted at ambient temperature.
The prototype tests identified herein shall be
performed on at least one STU of each type.
The STU shall be cycled for three complete and Nominal rated force of the STU is defined as PR.
continuous cycles at a low velocity and a maximum stroke
specified by the Engineer to verify the operation and travel
of the unit. A continuous plot of the load and deflection
shall be recorded.
The STU shall be loaded by 1.5 times the nominal The purpose of this test is to ensure the STU will
rated force at a rate fast enough to make the unit lock up, perform properly should the nominal rated force be
then hold the load for 30 s or as specified by the Engineer. exceeded while in service.
ACCEPTANCE: Unit shall show no sign of leakage or
binding.
The STU shall be cycled for 100,000 complete and The purpose of this test is to determine if the STU can
continuous cycles at a velocity (frequency) specified by the withstand as many cycles of load as could occur from
Engineer and a load equal to the nominal rated force (PR) of braking on a highway bridge with high vehicle braking
the STU. actions.
ACCEPTANCE: Unit shall show no sign of leakage or The worst-case scenario for service loading of STUs is
binding. an application of braking loads equal to the lock-up load
four times a day, for the AASHTO LRFD specified design
life of 75 yr. This is roughly equivalent to 100,000 load
cycles.
(4 cycles/day × 365 days/yr × 75-yr service life =
109,500; use 100,000).
See AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
Article 3.6.4, for BR force and application.
32.4.3.1—General
32.5—MANUALS
32.5.1—Installation Manuals
STUs shall be measured and paid for by the number of Some agencies prefer to pay for testing separately,
units installed and accepted as shown in the contract especially if waiver of testing is a consideration.
documents or ordered by the Engineer.
The contract unit price paid for STUs shall include full
compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools,
equipment, and incidentals; and for doing all the work
involved in installing STUs (including testing), complete in
place, as specified in these Specifications, the contract
documents, and as directed by the Engineer.
32.7—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fourth Edition, LRFDUS-4-M or LRFDSI-4. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
29th Edition, HM-29, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. Includes
AASHTO M, R, and T standards, which are also available individually in downloadable form.
Highway Innovative Technology Evaluation Center (HITEC), a service center of the Civil Engineering Research
Foundation (CERF).
SAE. 2004. “Chemical Composition of SAE Carbon Steels,” SAE J403, SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA.