The Potter's Complete Studio Handbook

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The TPotter’s
Complete
HE
POTTER’S
Studio Handbook
STUDIO HANDBOOK
Job:07-97040 Title:RP-Potter’s Studio Handbook

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The Potter’s
Complete
Studio Handbook
The Essential, Start-to-Finish Guide
for Ceramic Artists
Kristen Müller & Jeff Zamek
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ntents
c nt Mixing Your Own Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Buying Premixed Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Choosing a Ceramics Supplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Clay Body Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Foreword by Brother Iain Highet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Testing Clay Body Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Troubleshooting Clay Imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . 88
p a r t o n e c h a p t e r f o u r
studio preliminary clay techniques . . . . . . .

Managing Clay Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
94
requirements Wedging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
and properties of clay Shrinkage and Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
16 Keeping the Studio Clean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Reclaiming and Recycling Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
c h a p t e r o n e
your studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 c h a p t e r f i v e
Workspace Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
hand building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Physical Requirements for Setting up a Studio . . . . 18
Pinch Pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Planning the Placement of Tools
Stamping Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Slab Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Cutting and Joining Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
c h a p t e r t w o
Slump and Hump Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
tools and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Coil Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Essential Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Tools for Hand Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
c h a p t e r s i x
Tools for Wheel Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
throwing on the potter’s wheel . . . . 116
Setting Up the Wheel and Stool . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
c h a p t e r t h r e e
Potter’s Wheel Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Developing Skills Through Repetition . . . . . . . . . 120
Types of Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Pottery Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Choosing a Clay Supplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Basic Wheel Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
States of Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Troubleshooting Common Throwing Problems . . 132
Conversion of Clay Through Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Ceramic Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
c h a p t e r s e v e n
The Origin of Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
decorative and finishing
Dynamic Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Acquiring Clay: Buy Premixed or Mix Your Own? . 55 Choosing Glazes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
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Mixing Glazes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 c h a p t e r t e n
Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 ceramic kilns and firing work . . . . 194

Gathering Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Types of Kiln Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Preparing Ware for Glazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Pyrometric Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
c h a p t e r e i g h t c h a p t e r e l e v e n
glaze chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 how to fire an electric kiln . . . . . . . 202

Desirable Glaze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Choosing and Preparing Your Electric Kiln . . . . . 202
Testing Glaze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Bisque Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Glazes for Foods and Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Loading Green Ware for Bisque Firing . . . . . . . . 206
Adjusting and Testing Glazes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Loading Glaze Ware for Glaze Firing . . . . . . . . . 208
Ask the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Keeping a Kiln Log and a Glaze Journal . . . . . . . 212
Particle Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Cooling the Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Kiln Size and Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Unloading the Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Kiln Firing Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Inside the Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Raw Material Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Changing Clay Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Metallic Coloring Oxide/Carbonates . . . . . . . . . . 166 Speckling Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Glaze Water and Soluble Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Special Glaze Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Adjusting Clay Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Ceramics Showcase: Special Glaze Effects . . . . . . 228
Creating Test Tiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Preparing the Glaze Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 p a r t t w o
Dipping Test Tiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 a step-by-step

Useful Glaze Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Glaze Calculation Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
guide to
hand-building
c h a p t e r n i n e
and pottery wheel projects
troubleshooting glazes . . . . . . . . . . . 176 230
Glaze Blisters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
c h a p t e r t w e l v e
Correcting Crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
hand-building projects . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Shivering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Slab Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Correcting Shivering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Whimsical Teapot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
S-Crack Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Coiled and Paddled Jar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Five Steps to Prevent S-Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Incorrect Coning Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
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c h a p t e r t h i r t e e n Wheel-Thrown Oval Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
beginning wheel projects . . . . . . . . . 242 Wheel-Thrown Covered Jar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Faceted Utensil Holder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Wheel-Thrown Bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Bottles and Vases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Wheel-Thrown Goblet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Pitchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Wheel-Thrown Covered Jar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Batter Bowl with Handle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Wheel-Thrown Bottle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Set of Mugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Wheel-Thrown Raku-Fired Vase . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Throwing Bowl Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Press-Molded Bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Shaping a Constant Curve and Using Wheel-Thrown Bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
a Throwing Rib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Wheel-Thrown Sculptural Rattle . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Principles of Trimming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Wheel-Thrown Jar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Trimming Multiple Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Wheel-Thrown Cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Guide to Trimming Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Guide to Trimming Multiple Forms . . . . . . . . . . 263
c h a p t e r s i x t e e n
going into the ceramics business . 296

c h a p t e r f o u r t e e n
Plan Your Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
intermediate wheel projects . . . . . . 264 Plan Your Production Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Plates and Platters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Plan Your Purchases and Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Trimming a Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Marketing Your Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Chip and Dip Dish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Creating Functional Sets to Sell . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Casserole with Lid and Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Teapot with Lid, Spout, and Handle . . . . . . . . . . 275
Sources of Inspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Two-Part Vase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
c h a p t e r f i f t e e n
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
clay and glaze formulas . . . . . . . . . . 284 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Thrown Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Thrown Jar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Square-Sided Thrown Raku Covered Jar . . . . . . . 286
Wheel-Thrown Altered Oval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Wheel-Thrown Unglazed Bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Slab Construction Oval Platter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Wheel-Thrown/Hand-Built Sculptural Disk . . . . . 287
Wheel-Thrown Bottle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Wheel-Thrown Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Wheel-Thrown Bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
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C
FOREWORD
by Brother Iain Highet,
Abbey of Regina Laudis, 2007
I
t might seem unusual for a beginner to write the foreword
for a book about pottery. A well-known artist in the field
might offer a better selling point. But in just three short years
of studying and collaborating with the author, learning most
of the techniques and projects found in this book, I have
progressed to the point where I operate the pottery studio at the
monastery where I live, make wares for use in the community,
and offer work for show and sale in the monastery’s art shop. Not
bad for a beginner. But it is because I had such an enthusiastic,
dedicated, and artistically gifted teacher, who brings to this book
twenty years of study, practice, teaching, and creation in clay.
It is rare to find in one person the combi- and worked with some of the best and
nation of artistic sensibility and commu- most-respected artists in the field, in tech-
nicative capacities as a teacher as I have niques and styles that span from the most
experienced in Kristin Müller. Her gift of primitive traditions to the most advanced
being able to present materials and tech- contemporary artistic expressions to be
niques in a straightforward and confident found in clay. From traditional Italian
manner, while at the same time conveying a terra-cotta techniques taught by a master
wonder and enthusiasm for the potential potter to Japanese wood-fired tea ceremony
and pleasures of pottery, comes from being vessels, the depth of her immersion in the
a dedicated learner herself. She has studied traditions and range of expressive possibili-
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ties of the medium has given her unique knowl- the healthy, grounding, and creative experience
edge of the world of clay. And she has a gift for that is pottery, I trust that you will find, as I
being able to translate this wealth of knowledge have, an excellent way to begin.
into a practical, hands-on approach, making the
traditions and artistic expressions of pottery
available to her students, from children and adult
beginners to university fine arts students. She is
always ready to begin something new, to experi-
ment and develop as an artist, and to grow as a
person, mindful of and with a deep respect for
what has come before. She has taught me that in
pottery, as perhaps with all that is meaningful
and valuable in life, we are always beginners.
To work with clay is to accept forever being a
beginner. It is in this sense a tremendously
rewarding creative and spiritual adventure. In
every moment of the clay process—wedging,
centering, throwing, forming, painting, glazing,
and firing—there is an engagement with primal
and elemental forces that awaken something at
the origin and center of our humanity. Earth,
water, fire, and the breath of life we potters give
with our hands—these are the elements of work-
ing with clay. Pottery is after all one of the oldest
continuously practiced crafts and most ancient
technologies known to mankind. It is found in
nearly every civilization, all over the world, in
one form or another. And in most cultures, sto-
ries of the creation of human beings speak of our
origins in clay.
So in this book you will find all you will need
to begin. If you have already begun, you will also
find all you need to advance more deeply, devel-
op your basic skills, and hone your wheel-throw-
ing and hand-building techniques. Whether you
hope to be a professional potter, or to make fine
gifts for friends, or simply to enjoy for yourself
C Porcelain vase by Brother Iain Highet; iron-saturated glaze

and white glaze reduction fired to cone 10 in a gas kiln
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C
INTRODUCTION
F
or years I have helped students discover the wonders of
clay and answered their questions, wishing that I could
give them all of my knowledge. My late father would
often say, “My dear, unfortunately, experience is non-
transferable.” Luckily, knowledge is. This book is a step in that
direction. You will have to gain the experience that will enrich
your technical knowledge through trial and error. It is a journey
that is both challenging and satisfying.
Ceramics is a universe unto itself, with many THE INTIMACY OF POTTERY
options for clays, firing temperatures, physical Everyone has a favorite cup, though most people
and chemical considerations, and aesthetic don’t really give it a second thought. Whether
choices. This book is designed to help aspiring you drink coffee, tea, hot cocoa, or milk, when
ceramic artists who would like to understand
you reach into the cabinet full of assorted cups
some of the technical aspects of working with
and mugs, you make a choice. The choice might
clay. It is by no means the definitive text. This
be based on color, size, texture of the glaze, or
book is, however, designed to help the ceramic
sentimental value, but generally it will have more
enthusiast take the next step. It contains basic
information about the entire process of working to do with the overall feeling of the cup.
with clay, including the types of clay, the manip- A cup is an intimate object that delivers nour-
ulation and formation of clay, basic studio proce- ishment to your body. I probably sold several
dures, firing procedures, and instructions on how hundred cups before it dawned on me that I was
to set up a safe and well-equipped home studio. making and selling objects with the potential of
This book also includes many projects that can so much intimacy.
be achieved as skills are sequentially refined.
10 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK


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My favorite cup was made by Pete Callas, a

wonderful ceramic artist known for his wood
firing and powerful ceramic sculptures with
whom I studied for years. It is wood-fired with
no handles and deep throwing rings that spiral
upward as if the cup were still rotating on the
wheel. It fits perfectly in my hand. The surface is
soft and smooth, but not glassy, because the only
glaze it has is from the wood ash that melted on
the surface during firing in an anagama kiln. The
lip has a smooth, inverted-V shape that fits the
shape of my mouth very comfortably when I take
a drink. The wall thickness is perfect, and I
know my coffee or tea is at the perfect drinking
C Wood-fired cup by Peter Callas
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temperature when I can hold the cup without dents rarely learn those skills. The potter’s cycle
burning my fingers. includes shaping raw clay, bisque firing, glazing,
When you make useful objects from clay, I then glaze-firing. Students form pieces in class
hope some of your values and aesthetics will then place them on a shelf to dry in preparation
come through in the work. These preferences for its first firing. In most cases, a supply of glaze
will define your creative efforts and develop your is provided and the bisque-firing is done by staff
personal style. members. The bisque-fired work is glazed or
decorated, then fired again, whence it is trans-
THE SCIENCE OF POTTERY formed into finished ceramic pieces. The student
In pottery, refining your technical skills is just as assesses the success or failure of the work and
important as tapping into your creative well. the cycle begins again.
Good work emerges when a balance of technical
THE VERSATILITY OF CLAY
skill and personal vision merge successfully. This
Clay is one of the few natural materials that can
book is full of technical information that will
become nearly any shape desired. You can carve
help you understand how to shape clay into
it, stamp it, pinch it, coil it, join it, turn it on a
works of quality.
potter’s wheel, and pour or press it into molds.
Working with clay is a scientific craft. Clay’s
You can easily combine small sections of clay to
utilitarian qualities—such as its durability and
make larger pieces. The size of a finished piece is
heat and water resistance—have helped advance
limited only by the clay’s stability and by the size
society. People have used clay to create every-
of the kiln you have available. (Some people
thing from religious artifacts, storage containers,
even build special kilns around work that is too
and food serving utensils to modern plumbing,
large or unwieldy for a typical kiln.)
electrical transformers, parts for computer chips,
space craft insulation materials, and replacement
BUILDING YOUR FOUNDATION
parts for the human body, some of the most inspir-
After you read this book, I encourage you to
ing expressions of human culture and intellect.
take workshops and classes with different
Though clay is relatively easy to shape, it
instructors, as well as to read other books and
requires an understanding of chemical and physi-
magazines on ceramics. These experiences will
cal changes to transform it through fire into a
build upon the information that you will gain
permanent rock-like hardness. Glazing and deco-
from this text and will show you alternative
rating delve into some basic chemistry that,
ways of working. All clay artists develop tech-
when combined with good design, can render
niques that are honed for their own designs and
beautiful works of art.
choice of clays. You will see that as your clay
Most ceramic students have limited exposure
skills build, you, too, will develop unique meth-
to the scientific part of the ceramic process in a
ods and your own style of working with clay.
classroom environment. Teaching studios typically
When I teach, students often ask me if they
have one or two people in charge of mixing glazes
are “doing it right.” My response is, “If it works,
and loading and firing kilns, and therefore stu-
it’s probably right.” There will always be better


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ways to render a technique,

but you will find them by
watching others work and
through personal experience.
Use this book as a guide and
learn to trust the process and
your instincts. Know that a
fine craftsman is someone
who has strong basic skills.
The true craftsman is always
honing the basics so that his
or her use of tools and materi-
als becomes second nature.
The stronger the skills and
knowledge base, the more
focused one can be on the
creative details of design and
execution.
My hope is that this hand-
book will reside in your stu-
dio, not on a pristine shelf in
the living room, and that it
will be used as a primer and
reference guide. The goal is
for you to learn the basic
skills to further your knowl-
edge of the ceramic process
in an accessible, non-intimidating way. Some sections of this C Using handmade pots and other pieces
will help enhance your artisan skills by
book will seem technical. Know that you do not need to memo- bringing you closer to this personal craft.
rize the information, but you should know where to find it
when you need it. Information is power! It will give you confi-
dence to move forward with your work. The informed artist
can make better decisions about process to strengthen aesthet-
ic, expression, and functionality. Read on and enjoy!
INTRODUCTION 13
15
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PART
ONE
studio
requirements
and properties of clay
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C C H A P T E R
O N E
YOUR STUDIO
A
lthough you may not have the ideal studio space built
into your home, if you have a small space with good
lighting and access to electricity, you can set up a
serviceable work area. Some professional studios are
surprisingly small, cluttered spaces. Others don’t even have
running water. There are also gorgeous, immaculate, uncluttered
workshops reminiscent of fancy kitchens that no one cooks in for
fear of making a mess. A studio is a workspace, a place that will
house tools and equipment for the purpose of creating with clay—
it will (and should) get dirty.
WORKSPACE if you plan on constructing a studio and
CONSIDERATIONS can create a larger space, by all means
Probably the first question a person asks do so.
when thinking about building a studio is:
How large should the studio be? There are PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
no hard-and-fast rules about what size a FOR SETTING UP A STUDIO
studio should be because it depends on When planning the layout of your studio,
what you are planning to make, your consider allotting space for the following:
budget, and how much pottery you are • A wet work area with a wedging table
planning on producing. For the most part, and/or work table and room for the pot-
a home studio can be anywhere from 400 ter’s wheel, stool, and a low worktable
to 1,200 square feet (37 to 111 sq m). But
C A home studio space can be intimate,
organized, and versatile.


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may want to change its configuration.
think things through As you’re planning your studio, there are sev-
Here are some questions to ask yourself eral critical components to factor in, including
when you’re in the beginning stages of electricity, lighting, studio location, air quality,
planning a studio . water, ambiance, safety considerations, studio
flooring, studio furniture, accessibility, posture
What am I going to be making? How much 14' (4.2
considerations, and storage for ceramic ware
will I produce? How often will I work? Am
and shelving.
I committed to one way of working or do
I want to experiment with different clays ElEctricity
and forming techniques? Will I want to Of course, pottery has historically been made
make room for future growth? Do I plan on without electricity. Potters around the world still
selling work or just enjoy making pieces to produce wonderful work in very simple work-
give as gifts? Do I want to share the space shops. In fact, some contemporary artists pur-
with anyone else? Do I want to mix my own posely choose “primitive” studios because they
glazes? What tools will I need? How do I believe that the simplicity helps them achieve a
want to fire work? deeper connection to their work.
Most potters need electricity to run their pot-
• Clay storage to keep clay cool and dry and ter’s wheel, to install lighting, and to power other
protect it from freezing tools such as mixers and fans. If you have an
electric kiln, you’ll also need electricity to power
• A glaze chemical storage and mixing area (This
it. How much amperage depends on the size of
can be as simple as a few shelves in the studio
the kiln. (See Chapter 2.)
or it can be a separate room, depending on
If you plan on working with a simple kick
your scale of production.)
wheel and a wood-firing kiln, you can stay off the
• A ventilated kiln area (in the studio or in grid in an unheated barn studio during
another space, such as a garage. See page 22 temperate seasons.
for more on ventilating your kiln area.)
• Shelving to store work in progress (The more lighting
space the better. You might have one shelf Lighting is a matter of personal choice, but it is
for wet work and another shelf by the kiln to essential and should not be overlooked. There
place greenware that is ready to be fired, for are many lighting options. Some people love dim
example.) lights, while others prefer bright lights, and still
others crave natural light. Ideally you will have
• Separate shelving to store finished work (Or
you might prefer to store your finished work
outside of the studio, in a clean, dust-free envi-
Choose the Best BulBs
ronment.)
If you install fluorescent lighting, consider
• Sink or clean-up area investing in full-spectrum daylight bulbs . They
As you design your studio, try to create a flexible are more expensive than standard fluorescent
layout. After working in a space for a while, you bulbs, but the light is more natural .
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shelf
shelving wheel
worktable worktable
glaze material
14' (4.2 m) worktable and tool storage
shelving sculpture stand

table kiln room
C An example of a
generous studio floor
plan; each studio can
sinks wedging table be customized to its
own desired dimen-
sions or needs .
24' (7.2 m)
all three options available. For example, many

pottery workshops in Japan use natural light Vary your lighting
and a single bare bulb hanging over the wheel. Aesthetic decisions are made based upon
I prefer natural light and a combination of fluo- perception . Consider changing the location
rescent and incandescent lights. That way, I of work to see how it fares under different
can choose to have both types of light on at the lighting conditions and perspective . That’s
same time, or just one. why it’s helpful to have as many different
You have two main types of lighting— lighting options in your studio as possible,
ambient lighting and task lighting. Each plays including natural light, fluorescent light, and
an important part in your studio and will affect incandescent light .
the overall mood.
The ambient lighting is the overall light in a This is an important issue because lighting used
room. Light creates a mood in a room, and it can while working affects aesthetic decisions.
affect many aspects about the work you make. Task lighting is light you can direct toward
Think about the feeling you want in your studio. the task at hand. A small lamp can be adjusted
For example, you may want to have a brightly to direct light to a specific project, for detailed
lit studio with a crisp, contemporary feeling or surface work or glazing. For example, I use a flex-
instead, dimmer yellow lighting that casts a dra- ible gooseneck lamp to illuminate the interior of a
matic, romantic feeling. Compositional elements piece while I’m forming it.
of work will seem different under strong or soft If you have natural light available in your stu-
lighting conditions. Texture and line quality on dio, position your wheel and worktable so it has
the surface of clay will also be affected by the best access to the light.
lighting, making them too gentle or too stark.
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STUDIO LOCATION important of which is your health. Ceramic mate-

Just like they say in real estate, it’s all about rials, glazes, ceramic dust, and toxic gases such as
location, location, location. Where do you want carbon monoxide given off by kilns can be haz-
your studio to be? Perhaps in the dim recesses of ardous to your health. Another reason to ventilate
your basement is not the best idea. Access to the the area is because an open window or door facil-
studio is fairly important because clay is heavy itates air exchange during clean up. A third rea-
and greenware is delicate, making transporting son to ventilate the area is because circulating
clay at all stages a key issue. How to get clay fresh air is essential for proper drying of work.
into and out of the studio will become para-
Kiln Venting Systems
mount when planning the location and layout
A kiln venting system is a must. When clay is
of your workspace.
going through the bisque-firing cycle, it will burn
It may seem hard to imagine receiving a deliv-
off water and organic materials that are contained
ery of a ton of clay, but really, it is not that much
in the clay. During the glaze-firing cycle, organic
clay. In the United States, clay is typically avail-
materials contained in the wax used to resist
able from suppliers in 50 pound (23 kg) boxes.
glaze on the bottoms of pieces will be burned off,
Just forty boxes weigh 2,000 pounds (907 kg).
and heavy metal fumes from colorants in the
Because clay is less expensive if you purchase
glazes will emit gases. You don’t want to be
larger quantities, it is economically savvy to
breathing any of this into your lungs!
store quite a lot of it. True, it may be a few years
You can purchase good venting systems that
before you order in such quantity, but it is not a
attach to kilns to draw the fumes out of the
bad idea to plan for the future.
room. The ideal situation is to have the kiln in
Clay deliveries are made by truck on wooden
an area apart from the actual workspace, so that
palettes and dropped outside the studio. The
the fumes (not to mention the heat!) don’t
truck driver usually does not carry the clay
impede your work.
inside the studio. If your studio has wide doors
In my first studio, the wet work area was in
and a smooth floor, the driver can just as easily
the basement and the kiln was in the garage
roll the palette of clay into the studio. If not, you
because I didn’t have a venting system. I could
will need to bring the clay inside the studio
simply open the garage door to let out the fumes.
yourself. A hand truck is very useful for this.
Because of space constraints, all of my studios
Carrying 50 pound (23 kg) boxes of clay
since then have had the kilns in the wet work
down steps is definitely a challenge. If you have a
area. Even though my kilns are vented, I can still
basement studio, you may want to store a small
smell the fumes. The fumes are noxious enough
amount in the immediate work area and keep the
that I open the window and doors during firing.
rest in the garage or a room upstairs. (If you go
I also avoid working in the studio until the firing
the garage route, though, remember that clay
is finished.
must be protected from freezing temperatures.)
WATER
AIR QUALITY
Water is an important consideration for your stu-
Air quality is often overlooked when choosing a
dio, especially if you are going to mix and apply
studio space. Ventilation of the work area is
glazes to a lot of pottery. Ideally every studio
important for a number of reasons, the most
would have a double sink to wash large buckets


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and tools. Another good option is a large, plastic These details will help define your personal
laundry sink. They are inexpensive, and their workspace and inspire your work.
depth is ideal for clay cleanup. Whatever type of
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
sink you have, make sure it has a sediment trap
Certainly, you don’t want anyone—or yourself—
to catch the slurry (the bits of leftover clay in
to be hurt in your studio. Here are some safety
water) before it goes down the drain.
considerations to keep in mind.
As with electricity, many potters have studios
Powdered, raw ceramic materials—such as
without running water. In this case, you can use
powdered glaze and clay—pose a serious risk to
a spigot and a hose outside the studio to fill
the lungs. It is very important to store these raw
buckets and carry them into the studio to wash
materials correctly. Most of these raw materials
tables, tools, and wheels.
come in heavy-duty brown paper packages,
though some of the dust still seeps out. It’s a
CLEANING TIP: SLURRY good idea to store them inside large plastic stor-
If you are cleaning up with a bucket of age bins, especially after they’ve been opened.
water, don’t immediately dump the clay As discussed earlier, it’s important to have
water. Let the clay settle to the bottom, and easy access for clay deliveries to preserve your
then decant the clean water.The leftover back when trying to move boxes of clay.
clay, called slurry, can be recycled, or it can Because you’ll have water in your studio,
be thrown out without clogging your whether portable buckets or actual running
plumbing. water, ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs)
Even if you have running water and a sink, should be installed. These devices protect people
do an initial rinse of your clay tools in a from electric shocks.
plastic bucket.This bucket catches all the Another major consideration is fire safety. A
clay that would otherwise be in danger of kiln is an insulated box that is resistant to heat.
going down the sink. A kiln itself will not combust, because it contains
the heat, however, it can create other fire haz-
ards. The first, if you have an electric kiln, is
AMBIANCE incorrect wiring and electrical connection. Hire a
An inspiring workspace is as important as having licensed electrician to do the wiring. It is not a
the proper tools. Design your space so it suits job for an amateur. Have the electrician read the
your temperament. Fill your creative space with kiln manual for detailed information about elec-
things that nurture you and reflect your personal- trical specifications.
ity. For example, many artists have bulletin The other fire hazard created by kilns is its
boards in their studios that they cover with proximity to flammable materials created by
inspiring images and photographs. I make a point (such as cardboard boxes, wooden or linoleum
of drawing the shapes and sources of inspiration flooring, and the surrounding wall) and com-
and hang them in the studio to remind myself of bustible chemicals (such as household chemicals
proportion, scale, texture, or subject matter. and solvents and paint thinners) in the kiln area.
If you like listening to music, get a nice audio A fire extinguisher should be available in your
system; if you like plants, put a few in the studio. work area.
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A kiln that has been moved incorrectly or such as concrete—rather than wood, linoleum,
used for many years could have damage to the or plastic.
bottom layer. Since the base rests on a kiln stand Wood flooring is much easier on the bones than
and carries the weight of the kiln furniture and concrete, and it’s equally easy to clean. But it is
the ceramic wares, it can pose a threat during fir- combustible and will show signs of wear and tear
ing because it could give way. Periodically check from the abrasiveness of clay.
to make sure the base is not damaged. (I have
Linoleum and plastic flooring are soft to stand on,
heard of this happening only once, but it’s better
but they will show signs of wear more quickly,
not to take chances.)
due to the abrasive nature of clay. They are easy
Place the kiln on the manufacturer’s kiln
to clean with a wet vacuum, but they can be
stand, which is metal and elevates the kiln for air
very slippery when dusty and wet. If you want
circulation. Inspect both the kiln and stand for
to use a linoleum floor, invest in industrial-grade
wear and tear during the installation and periodi-
flooring.
cally during the life of the kiln to ensure parts
have not been damaged. STUDIO FURNITURE
The most important way to prevent a kiln A few essential pieces of furniture are necessary
accident is to never leave a firing kiln unattended. for a workshop space.
Even if you do not work in the studio while the
Studio tables: A ceramic studio should have at
kiln is firing (to avoid the fumes), stay near the
least two tables: one used as an all-purpose work
studio in order to monitor the kiln.
table for forming or glazing and another for
STUDIO FLOORING wedging (which is the process of preparing clay
It may seem like a minor detail, but the type of by kneading it, to create a homogenous mound of
flooring in your studio is determined both for clay) and clay preparation and reclaiming (which
comfort and durability. Any material will have a is the process of recycling dry unfired clay scraps
set of pros and cons; be sure to evaluate a stu- into moist, plastic workable clay).
dio’s needs when making a selection. The work table must be strong enough to
Concrete is easy to clean with a wet vacuum or a hold the weight of clay and the pressure of
power washer. Some potters prefer concrete working with clay without buckling. It should be
because of the absorbency and even use it as a at a standard kitchen counter height—about 36
surface to wedge and stretch clay. Standing on a
cement floor for long periods, however, is tiring.
Rubber anti-fatigue mats are used in the industry
TIP
If you need additional table surface, you can
to provide a cushion. They relieve the stress on
place a hollow core door atop two portable
your body and are recommended for long peri-
saw horses. Hollow core doors are cheap,
ods of standing. In a pinch, even standing on a
lightweight, and available from building
couple sheets of cardboard will make a differ-
suppliers. If you don’t have room to store a
ence. Be sure to wear shoes with good support
hollow core door, you can place plywood
when working on concrete floors.
sheets or three wide boards across the saw
If you have an electric or gas kiln, you need
horses.
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inches (92 cm) tall. Its surface should be of an

absorbent material, such as wood, so the clay
won’t stick to the surface. Worktables can be lit-
tle more than old desks with plywood screwed
on the tops as well as homemade table bases with
a full sheet of plywood mounted to the top. In
the United States, a standard sheet of plywood
from a building supply store measures 4 feet
wide by 8 feet long (1.2 x 2.4 m), which is a
generous size for a worktable.
A wedging table must be very sturdy to with-
stand the clay being wedged on the surface with-
out moving. The height for a wedging table
should be customized to suit your height. When
your arms are at your sides, elbows straight, the
top of the table should graze the area between
the fingertips and knuckles to provide leverage
from the body when wedging a mound of clay. C Diagram of ideal height for a wedging table. Note
that it is lower than a standard kitchen counter and that
Like the work table, the surface of the wedg- it should be designed to the proportions of your body.
ing table should also be absorbent. Some potters
like to use a plaster slab as a wedging surface.
• If the table is low, approximately 30 inches
Plaster is very absorbent and helpful for recycling
(76 cm) tall for wedging, you can elevate the
wet clay to a workable consistency. Plaster is easy
clay when working by using platforms, such as
to clean because when the clay is at the right
upside-down buckets and bowls.
consistency for wedging it pulls away from the
surface. Other potters like to use canvas-covered Sculpture stand: If you’re planning on doing a lot
tables, however, the canvas cloth builds up dry of hand building or sculpting, you may want to
clay and can be a source of dust in the studio. invest in a sculpture stand or a small table with
Using smooth plywood allows you to scrape the casters that can be moved around easily. You may
wet clay with a plastic putty knife and sponge it even want several sculpture stands.
clean, eliminating a source of clay dust. POSTURE CONSIDERATIONS
If you have only room for one table to use Setting yourself up to ensure proper posture
as both your work table and wedging table, while working with clay will offset future back,
consider one of the following two options. neck, and shoulder pain. Maintaining good pos-
• If the table is at standard countertop height, ture for particular work phases will be easier if
36 inches tall and 4 x 8 feet in surface area certain considerations are tended to when laying
(92 cm tall and 1.2 x 2.4 m in surface area), out your studio. Posture needs will vary from
build a small platform to stand on to elevate hand building to wheel working.
you for wedging at the proper height. (The
Hand-Building Postures
table top should graze your knuckles.)
Most hand-building techniques require that you
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TIP
Use a level to ensure that tables, shelves, and
the potter’s wheel are level. Otherwise, your
work will be lopsided from the beginning.
Also, clay pieces stored to dry on an uneven
surface will give in to gravity and tilt to the
lower end of the shelf.
It does not need to have a back rest, but it is a

nice luxury to lean back and rest a little. Another
solution is to purchase a metal stool with
adjustable legs. The stool’s height can be adjusted
by moving four screws in the legs. Some potters
like to have the two front legs a little shorter than
the back ones to help with alignment. Tall potters
C Creating a few work surfaces in the studio allows for often elevate the potter’s wheel and work on a tall
finding the best working height for each project.
stool. Some potters choose to throw standing up
stand. Standing allows one to work around a because it puts less stress on the back and elimi-
piece and step away easily to check for composi- nates the possibility of slouching over the wheel.
tion and balance. Laying antifatigue mats on the
floor is recommended.
TAKE IT OUTSIDE
For hand building, proper table heights are
If you have easy access to the outdoors,
one part of the equation, and proper seating is
consider using it for glazing, drying, or even
another. Invest in a comfortable stool or chair at
making. Depending on location and climate,
a height that will allow you to work at the table
an outdoor studio can be very effective.
and keep your back and neck in a straight posi-
tion. (A bar stool is perfect for sitting when you
are fussing with details.) Avoid sitting with your
STORAGE FOR CERAMIC WARE
back rounded and shoulders hunched over work. AND SHELVING
Remind yourself to keep your shoulders back. One of the biggest challenges a potter has is mak-
Elevate work if you are leaning over it. ing room for the storage of work in progress.
Wheel-Working Postures Having ample shelving is helpful. There are a
When working at the wheel, sit slightly higher number of options available depending on the
than the wheel head with your thighs parallel to type of work that will be made.
the floor and your back straight, not rounded. Consider the dimensions and depth of shelv-
An inexpensive seating solution is to buy an ing before purchasing or designing. The height of
office chair with adjustable height and removable the shelving is important because if you make a
casters on the base. Take the casters off so that lot of small shallow ware you may want less
the chair doesn’t move while you’re sitting on it. space between shelves. Conversely, if the work is


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large or tall, larger spacing between shelves or

more table surface to store work in progress will THE EVOLUTION OF SHELVING
be necessary. Originally, my studio had a lot of shelving
Ideally, the ware boards (special boards used designed for production of smaller pieces,
to hold your work for drying) will be cut to fit cups and bowls, and some larger space for
the depth of the shelving, so that you can easily vases and large bowls. My work has since
move them from the work area to the shelving evolved into more sculptural forms and the
and back to the work or kiln area. scale has increased so the short shelving has
Ceramic supply houses sell ware carts with become unusable. I replaced some shelving
casters that have racks for sliding ware boards on with tables with storage cabinets underneath.
and off. They can be moved around the studio as Storing the pieces closer to the ground makes
needed, which is ideal for studios with lots of moving heavy or large delicate pieces much
floor space, but they can be a bit pricey. easier on my back, and it also allows me to go
Restaurant supply houses sell wire shelves in back to the work and make adjustments as it
a range of depths, from 12 inches (30.5 cm) to dries. If large work is placed on a high shelf, it
36 inches (90.5 cm). They are versatile because becomes difficult to revisit.
they can easily be moved if you change your
mind about layout. The wire shelves allow debris
to fall through and don’t build up dust, but PLANNING THE PLACEMENT
attention must be paid to what may fall through OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
the shelf onto the work below. As you plan your studio, there are a few critical
Large home building suppliers carry several tools and equipment that need specific locations.
metal and heavy-duty plastic shelving options This includes your potter’s wheel, kiln, glazing
that can withstand a lot of clay weight. They are materials, and tools. Here’s how to place them right.
assembled easily and are relatively inexpensive. Potter’s wheel: For placement of a potter’s wheel,
Avoid metal frames with particleboard shelves; access to electricity, lighting, space for a stool,
they don’t hold up to moisture and will warp and a low table are needed. Other space consider-
from the weight and dampness of clay. ations include ample leg room for getting up and
It’s probably the most expensive option, but down from the wheel and maneuvering around
shelving can always be custom built. the studio to store freshly thrown pots and get
more clay. If the space around the wheel is too
tight, it is cumbersome to access with your hands
full and can be a tripping hazard.
Electric or gas kiln: Placement of a kiln requires
more advance planning than most other pieces of
equipment. Kilns require air space around them,
non-combustible flooring such as cement, and
access to ventilation. As mentioned earlier, fumes
from a firing kiln are noxious and toxic, so place
the kiln where it can be vented to the outdoors.
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At the very least, it must be in a room with
doors and windows that open. A garage with a Tip
cement floor is an excellent location for a kiln. A kiln closet can be built into a room
If a kiln must be installed indoors consider lin- fairly inexpensively using fire-rated building
ing the surrounding wall with fire-rated backer materials and a metal door . The kiln can be
board. This material is available from building hard wired and encased in the closet with
suppliers, comes in sheets, can be cut, and is proper space between the kiln and walls as
commonly used behind kitchen stoves and fire- per the kiln manufacturer . A vent system
places. It can even be used underneath the kiln should be installed to draw fumes outside
stand to shield the floor. the building and should have access to air
If an electric kiln is being installed, its place- exchange . The electrical breaker should
ment may be determined by the availability of be placed outside the kiln closet for quick
an electrical connection. If a gas kiln is being access in an emergency . Check with the kiln
installed, the size of the kiln, air exchange, manufacturer and local building codes before
and gas connection requirements will certainly designing a space for a kiln .
determine the placement. (See Chapter 10 for
extensive information on kilns.)
glazes instead of mixing your own. This is a
StoragE for glazE MatErialS great way to learn the process of firing because
You can buy ceramic raw materials and glaze if you have problems, the ceramic supplier can
chemicals in small amounts, but you’ll save often suggest remedies. Commercially made
money by buying in bulk. But of course, then you glazes should have fairly predictable results and
need to store it! if they are not performing it usually means that
In the beginning, it’s probably a better idea to the firing cycle needs adjustment. Some of these
spend some extra money and buy small amounts adjustments might be calibrating the pyrometer
of materials. This way you can test many glazes or kiln sitter or lengthening the firing cycle.
and when you find that you are happy with a Once you have hands-on experience and an
selection of them you can proceed to ordering understanding of how firing affects glazes, you
materials in bulk quantity. will be ready to take on the next step: mixing
The best way to store ceramic raw materials and your own glazes. Mixing glaze is fairly simple
glaze chemicals is in stackable, heavy-duty plastic and is addressed in Chapter 7.
containers. They will keep the powders clean, dry,
Storing clay toolS
and properly contained to reduce the chance of
Small containers, such as empty coffee cans, are
cross contamination and dust in your studio.
practical for holding clay tools because they can
Make a habit of labeling everything. Duct tape
be moved along with the work, from the wheel
and a permanent marker work well for labeling
to the table.
plastic containers that could eventually be reused
Most potters are tool pack rats, collecting far
for something else.
more tools than needed. (You never know what
At this point, you may be wondering what
you might need!) These extra tools can end up
kind of glazes will you be using? In the begin-
cluttering the work space. A small storage unit
ning, you’ll want to use commercially made
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with drawers is a great way to sort and
store the tools that aren’t used very
often as well as for keeping the tools
that are used frequently handy.
For wheel work you will need
many bats, which are discs made of
wood, plastic, or plaster on which to
throw clay. About a dozen small and
medium bats and two or three large
bats should suffice to get you started.
Plan on storing them close to the
wheel for easy access while throwing.
flExibility
Above all, the studio layout should be
flexible, offering space to grow into
rather than out of. Allow yourself lay-
out options. The ceramic process has
different phases that require the space
to be transformed from wet work area
to glazing area. The type of work you
make can go from small to large scale
and from small quantities to large
quantities. The option to move tables
and equipment to suit your work
patterns will give you the freedom to
create your designs and tap into your
creative flow.
C Ceramic raw materials in proper storage containers and

assorted tools for mixing glazes
your studio 29
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C
TOOLS
C H A P T E R
T W O
AND EQUIPMENT
T
he previous chapter covered space requirements for
basic tools and equipment. This chapter will address
what specific tools you need to get started. Over time
your space will develop into a complex workshop that
has specific tools for particular needs. But in the beginning it can
be fairly simple, a space you can develop to your liking.
ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT FUEL-BURNING KILNS
Quite simply, you will need clay (which Fuel-burning kilns include kilns that burn
will be covered in great detail in Chapter gas, oil, and wood. These types of kilns are
3), a kiln in which to fire it, tools to commonly used by professional potters,
manipulate it, and a surface on which colleges, and art centers because of their
to work. large capacity and firing results created.
They are also cheaper to operate than
THE KILN electric kilns.
The most important tool of all is the kiln. A Fuel-burning kilns are typically fired in
kiln uses heat to transform soft, malleable oxidation and reduction cycles; that is, at
clay into a permanent rock-like state. There certain points during the firing the air is
are many types of kilns. Some use combus- reduced and the gases from the combus-
tion for heat—such as gas, oil, or wood— tion burn in reduction. This starves the
and others use electricity for a clean source flame of oxygen, thus the flame pulls oxy-
of heat. gen from the clay and reacts with the base
metals that are used as colorants in clay
and glazes.
C Working outdoors offers a change

of scenery and atmosphere.

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Reduction firing produces specific clay body
and glaze color and depth. By pulling the iron to
the surface of the clay, the clay color will become
a toasty orange color. In reduction, metal colo-
rants such as copper will go from green to red.
Rutile will turn from a mustard yellow to a
purple blue tint. As you might imagine, the fir-
ing results from a fuel-burning kiln are tricky to
control, and require a fairly extensive knowledge
of glaze chemistry and combustion conditions
to achieve predictable results. (See page 197 for
more information on fuel-burning kilns.)
Because fuel-burning kilns produce combus-
tion gases, they are more difficult to vent than
electric kilns. They are usually housed outdoors,
such as in a kiln shed or kiln yard.
ElEctric KilnS
Almost every ceramic studio has an electric kiln
even if it also has a fuel-burning kiln. Electric
kilns are far more common than fuel-burning C Electric kilns with manual controls and venting system
kilns in schools and home studios because they
are easier to fire and to vent. Electric kilns are tric kiln in the studio is a great way to start, use-
also smaller and render more predictable results. ful for bisque firing or for testing clays and glazes.
Electric kilns do not fire in reduction, therefore Space and budget limitations generally dic-
color and clay colors are more uniform. tate the choice of a kiln for the home studio, but
The heat inside an electric kiln is clean and the most important issue is what types of items
does not produce combustion gases from the will be fired. You might not know exactly what
heat source. There are gases emitted during fir- type of projects you’ll be making at first, but
ing, but they are from the clay and glazes as they imagining future projects and scenarios will help
burn off organic matter and fumes from the met- determine the best kiln size. Kilns have specific
als oxides and carbonates used as colorants in interior dimensions that will dictate the scale
the glazes. These gases are easily vented with a of work you are able to make. Once the ideal
standard setup. Therefore it is far more common size is determined, look at ceramic catalogs and
to find electric kilns inside buildings than fuel- find out what the electrical requirements are for
burning kilns. We’ll talk in much greater depth the size kiln being considered. Also, consider
about the kiln options available for home studios the kiln’s exterior dimensions and where it will
in Chapter 10, which covers kilns and firing likely be placed.
techniques in depth. (See page 194.) If you plan on working small or have limited
Even if you plan on building a kiln that fires electrical supply, you can buy a small electric
with gas or wood at some point, having an elec- kiln that will plug into a regular household elec-
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tEMpEraturE controlS
eleCtriC kiln There are two main ways to control the tempera-
reCommendation ture of your kiln: with a kiln sitter and with a
I recommend an electric kiln that can fire up digital controller.
to temperatures 2277°F to 2340°F (1247°C– Kiln sitter: A kiln sitter is a device that measures
1282°C), or in common potter terminology, the temperature and shuts off the kiln when the
cone 8 to 10 (see the cone temperature desired temperature is reached. Manual kiln sit-
chart on page 50) and that has approximately ters work with small pyrometric cones, which
7 cubic feet (2 .2 cubic meters) of interior are small pyramid-shaped pieces of clay that are
volume . This may seem large, but it really designed to melt at a specific temperature. (See
isn’t . The shelves and posts inside a kiln the clay temperature chart on page 51.) When a
consume quite a bit of stacking space . When cone melts, it triggers a relay switch that shuts
you first begin making pottery, it may take a off the kiln once the cone has sufficiently bent.
while to make enough work to fill the kiln . A timer that can be set to shut off at a particular
But as your skills improve, it won’t take you time backs this rather simple system.
long . If you use a manual kiln sitter, you will
This size kiln requires high amperage, and also need a pyrometer, a device to measure the
an electrician will most likely have to install a temperature inside the kiln. Analog pyrometers
special power breaker and line to the kiln . are cheaper but not nearly as accurate as
digital pyrometers.
A manual kiln sitter is great if you live in a
trical outlet. This might be a good option to begin rural area where there may be an inconsistent
with because you can always use a small kiln lat- power supply. Also, a manual kiln sitter is easily
er—after you’ve also purchased a larger kiln—for calibrated, replacement parts are cheap, and
testing clays, glazes, and application techniques. even if you are not very handy the adjustments
Ceramic suppliers provide information about are simple.
purchasing a kiln; visit their websites. Shop Digital controller: On the other hand, digital con-
around because prices vary by supplier. Ask pot- trollers are becoming more and more popular
ters and pottery teachers for their recommenda- because of their ease of use and pinpoint tem-
tions. They will have experience with different perature control. They have ramp modes, which
kilns and can suggest their favorite brands and means that the heat cycles on and off to maintain
features. an even, incremental heat rise.
When you buy your kiln, you’ll also need a Digital kiln controls are wonderful if you have
venting system. The kiln venting system is some- consistent power supply (they are very sensitive
times available from the kiln manufacturer. There to surges and outages) and provide exact temper-
are aftermarket vents that work well too. ature readings throughout the firing cycle because
they have a digital pyrometer built in. You can
also program them to specific firing cycles, tem-
peratures, and cooling rates.
tools and equipment 33
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Small paint brush: This is useful for applying slip.

BE SAFE Rolling pin: Used to roll clay slabs.
Despite the automatic shut off features of
Plastic putty knife or scraper: Used to scrape clay
both types of kilns, never leave a firing
from any surface.
kiln unattended. Always make sure it has
shut off before leaving the building. Wooden paddle: Used for shaping.
Assorted boxwood modeling tools: Used for

Potters who work with crystalline glazes sculpting and modeling clay.
prefer kilns with digital controllers because of Canvas cloth: Used to roll clay on to prevent it
the temperature precision needed for crystal from sticking to table also so that slabs can easily
development during the cooling cycle. Also, the be moved.
capabilities of a digital pyrometer and tempera- Turntable or banding wheel: Used for hand build-
ture controller provide the opportunity for very ing; it rotates and allows one to work on pieces
precise record keeping and experimentation. from all angles.
Many schools use this type of kiln because it can
Double pony roller (tiny rolling tool): Used for
canprogrammed
be be programmed to begin
to begin firing
firing at any
at any timetime
and
and shuts off when the programmed tempera-is shaping and rolling small slabs of clay.
shuts off when the programmed temperature
ture is reached.
reached. Wire loop tools in assorted sizes: Used to remove
clay.
Tools for
TOOLS FOR Hand
HAND Building
BUILDING Assorted stamps and textured cloth: Used to dec-
A sturdy table for working and or wedging is orate the surface of clay.
25
essential. (See suggested dimensions on page 23 Metal fork: Used for scoring clay for joining.
in previous chapter.)
Standard and mini compact discs: Used as shaping
For hand building, the following basic tools ribs.
are really helpful:
Large sponge: Used for clean up.
Toggle wire clay cutter: A wire or string with tog-
toggles
gles at the
at the endend used
used to cut
to cut clay.clay. Water bucket: Used for hydrating clay and clean-
ing up.
Assorted silk and elephant ear sponges: Used to
hydrate the clay and smooth the clay surface. Small container with lid: Used for storing
clay slip.
Potter’s needle (or sgraffito tool): This tool is
used for cutting, scoring, and marking the sur- Ware boards: Used to store work in progress.
clay.
face of clay. Ware boards are best made of hard wood, such as
oak, because the porosity of the wood helps
Fettling knife: Used for cutting and shaping.
absorb moisture from the clay and prevents it
Utility knife or hobby knife: Use these very sharp from adhering to the board.
knives for precision cutting.
Due to the absorbent nature of wood, the
Metal ribs and rubber ribs or scrapers:
boards will tend to warp. To prevent this, ware
Used for shaping and smoothing.
boards often have two narrow strips of wood
clay.
Serrated rib: Used for scoring clay. screwed into the base of the board a few inches


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A F
B
D E G
C I
K
N M
Q
L
O
P
C A selection of hand-building tools: A) Lace, B) textured craft paper, C) wooden paddle, D) compact disc, E) bamboo skew-
ers, F) hobby knife, G) wood modeling tool, H) small roller, I) wood slats, J) rounded paddle with canvas, K) metal and rubber
ribs, L) rasp tool, M) brush, N) wooden angle tool, O) throwing stick, P) natural sponges, Q) rolling pin
(about 10 cm) from each end of the board, Many potters adapt kitchen tools to clay work.
widthwise. These two strips of wood prevent the A thrift shop can be an inexpensive place to buy
board from warping by allowing air circulation tools such as small kitchen knives, forks, butter
under the board. paddles, lace (for surface texture), and forms to
It’s helpful if your ware boards are the same drape clay into.
length as the storage shelves. That way you can
simply set the ware board on an empty shelf. TOOLS FOR WHEEL WORK
Sheets of lightweight plastic: Empty dry cleaning Pottery wheel: First and foremost, you need a pot-
bags are perfect for covering work in progress. ter’s wheel for throwing. There are many options
Hand towels: Used to clean and dry hands during and price ranges, depending on the size of the
the handling of plastic clay. motor and pedal control features. For most practi-
Newspaper: Used as a liner for ware boards, to cal studio applications, a wheel with a quarter to
prevent clay from sticking to surfaces. half horsepower will suffice. A full horsepower
motor isn’t necessary unless you plan on working
on large-scale projects. Manufacturers of wheels
offer a range of pedal features, which is important
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 33

35

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because the pedal controls the speed of the wheel. rated rib, ware boards, standard and mini com-
The slow speed control is the most important for pact discs, and sheets of lightweight plastic.
both large and delicate wheel work. Many pedals (See photo below.) But for throwing pottery, the
are adjustable but some are not, so be sure to following tools are also helpful:
check on these details. Wooden angle tool: Used to compress clay at the
Potter’s wheels generally come with splash base of a piece during throwing and remove clay
pans, but look for one that is removable. Splash from the base before wire cutting.
pans can get in the way when throwing large
Assorted flat wire loop trimming tools: Used to
plates or bowls, especially when cutting the piece
trim clay from the base of a pot during the shap-
from the bat with a wire. Also, a permanent
ing of the foot.
splash pan can restrict the size of bat that can be
Chamois cloth: Used to soften the rim of a pot
attached to the wheel head.
Many of the tools you’ll need for wheel work when it is finished.
are the same as you’ll need for hand building, Calipers: Used to measure the width of a pot for
including a toggle wire clay cutter, assorted silk making lids or joining two pieces.
and elephant ear sponges, potter’s needle, ser-
C G
K E
B D
F
K J I
M
C A small selection of wheel working tools: A) rubber ribs, B) compact disc, C) chamois cloth, D) metal rib, E) wooden rib,
F) large metal ribs, G) bamboo skewers, H) throwing sticks, I) toggle cutting wire, J) natural sponges, K) needle tool, L) wooden
angle tool, M) assorted trimming tools


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C Bats come in an array of sizes and are made of a number of materials, including plaster, wood, particle board,
and plastic. Shown here are a masonite bat and bat pins.
Bats: Removable discs made of either wood, plas- Small food scale: Used for weighing equal
ter, plastic, or masonite that fit on the wheel amounts of clay for throwing the same size
head on which pots are thrown. Bats are essential pieces. Choose one that measures up to 25
for preventing warping. They are used as a foun- pounds (12 kg).
dation for the pot and lifted from the wheel head Wire cheese cutter: Used for faceting.
without deforming the pot itself. They come in
different diameter from about 8 inches (20 cm)
up to 24 inches (60 cm). They are especially use-
ful when throwing thin large bowls, which are
very susceptible to warping. Bats are a must if
you plan on throwing plates and platters because
of the wide space at the base. Vertical pots such T I P : ATTACH BATS EASILY
as vases and pitchers can be thrown without bats Most bats have holes drilled into them that
because of the narrow base and lip that help hold you use to attach the bat to the wheel.
the shape, while removing from the wheel head. However, you can attach plaster bats and
bats that are not drilled with clay. Center a
Bat pins: Most potter’s wheels come with wheel
small amount of clay and flatten it on the
heads that have been pre-drilled for bat pins.
wheel head. Make ridges with your fingers in
These are small bolts that attach to the wheel
the flat clay, creating high points to which the
and allow bats that are drilled in the same pro-
bats adhere with the addition of a little slip.
portion to drop into the bolts for easy attach-
ment and removal.

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TOOLS THAT EASE PRODUCTION S TUDIOTOOLS THAT

A number of nonessential tools streamline production STREAMLINE PRODUCTION
in the studio by saving a lot of time. If a lot of ware is
being produced and too much time is spent in prepara-
tion, it might be time to consider these options.
Slab roller: A slab roller has two rollers and a tabletop
through which clay is fed, sandwiched in canvas, and
rolled to a desired uniform thickness. A slab roller is
well suited for slab construction and tile work because a
large slab can be rolled rather quickly and effortlessly to
a specific thickness.
Extruder: By using pressure to push clay through a
shaped die in an extruder, a potter can extrude handles,
parts for pieces, or hollow forms such as tubes, squares,
and hexagons. An extruder’s parts include a chamber
that holds a die form and a lever to push the clay
through. Clay is pushed through the chamber, through
the die form, and an extrusion of a particular shape
emerges. An assortment of die shapes—such as hollow
circles, squares, hexagons, coils, and textured slabs—
can be used to suit any number of designs. You can
even buy or make custom-designed dies.
Pug mill: A pug mill is a powerful machine used to
recycle clay. It has a chamber into which clay is placed
with a large metal auger bit that rotates and mixes the
clay. When the pug mill is on, it mixes and moves the
clay forward to the front chamber, which extrudes a
homogenous tube of clay. They are wonderful tools for
a busy studio, but luxuries for a small studio—very
pricey but worth the investment if you are using a lot
of clay. They are useful for recycling clay and reducing
preparation time, leaving more time free for the cre-
ative process. With infrequent use, however, pug mills
will dry out and the clay will harden inside the cham-
C Extruder, courtesy of Bailey Pottery Equipment
ber, making for a tedious clean up.
Pug mills and clay mixers should be used with
extreme caution. Use care to ensure that no tools get
into the chamber, especially metal tools that can shred
into dangerous shards. Above all, keep your hands and
clothing clear of all moving parts.


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C Slab roller, courtesy of Bailey Pottery Equipment
C Pugmill, courtesy of Bluebird Manufacturing C Pugmill, courtesy of Bailey Pottery Equipment

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C c h a p t e r
t h r e e
Clay
M
illions of years ago, the Earth’s magma cooled slowly
and formed rock on the Earth’s surface. Over the
course of time, some of the rock was broken down
and pulverized by weather and erosion. In some
places it stayed in the vicinity of the rock source and formed clay
deposits. These deposits are called primary clay, and they are
relatively free of impurities—such as iron—or other minerals. One
type of primary clay is called kaolin or China clay. It is pure white,
free of iron, and used to make porcelain and white stoneware.
More common than primary clay are sec-
ondary clays. Unlike primary clay, this type
of clay was carried by water to secondary
locations such as riverbeds. Over time, the
pulverized rock mixed with other minerals—
such as iron—and also with other clays,
organic matter, and water. That’s why sec-
ondary clay is a color other than white, such
as gray or reddish. One type of secondary
clay is called earthenware, and it is the most
common clay found on earth.
C Clay’s exceptional maleability is apparent in this

C Sheffield Pottery clay pit, in Sheffield, Massachusetts . image of a coil-built jar . For the complete project, see
Photo courtesy of Timothy Heffernan the Coiled and Paddled Jar, page 239 .
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Through a series of chemical and physical

changes, including hydration, primary and sec- THE APPEAL OF LOW-FIRE CLAY
ondary clays became a malleable material that Because they harden at low temperatures,
people have learned to use in diverse ways. earthenware clays are often called low-fire
When clay is exposed to high heat, it is trans- clays. A disadvantage of earthenware clays is
formed to a permanent, rock-like state, which is that they never achieve the hardness of
resistant to heat. Because of this transformation, stoneware and porcelain, and therefore they
people have used fired clay to make many useful are not as durable. One advantage of low-fire
items that have helped advance society. clays is their ability to resist thermal shock
(rapid temperature changes). Another
advantage is that a vast color palette of low-
TYPES OF CLAY fire glazes is available for use with these clays.
There are thousands of clay body formulations
used throughout the world, each specific to an
application such as bricks, industrial plumbing Some artists prefer to work at lower tempera-
wares, scientific instruments, and dinnerware. tures for a few reasons. The first reason is that
For the studio potter, however, the three most because of the lack of density the clay tends to
common types of clays that are the basis of clay shrink or warp less than higher fired clays. The
bodies are earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. second reason is that the decorative possibilities
are so abundant. The third reason is the energy
EARTHENWARE CLAY
savings. There has been an increase in “down fir-
Earthenware clays are secondary clays, contain-
ing” as the cost of energy rises. Schools as well as
ing iron and other mineral impurities that make
artists have to be resourceful to make ceramic
the clay harden at relatively low temperatures,
wares affordable. Lowering the firing temperature
about 1742°F to 2012°F (950°C–1100°C).
saves fuel costs.
Nearly every culture that developed a ceramic
tradition began with earthenware because of its
abundance and ability to harden with primitive
firing techniques.
These clays are generally red in color. For
example, terra-cotta is earthenware, as is the
popular majolica ware from Italy, Spain, and
Portugal. However, earthenware clay can also be
tan, grey, green, buff, and black.
Fine earthenware is used for dinnerware and
decorative ware. Sandy earthenware is used for
bricks and roofing tiles.
White low-fire clays can be bought at ceramic
supply shops. They are specially formulated to
mature at earthenware temperatures.
C Clay drying at Sheffield Pottery deposit, Sheffield,

Massachusetts. Photo courtesy of Timothy Heffernan


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STONEWARE CLAY (2166°F to 2280°F [1186°C –1249°C]). If you

Stoneware, like earthenware clays, are secondary plan to work with an electric kiln, it will be
clays. Stoneware varies in plasticity and color desirable to work with these midrange clays
and matures at higher temperatures than earth- because it will reduce the wear and tear on the
enware. Stoneware becomes vitreous (hard, non- electrical elements.
porous, and dense) if fired to the proper temper- If you plan on setting up a studio with an
ature in the range of 2192°F to 2372°F electric kiln, consider working with a mid-range
(1200°C–1300°C). stoneware clay body (cone 5 to 8) that has some
Usually stoneware clays are mixed with other fine grog added to it. Grog is previously fired
clays to create clay bodies that have specific pulverized clay that is added to a clay body for-
qualities. Commercially made stoneware clay mula to give it structural strength and plasticity.
bodies are finely tuned mixtures of primary and The addition of grog to a clay also reduces the
secondary clays that when combined will fire at a shrinkage rate and therefore the chances of
specific temperature and have particular colors, cracking during drying.
textures, and plasticities.
PORCELAIN CLAY CONCERNS ABOUT

Porcelain clay bodies have a high percentage U N D E R F I R I N G C L AY
of primary clay, such as kaolin, combined with You may be wondering why you can’t simply
silica and feldspar to make a fine blend that under-fire clays like porcelain and stoneware
when fired at temperatures of about 2372°F that mature at higher temperatures.This can
(1300°C) becomes tight, nonporous, vitreous, provide nice results, but they are brittle and
and semi-translucent to light if it’s thin enough. will chip and break easily. Under-firing does
Because the clay is more pure, its particles are not allow clay and the silica (glass) particles
more similar in size and porcelain clays are not in the clay to fuse and gain the maximum
as plastic as stoneware and earthenware clays. strength through vitrification.
That makes them more challenging to work
with. However, porcelain clays can be worked
to extreme thinness and fine detail.
CHOOSING A CLAY SUPPLIER
MID-RANGE STONEWARE After becoming familiar with some of the clays
CLAY BODIES available, locate a few ceramic suppliers in the
Mid-range clay bodies are porcelain and phone book (which may have limited choices),
stoneware clay bodies that have been formulated online, and in ceramic journals and magazines,
to mature at lower temperatures. Standard porce- which are a great source of information. Then
lain, for example, needs to be fired to at least request catalogs from a few different suppliers.
cone 9 and sometimes even cone 12 to reach Consider choosing a local supplier. Clay can
maturity (2300°F to 2372°F [1260°C–1300°C]). be shipped or delivered by truck. Small quanti-
Because of the popularity of electric kilns and the ties of clay can be mailed, but shipping will get
down firing trend ceramic suppliers now stock expensive in the long run.
cone 5 to 8 porcelain and midrange stoneware Take a trip to the ceramic supply shop. Your
clay, which become vitrified between cone 5 to 8 clay supplier can become a great source of infor-
CLAY 41
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mation as you work out the kinks of working SLIP

and firing a particular clay. They can be a source Slip (which is also called slurry) refers to clay
for technical information and provide service to that is super saturated with water and is runny
kilns and wheels that may need maintenance. and slippery. Slip cannot be used to hand build
Another advantage of visiting the supplier is or throw pots on the wheel; however, it can be
that you can look at fired samples of clays on a poured into molds (slip casting). Toilets, sinks,
sample board. Often the sample board will show commercially made dinnerware, house wares,
the same clay subjected to different firing tem- and other industrial ceramic products are made
peratures and either oxidation or reduction firing. by using specifically formulated slip. These slips
Be sure to discuss your level of experience have a specific shrinkage rate, density, and firing
with the ceramic supplier and talk about what temperature. They are poured into plaster molds,
fabrication methods you will be using (hand dried, cured in a controlled environment, and
building or throwing). then fired.
Ceramic artists pour slip into molds to create
STATES OF CLAY multiples of a specific form. Potters and hand
Clay is a liquid solid: It acts as a liquid when builders use slip to lubricate clay on the wheel
hydrated and in motion but as a solid when it is and to attach leather-hard clay pieces together.
still. This is why it is easily formed and can hold For example, if you want to attach a handle to a
its shape. mug, put a small amount of slip on the mug
In its raw state (before it has been fired), clay where the handle will be attached. Then place
can be powder, liquid, plastic, leather hard, and the handle on top of the slip. When two pieces of
bone dry. In order to work with clay, it is impor- clay of different moisture content come together
tant to understand the consistency of the materi- to be joined, the slip hydrates both pieces thus
al as it progresses through its various states. allowing the clay to shrink and dry evenly, reduc-
Each of these five states allows for certain ing the chance of developing cracks.
manipulation but also has limitations. The fol- PLASTIC
lowing information is important to read through Clay in the plastic state is used to throw pots on
carefully so that when you begin to work with the wheel, roll coils for coil building, pinch pots,
clay you will have a point of reference and extrude shapes, and roll out slabs for slab con-
understand each state’s inherent qualities. A clay’s struction. Clay will hold its shape in this state,
consistency is determined by moisture content, but it is susceptible to oversaturation and the
plasticity (ability to be manipulated and hold the effects of gravity.
shape), and ability to endure the stress from the Clay particles are flat and vary in size. Some
shrinkage during drying. These are the three clays have many different-sized particles that are
most important features to pay attention to when bonded by water. When the clay is thoroughly
working with unfired clay. mixed with just enough moisture, it is consid-
POWDER ered plastic and can withstand forming without
deforming and can be stretched and thrown with
Clay powders can be mixed to formulate clay
great ease.
bodies as well as added to glazes. They are mixed
with water to create clay.


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molecules are spread evenly, creating a homoge-

CHECK FOR PLASTICITY nous mass of clay that can be easily manipulated
A clay’s plasticity is often contingent on its and will hold its form. Wedging is an essential
moisture content. A good way to check for part of working with clay (see Chapter 4).
plasticity in clay is to roll a coil in your hand Another way to make your clay more plastic
and bend it. If is looks cracked and falls apart, is to age it. Potters will allow clay to sit in a plas-
it is not plastic. If it rolls and bends with tic state for a period of time. Whether you buy or
ease, it has good plasticity. It takes a little mix a fresh batch of clay, it may take a couple of
practice to build up a knowledge base and weeks for all the particles to become evenly
reference point. hydrated. Organic matter in clay and the water
Sometimes the lack of plasticity becomes create a colloid, a suspension of small particles of
more apparent as the clay is formed. If the clay displaced in water, that impart plasticity to
clay walls show signs of stress by cracking the clay.
and showing stretch marks, the clay is not The late Doc Crespi, a professor at Southern
very plastic. Conversely if the clay can be Connecticut State University, often told a story
thinned and stretched without showing signs about people adding a bottle of beer to a fresh
of stress, it is very plastic. batch of clay because yeast encourages plasticity
(and a strong stench). He also shared that in
some cultures clay bodies are mixed years in
advance for the next generation of potters.
Plasticity is the most appealing and versatile
state of clay. It refers to the responsiveness of the LEATHER HARD
material to touch. Ceramic artists often will use The leather-hard state of clay refers to clay that
the terms short, tight, greasy, very plastic, or as has been formed in the plastic state and has had
having tooth (strength and grittiness from grog) a chance to begin drying. The clay has lost some
to refer to the properties of clay. Stonewares tend moisture content and therefore can hold its
to have a lot of tooth because of the particle size shape yet still be manipulated. When clay is
variation and the addition of sand or grog. leather hard, it can be carved, textured, and
Porcelain is an example of a clay body that has joined.
much larger and uniform particle size and there-
fore is less tolerant of too much manipulation. It
has less plasticity than stoneware and is suscepti-
ble to over saturation and collapsing.
If you have purchased clay that doesn’t seem
workable, try adding some water to the bag of
clay and leave it overnight. If the clay is stiff,
wrap the clay with a moist towel and place it in a
plastic bag overnight. Check to see if the clay is
then workable or if it needs more hydration.
One way to make your clay more plastic is to
wedge and knead it. By rotating the clay into
itself, particles become aligned and the water C A sample of plastic and non-plastic clays
CLAY 43
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There are many subtleties to the leather-hard receptive to touch. It cuts easily, joins easily,
state. It can be soft leather hard, medium leather and the surface can be decorated easily, but the
hard, and stiff leather hard, which is almost too shape cannot be altered at this point without
dry to work with. causing internal stress and cracking.
Mastering these intermediate stages of leather A potter who has thrown a bowl and wants
hard is one of the most important principles of to trim the base needs to wait for the form to be
working with clay. Learning to recognize the medium leather hard to trim a foot that will not
effects of moisture content of the stages between collapse when placed upright. Medium leather-
plastic clay and leather-hard clay will be valuable hard clay is the ideal consistency to join sections
as you encounter soft leather-hard, medium- of clay and handles to a vessel.
leather hard, and stiff leather-hard clay. For Stiff leather-hard clay is the strongest version of
example, when coil building, a piece can only go clay’s consistency before firing. This consistency
so high before the vessel begins to lose its shape. of clay is easily recognized because it looks dull,
This is a cue to the builder to stop and allow the has lost about two-thirds of its moisture, has
piece to dry for a few hours until it can handle begun shrinking, and will not give way to soft
more weight from additional coils. To construct pressure. It holds its shape, and if greenware (raw
a form with slabs of clay, allow the slabs to dry clay pieces) needs to be transported for firing,
slightly so that when the slabs are cut and held this is the best stage at which to do so. Very crisp
vertically they will not deform. lines can be drawn on the surface of the piece and
Soft leather-hard clay is tricky to work with but some very detailed carving can be done in the
great for retaining certain marks on the surface. stiff leather-hard state.
Some potters use this in their work to create soft When clay is in the stiff leather-hard stage, it
lines and forms that look like they have air push- is nearly impossible for the potter to trim exces-
ing through and out of the forms. When clay is sive clay from a piece on the wheel. It is not a
soft leather hard, it has a sheen or reflection of good time to join clay because it has already lost
moisture on the surface. It is easily shaped, yet too much moisture. If a handle is attached or
still susceptible to collapsing if overworked. parts are joined at this time, the surface must be
Medium leather-hard clay is the most versatile scored, a lot of slip must be added, and drying
stage of leather-hard clay because of its struc- must be slowed down, otherwise parts will sepa-
tural strength and malleability. Lines with clear rate. This is due to shrinking of clay as it loses
margins and surface quality can be carved or water. Stress cracks and separation may not show
drawn on the surface. Detailed texture and sur- up until the piece is bisque fired.
face decoration can be added during the medium grEEnwarE: clay in itS
leather-hard stage. There are many joining bonE-Dry StatE
options such as attaching clay handles, embel- Greenware is clay that is bone dry, the only
lishments, and sections of previously formed stage at which it is ready to be fired. When clay
clay to one another or in case of sculptural is bone dry, it is most delicate because moisture
forms, fresh clay can be added to clay that has has evaporated out of the clay. Water acts as an
set up to increase volume. Many large pots are adhesive bonding agent to the particles in clay.
made in sections and joined in this state. There Once clay dries, it loses all plasticity and is sus-
is no sheen on the surface of the clay yet it is ceptible to cracking, chipping, and breaking.
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Greenware should be handled with the utmost
care. Never pick up greenware by handles, rims, Clay shrinkage
or extremities. Instead use two hands to carefully As mentioned earlier, clay particles are
lift pieces from the bottom to move them. A little bonded by water . Water occupies volume
care will go a long way. When clay is bone dry, in the clay, therefore as it evaporates
fresh clay cannot be attached. The loss of mois- clay shrinks . The shrinkage rate becomes
ture content has diminished a piece’s size; any apparent when you find that the large piece
addition of fresh clay will simply shrink off the you remember making has gotten smaller .
dry piece. Clay shrinks more when it is bisque fired,
When clay is bone dry, it is a good time and shrinks even more when glaze fired or
to inspect pots and check for rough edges or fired to maturation . See Chapter 4, page 98,
unsightly seams. You can remove rough edges for more on clay shrinkage .
and imperfections simply by sanding the green- The ceramic supplier should provide
ware very gently with a dry, plastic scrubbing the shrinkage rate of clay bodies in
pad. This should be done outside while wearing relation to temperature . Some clays have
a respirator mask to avoid inhaling ceramic dust. a wide firing range and will shrink less at
note: ceramic dust is hazardous. Clay contains
lower temperatures and more at higher
silica, which is not soluble in the body. When temperatures . Clay actually becomes denser
silica is present in the lungs, it will be encapsu- when fired to maturity . Porcelain tends to
lated by lung tissue and create scar tissue that will have the highest rate of shrinkage because it
eventually lead to silicosis. Always take the neces- becomes the most densely fused of all clay
sary precautions to work in a safe environment. bodies when fired to maturity . Clay bodies
with high shrinkage rate tend to warp more
other Considerations easily during drying and firing .
Fine clays are less forgiving but good for delicate
work. Very coarse clays are good for large hand
built work but not for fine details. Coarse clays
ConVersion of Clay
are not good for throwing on the wheel because
through fire
they are too abrasive. Clay that has the addi-
No other material on Earth undergoes such dra-
tion of some fine grog is a perfect to begin with.
matic transformation as clay through fire. Most
Ultimately the choice is up to you. Try different
materials on Earth are obliterated by high heat.
clay bodies. They will provide a frame of refer-
Originally when people learned to fire clay, it was
ence for plasticity and properties of clays and
at low temperatures (less than 1900° F [1037°
glazes. Consider the color of the clay; the fired
C]). This temperature is called a bisque tempera-
piece will become a canvas for glaze. Glaze color
ture. The most common clays found on Earth are
and texture may vary dramatically from one clay
earthenware clays that are low fire and therefore
body to another. Keep an open mind and exper-
do not vitrify and remain porous when fired at
iment—experimentation leads to the knowledge
bisque temperatures. To get around this problem,
that can only be gathered from experience!
people found ways to seal the clay. One technique
is to burnish or rub the surface of leather-
clay 47
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hard pieces to really integrate the finer particles. just right. If the rise in temperature is too fast,
This works to help seal the clay at least tempo- the water will create steam. If the steam is too
rarily. Another technique is to apply animal fat strong, it will explode the ware. Often, trapped
or milk on the surface of the clay to seal it. Then air bubbles cause breakage during bisque firing
the resulting ceramics can be used to store and because they contain air and therefore moisture.
cook foods (although not to modern food These moisture pockets can be problematic if a
safety standards). kiln fires too quickly. One way to avoid this is to
In order for ceramic wares to be strong and warm the ware inside the kiln and keep the tem-
durable, they must be fired to maturation. This perature below the boiling point of water until
means pieces fired in a kiln must reach a tempera- all steam is driven off.
ture that will fuse all the silica (glass) and clay par- During firing, clay particles go through a
ticles to produce a dense vitreous ceramic piece. process called the quartz inversion. This is the
Typically, ceramic ware is fired twice to conversion of quartz from alpha crystals into
transform the raw clay into ceramics. The beta crystals during temperature rise, followed
first firing is called a bisque firing. The fir- by a reverse conversion in the cooling. In short,
ing temperature is about 1648°F to 1940°F the clay will expand and then contract when it
(898°C–1060°C) or in potters’ terms, cone 010 reaches certain temperatures (about 900°F to
to 04. The second firing is called a glaze fir- 1200°F [482°–648°C]). (Think of a cake bak-
ing, the firing of the glaze coating to bond it to ing. At one point it rises and then settles down
the clay surface. The firing temperature ranges again.) During quartz inversion, care should be
vary depending on the clay and glaze formula- taken to not have a rapid temperature change.
tion but will generally be between 1800°F and A rapid heat rise can cause stress cracks in
2379°F (982°C to 1304°C) or in potters’ terms, ceramic ware.
cone 06 to 12. Of course, there are exceptions One of the most important actions of bisque
to this! Some potters single fire. Single firing is firing is the burning off of carbonaceous materi-
when glaze is applied to leather-hard ware and als and impurities in the clay. It is very impor-
fired slowly to the desired glaze temperature, tant to burn out the organic matter before the
thereby skipping the bisque firing. But in most clay seals when it reaches high enough tem-
modern applications, single firing is difficult to perature to sinter. (Sintering is when the clay
do because electric kilns and small gas kilns rise particles begin to fuse together to form the rock-
in temperature too quickly, increasing the possi- like bisque fired clay that will be porous enough
bility of cracking and breaking during the firing. to absorb glaze.) Otherwise the organic matter
Let’s talk about the two types of firing in greater remains in the clay and can cause bloating dur-
detail. ing glaze firing.
Most earthenware clays are fired only to
biSquE firing
bisque temperatures because these clays do not
In bisque firing, which is sometimes also known
withstand higher temperatures. There are many
as biscuit firing, bone-dry pieces of greenware
primitive firing techniques—such as pit firing
are heated slowly in a kiln in order to drive off
and American-style raku—that require tempera-
the chemical and physical water molecules that
tures on or under bisque-firing temperatures.
are present in clay. The temperature needs to be
(See the clay temperature chart on page 51.)
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glazE firing reached ideal temperature and they could shut
After a coating of glaze is applied to bisque ware, down the firing.
it needs to be glaze fired. The glaze melts onto
rEaDing Kiln tEMpEraturES
the clay surface, and the clay body is also fired to
Modern technology provides us with two tools to
its maturing temperature.
measure kiln temperature: pyrometers (an instru-
As people developed ways of achieving higher
ment that measures high temperature) and pyro-
temperatures (such as by burning harder woods
metric cones (clay pyramids that melt at specific
and containing the heat inside primitive kilns),
temperatures and are used to measure heat work
they began to see what they thought was glass
inside a firing kiln; see cone temperature chart
forming on the wares. In fact, it was fly ash from
on page 50).
the burning wood deposited on the hot surface of
the clay and bonded to form a glass-like surface. pyrometers
People soon developed ash glazes by applying an The instrument used to measure high tempera-
ash, clay, and water mixture to the ware. When ture inside a kiln is called a pyrometer. Pyro-
ash is combined with feldspar or clays, it lowers meters are usually built into electric and gas kilns
the melting point and helps form the glass-like that have digital controls, but on manual control
coating. The ash acts as a flux, or a melter. kilns they are an option that can be installed.
Glazes vary in color depending on the ingre- Some old electric kilns have analog pyrometers
dients. Different clays have different mineral and with a needle that indicates temperature. Without
metal content, and therefore their glazes vary in a pyrometer, pyrometric cones are used to gauge
color. The development of glaze formulations is the temperature of the kiln during firing.
called glaze chemistry, and it is an area of study pyrometric Cones
in ceramic science. Ceramic engineers specialize The less–high tech way to gauge the temperature
in this study and work to produce consistent, in a kiln is by using pyrometric cones. Cones are
replicable properties in glaze and clay chemical made from clay compositions that melt and bend
formulations for the industry. in a predictable manner, at certain temperatures.
Their behavior changes depending on firing con-
CeramiC temperatures ditions, but they are the most reliable way to read
Before the twentieth century, the temperature heat absorption in a kiln. You can place cone
of firing kilns was judged by eye, observing the plaques, which are three or four cones of ascend-
color of heat to gauge ideal temperature. Another ing temperatures, on a clay coil on different lev-
method used to measure the temperature inside els in the kiln and then read them after the firing.
the kiln was to make draw rings, small glazed As they bend, they will show how high a temper-
clay circles placed inside the kiln near a spy hole. ature was reached. In order to read the tempera-
The draw rings were pulled out and quickly ture during a firing, cone patties or cone plaques
cooled when the kiln master wanted to check are placed in front of a peep hole in a kiln (which
temperature. These testers let the potter know is sometimes also called a spy hole). During the
if the glaze had sufficiently melted. If the glaze firing, you can don UV-protective eyeglasses and
was dry and rough, they would keep firing; if it quickly remove the peep hole cover to look inside
was satiny and smooth, they knew the kiln had the kiln and see if the cone has bent.
clay 49
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PYROMETRIC CONE AND

TEMPERATURE RANGES T E M P E R A T U R E E Q U I VA L E N T S
FOR KILNS
Use this chart to determine the firing temperature for clays and
You don’t need to memorize cone glazes. The chart provides temperature equivalents for large
temperature charts.What you do need to pyrometric cones fired at a rate of 180°F (100°C) per hour at the
end of the firing. Courtesy of the Edward Orton Jr. Ceramic
know is what temperature your kiln is Foundation.
capable of reaching.This will determine firing CONE °F °C
limitations. For example, an electric kiln 019 1249 676
typically reaches a maximum temperature of 018 1314 712
cone 8, which is 2277°F (1247°C). A gas kiln 017 1357 736
will typically fire to cone 12, which is 2379°F 016 1416 769
(1304°C), although generally people don’t 015 1450 788
fire higher than cone 10, which is 2340°F 014 1485 807
(1282°C) because of clay and glaze 013 1539 837
limitations. Knowing the firing temperatures 012 1576 858
of the work that you want to make will be 011 1603 873
helpful when choosing kilns, clays, and glazes. 010 1648 898
09 1683 917
There is a lot of technical information 08 1728 942
involved with managing firing temperatures. 07 1783 973
Be sure to talk to the ceramic supplier 06 1823 995
about the details of kiln-firing temperatures 051/2 1854 1012
for both clays and glazes to ensure success. 05 1886 1030
04 1940 1060
03 1987 1086
02 2014 1101
01 2043 1117
TIP
1 2077 1136
UV rays emitted during a firing are hazardous
2 2088 1142
to your eyes. Never look into a firing kiln
3 2106 1152
without proper eye protection. I keep a pair
4 2120 1160
of welding glasses near my kiln.They are
5 2163 1184
relatively cheap and help you see the cones 51/2 2194 1201
when the kiln is really hot. 6 2228 1220
7 2259 1237
8 2277 1247
9 2295 1257
10 2340 1282
11 2359 1293
12 2379 1304
13 2410 1321
14 2530 1388


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C LAY B ODY T EMPERATURE C HART
This chart shows the effects of temperatures on clay and at what temperatures certain effects are achieved. Understanding the effects of
temperature rise will help you eliminate problems during firing.
Temperature Color Cone Effect

°F °C
212 100 no glow n/a Boiling point of water. Moisture in the clay will steam off
during the heat rise. Be sure to allow the evaporations to
occur slowly. The pressure from steam will cause the work
to explode if the evaporation is too fast.
392 200 no glow n/a
572 300 no glow n/a Fast cooling will cause the clay to crack because the cristo-
balite (crystalline form of silica) shrinks suddenly at 428°F
(220°C). Slow cooling is important.
752 400 no glow n/a Chemical water is driven off between 895°F and 1292°F
(480°C–700°C). This should happen slowly.
932 500 just starting n/a
to glow
1112 600 dark glow 022–021 Beginning of cones that measure heat work. Quartz inver-
sion begins at 1063°F (573°C). Every time the clay is at this
temperature the quartz will invert from alpha to beta crys-
tal and then back again. It is very important that this
process happen slowly to avoid cracking in the work.The
bigger the work the slower it should be.
1292 712 dark 018 Between 572°F and 1472°F (300°C–800°C), there is a red-
dish glow in the kiln.The clay will gas out the carbon-
aceous materials or organic matter. After this heat is
achieved the clay will seal off, trapping the organic materials
that have not gassed out.The kiln needs to be vented prop-
erly to release the gases.
1652 900 brighter red 010 Sintering occurs between 1472°F and 1652°F (800°C–
900°C).The clay particles fuse together to create the
hardness of bisque ware.
2012 1100 orange glow 1 At this temperature glass particles fuse with the clay and
shrink, resulting in a dense clay. If the firing progresses
slowly, a denser clay is created.
2192 1200 yellow 5–5.5 Earthenware clays do not tolerate higher temperatures
than this. Usually they mature between cone 02 and 3 and
begin to melt if they get hotter.
2200 1220 white 6 Mid-range stonewares mature between cone 5 and 8.
2372 1300 white 11 Stoneware clay bodies mature between cone 5 and 11.
2552 1400 blinding white 14 Porcelain clays mature between cone 8 and 12.
Note: If clay is overfired it will bloat and melt on the kiln shelves.
CLAY 49
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The Origin Of Clay
Clay is formed by a series of geological events that break
down rock formed by volcanic action. The deposit can
remain on-site as primary clay, which is white in color,
with large particle sizes lacking in plastic qualities.
Secondary clays are transported by wind and water action
and can accumulate impurities before settling into a sedi-
ment layer. Secondary clays are darker in fired color, and
they have smaller particle sizes, causing greater plasticity !
than primary clays.
At some point in the primary or secondary transforma-
tion process, clays are mined from the ground. There are
many individual clays within the primary and second-
ary clay categories. There are wide ranges of particle size,
chemical composition, organic content, and contamina-
tion that can fluctuate over short or long periods of time.
Considering that inconsistencies are always present in any
one batch of clay, it is remarkable that clay body failures do
not occur with greater frequency.
Clay Mining OperatiOns

In a typical clay mining operation, test holes are drilled in
a geologically likely place, which will indicate the estimated
reserves of a particular type of clay deposit. A specific block @
or area of clay is defined, and the overburden or topsoil is
removed, exposing the underlying seams of clay. In some
deposits, the overburden can be screened to remove sand
or gravel, which can then be sold to construction and land-
scape contractors. Most deposits have overburden stock-
piled for later use in reclaiming of the mine. (Overburden
is the top sand or soil that contains trees, shrubs, and
brush, which, after mining operations, is replaced to make
the land look like it did before excavation.)
One clay deposit can cover approximately 20 acres
(80,937 m2) and produce 4,000,000 tons (3,628,739
metric tons) of clay. Most clay companies mine fewer than
20 end-point clays, which they blend into market-grade
clay. Clay mining companies may sell dozens of differ-
ent blended grades of clay and have more than 100 years’ #
reserve, depending on geological conditions at each site.
A clay mine’s objective is to consistently blend individual
clays to ensure uniformity of products for their major
market customers.
If you visit a clay mining operation and see how the
material is harvested, processed, packaged, and shipped,
you’ll gain some insight on why clay body inconsistencies
exist and just how many “blips” can occur that will affect
your finished product.

$
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1 After the clay deposits are located, scrapers
and tractors remove an overburden consist-
ing of sand, shale, or mineral content.
2 The open clay pit is exposed, and different

clay seams of clay are excavated.
3 An excavator places clay in a truck. The

clay truck goes to a drying area, and then the
clay is sent to the grinding operation, where
it is reduced in size and eventually separated
by particle size.
%
4 At a screening operation, sand and gravel
are separated from the overburden
5 Air-floated clay is stored in these silos.
6 Clay is packed in 50-pound (22.7 kg)

bags and 2,000-pound (907-kg) bulk sacks
for shipment.
7 The overburden is returned to the site.
&
clay 53
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Slab Construction Oval Platter by Jim Fineman
See page 287 for formula
DynamiC Clay
The one constant when working with any raw material
change for the entire clay body formula. Unfortunately,
is ongoing change or alteration. The actual raw materials
clay variations are mostly reflected in the finished ware.
that comprise clay bodies are always shifting in mechanical
If you choose to mix your own clay body formula, as
water content, chemical water content, organic content,
opposed to ordering clay from a supplier, you will have
pH level, particle size, mineral content, and tramp mate-
more immediate control over the weighing and mixing
rial. Several factors can alter a clay body. Some of these
process. But direct control does not always translate into
factors take place subtly over years, but others are more
improved quality. Even when mixing one’s own clay, a
dramatic, occurring immediately after the first bag of clay
defective clay component in the formula is often discov-
is opened.
ered only when the finished ware is removed from the kiln.
Changing clay can affect a finished product’s color and
There are many reasons for a clay body to fluctuate, some
glaze fit. For example, higher iron content in a clay can
of which involve a predetermined adjustment by potters
result in a darker fired color. Or a shift in a clay’s silica con-
who mix their own clay or the ceramics supplier who mixes
tent, which changes the rate at which a clay body shrinks
and sells moist clay. A clay body can also fluctuate, due to
or expands, can adversely influence glaze fit. Sometimes
inaccurately weighing the dry materials or incorrect mix-
a change will occur in a single bag of clay, causing clay or
ing procedures. Knowledge and expertise in mixing clay
glaze defects. Occasionally, a clay alters over a period of
can prevent these problems. You will decide whether it is
months or years, causing a slow transformation in a clay
appropriate and efficient to mix clay yourself or to purchase
body color or texture. While mines and ceramics sup-
it from a supplier.
pliers strive for consistency—and for the most part they
succeed—a few small changes in clays can add up to a big
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aCquiring Clay:
Buy PremixeD Or mix yOur Own?
All potters wrestle with what is the best method of ensuring a good supply of moist clay.
Beginning students are supplied with premixed clay at school, camp, or craft centers. Their
main concern is mastering the skills needed to form pottery or sculpture. Clay was clay, as
long as you could mold, shape, and work it into a finished product. But years later in your
ceramics education, you may ask yourself: Should I mix my own clay or buy it premixed
from a supplier?
Potters bounce back and forth on the clay supply issue. A defective shipment of clay
might inspire you to try your hand at mixing your own. Or, the labor-intensive experience
of doing just that may cause you to seek a reliable supplier who can do the work while you
concentrate on producing pottery to sell or show. There are pros and cons to mixing your
own and to ordering premixed moist clay from a ceramics supplier. Mixing clay is labor-
intensive and requires time, tools, and practiced technique—not to mention the appropriate
clay body. There is no cheating. On the other hand, just because you purchase premixed
moist clay from a supplier does not mean the material will be flawless.
What is the best solution to the clay supply question? Only you can decide.
Clay BOdies
The combination of clays, feldspars, talc, grog, and other materials constitute a clay body.
Clay bodies include various blends of these raw materials, depending on the temperature
range, forming method, shrinkage, absorption, fired color, and function of the finished ce-
ramic object in mind. Some clay body formulas contain only one ingredient; others contain
many different clays and raw materials.
Making good pots or sculpture depends on the suitability, accuracy, and consistency
of the clay body formula, whether the clay is mixed in the studio or arrives premixed
from a ceramics supply company. The first question potters should consider is whether
their clay body produces the results they need. If so, the next question is how to obtain
a consistent supply.
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Left to right: ball clay, talc, kaolin, bentonite, feldspar, and flint are used to create a clay body formula.
Clay Body Components Stock Clay Body formulas

The success of a clay body formula depends on the reli- and Custom formulas
ability of its components. Clay bodies contain several Ceramics supply companies sell stock clay body formulas
raw materials, which are quality controlled in relation to of different firing ranges, colors, and forming qualities for
particle-size distribution, organic content, pH factor, and hand building or throwing. They are usually character-
chemical composition. Many ceramics suppliers will reveal ized by stability and consistency of performance. Another
the types of clays used in a clay body, which gives clues to category of moist clay consists of custom clay bodies or, as
the clay body’s dependability. However, suppliers will they are called, private formulas. Individual potters develop
rarely give the exact amounts of each clay or other material custom clay bodies, which are mixed either by the potter or
used in the clay body because that is proprietary informa- by the ceramics supply company. The reliability of the clay
tion. A more accurate indication is the clay’s track record body depends in large part on the ability of the ceramics
with other potters who are using it in similar applications supplier to adhere exactly to the amounts of raw materials
and firing conditions. Here are a few generalities to keep specified. In private or custom clay body formulas, the pot-
in mind: ter’s knowledge of ceramic materials is critical in obtaining
• Established materials—such as kaolins, ball clays, a good result.
talcs, whiting, wollastonite, bentonites, feldspars, and The predominant materials in a clay body formula will
flint—are used in the paint, paper, sanitary ware, glass, indicate how the clay will behave in the forming and firing
and other large industries and are best suited for pot- stages. For example, if a clay body contains high percent-
tery production. ages of ball clay, a very plastic clay, it can be smooth in
handling operations but shrink excessively during drying
• Earthenware, stoneware, and fireclays can be more
and firing. Because of their small platelet size, ball clays
trouble-prone, due to their unrefined nature.
require greater amounts of water to achieve plasticity. Upon
• Fireclays can contain high levels of contamination drying, the clay body can shrink excessively and/or warp.
from manganese and iron nodules, coal, lignite, sand, On the other hand, if a clay body contains high levels
and other contaminants. of fireclay, a refractory coarse clay, it can be nonplastic and
• Some earthenware clays have random deposits of lime, difficult to form on the potter’s wheel. Clays with high iron
which can cause lime pop, producing a semicircular content, such as low-temperature earthenware, Redart and
crack in the bisque or glaze fired ware. high-temperature stoneware Newman Red, can produce
darker clay body colors depending on the percentage used
in the clay body formula. With a thorough knowledge of
each type of clay used in the clay body formula, you can
estimate the clay body’s handling and firing characteristics.
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reliable formulas
When mixing your own clay body, research the reliability
of the formula to reduce potential defects. A reliable clay
body formula can function with slight variations in raw
material, and it can also accept slight variations in kiln
atmosphere and firing temperatures. Deviation of 1 or 2
percent in raw materials will not cause a significant dif-
ference in the clay body’s forming characteristics or fired
qualities. The best situation is to produce pottery or sculp-
ture that allows for slight variations in size, texture, and
color. Some potters make the mistake of trying to produce
items to exact specifications, only to find that their raw
materials and forming methods cannot meet such an ideal.
Large commercial dinnerware manufacturers invest mil-
lions of dollars in forming perfect plates, and, even then,
30 percent of their production can have defects.
Test for reliability

Whether you mix your own clay or buy it premixed, mark Consistency in a clay body allows potters to create sets and series.
a few pots from each new batch of clay to distinguish
each batch as it goes through the production process. If a
problem develops, the entire production from the suspect
batch can be set aside for further testing. If the pots were
not coded, it may be hard to figure out which batch of clay
was responsible for the defects.
A ceramics supplier’s screening operation will improve clay

body quality by eliminating unwanted contaminants.
1 Screen. An adjustable series of 30 mesh to 150 mesh,
72” (1.8 m) diameter stainless steel screens vibrate to trap
oversize clay particles or contaminants from entering the clay
!
batch.
2 Magnet. Reduces iron specks in white or red clay bodies
passing through to the clay hopper.
3 Clay hopper. The stainless steel container captures the

processed clay, which is then taken to the clay mixer and @
pug mill.
tip #
Screen Contaminants
Some clay body formulas require fireclays, earthenware,
and stoneware clays, but their use must be monitored. Ask
your supplier about screening to decrease the amount of
contaminants that have accumulated in the mining and
processing stages.
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mixing yOur Own Clay can mix and test a variety of clay bodies and make timely
Mixing your own clay offers the intangible benefit of being revisions to clay body formulas. However, understand that
completely involved in the pottery endeavor. Many people mixing your own clay will require knowledge of raw mate-
first started to realize their artistic goals in ceramics and, rials and the ability to formulate a clay body.
for them, the whole activity of mixing clay and making
pots or sculpture are intrinsically tied together. Monetary
rewards and the breakdown of production costs are not
relevant factors in such situations. For potters pursuing a
total involvement in all aspects of ceramics, the process is
equally as important as the final product. Should You Reprocess
One major advantage of mixing your own clay is the Trimmings?
Reprocessing trimmings prevents waste; however,
clay is dirt-cheap, and your labor is expensive. Is
reprocessing worth the effort? The time and labor
required to store and mix clay trimmings might be
better used for more profitable projects. Plus, if you
mix your own clay, reprocessing scraps also means
incurring the same clay mixing time and labor
efforts expended the first time the clay was mixed.
Remember, more time spent reprocessing clay is
less time spent making pots.
The ability to customize clay bodies lures potters into mixing

their own formulas.
greater flexibility in adjusting the clay body formula and

moisture content, which gives you overall quality control.
However, carefully weigh whether the process is worth the
labor, effort, and expense.
Before mixing your own clay, ask yourself: Does the clay
body depend on a specific finished color? Do the forming
qualities of the moist clay require an exact clay body for-
mula? Does the clay require a specific moisture content? If
yes, consider mixing your own clay. For example, clay bod-
ies containing nylon or fiberglass fibers used for structural
strength are difficult for ceramics suppliers to mix, due to
the time-consuming process of cleaning clay mixers and
pug mills. Ceramics suppliers are not set up to mix such
custom formulas, leaving potters to mix it themselves.
Another advantage of mixing your own clay is that, as
Recycling clay allows potters to maximize raw
long as you have the raw materials on hand, you’ll have a materials, but the process is not always efficient.
ready supply of moist clay. You can mix the amount of clay
desired and control the supply, which is especially impor-
tant in a production situation.
A third advantage of mixing your own clay is that you
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Mixing equipMent
Mixing your own clay can be capital intensive: it requires
the purchase of clay mixers and pug mills. An added cost is
inevitable maintenance and repairs. The money you spend Get Equipped to Mix Clay
to buy and maintain a clay mixer and pug mill could be
Simply mixing the dry clay body formula and add-
spent instead for other purposes that might return a greater
ing the appropriate amount of water is all that is
profit. If you try to get by buying smaller clay mixers and
really required to achieve a plastic mass of usable
pug mills, your unintended result could be slower clay
clay. Traditionally, hand mixing or blending clays
production and possibly higher maintenance costs with
and other ceramic raw materials was the only
underpowered, inadequately designed machines. But if
method available to achieve workable consistency
you buy larger machines, they’ll cost more upfront, and
clay. Today, hand mixing clay will accomplish the
they can result in unused production capacity. That’s why
goal, but mixing machines and pug mills will save
it’s important to take time to research and find the best
labor and time when you require greater quantities
machines for your individual production requirements.
of uniform-consistency, moist clay.
Whatever method is used, each clay platelet
Mixed Clay stOrage
should be surrounded by a film of water with all the
If you mix your own clay, you’ll also need to purchase
other raw materials in the clay body blended into a
and store your materials. Plan your dry clay orders so a
uniform mass for optimum plasticity.
steady supply is always available, causing no delays in
mixing operations. Buying in bulk results in a lower cost
per pound of materials, but you also must have the space
to store dry clay. Designate areas close to your production
space for clay mixing and storage for dry and wet clay. This
will save labor and time—and, remember, the more you
touch the clay, the more it costs.
A pug mill extrudes a compacted cylinder of clay.
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These super sacks of dry clay require plenty of storage. While your studio mixing operation won’t
require these large bags, you still must plan space for raw materials and mixing equipment.
Clay Mixer and pug Mill Filter press

The most efficient and popular way to mix clay is with a Dry clay body formula is mixed with excess water to form
clay mixer and pug mill. Ceramics supply companies use liquid slurry. It is then pumped into a series of absorbent
both machines in their productions. Specific amounts of leaf-shaped bags. As the bags are compressed, excess water
dry clay and water are blended in the mixer, and then the is pressed from the liquid clay. The leaves of moist clay
moist clay is placed in the pug mill and compressed by a then can go onto the pug mill for further mixing and
mechanical screw. The compressed clay then goes through de-airing. In filter pressing, each clay platelet is effectively
a chamber where the air is removed, and then the clay is surrounded by water in the slurry stage. The water-soaking
extruded out of the pug mill nozzle in a usable condition. period produces greater plasticity in the clay than other
The compaction of the clay causes a denser fired clay mixing methods. The filter press procedure is costly and
body. Compacted clay platelets fuse faster and more com- time-consuming for a ceramics supplier to use in produc-
pletely during the firing than noncompacted platelets. The ing moist clay. Individual potters would further incur
extruded clay can average 20 percent moisture before it is higher production costs using the filter press method.
placed in plastic bags.
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Mixing Tips
First, whether you’ve mixed your clay yourself or bought it
premixed, any clay should be wedged before hand form-
ing or throwing. That’s because during pug mill extrusion,
the direction of dry clay platelets is changed and disrupted.
Wedging clay aligns the clay platelets for forming. As you
wedge and discover clay’s moisture level, you can make
adjustments for softer or harder clay by adding incremental
amounts of water or wedging the clay on an absorbent
surface to remove excess moisture. Many ceramic pieces
fail simply because the potter has not determined the correct
moisture content for the specific project.
Second, whether you’ve mixed the clay yourself or bought
it premixed, cover the moist clay completely in plastic and
allow it to rest—or age—for several days before any forming
operation. After mixing, the moist clay is pliable and plastic
Wedging moist clay on an absorbant surface. and can be bent into shapes. However, each clay platelet is
not thoroughly wet, resulting in a lack of plasticity. (Though it’s
true that filter press clays do wet a higher percentage of clay
platelets than other mixing methods.) If you wrap the clay in
plastic and allow it to rest, a few days or weeks later, it will
have most of the clay platelets saturated and surrounded with
water, causing a greater increase in its plasticity.
Buying PremixeD Clay evaluate the FOrMula

When you buy premixed clay, you let the professionals take Premixed clay is only as good as the clay body formula and
charge of what they do best: blend clays with the required the quality-control practices of the ceramics supplier. An
amount of water under accurate quality-controlled condi- advantage of using a stock clay body is that many potters
tions. Ceramics suppliers should be knowledgeable about of various skill levels have already used it with acceptable
the current track record of the contents of their clay body results. This does not guarantee the clay body will perform
formulas and notice any irregular shipments from the well in every situation, but it does indicate better odds of a
mine. Suppliers want to stay in business and be competi- reliable outcome.
tive, so they try to keep their customers satisfied with a Ceramics suppliers list the stock clay bodies’ names along
good product. By relying on suppliers to do what they do with brief descriptions of handling and firing characteristics
best—mix clay—you can concentrate on producing work in oxidation and reduction atmospheres. Also listed are
to sell or show. The convenience of ordering ready-to-use shrinkage and absorption figures at various temperatures
moist clay cannot be overstated. and pyrometric cone ratings. Remember, all descriptive
information is gathered from conditions that might not be
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(Text)
Buying premixed clay means relinquishing some
control of the production operation. Because monitor-
ing every aspect of production down to the smallest detail
is impossible, the potter should carefully choose the areas
where control is critical. Most ceramics suppliers regard
their stock clay body formulas as proprietary informa-
tion and will not reveal exact formulas. When problems
with forming or firing occur, the cause can be difficult to
track down because the clay body formula is unknown.
Reputable suppliers will give any information on bad
shipments of clays from the mine or mixing irregularities
that might help in resolving the cause of the defect. In
many instances, without the clay body formula, it becomes
impossible to resolve problems. The potter must decide if
the occasional mixing irregularities and loss of control are
worth the advantages of premixed clay.
Buying premixed clay means being an informed
consumer. Occasionally when a raw material is not readily
available, the ceramics supplier will make a substitution.
Always ask about any material substitutions before order-
ing clay. Over the years, many stock clay bodies change
so much that very little is left of the original formula. As
mines exhaust their supply of clay or, frequently, the clay is
present but not economically profitable to mine, substitute
clays have to be found. It is a challenge to incorporate the
correct substitute into the formula without changing the
working properties, fired color, shrinkage, and absorption
qualities of the original. Do not assume that because the
A ceramics supplier loads material into an industrial clay
mixer. Many studios do not have room for large equipment, moist clay body’s name stays the same that the formula
so ordering premixed clay is a space saver. does also.
Buying premixed clay is relying on another person or
company to supply your studio with a vital raw mate-
present in your own kiln. Your kiln size and firing cycles rial. As with any cooperative enterprise, problems occur
can change both shrinkage and absorption rates of the fired and rational compromises have to be worked out to gain
clay. Use the catalog description only as a guideline. Before an objective. Some people cannot find a reputable ceramic
purchasing a stock clay body, ask the supplier for the names supplier or do not want to compromise their requirements
of other potters who are using that clay. One or two phone for moist clay. Continuing to use suppliers’ premixed or
calls will produce more information about the handling custom clay bodies in such situations will only cause more
and firing qualities of the clay than the brief descriptions in problems. In short, some potters and suppliers cannot
the catalogs. function together effectively. Recognize this situation,
choose another supplier, or make your own clay, but do not
quality COntrOl remain in a problem-producing cycle.
Buying premixed clay reduces the quality-control aspect to
one of monitoring the moist clay as it arrives in the studio.
Check each batch for raw color, consistency, and fired
results. Most potters do not have the time to take a small
sample from each box of clay and fire it. However, any
amount of testing before committing to a new load of clay
is worth the effort. Here are a few things to keep in mind.
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Buying premixed clay can allow the potter greater flexibility in trying several different stock clay
bodies. Many suppliers will give free samples of stock clay to potential customers.
tip
Timing Clay Orders
Potters often wait to order a new batch of moist clay until
their supplies are gone. At this point, production has fallen
behind, and you might hurry to make new pieces without
testing the clay first. If the new batch is defective, time and
money will be lost. Try to time the next clay delivery while
old clay is still available, then work the new clay into
the firing schedule slowly. This planning will give some
measure of insurance because a whole kiln load of work
will not be based on a new batch of clay.
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ChOOSing a CeramiCS SuPPlier
Most ceramics suppliers carry a line of clays, ranging from low-temperature, white casting
slips to dark stoneware for throwing on the wheel. Specialized blends of clay are frequent-
ly available for salt/soda firing, Raku, mid-range porcelain, and slip casting. The appropri-
ate choice for moist premixed clay depends on several factors that are distinctive to each
potter: forming method, firing temperature range, kiln atmosphere, glaze, and fired color.
Ceramics suppliers usually have several different premixed clays within a given range.
Before you choose a supplier, ask other potters for their recommendations. For example,
choosing a supplier that sells low-priced clay but doesn’t have a good reputation ultimately
can be very expensive, due to improperly mixed clay, random delivery schedules, lack of
technical support, and substandard business practices. The price of a stock moist clay or
private formula clay is really not relevant; the rate of defects produced by a given batch of
clay is. (Ceramics suppliers for the most part do not keep these types of records, or if they
do, they don’t tell this to customers. However, other potters can relay their experience with
a particular clay, helping you choose a clay body with a good result for others.)
Establishing a good professional relationship with your supplier has several benefits. The
ceramics supply company’s sales and technical staff can be an added help in obtaining
information about premixed clays. They can offer advice on how other potters are using
the clay and supply information on dry clays that are available for use in private clay body
formulas.
Another thing to keep in mind when buying premixed clay is that your shipping costs
will be lower from a supplier that is nearby. But keep in mind, the overriding consideration
when choosing a ceramics supplier is not the cost or delivery charge, but the quality of
the clay. Any small savings in choosing a clay just for its low price can be a negated if the
clay formula is not sound or the mixing procedures inaccurate.
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Ordering MOist Clay Shrinkage and Absorption
If you choose a local clay supplier, visit the clay mixing
operation. This is a valuable opportunity to determine how in Moist Clays
seriously a ceramics supplier regards the clay mixing part of Obtain information on how the clay will look at
the business. Simple observations lend significant clues. Are your particular firing temperature and kiln atmo-
the clay storage and mixing areas reasonably clean and well sphere. The supplier will provide premixed moist
organized? Do the people mixing clay appear motivated clay descriptions, photos, and small sample chips
and knowledgeable? Are any special cleaning procedures of the fired clay.
enacted when mixing white clays or porcelain? (They are Suppliers also publish shrinkage and absorp-
easily contaminated with non-white firing clays.) What tion percentages for every moist clay they sell.
quality control measures are taken when different clay body Shrinkage and absorption percentages can give
recipes are mixed? an indication of how a clay reacts when fired to
If you are not satisfied with your observations, look for its maturating range, but the percentages are most
another supplier. useful when comparing different moist clays fired in
the same kiln.
Order early and Often Remember, these statistics are based on how
Always reorder moist clay when only half of your current
the clay shrinks and absorbs water in the ceramics
supply is exhausted. This will allow an opportunity to
supplier’s kiln, not yours. For the same reason, do
randomly test fire the new clay while you are still using a
not compare one company’s shrinkage and absorp-
proven batch of old clay.
tion figures with another’s.
Also, keep careful records for each batch of clay, noting
the production code on each box. A shipment containing
several batches may have more than one production code.
Most suppliers package moist clay in 50-pound (22.7-kg)
boxes that contain two 25-pound (11-kg) bags of clay. The [998°C]) clay body to cone 10 (2345°F [1285°C]), it is
clay is packed in plastic bags, which are semi-permeable, unlikely you will receive a free replacement batch of clay.
and air will begin to harden the clay within a few months.
Check the moisture content of clay in plastic bags periodi- private Clay FOrMulas
cally to ensure it has not hardened. If it has, spray some When you buy premixed clay, you might discover that no
water on the clay and reseal the plastic bags. You might ceramics suppliers’ stock clay bodies meet your specific
have to repeat this procedure several times to achieve a needs. Perhaps you need a private clay formula, a formula
higher moisture content in the clay and a softer clay. designed just for you. Some suppliers offer this value-added
service. You find or create a clay body formula, which the
report Problems immediately ceramics supplier will then mix.
If you have problems with the premixed clay, report them Bear in mind that when a supplier mixes a private
immediately to the supplier, listing the production code formula, the supplier does not assume any responsibility
and a description of the fault, and be prepared to send a for potential defects caused by the formula. You must feel
sample of the defect for evaluation. Do not continue to confident that the private formula clay will work in the
use a clay—or any product for that matter—once you following respects: forming method, kiln atmosphere, glaze
have encountered a problem, because this can constitute interaction, temperature range, and fired color.
acceptance. Because it is not economical for a supplier to mix up
As a standard business policy, ceramics suppliers have a small test batch of private formula clay, there is usually
limited liability on dry and moist clay, which means, at a minimum amount required to fill the order, which can
best, they will only replace the product if it is defective. range from 1,000 to 2,000 pounds (about 450 to 900 kg).
Suppliers will not replace kilns, shelves, or posts damaged If a supplier mixes a small test batch, be prepared to pay
by defective clay. Nor will they compensate you for lost for this special service. The fee is well worth it, because a
time or potential sales caused by defective clay. ton of untested clay can be a very expensive test. If your
Keep in mind that suppliers will replace clay only if it supplier doesn’t offer to sell you a test batch, mix your own
can be proven the clay was at fault and you did not cause test batch before committing to a larger quantity.
the defect through improper forming, glazing, or firing.
So for example, if you mistakenly fire a cone 06 (1828°F
clay 65
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Clay BODy fOrmulaS
Clays that are formulated and mixed by potters or sold by ceramic supply companies are
called clay bodies. A clay body is a combination of clays, fluxes, and fillers. Each serves a
function to help determine forming characteristics, drying shrinkage, surface texture, fired
absorption, fired shrinkage, glaze interface, and fired clay color.
Clay body formulas, as in cake-baking recipes, can encompass subtle variations, which
bring distinctive forming and firing characteristics to the whole mix. For example, if a me-
dium- to high-temperature clay body requires flux to help bring other materials in the clay
body into a melt, there are many types of feldspar that could fill that requirement. However,
you must decide which of the available feldspars will be appropriate for the clay body. The
best clay body formulas contain appropriate raw materials and the correct ratios of clays,
fluxes, and fillers to achieve their desired result.
The use of metallic coloring oxides such as manganese dioxide, iron oxide, chrome oxide,
and cobalt oxide can produce a dark-colored clay.
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types OF Clays
Clay, the first of the three essential ingredients of a clay
body, is grouped depending on refractory qualities, particle
size, oxide composition, loss on ignition, shrinkage rates,
absorption rates, and other defining characteristics. The
basic clay groups found in clay body formulas are fireclays,
ball clays, kaolins, stoneware clays, bentonites, and earth-
enware clays. We’ll go into further detail about ball and
fireclays below.
Understand that not every clay group will be used in
every clay body formula. For example, some earthenware
clays, due to their relatively high iron content and low
maturing range, would not be found in porcelain clay
body formulas, which require low-iron-content, refractory
kaolins to achieve their white fired color.
In a white clay body, cobalt oxide can produce a blue clay. Within each major group of clays are subgroups that
further define a particular clay characteristic, such as plastic
kaolin (such as grolleg clay) and non-plastic kaolin (such
as English China clay). Further, each group and sub-group
contains many individual brand names of clay. Some of the
many ball clays are Tennessee ball clay #9, Taylor ball clay,
Kentucky ball clay OM #4, Zamek ball clay, Kentucky
Special, and Thomas ball clay.
Each group of ball clays, stoneware clays, kaolins, ben-
tonites, fireclays, and earthenware clays contributes specific
attributes to the total clay body formula. Those qualities
include particle size, green strength, fired strength, fired
color, shrinkage, plasticity, deflocculating potential (also
known as Zeta potential), texture, forming abilities, and
low amounts of warping in drying and firing stages.
Ball Clays
Ball clays are characterized by their plasticity. The small
In a white clay body, chrome oxide can produce a green clay.
platelet or particle-size structure of ball clays imparts great
plasticity to the clay in the moist state. However, ball
clays require large amounts of water to achieve plastic-
ity. Plasticity and water can result in dry shrinkage, fired
For a list of common clay body formulas,
shrinkage, and warping. That’s one reason why ball clays
see page 284.
are not the sole component in any clay body formula.
Another reason is because they can contain elevated
amounts of carbonaceous matter, which aid in plasticity
but can lead to burn-out problems in firing stages. Burn
out is when carbonaceous matter is trapped in the clay
body and begins causing carbon deposits in the clay body.
Ball clay is one component of a clay body formula that
can contain other types of clays, feldspar, flint, and other
raw materials. The raw materials determine the clay’s even-
tual forming method, firing temperature, and fired color.
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Relative Sizes of Clay Particles
Fireclay Stoneware Clay Ball Clay Bentonites
Bentonites and ball clays have the smallest platelet size, followed by stoneware clays, kaolins, and fire-
clays. Earthenware clays can vary in platelet size depending on their individual location and the geologic
forces used in their formulation. Generally, the platelet diameter of clays can range from 100 microns to
0.1 micron. (1 micron = 1/24,500 of an inch.)
Several common types of ball clay are used in clay body Finer clays can tighten a clay body structure, causing an
and glaze formulas. There are variations in particle-size exothermic reaction (releasing heat), preventing the oxida-
distribution, organic content, and chemical makeup, along tion of organic matter when heated in the 572° to 932°F
with other variables throughout this group. However, (300° to 500°C) temperature range.
each clay has a data sheet that can offer information on its
eventual use in clay bodies and glazes. Data sheets can be Coarse Ball Clays: Coarse ball clays are less plastic and
obtained through the clay mine or ceramics supplier. Ball better suited for casting slip clay formulas. Coarser ball
clays vitrify at approximately 2000°F to 2200°F (1093°C clays allow water to “wick” through the liquid clay into
to 1204°C). the mold, building up an acceptable clay thickness in the
cast piece. Coarse particle–size ball clays also allow the clay
Fine Ball Clays: A typical data sheet listing ball clays will body to “firm” quickly, or develop durability after draining
indicate which clays have finer or coarser particle size out the excess slip from the mold. The leather-hard piece
distributions. Particle size can be charted on a graph, giving can be handled faster when it is taken out of the mold.
a fingerprint (or unique formula) for each ball clay. The Coarser ball clays will contribute to greater durability and
distribution can be complex because all clays have particles firmness in a cast piece when it is removed from the plaster
as large as 100 microns and as small as 0.1 microns (1 mold.
micron = 1/24,500 of an inch). The number of particles in Coarse ball clays also can be used in clay bodies that do
each range determines the overall fineness or coarseness of not require the degree of plasticity needed in throwing
the clay. bodies. Larger particle-size ball clay can be used in hand
Fine ball clays have greater plasticity and increased building, coil, Ram press, or dry press forming clay bodies.
strength when dry, which makes them suitable for plastic-
forming operations, such as throwing and hand building. Ball Clays for hand building and sculpture: The percent-
age of ball clay used in a clay body formula is directly
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tip Ball Clay Quantity
• Cracking where thin and thick sections meet
Greater amounts of ball clay in a clay body formula
• Unequal shrinkage and stress cracks, because thin
can negatively affect the mixture in the following
sections dry faster than thick areas
ways.
• Moist clay that is sticky and deforms under pres-
• Excessive dry shrinkage, fired shrinkage, and
sure during the forming process
warping during firing/drying
• Gelatinous quality that makes shaping difficult
related to the forming process. Ball clays are often used to

increase a clay body’s plastic qualities. The goal is to use
enough ball clay for the degree of plasticity needed. The
amount and type of ball clay used in hand building and
sculpture clay bodies will depend on several factors, such
as the forming method (coil, clay slab construction, pinch
construction), clay body fired color, and the clay bodies’
fired shrinkage and absorption rates.
The amount of ball clay used in hand building or sculpture
bodies can range from 1 to 15 percent. Clay bodies intended
for Ram press or dry press operations, where the clay is
compressed by hydraulic forming action between molds, do
not require significant percentages of ball clay. Because of the
pressure put on clay during these forming processes, the clay
body does not need to be especially plastic.
Clays for throwing: Ball clay adds much-needed plastic-

ity to throwing clay bodies. The amount and type of ball
Moist clay can lack plasticity, which is often revealed by
clay used in throwing bodies can vary, depending on other
cracking along the edges when a slab of clay is rolled out.
clays in the formula, such as fireclays or stoneware clays. It
can also depend on other ceramic materials in the for-
mula, including feldspar, flint, talc, or grog. Generally, the
percentage of ball clay in throwing bodies can be as low as help glaze materials stay in suspension. However, in some
5 percent or as high as 30 percent of the total clay body glaze formulas that require a clay component, ball clays can
formula. cause a clear glaze to fire semi-opaque or cloudy because they
When ball clay is not balanced with other materials in contain higher amounts of iron and manganese compared
the clay body formula, your thrown pots will suffer. In to kaolins, which are also used in glaze formulas. However,
higher percentages, ball clay can result in the moist body in opaque or colored glaze formulas, the metallic oxide
taking on water too fast when it is being thrown on the concentrations in ball clays generally do not affect a work’s
wheel. Excessive ball clay also can cause thixotropy, or fired appearance.
deformation under pressure, as your fingers manipulate the
form. The moist clay body may sag or sink, resulting in the Ball Clays in casting slips: Most casting slip
inability to pull up tall forms on the wheel. formulas consist of 35 to 50 percent ball clay. Coarser
particle-size ball clays are better suited for slip casting than
Ball Clays in glaze: Ball clays supply silica and alumina to finer particle-size clays because they allow a thicker wall
glaze formulas, affecting raw glaze fit, glaze maturation tem- section to build in the mold. Ball clays in casting slips
perature, glaze opacity, and glaze surface texture. Ball clays contribute green strength and plasticity in the pouring and
or other small “plate” structure clays, such as bentonites, drying stages. Green strength is the property that allows
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the piece to resist mechanical shock. Plasticity is required used by steel mills, casting foundries, and brick manufac-
in the casting process from the moment the body begins to turers, which can use the material with minimal process-
shrink until the point it reaches the bone-dry stage. Some ing in their forming processes. Potters represent less than
potters argue that plasticity remains even in the dry state and one-tenth of a percent of sales. Therefore, manufacturers
allows the piece to flex a little instead of breaking. may not concentrate on filtering out impurities that cause
problems in pottery forming.
Fireclays: Another common clay found in clay body for-
mulas is fireclay, named such because it is primarily associ- The following contaminants are prevalent in fireclay.
ated with fire or heat. Fireclay contributes to particle-size
variation, enhancing a clay body’s forming characteristics. Iron: Potters want small, random brown specks (0.5 mm to
Fireclays enable the clay body to withstand high-tempera- 1 mm in diameter) in the fired clay body. However, large
ture pyroplastic deformation, which can result in the clay nodules of iron (4 to 6 mm in diameter) in the fired body
body slumping, bloating, or fusing to the kiln shelf. Potters can cause outsized brown blemishes.
use fireclays in diverse ceramic products, such as floor and
wall tiles, functional pottery, and sculptures. Manganese: Fireclays also can contain aggregate lumps
However, fireclays should be carefully examined before of manganese, which can cause brown/black concave or
adding them to a clay body formula. Fireclays are more convex defects in fired clay surfaces.
likely to cause problems in the forming, drying, and glazing
processes than ball clays and others, such as stoneware clay. Lime: Nodules of lime can expand in the fired clay body as
Fireclays are refractory and are able to withstand it takes on atmospheric moisture. The resulting half moon–
deformation temperatures above 3000°F (1648°C). shaped cracks in the fired clay body disrupt the surface.
Lime nodules or gypsum formed alongside seams of fireclay
Fireclay consistency: Platelet-size distribution simply or in pockets contained in the clay seam can range from
means how many small, medium, or large platelets are in a pebble to fist size and can result in a clay body defect called
clay. The distribution of platelet sizes affects the texture, or lime pop. (See “Lime Pop” on page 92.)
“tooth,” of the moist clay during forming operations. The
shape of the platelets, their direction in relation to each Silica: The larger particles of silica in fireclay that convert
other, and the colloidal water adhesion forces that bind to cristobalite will produce a larger expansion/contraction,
them together also play a part in determining the handling exerting a greater pressure on the body during firing and
characteristics of the moist clay. cooling than small particles. Seemingly intact functional
Platelet-size distribution can influence plastic qualities, pottery with a buildup of cristobalite can crack later when
shrinkage rate, forming potential, and drying character- heated in a hot kitchen oven due to cristobalite inversion in
istics. Fireclay with a greater percentage of larger platelets a similar cooling range. Cracks can occur anywhere on the
will produce a clay body formula that is less plastic with pot and have a sharp edge, as though hit by a hammer.
decreased ability to bend when moist. Fireclays with a
finer platelet size shrink more, have greater plasticity
when moist, and take longer to dry. Mixing fireclay with Earthenware clays: Earthenware clays are character-
feldspars, flint, and grog can mitigate fireclay platelet-size ized by their porosity between cone 010 and cone 02
distribution side effects. (1657°F-2016°F [903°C-1102°C]). They can have high
levels of organic material, which may cause the raw color
Contaminants in fireclays: Fireclays are the weakest link of to appear gray, green, or black even though they fire white
the clays in a clay body formula because of contaminants, or off-white. Some earthenware clay deposits have high
including carbonaceous materials such as lignite, peat, coal, levels of iron, which can fire to red or brown. Their particle
and other associated tramp materials. Fireclays can also size range and the plastic qualities vary depending on the
contain inconsistently sized particles of silica, iron, and individual deposit.
manganese.
Technically, all of these negative (or unpredictable) quali- Stoneware clays: Stoneware clays have a medium platelet
ties can be refined out of the clay. But fireclay is most often size compared to the fine platelets of ball clays and the
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large platelets of fireclays. They are fairly plastic, and they Due to their small particle size, they have high shrinkage
have refractory qualities slightly below those of fireclays. rates and can have high dry strength. Small additions of ben-
They mature at a temperature between cone 6 and cone 12 tonite (1% to 2% based on the dry weight of the clay body)
(1222°F-2383°F [661°C-1306°C]). Stoneware clays vary can increase the plastic properties of the clay body.
in raw color, fired color, and plasticity. They compose a
large percentage of high-temperature clay body formulas. Fluxes
Fluxes are the second component of a clay body formula,
Kaolin clays: Kaolin clays have low iron content and are and they are responsible for lowering the melting point of
known for their purity and their white fired color. They heat-resistant clays and fillers. Flux helps a clay body melt
are formed by the decomposition of feldspathic rock and in a predetermined maturing range. In functional pottery,
are found in pockets rather than seams. Kaolins are very the maturing range occurs when absorption, shrinkage,
refractory, melting at temperatures higher than 3200°F and fired color are compatible with the glaze, producing a
(1760°C). They have a coarse grain that exhibits low dense, vitreous nonabsorbent clay body.
shrinkage rates and little plasticity. As a group, kaolins are Every temperature range has the appropriate choice
frequently used in porcelain clay body formulas. of flux materials that will work compatibly with the raw
materials and clays contained within the clay body. If a
Bentonites: Bentonites are the most plastic clays, have the low-melting flux is used in a high-temperature clay body,
smallest platelet size, and are formed by the weathering of the result is over-vitrification. An over-fluxed clay body
volcanic glass. can bloat, slump, shrink excessively, and fuse to the kiln
shelves.
Feldspars are the best flux for clay bodies in medium- to
high-temperature ranges (above cone 6, 2232°F [1222°C]).
The three basic groups of feldspars used in ceramics are
soda feldspars, potash feldspars, and lithium feldspars.
Within the three groups, many individual feldspars can
be chosen for a clay body formula. A beneficial quality of
feldspars in medium- to high-temperature clay body for-
mulas is their ability to enter into a melt slowly over a wide
temperature range. Talc is sometimes used in stoneware
clay bodies, but it can have active and fast melting charac-
teristics if used in inappropriate amounts.
This sharp-edged cooling crack in ware was caused by cris-
tobalite inversion in the kiln. The wider part of the crack (right
side) is where the crack started to form.
tip
Mesh Size
The mesh size of the screen is a factor in determining the
amount of contaminants that are allowed to pass through
with the fireclay. A large, 20x mesh screen can allow greater
quantities of tramp material or contaminants (twigs, stones,
coal, or processing debris such as bolts, wire, and metal
parts) to enter the final bag of clay. A smaller, 50x mesh
screen that traps more contaminants will produce higher-
The chemical composition of fireclays can change from
quality fireclay.
one shipment to the next. Fireclays can contain nodules
of chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and erubescite (Cu5FeS4), releasing
copper, which can cause green specks in the
fired clay body.
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Fillers Clay BOdy CharaCteristiCs
Fillers, the third clay body component, reduce clay body Before mixing a clay body formula, it is important to first
shrinkage and warping in the drying and firing stages. The decide what parameters and conditions the clay body will
most widely used fillers include flint, pyrophyllite, silica encounter. Formulas can fail due to the inappropriate
sand, sawdust, mullite, calcined kaolin, kyanite, calcined use of raw materials or an unsuitable use of the clay body
alumina, and grogs of various sizes. The amount of filler formula. For example, a clay body formula using only ball
used in a clay body formula depends on how you will form clay, which is very plastic, can shrink, warp, and crack
the clay. For example, clay bodies designed for slab form- excessively in the drying and firing stages. Or, when a frit
ing and tile making usually have more filler or non-plastic (low-melting glaze or clay body flux) is used in a medium-
material than throwing bodies. But, as with anything, there to high-temperature clay body, excessive glass formation
is a happy medium for fillers. If the amount of filler is too can occur, along with slumping, bloating, and other defects
high, the clay body’s plastic qualities are decreased. in the fired ware.
Flint as a filler is often called a “glass former” and needs Your first job is to decide on the correct mix of materials
high temperatures (3200°F [1760°C]) to melt by itself. But for your clay body. You do this by asking what characteris-
when flint is combined with a flux, its melting temperature tics will be essential in the clay body. Then, develop a list
decreases. Flint reduces dry shrinkage and warping in the of criteria so you can choose the best raw materials for your
clay body. It also promotes glaze fit by contracting the clay application.
body to match the contraction of the covering glaze layer. As you decide on raw materials for your clay body for-
mula, ask these questions.
Wheel-Thrown Jar
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What is your forming method? Potter’s wheel, slab
construction, slip casting, Ram pressed, dry pressed, jig-
gered, or extruded—each method will require a specific Clay Body at Work
combination of raw materials. For example, clay bodies
used on the potter’s wheel will require higher percentages Clay bodies are designed for various functions,
of plastic ball clays compared to dry-pressed clay bodies, including the following:
where the extreme hydraulic pressure of the press forms the Sculpture: large scale and/or thick cross sections,
object. Slip-casting clay bodies will require a deflocculating low shrinkage and warping
component, such as sodium silicate or Darvan #7—soluble
electrolytes that create clay that can be poured. Some clay Freeze/thaw conditions: allowing for expansion
bodies can be used for more than one forming method; and contraction
however, it is unusual to achieve optimum performance in Wood-fired kiln effects: shows random flashing
each forming method. effects of ash deposits on ware
What color do you prefer for fired clay? White clay
Soda/salt effects: unglazed areas of clay reveal a
bodies can be developed into yellow, blue, green, or other
glossy “orange peel” surface texture
colors with the addition of body stains or metallic coloring
oxides. Clay bodies that originate as brown can be devel- Once-fired or raw glazing: clay allows for a com-
oped into dark brown or black with the addition of high patible glaze fit and single firing
iron-bearing clays or metallic coloring oxides. Porcelain: white clay color, translucent when thin
How hot will your kiln get? Clay bodies will act differ-
Flame ware: clay body exposed to direct flame
ently when heated. The higher the temperature, the less
in use
absorbent the clay body due to increasing vitrification.
What is your kiln atmosphere? A clay body can be Functional pottery: durable, nonabsorbent, compat-
formulated for oxidation, neutral, or reduction kiln atmo- ible with a wide range of glazes, can be used in
spheres. In oxidation atmospheres, the air-to-fuel ratio is indirect flame situations
higher, causing a cleaner ignition to the fuel. In neutral Slip casting: a fluid clay that can be poured into
kiln atmospheres, there is an equal air-to-fuel ratio. In plaster molds
reduction kiln atmospheres, the fuel-to-air ratio is greater,
causing carbon monoxide to pull oxygen from the oxides Ram press: a clay body that can be formed by the
contained in clay and glaze. In reduction kiln atmospheres, hydraulic action of the press
metallic oxides such as iron and manganese tend to flux Jigger/jolleying: a clay body that can be formed
the clay or glaze to a greater degree. Each atmosphere can when a template is drawn against a spinning mold
influence the fired color, density, glaze interaction, and
Dry press: a low-moisture clay body formulated for
surface quality of the clay.
extreme hydraulic pressure forming
How available are raw materials? Before you develop a
clay body formula (on paper), be sure all raw materials are
available. Check with suppliers to ensure they still stock
the feldspar you’re seeking or the ball clay you want. If
not, ask suppliers for logical substitutions for discontinued
materials.
tip
Test Kilns
When increasing the flux component of a clay body formula, always shape test pieces and place them in a regular
production kiln. Assume the clay body might fuse, so use extra kiln wash on the shelf. Firing clay and glazes in small
test kilns can produce inaccurate results. Smaller kilns have faster firing and cooling cycles and less thermal mass
compared to larger production kilns. In order to accurately conduct testing, it is important to reproduce the heating and
cooling cycles in any kiln firing.
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Clay plastiCity
Two important factors determine moist clay’s plasticity:
that increase the surface areas touching other clays and raw
the individual clay body formula and the amount of time
materials in the clay mix. Ball clays also increase the col-
it spends in the moist state. The forming process you plan
loidal film action in the clay body.
to use (throwing, hand building, etc.) will determine how
Be sure that ball clay is less than 25 percent of your total
plastic your clay must be. You can increase clay plasticity
clay body formula. Otherwise, the moist clay will take on
with the following additives.
water at a faster rate during the throwing process, resulting
Bentonite: Bentonites are an extremely plastic group of
in the clay slumping and sagging during the last stages of
clays, and they can enhance the working qualities of the
forming on the wheel. (For more on ball clay, see page 47.)
clay body. Bentonites have very small platelet structures,
Mold and other organic agents: Most types of mold
which physically touch larger platelet structure clays in
growth in moist clay can increase plasticity because it aug-
the moist mix. The small platelet size of bentonites also
ments the binding action and attraction of clay platelets.
increases the water-film bonding of the entire clay water
Enhancing the film of water between clay platelets with
structure.
mold will increase the clay-to-clay attraction. One recipe
As a rule, never exceed 2 percent bentonite in a clay
to encourage mold growth in clay starts by mixing a 100-
body. Otherwise, the clay body will become gummy
pound (45.4-kg) batch of clay formula. Add 1/2 cup (118
when used on the wheel or in other forming operations.
ml) of beer, coffee, or apple cider vinegar, or 3 ounces (85
Ball clay: Ball clays also have small platelet structures
g) of yeast to start mold growth in the clay/water mixture.
Depending on the pH level of the clay-mixing water, the individual clay’s organic matter, and the studio
temperature conditions, mold can grow on the surface of moist clay. Most types of mold are beneficial,
increasing the plastic properties of the clay. Simply wedging the clay will evenly disperse the mold.
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However, if you keep moist clay long enough in a warm, scumming area, it can result in a glaze defect such as blis-
dark place, it will grow mold without any additional tering. (See page 177.) Any type of Additive A, when used
organic materials being added to the mix. in a clay body, will increase plasticity and green strength
Epsom salts: Adding Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate) without causing excessive shrinkage rates in the drying and
will increase the attraction of clay platelets in the moist firing stages, as with excessive additions of ball clay.
clay state, causing the clay to become flocculated. Add 5
ounces (142 g) of Epsom salt for every 100 pounds (45.4 Water and plastiCity
kg) of dry clay formula (0.3 percent). Add Epsom salts to The chemical composition of the water used in mixing the
water before mixing with clay so it disperses efficiently. clay body can alter the plastic properties of the moist clay.
Clay platelets will draw together just like north and south The amount of water required to form the clay into a plas-
poles of a magnet. The overall effect is a tight, plastic clay tic mass is called the water of plasticity. The percentage of
body with good throwing properties. water required can vary with the individual clays and raw
materials contained within the clay body. Some clay bod-
ies, due to their high percentage of ball clay (small platelet
Note: Excessive levels of Epsom salts can cause salt sizes), might require 40 percent more water for plasticity
migration to the drying clay surface, which will create than clay bodies containing higher levels of coarse fireclays
a white powdery coating. The salt can result in blister-
(large platelet sizes). Stoneware clay body formulas require
ing and carbon trapping in the fired clay.
only 25 percent water.
If the water contains soluble salts of sodium or calcium,
Additive A: Additive A is a blend of water-soluble they can migrate to the clay surface in the drying stage,
lignosulphonates and organic/inorganic chemicals that is a causing an irregular surface interfering with the subsequent
byproduct of the paper manufacturing process. When used glaze application. The soluble material forms a glaze, which
in amounts of 1/16 to 1/8 percent of the dry weight of the can result in blistering and carbon trapping. Household
clay, Additive A can increase moist clay plasticity without water softeners can introduce sodium into the mixing
changing its fired shrinkage, absorption, or clay color. water, which can alter the handling qualities of the moist
Additive A is produced in several versions, some of which clay body. Sodium also can cause deflocculating charac-
contain barium in a safe, nontoxic form. Additive A in teristics in the moist clay, resulting in very soft clay under
barium versions can eliminate scumming, which can occur forming pressure. Although the chemical composition of
when a moist clay body begins to dry, carrying soluble salts the water has a larger effect on slip casting clay bodies, do
to exposed clay surfaces. The soluble salt layer (scum- not overlook discoloration or soluble salt crystals that can
ming) can fuse at high temperatures, creating a glass-like occur when the clay body is drying. Also note whether the
irregular surface on the clay. When glaze is applied over the moist clay is too soft or rubbery in forming stages.
Note: Generally, the standard percentage of water by

weight found in moist plastic clay bodies used on
tip the potter’s wheel or in hand building is 20 percent.
Raw Material Substitutions

When a clay or raw material is not available, choose a
substitute from the same group of clays as the original.
Fireclays, ball clays, stoneware clays, bentonites, kaolins,
and earthenware are all common clay groups. The three
basic groups of feldspar are sodium based, potassium
based and lithium based. A feldspar substitution should
come from the original feldspar grouping.
When possible, always test a one-for-one substitution.
If this does not work, you’ll have to recalculate the clay
body formula.
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Mining
Mining Clay Clay
To get an idea of where, exactly, clay comes from, let’s take
the product. Finally, the material is tested for particle size
distribution and placed in packaging ranging from 50- and
To get an idea oftourwhere, exactly, clay comes from, let’s take the product.(22.7-
100-pound Finally,
andthe45.4-kg)
materialpaper
is tested
bagsforto particle size
larger 3,500-
a photographic through Christy Minerals, located 50
amiles
photographic distribution and placed in packaging ranging from 50-
(80.5 km) west of St. Louis, Missouri. This mine 50
tour through Christy Minerals, located uses pound (1,588-kg) super sacks.
miles (80.5 km) west of St. Louis, Missouri. This mine and 100-pound (22.7- andfrom
45.4-kg) papersite
bags to larger
selective open-pit excavation to extract Hawthorn Bonduses Raw clay is rarely taken the mine without
selective open-pit excavation to extract Hawthorn 3,500-pound (1,588-kg) super sacks.
fireclay. The top layer of overburden is taken away Bond
and the some form of processing. More than 99 percent of clays
fi reclay. The top layer of overburden is taken
clay seam exposed. After carefully removing the clay, away and the
it is areRaw
usedclay is rarely taken
by industrial from the mine
and commercial site without
sectors. Potters
clay seam exposed. After carefully removing
stockpiled and weathered for twelve to eighteen months, the clay, it is represent less than 1 percent of the total market, of
some form of processing. More than 99 percent clays
and their
stockpiled and weathered for twelve are used by industrial and commercial sectors. Potters
causing it to break down. The naturaltofreeze/thaw
eighteen months,condi- limited role affects the quality of clays they can purchase.
causing represent less than 1 percent of therequire
total market,
a degreeandof their
tions plus rain and sun hydrate and dehydrate the condi-
it to break down. The natural freeze/thaw clay Clays for commercial applications uni-
tions plusultimately
rain and sun hydrate consistency
and dehydrate limited role affects the quality of clays they can purchase.
platelets, improving andthe clay
plasticity. formity and quality control, but not necessarily the same
platelets, ultimately improving to consistency Claysoffor commercial thatapplications require a degree of uni-
The clay is then transported the plant,and whereplasticity.
it is kind processing potters demand. Two machines used
The clay is then transported to the plant,
dried and placed in a covered shed until it is ground where it to
is the in the preparation of raw clay are the roller mill and same
formity and quality control, but not necessarily the the
dried and placed in a covered shed until it is ground to the kind of processing
hammer mill. that potters demand. Two machines
appropriate mesh size. There are several grinding methods,
appropriate mesh size. There are several grinding methods, used in the preparation of raw clay are the roller mill and
depending on the desired grain size and distribution of
depending on the desired grain size and distribution of the hammer mill.
Notice the different qualities of clay and higher-iron-content

seams on top. Depending on the geological formation of the
clay pit, the various levels can contain clays having different
mineral, organic particle size, and tramp material content.
This exposed clay face shows overburden on top.

The surface material—such as soil, branches, shrubs
and other covering—is removed, exposing the various
seams of clay.
Mining clay for movement to processing plant. A careful

survey of the clay field is made, plotting the different layers
of clay. After that, clay is excavated from the various pits in a
very precise manner and then taken to the processing plant.
5676. The Potter’s

the potter Studio Clay
’ s complete and
studio Glaze Handbook
handbook
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The Roller Mill Process
Cyclone Collector During the roller mill operation, some

free moisture is removed from the
clay and fed between a ring and a
series of spinning rolls. Clay is ground
Dust Collector
and dried, then thrown between the
and Fan
ring and rolls. A stream of air lifts the
finer clay particles up to a whizzer
(fan blades). The faster the blades
spin, the finer the clay particles need
Whizzer to be to pass through the whizzer.
Once through the whizzer, the clay/
air stream goes to a cyclone collec-
Air Heater tor, where the clay is separated from
air during the air-floating process. The
System Fan
clay then goes to a packer, where it
is bagged and ready for shipment.
Greenstripe is an example of a roller-
milled air-floated fireclay.
Roller Mill
The Hammer Mill Process

Crushed clay 2” enters mill
Clay crushed into 2-inch (5-cm) bits

and smaller enter the hammer mill.
Hammers rotate and pulverize the
clay, which is then pushed through
screens at the bottom of the mill.
Rotating Screen size determines the mesh size
Hammers of the clay and the size of possible
contaminants processed with the clay.
Hawthorn bond is an example of a
hammer-milled fi reclay.
Screen
Pulverized clay exits through screens
clay .77
Clay Body Formulas 57
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TeSTing Clay BODy fOrmulaS
Many potters, from novice hobbyists to veteran ceramic artists, have made the mistake of
mixing a large quantity of clay from a given formula without testing
a small batch.
Once you choose a clay body formula, mix an appropriate amount of moist clay for
shrinkage and absorption testing. Ten pounds (4.5 kg) of dry clay body formula should
yield approximately 12 pounds (5.4 kg) of moist clay. This will make six clay test bars,
measuring 5” x 21/2” x 1/4” thick (12.7 cm x 6.4 cm x 6 mm), allowing for plenty left over
for forming sample pots. These pots are then used for a test firing. It’s better to create larger
test pieces that give a more accurate representation of the clay body. Also, test the clay in
multiple firings with many glaze combinations to ensure the clay body formula’s reliability.
Test firings will ensure that the raw materials in your clay body act as planned. We dis-
cussed earlier the problems that adding too much or too little of a material can present dur-
ing the firing/heating process—or during forming, for that matter. Not every kiln produces
an even atmosphere or temperature. Placing test pieces in various locations within the kiln
will offer an accurate indication of the clay body temperature range and color variation
caused by the kiln atmosphere.
Fired clay bars ready for an absorption test
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testing FOr Freeze/thaW
COnditiOns
When ceramic forms are placed in freeze/thaw conditions, You can use a few different methods to determine a
they can fracture and spall (chip due to internal stress). clay body’s likelihood to crack, and therefore leak, in
Think of what happens when you leave a favorite flowerpot freeze/thaw conditions: the Standard Absorption Test, the
outdoors during winter. Strong environmental forces are American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) test,
at work, and the pot cracks as a result. Why do clay bodies or a simple pinch-pot test, which is a less-formal method.
exposed in more temperate climates remain stable and We’ll talk about each of these in turn.
intact? What are the factors causing freeze/thaw failures,
and how can we eliminate them?
Most materials shrink when frozen. However, water
expands because of the formation of ice crystals. The open-
pore structure of fired clay traps atmospheric moisture by
capillary action, in the form of rain, snow, and humidity.
Upon freezing, ice crystals expand in the confined, unyield-
ing pore structure of the clay, causing cracking or chipping.
Moisture retained in the fired clay can come from water
Testing Kiln Atmosphere

With hydrocarbon-based fuels (natural gas,
propane, wood, oil, coal, sawdust), the kiln can
be manipulated to produce oxidation, neutral, and
various intensities of reduction, all of which can
affect clay body color. Oxidation atmosphere in
hydrocarbon-based fueled kilns can cause varia-
tions in clay body color when compared to oxida-
tion atmospheres produced in electric kilns. This
is because of impurities in the hydrocarbon-based
fuel and water vapor present during the combustion
process. Reduction kiln atmospheres also can cause
increased clay body vitrification, because the
metallic coloring oxides contained in the clay body
are subjected to increased melting.
This earthenware flower pot cracked because of freeze/thaw In electric kilns, the uniform oxidation atmo-
conditions. sphere causes little or no variation in clay body
color. Still, temperature variations could affect
in the atmosphere, from the pottery being used in a dish- shrinkage and absorption of the fired clay body.
washer, and from any cleaning procedure. Moisture can Higher temperatures can flux (melt) metallic coloring
also accumulate in clay bodies that are used to store food oxides in the clay body, causing darker fired colors
or liquids. As stated, if a clay body contains the appropri- along with increased vitrification.
ate materials and is fired to its maturity, it can have a low
absorption percentage or zero-percent absorption and
will not subsequently leak. It’s important to note that the
relationship between clay body shrinkage/absorption and
glaze fit determines if a glaze will be stable once it is fired
on a clay body.
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(Text)
standard aBsOrptiOn test 2 After firing the test bars, each bar is placed on the
This test measures the percentage of water entering a fired scale and carefully weighed. The exact amount is writ-
clay body when it is soaked and boiled in water. This test ten on a notepad.
replicates how the clay body will react in natural freeze/
thaw environments. During this test, the pores of the clay 3 Place the test tile on pins inside a container, then
body absorb water. The clay is soaked in water for 24 fill with tepid water. Soak the test bar for 24 hours.
hours, then boiled in water for 5 hours. Then, wipe off the tile with a damp, lint-free towel.
Consistency of the technique when performing this test Carefully weigh the test tile.
is vital to arriving at an accurate absorption rate. The same
person should conduct each clay’s test, and the test should 4 Now, boil the tile for 5 hours. Use a large enough
be repeated to check the results. The absorption percentage
container so the water does not boil off. Also, check
should be the same for each test.
the boiling water level periodically to ensure water is
present in the container. Wipe the tile off again with
Equipment the damp, lint-free towel. Carefully weigh the tile and
• Fired test clay bars record the measurement.
• Scale accurate to 1/100 of a gram
• Container to boil water
5 Calculate the absorption percentage by using the fol-
lowing formula:
• Calculator
[wet weight – dry weight]/dry weight = absorption
• Damp, lint-free towel percentage of 24-hour soaking absorption
• Metal pin stilt [wet weight – dry weight]/dry weight = absorption
• Container percentage of 5-hour boiled water absorption
Compare the percentages between the 24-hour soaking

absorption and the 5-hour boiled water absorption:
Instructions
24-hour soaking absorption percentage/5-hour boiling
1 Make at least five test bars that are 3/8” (10 mm) absorption percentage = the ratio of soaking absorp-
thick, 1” (2.5 cm) wide, and 5” (12.7 cm) long from tion to boiled water absorption
the same clay you will use for your outdoor ceramics
project. Averaging the absorption percentage of several The above calculation, the absorption rate, should be less
bars will ensure testing accuracy. The bars should be than .78 percent, which would make it safe for freeze/thaw
free of cracks, indentations, or surface blemishes that conditions.
could trap water when the fired clay surface is dry.
Round the edges of the bars to prevent chipping. Any FOR ExAMPlE:
small change in weight from imperfections can result (96 g [wet weight] – 93 g [dry weight])/93 g
in a significant error in the final calculation. To ensure [dry weight] = 0.03 or 3%
accuracy, space out the bars and fire them in the same
kiln, selecting the identical kiln firing cycle and stack- (97 g [wet weight] – 93 g [dry weight])/93 g
[dry weight] = 0.04 or 4%
ing arrangement you will use with your project.
0.03 divided by 0.04 = .75
This absorption testing procedure used by the ASTM is as
effective as the standard test described earlier.
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tip
Absorbency and Porosity
Two terms that are frequently used interchangeably but
describe different conditions are absorbency and porosity.
Absorbency is the ability of liquid to penetrate and be
distributed through a material. It specifically relates to the
wicking action of a dry clay surface when in contact with
! water. Porosity is the quantity of pores or voids in a
clay body.
Step 1 Fired clay bars lined up for an absorption test. It is
always best to test more than one bar and use the average
absorption percentage for a more precise calculation.
#
Step 3 Place the test tile on pins inside a container, then fill
with tepid water. Soak the test bar for 24 hours.
$ Wheel-Thrown Goblet
Step 4 Boil the tile for 5 hours. Carefully dry each test bar
before weighing
clay 81
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aMeriCan sOCiety FOr testing and Materials test
Equipment 3 Remove the bars from water and carefully wipe all
• Fired clay sides with a lint-free towel. Be sure to remove excess
• Scale accurate to 1/100 of a gram moisture from every facet of the clay bar, without
• Container to boil water wicking any moisture from the bars’ surfaces.
• Calculator
• Damp, lint-free towel 4 Immediately weigh the bars.
• Metal pin stilt
5 Calculate absorption using this formula:
Instructions (saturated weight – dry weight)/dry weight x 100 =
1 As in the standard absorption test (see page 80), percent absorption
create fired test bars. Weigh the bars and record
the measurements.
2 Place the bars in boiling water for 5 hours. Then

turn off the heat, and let the bars soak for 24 hours.
The absorption test bars should be smooth on each of their six sides. An indentation or void
in the surface can trap water, which will alter the test results.
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the pinCh pOt aBsOrptiOn test COrreCting aBsOrptiOn
In addition to the ASTM test and standard absorption prOBleMs
testing techniques described, you can perform a pinch pot There are several corrections to solve absorption problems,
test to determine the likelihood of water leaking from a such as firing the clay to a higher temperature, firing the
fired clay body. clay over a longer time period, or adjusting the clay body
formula by increasing the amount of flux materials (feld-
Equipment spar). The type and amount of additional flux will depend
• Fired clay on the firing temperature of the clay body. If you are using
a commercial clay, simply purchase a different clay body.
This is a safer bet than adding materials to a supplier’s clay
Instructions body formula. (You don’t have the exact recipe, so you
1 Make several pinch pots and place them, unglazed, could do more harm than good by mixing in additives.)
throughout your kiln. Many ceramic suppliers sell several clay bodies in each
temperature range.
2 Fire the pinch pots with other pottery in the kiln, and Most important, remember when buying a clay body
fire to the clay body’s maturity. from a ceramics supplier to test several clay bodies at one
time for shrinkage, absorption, and glaze fit before com-
mitting to an individual clay body for use in functional
3 Once pots are out of the kiln, fill them with water pottery or sculpture.
and allow them to stand for 24 hours on a nonabsor-
bent surface. If you notice moisture under the pots the
next day, the clay is absorbing water and leaking.
These fired unglazed pinch pots containing water show the right bowl leaking over 24 hours. When
performing this test, assume that if one bowl leaks and the other bowls hold water, the reason could be
a different amount of heat treatment in the kiln. Because it might be difficult to fire the kiln evenly, adjust
the clay body or use another clay body formula.
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A bisque-fired cup (left) compared to a higher-temperature glaze-fired cup (right). Notice the increased
shrinkage in the glaze-fired cup due to clay body vitrification.
The shrinkage-test clay bar determines the fired shrinkage of the clay. The moist clay is measured and
marked at 10 centimeters (not shown). After the clay bar has been fired to maturity or vitrification tem-
perature, the clay has shrunk by 1.5 centimeters or 15 percent (8.5 cm on plastic ruler scale as measured
by vertical black line drawn in clay bar).
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(A) (B) (C) (D)
(A) Moist clay bar; (B) Bone-dry clay bar; (C) Bisque-fired clay bar; (D) Bar fired
to cone 9 (2300° F [1260°C]) with total shrinkage rate of 12 percent.
interpreting aBsOrptiOn
and shrinkage
Both clay shrinkage and absorption cause significant Bar C: This bisque-fired clay bar was heated to cone
changes in the ceramic form as clay dries and is eventually 06 (1828°F [998°C]) and has an absorption rate of 14
fired to maturity. The bars pictured here represent the same percent. With such a high rate of absorption, it will leach
clay body in leather-hard, bone-dry, bisque-fired, and fired- water; however, it will be ideal for the absorption of a glaze
to-maturity stages. With higher temperatures, increased application. The shrinkage rate is 7%.
vitrification occurs in the clay body causing greater shrink-
age and lower absorption. Bar D: The bar was fired to cone 9 (2300°F [1260°C]) and
has an absorption rate of 1.5 percent. Ceramic forms made
Bar A: Moist clay was rolled out into a slab 3.9” (10 cm) from the clay fired at this temperature will hold water
long. because of the relative nonabsorbency of the clay body.
Clay bodies approaching zero-percent absorption, which
Bar B: A bone-dry bar that still contains atmospheric mois- can be beneficial in the translucent quality of porcelain,
ture and chemical water. can develop too much glass and become brittle. The
shrinkage is 12%.
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testing FOr Clay shrinkage increases beyond the clay body’s maturity range, excessive
Moist clay shrinks and loses moisture over time. Most glass formation overtakes the clay, resulting in deformation
commercially prepared clay bodies have a “storage life” of of the ware.
one year. Once the clay is formed into an object, the drying The shrinkage rate for a clay body is important when
process continues. However, clay is only truly dried out making wall or floor tiles, which can require exact dimen-
after it has been fired in the kiln. sions for installation. It might also be useful to know
Firing conditions also can cause clay shrinkage. If clay the shrinkage rate when calculating whether functional
is heated too fast, steam will develop, causing the clay to objects—such as plates, casseroles, covered jars, and cups—
crack or explode in the kiln. While this violent reaction is can fit inside kitchen cabinets or dishwashers.
not strong enough to damage the kiln, it can ruin adjacent
pots in the kiln. Clay also shrinks as higher temperatures
trigger glass formation within the clay. If the temperature
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the shrinkage test
Here’s an easy way to test for clay shrinkage.
Equipment
• Moist clay bar
• Needle tool
• Ruler
Instructions
1 Start by creating 6 test bars at least 4”x 2” x 1/4” (10.1
cm x 5.1 cm x 6 mm) You’ll take the average shrink
rate of these bars to get the most accurate shrinkage
measurement.
2 Measure 3.9” (10 cm) from the edge of each test bar
and draw a line using a needle tool. Allow the test bars
to dry naturally until they feel bone dry. Remeasure
this space (10 cm before fired). The difference indi-
cates the clay’s dry shrinkage.
3 Measure 3.9” (10 cm) from the edge of each test

bar and draw a line using a needle tool. Fire the test
bars in the kiln and remeasure this space (10 cm
before fired). The difference indicates the clay’s fired
shrinkage.
Thrown Cylinder by Tom White

clay 87
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TroubleshooTing
Clay imperfeCTions
Manufacturers’ catalogues list clay’s shrinkage and absorption percentages near

the rated firing temperature of the clay. Percentages are best when compared with
the shrinkage and absorption rates of other clays. They less accurately determine
the exact shrinkage and absorption rate for the clay in your own kiln. The ceramic
supplier’s kiln could be fired at a slower rate of temperature increase. All of these
factors cause more or less melting in the clay and a higher or lower absorption
rate. Allow for a deviation of plus or minus 1 percent when testing absorption
rates yourself.
Imperfections can be introduced into a clay body during the mining, process-
ing, packing, or shipping processes. Potters have found everything from roots and
stones to cigarette butts and keys in raw clay. Even in careful mixing operations,
objects can find their way into clay. In general, foreign objects in clay indicate
poor quality-control procedures on the supplier’s end.
Imperfections can result during the mixing process (marbling of moist clay and
jelly roll lamination resulting in spiral cracking in the moist clay), such as varia-
tions and inconsistencies of organic materials mixed to produce a clay body
formula. This chapter addresses common imperfections in premixed clay and their
basic fixes.
Marbling in moist clay

can occur when the raw
materials are not well mixed.
Depending on the raw
materials used in the clay
body formula, the marbling
effect may be visible in the
fired clay body.
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FOreign OBjeCts
Ceramics suppliers have reported gloves, bolts, feathers,
rocks, nuts, roots, wood, and cigarette butts in raw clay
shipped from the mine. Anything that can be found on
a clay loader—jewelry, shoes, even a wallet—can crop up
later in raw clay. Potters working in their studios should
remove any foreign objects from their moist clay before
beginning any forming operations.
MarBling
If two different clay body formulas are not separated dur-
ing the mixing process, they can combine during any stage
of the process and cause a marbled effect in the moist clay.
Marbling can also occur when a clay body is not allowed to
mix sufficiently in the clay mixer, producing an inconsis-
tent batch of moist clay. Here, a low-temperature red clay is mixed with a high
When clay is extruded through the pug mill (mixer), temperature stoneware clay. This combination can cause
fragments of the clay body previously passed through the discoloration in the fired clay and significant fluxing action
mill can enter the current clay mix. If the preceding clay when the clay mixture is fired to high temperature.
is the same temperature range, a discoloration is evident
when the clay is at its maturing range. If the preceding
clay happens to be a lower- or higher-temperature clay,
the contamination can result in a fired clay with fluxed Always wedge clay before forming to equalize the
(melted) or overly refractory (cracked) areas. Finally, if one moisture content of the clay, and thoroughly mix any shear
of the clays mixed in the clay body formula has a higher lines created by the extrusion process, which will prevent a
level of organic material, this inconsistency will show up jelly roll lamination crack in the drying or firing stages.
in the form of marbling.
COntaMinated grOg
jelly rOll laMinatiOn Grog is added to moist clay bodies to increase the “tooth,”
Under certain pug mill conditions, the resulting mixed or stand-up ability of the clay in the throwing or hand
clay can exhibit a circular series of fault lines. The concen- building process. Grog also reduces the rate of dry and fired
tric shear lines look like a cross-section of a jelly roll cake. shrinkage and can add texture to the clay body surface.
The defect is produced by the auger blades in the pug mill Grog can either be mined as a virgin material, which
that create a rubbing action, separating the coarse and fine contains high amounts of alumina and silica, or it can be
particles in a clay mix. The auger’s rubbing action causes crushed from reprocessed firebricks. Depending on the
an effect similar to troweling the top layer of wet cement firebricks’ original use, the grog can include contaminants
so fine particles migrate to the surface. Bend a thin slice of that cause green specking in the fired clay body. While this
clay, and you’ll see the concentric ring pattern. The defect is rare, it is always best to use virgin grog in the clay body.
occurs because of the combination of particle sizes in a clay The particle-size distribution of grog can shift, depend-
body and the speed with which clay moves through the ing on the care with which it is processed. Coarser grog will
de-airing chamber of the pug mill. make moist clay feel gritty, and large particles of
One way to prevent jelly rolls is to slow the auger and grog may disrupt the surface texture of the clay. Finer
thus clay movement through the chamber. Some clay grog particles can make the moist clay feel gummy and
bodies can tolerate fast speeds through the chamber, but lacking “tooth.”
others cannot. Ultimately, the side effect potters experience
because of jelly roll lamination is uneven particle distribu-
tion, which results in cracking in the drying, bisque-firing,
or glaze-firing stages.
clay 89
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raW and Fired Clay
COlOr diFFerentiatiOn
Individual materials used in the clay body formula can
determine its moist color but not always its eventual fired
color. The raw color of a clay body can differ considerably
from its fired color, depending on the organic materials and
sulfates found in any of the clays or raw materials. Metallic
coloring oxides found in clays, such as iron and manganese,
also can influence raw and fired color.
Firing a clay body will drive off organic materials and
sulfates. Clays high in organic content can appear almost
black and, with the correct firing procedure, fire out to a
bright white. Raw fireclays range from light gray to brown,
depending on their organic and sulfate levels. Raw ball
clays, depending on their lignite content, range from cream
to gray. High sulfate levels in ball clays can give them a
yellow cast.
A raw material left out or added (a mixing error) in an
extra quantity could change the raw color of the moist clay
A jelly roll lamination is revealed in the extruded clay. Always and the clay body’s handling and firing characteristics. If a
wedge clay before forming it to disperse uneven particles. refractory fireclay component was left out of the formula,
the clay body might become extremely plastic and gummy,
causing it to slump or melt in the firing stages. If dark
iron-bearing clays were mistakenly used in the clay body,
it would be revealed in white or porcelain clays only after
they have been fired.
If your moist clay is colored differently than usual, be
sure to create test bars and fire the moist clay, to see if the
fired color is correct.
Lamination patterns in a clay extrusion.
Opposite: Wheel-Thrown Raku-Fired Vase by Steven Branfman

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clay 91
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Spotlight on Lime Pop
Lime pop occurs when moisture in the air comes into con- When used in earthenware glazes, large percentages of
tact with a carbonized lime nodule, causing its expansion lime can cause crystal growth. In high-temperature glazes,
in an unyielding fired clay body. This can occur when the limestone in powder form acts as a flux, causing other
pottery is removed from the kiln. It can also happen years glaze materials to melt.
later, as lime expands (in the form of calcium hydroxide). Limestone contamination in moist clay comes most
Lime pop is a semi-elliptical 1/8- to 1/2-inch (3- to 13-mm) frequently from plaster wedging tables or plaster bats. Soft
crack in low-temperature bisque or high-temperature fired or brittle plaster nodules of greater than 1/2 mm can enter
ware. A conical hole reveals a black or white nodule (lime) the clay body during wedging or the reprocessing of scrap
at the bottom. clay. Eventually, plaster will degrade, causing the moist
If lime is present in the clay body as a powder, the clay to grab particles from the weakened plaster surface.
forces of expansion are not sufficient to crack the clay. In To counter this type of mishap, staple a canvas cloth on
low-fire white clay bodies, powdered limestone (composed top of the plaster wedging board and inspect plaster bats
of more than 80 percent calcium or magnesium carbonate) for any soft spots or concave areas.
is often added to prevent glaze crazing (see page 182).
Lime Pop Diagrams
/8” to 1/2” (3 mm to 1.3 cm) hole in clay surface.

1
Top View: Half-moon shaped

crack with lime nodule at
bottom of conical hole.
Side View Clay

Black or white nodule of lime
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(Text)
A white lime nodule at the bottom of a conical
hole in the bisque-fired clay body. Note any
white specks in dry or moist clay, which can be
an indication of limestone particles. If only a few
hard white nodules are found in the clay, simply
remove them to prevent a potential lime pop.
This cross-section of a fired clay body shows

voids that contain a white particle of limestone.
clay .93
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C C H A P T E R
F O U R
P R E L I M I N A RY
C L AY T E C H N I Q U E S
A
s you experiment with clay, you will enjoy learning the
basics of clay preparation and manipulation. Every step
is important to the process; there are no shortcuts when
working with clay. Timing is crucial when working with
plastic clay, drying clay, and firing clay. Generally, if the clay is
provided an environment that is conducive to a slow transforma-
tion, it will come through the forming, drying, and firing stages
without incident.
If the steps are rushed, however, there will boxes of clay should be stored in a dry
usually be signs of stress on the clay such space, such as a palette on a garage floor
as slumping and deforming during the form- or on a sturdy shelf, so that cardboard
ing process, cracking during drying, or boxes can be stacked and maintain their
exploding or melting during firing. All of structural integrity.
this can be avoided with patience and atten- Buying clay in bulk is more cost effec-
tion to the clay’s consistency. tive, but until you are committed to using
Clay bodies that are prepared at a clay a particular clay body, it is best to buy only
facility are blended in industrial mixers then a few more boxes than you think you will
extruded through a pug mill to form logs use for your starter projects. This will pre-
of clay that can easily be weighed, pack- vent your studio from being filled with
aged, shipped, and used right out of the unused clay boxes.
bag. Commercially packaged, corrugated


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Conversely, clay that has been set out to dry in

arches may be stiffer on the surface than at
the center.
Clay is wedged in order to align particles.
Clay particles are flat and held together by water.
Through the action of wedging the clay particles
become aligned and charged by the water that is
bonding them to make it plastic. Wedging makes
the clay easier to manipulate and the fiber of the
clay stronger and removes air bubbles.
C Clay’s tactile nature informs all styles of pottery making. Aside from rendering a homogenous clay
mound, a key component of wedging is to
MANAGING CLAY
remove air bubbles. For that reason, it’s impera-
CONSISTENCY tive that you not fold air into the mass of clay.
The previous chapter addressed clay’s plasticity,
Sloppy wedging will trap air and make throwing
which is especially important as you begin to
on the wheel very difficult.
work on projects. Clay should give easily to hand
There are many ways to wedge clay and all
pressure but not be sticky. If the clay is sticky,
styles take some practice to master. All involve
roll it into arches and leave it to air dry for a
layering and compressing the clay through some
while or wedge it on a plaster slab that will
kind of rotation or pounding. This text will show
absorb moisture quickly. If the clay is stiff and
one technique, called spiral wedging.
hard to wedge, try wrapping it in a wet towel,
Spiral wedging is believed to have originated
then in plastic, and leave overnight. It should be
in Asia. It has a beautiful shell- or flowerlike
easier to work with by the next day. If the clay is
shape that results from the rotation of clay on the
really hard, soak the entire quantity of clay in a
point of the cone. The dynamics of spiral wedg-
bucket of water for 8 to 10 hours and then pro-
ing allow even a small-framed potter to wedge a
ceed to wedge.
significant amount of clay without too much
Another way to achieve a desirable consist-
effort because of the momentum that develops as
ency is to wedge slightly stiff clay with soft clay,
the rotation progresses.
creating a mixture. With a little elbow grease,
The photographs on the next spread show the
you will be able to control the consistency of
proper hand position of movements. Read
your clay and it will make the forming process
through the steps, try one position after the
much more rewarding.
other, then string all of the movements into a
continuum of motion. You will find as you get
WEDGING better at wedging that the clay will move in a
Before forming clay, it is important to wedge (or rocking motion. It will require some muscle, but
knead) it for several reasons. the clay should be partially displaced and shaped
Clay is wedged to create a homogenous mass by the rotation of the clay itself. Wedging clay
of clay of uniform moisture content. Sometimes should not require too much effort, but it does
clay that has been in storage is stiffer in the cen- take some practice to master.
ter than at the surface where moisture condenses.
PRELIMINARY CLAY TECHNIQUES 51

preliminary clay techniques 95
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The wedging table should be at knuckle W EDGING C LAY

height so that you’re in the best position to
use your shifting body weight in the rotating
process.
After wedging, clay will stay workable for
a few hours if kept in plastic. If left out it
begins to stiffen up, even from the underside
on the ware board. Kneaded clay should be
rewedged if unused within a few hours.
Avoid taking shortcuts when preparing
clay because they tend to make the forming 1
of clay more difficult. Remember that
wedging clay will establish strength in the 1. Place your clay slightly to the left of your body and think
of an ice cream cone. Place your left hand on the top of the
body by aligning particles with water “ice cream” mound.The left hand will always stay on the top
through compression and spread moisture of the mound and pivot the clay around on the tip of the
cone.The right hand will drive the displacement of the clay.
to create a homogenous mass. Poor wedging
will add air bubbles and weaken the integ-
rity of the clay thus making the clay difficult
to work with.
SPIRAL WEDGING
Wedging motion and the rotation can
be like a little dance. It is a good
workout and an opportunity to assess
the consistency of the clay that is going
to be shaped. If the clay is very soft, it
may be best suited for shallow wide 2
forms, but if it’s a little stiffer, it might be
good for larger vertical forms. 2. Place the right hand over the clay diagonal to your body
covering part of the ice cream ball and the cone.The left and
right hands will work together to roll the clay forward and
push down.The right hand will be doing most of the pushing
TIP using force from your upper body.Thumbs can touch, form-
ing an upside-down V and then come together side by side.
Plaster and clay don’t mix. If plaster
particles get mixed into the wet clay,
they will cause blemishes in the fired
piece and may even cause a piece to
break.To keep plaster particles from
getting into your wet clay, use plastic
tools to remove excess clay from
plaster surfaces. Metal tools are too
sharp and will loosen plaster particles.


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3 4
3. Some of the clay from the cone will be flattened on the 4. Keep your hands toward the top of the cone. A shell
table. Repeat the steps of rolling the clay away, up, and pattern should develop underneath your hands. If clay is dis-
toward you. Now try and connect all the movements to cre- placed with too much force, there will be too much clay on
ate a rhythmic rotation of the clay. the table that will trap air when folded.Work the clay gradu-
ally into shape through the rotation without excessive force.
5 6
5. The clay will tighten slightly as it is wedged.When it tight- 6. Place the cone spirals side down on the table with the
ens, it is ready to be formed into a cone. As you rotate with fold/seam on your right. Place both hands on top on both
the left hand, lower the right hand each rotation until the sides and rock the clay around and around to flatten and
shell pattern is integrated into the mass of clay. compress the spirals.This will eliminate uneven clay and air
bubbles at the base.
7. Keep the clay fold on the right side.Tamp and roll clay to
form a cylinder. Mark the right side where the fold was.This
mark will indicate the top of the mound when you work on
the wheel. It is the weakest part of the wedged clay, and if it’s
placed on top it will receive the most compression through
the action of centering. For hand building it will not be as
important, because the clay will be compressed by slab, coil,
extruding, or pinching methods.

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by securing contractor plastic around a metal or

plastic shelving unit or placing your work in an
old refrigerator that is not plugged in. If you
want work to dry evenly and slowly, you can a
make a tent of paper (newspaper is great for this)
around the work. This allows air to circulate
around the work slowly and evenly and slows
the evaporation of moisture. Some universities
and professional studios have damp ware rooms
that are kept humid to keep clay in the plastic to
leather-hard consistency, thus allowing for longer
C Properly wedged clay is very plastic and able to stretch periods of workability.
without showing signs of stress.
TYPICAL CLAY CHALLENGES
SHRINKAGE AND DRYING Getting your clay to dry without problems can be
The water contained in a plastic clay will evapo- challenging.
rate during the drying of a piece, causing the clay Potters often refer to clay as having memory.
to shrink and shift shape as it moves from the The concept is fairly simple: Clay likes to return
plastic to leather-hard to bone-dry stages. It is to its original shape. Clay will move during dry-
important to consider the size of the work, the ing and firing, and you will recognize it the more
effects of gravity, and the humidity in the studio. you work with a particular clay. For example,
One way to control the drying is to cover when a slab of clay is rolled out in only one
your work with plastic dry cleaning bags. They direction, as it dries it will tend to pull back to
are light and can be layered to maintain moisture the direction from which it was rolled. Another
content. You can create a damp ware box or area example is how a spout on a teapot might twist
slightly as it unravels in the drying.
Just the action of cutting the ware off the bat
SEASONAL CHANGES IN DRYING can warp it ever so slightly, but it will show up in
I work in an old barn that is very cool and the firing as the clay shrinks and becomes dense.
damp in the summer, and it can take weeks for It is important to not disfigure vessels when han-
work to dry during the summer months. dling leather-hard clay because although they can
During the winter months the central heating be reshaped, as the piece dries it will disfigure
system dries the environment so much that slightly again in the firing.
pieces can dry in a day.This requires that I keep Finer clays (which have uniform particle size)
an eye on work during the winter because the are more susceptible to warping during drying. It
fast drying means fast shrinking and this can is always desirable to have a slow, even drying
promote cracks on areas of uneven thickness environment for clay pieces.
and anywhere that clay has been attached, such HELPFUL TOOLS
as a handle to a mug or the head or tail of an A tool that can be very handy during the drying
animal body form. process is a fan. It can be used to circulate air
and evaporate ambient moisture. Always point a


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fan away from work to move air around the cut, run your finger on it and pick up the
entire room. Beware of placing work in front of a fresh clay before it turns to dust. Clean your
fan. This will cause the section facing the fan to tools after each use and you will eliminate a
dry much faster than the rest and create stress in dusty toolbox too.
the piece. Ceiling fans work much better than • An ample supply of plastic sheets will perform
box or standing oscillating fans. a number of functions. Plastic becomes dusty
Other tools that potters use to aid drying after several uses since it usually sits on fresh
include heat lamps and hairdryers. Some even clay and then dries on the surface. Plastic dry
use torches. It is true that just a little heat will cleaning bags are free for the taking at most
evaporate enough moisture to allow one to con- dry cleaners. I replace my plastic bags regular-
tinue working or secure a section of work so that ly and reduce the dust in the studio.
it won’t collapse. However, one must be very cau-
• It is tempting to keep all of the plastic bags
tious of quick drying. Even direct sunlight can be
that clay comes in but I have found that it’s
problematic; dried clay on the surface creates a
better to dispose of them as soon as they are
skin that does not allow moisture to evaporate
empty because they get really dusty. Further-
from the core of the wall which, in turn, creates a
more, the dry clay chips that are left inside
weakness in the piece.
clay bags bond to fresh clay, causing uneven,
As mentioned previously, there really are no
chunky surfaces. Instead, use new garbage
shortcuts. The best way to dry clay is to allow
bags. Plastic storage containers are cheap,
time for moisture to evaporate gradually and
washable, and ideal for storing clay, too.
evenly.
• Wash all towels and aprons regularly.
KEEPING THE STUDIO CLEAN • Line your ware boards and work area with
By taking the following simple steps to develop old newspapers, when applicable. At the end
clean work habits, you will have a pleasant, of the work session, the cleanup is quick and
inviting, and safe workspace in which to dust free. Just gather up the newspapers and
be creative. recycle them.
• Make a point to clean up any clay before it • Pick up any dropped clay and wipe up any
dries and creates dust. Keep several plastic spills or splatters of clay or glaze from the
putty knives and large car washing sponges on floor or work area promptly.
hand. The putty knives are cheap and very use- • Keep your clay scraps hydrated by placing
ful for scraping up clay that gets stuck on the them in a bag or small bucket (spraying them
table or on boards when wedging or forming. with water to keep them workable). When you
Plastic putty knives are not sharp and won’t finish for the day, you can quickly wedge it
gouge tables, plaster, or boards. The goal is to and have it ready for use the next day.
scrape up moist clay to reclaim and to avoid • Designate a recycling bucket for dry scraps of
wood chips or plaster from contaminating it. clay. I keep a 5-gallon (about 20-L) bucket and
• A spray bottle filled with water is great for force myself to recycle often. This way the
spot cleanup with a sponge. process is manageable.
• Keep your wire cutter tool clean. After each

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• Beware of electrical shock

hazards in the studio. Be sure
that your hands are dry and
that plugs are grounded.
RECLAIMING AND
RECYCLING CLAY
One of the marvels of clay is its
capacity to be worked and
reworked until one is satisfied
with the outcome and can pro-
ceed to firing. Clay in its raw
form can be easily recycled by
rehydration and wedging. The
easiest way to keep clay work- C Clay drying on a plaster slab
able is to keep it hydrated.
MAINTAINING
MOISTURE
Whenever you are working,
keep the moist clay under
plastic and have a container,
such as a plastic bag or a small
plastic bucket, available to col-
lect any trimmings and scraps.
When the clay starts to dry out,
spray water on it and cover it. If
at the end of the work session it
feels stiff or not very plastic,
wedge it and spray it with water
before storing in plastic
overnight. C These dry scraps in small pieces are ready to be hydrated in a plastic bucket.
Keep a larger reclaiming
bucket for larger scraps or failed
TIP
attempts. Not every piece made
For reclaiming very wet clay, I use plaster slabs that are small
needs to go through the firing
and light enough for me to move.They can be placed outside
cycle. If there are flaws or cracks
on a nice day or stacked with clay in between to help draw
in a piece, or if a piece just isn’t
moisture out of the clay.
working, break it up and place it
into the reclaiming bucket.


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REHYDRATING DRY CLAY

There are a couple of ways to approach the rehy- C R E AT I N G A P L A S T E R S L A B
drating process. The best way is to let all the Plaster slabs can be purchased or made at
scraps get bone dry and then add water. The home.To make a plaster slab, buy plaster
bone-dry clay will slake down into slip in a mat- powder that is especially formulated for
pottery from a ceramic supplier. Pottery
ter of hours, and you can decant or siphon off
Plaster #1 or Hydrocal are popular plasters.
the excess water. Alternatively, you can keep a
The plaster available at the hardware store is
wet reclaiming bucket. This is a bucket that
not strong enough for clay work and will
holds moist scraps to which water and wet work disintegrate easily, contaminating the clay.The
are added. It can take a few days for leather-hard supplier should provide you with mixing
clay to slake down, but it will. ratios of plaster to water and instructions.
Be sure to follow instructions carefully.
DEHYDRATING WET CLAY
A plaster slab is very useful for drying clay
slurry, as plaster absorbs moisture very quickly.
RECLAIMING WITH A PUG MILL
Place the plaster slab on a table, elevate slightly
Some potters love using the reclaimed clay
with wooden slats, and scoop the soft clay onto
because it feels much more plastic and responsive
the surface. Keep an eye on it. Depending on the
than machine-pugged clay. However, for ease of
humidity levels, temperature, and amount of
production and saving time, most production
clay it might be ready to wedge overnight or in a
potters invest in a studio-size pug mill to pug
week. As soon as the clay can be formed into a
scraps and reclaimed clay. Pug mills are really
coil, it is ready for the next phase of recycling.
helpful for pre-wedging clay. There are some
Roll the clay into fat coils the width of your
models that mix and de-aerate the clay very well
hand and length of your forearm. Shape them
too. A production potter I know claims he doesn’t
into arches on the table to air dry. Arches allow
even wedge his clay because his de-airing pug
air to circulate around the clay, evenly drying it.
mill compresses his clay so thoroughly.
Check for a soft plastic consistency. As soon
A pug mill is a major studio purchase, often
as the clay can be wedged without sticking to
costing as much as a potter’s wheel and kiln. It
the plaster or table, it should be wedged and
is usually one of the last tools to be added to
stored or worked with.
the studio.
If you do not have a plaster slab, line a table
with contractor plastic and lay the clay out on
that until it sets up. A thin layer will work best
since it will dry only from the top surface.
Potters often have several plaster slabs so that
they can layer them with clay and dry it from
both the top and bottom. They may also desig-
nate certain slabs to use with specific clays.
Keep in mind that the sooner the clay is
wedged the easier it is on your body and the bet-
ter mixed the clay will be.

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C C H A P T E R
F I V E
HAND BUILDING
H
and building is a great way to get to know the
properties of clay. If you have never worked with clay
or have very little experience, you will benefit from
working on a few hand-building projects before trying
your hand at the potter’s wheel. You will quickly become familiar
with degrees of plasticity and feel the difference in leather-hard
clay. You will also develop skills that will help you craft unique
vessels and design and embellish your wheel-thrown pottery.
Some people prefer working with hand-building techniques
because there are so many possibilities that are not dictated by a
rotating potter’s wheel and the round forms that result. In fact,
many ceramic artists work with hand building or a combination of
wheel and hand building. I encourage you to try each of following
hand-building techniques. It may take more than one attempt to
get results. Remember that it’s part of the learning curve.
PINCH POTS pots can be embellished. Pinching clay

Pinching pots from a ball of clay is proba- will introduce you to the wonderful
bly one of the simplest ways to form clay sculptural potential of clay. You can make
into useful containers. All you need are forms quickly and recycle the ones you
your hands. If you have a few tools, the do not like.
C Launderette, clay horse by Louise W. King, hand built

and fired in a low-temperature salt firing, using pinch,
coil, slab, and stamping techniques

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P INCH P OT T ECHNIQUE
Wedge a 2-pound (1-kg) ball of clay that is soft and plastic and slice it into
four equal sections. Form four round balls and wrap three in plastic.
1 2 3
1. Sit on a comfortable stool and put 2. Find the center of the mound of 3. Begin to squeeze the clay between
the ball of clay in the palm of your clay and gently press into it with the the thumb and index finger as you
left hand, which is resting on your right thumb.Turn the ball of clay rhythmically turn the ball of clay with
thigh. (You can reverse the instruc- slightly, press down with the right your other hand. Once you have
tions if you are left handed, but pot- thumb again, and turn again. Do this made a full circle, move the thumb
tery is an ambidextrous activity and several times until you have drilled a and index finger up to the displaced
it’s good to train both hands to work hole into the ball of clay and have a clay and repeat the steps.
with the clay.) little less than 1/2 inch (1 cm) at the
base.You will see that you have dis-
placed some of the clay.
4 5 6
4. You will notice that if your pinch- 5. Once the clay has been evenly ng
6. At this point, the ball of clay is beginning
ing hand is at a 90-degree angle with pinched all the way up, you can to take shape and may need to set up for a
the other hand the clay will be dis- smooth and stretch the clay with little while before it gets thinned again. It’ss
placed vertically. If the pinching hand the index and middle finger from the easy to judge when to let the pot set up; if
is at a 60-degree angle the clay will inside of the shape out towards the clay is holding a round shape, it’s okayy
be displaced in a diagonal and will the edge. to repeat the pinching sequence. If the pott
form an open shape. It’s great fun to You will see the clay’s stretch is losing the shape as you are pinching,
see that for each action there will be marks on the outer surface.This place the partially pinched pot upside
a reaction in the clay. surface can be organic and beautiful. down to set up.


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7 8 9
7. Pick up another ball of clay and 8. Try to keep the opening narrow. 9. When the stretch marks appear
start from the beginning. Make the See what shape you can get. on the outer surface, smooth them
center opening and this time change over to compress the wall. (Note the
the angle of the pinching hand to a difference in texture on the surface.)
90-degree angle.
10
ng
ning 10. Experiment with several balls of
or a clay to get a sense of displacing clay
It’ss by using the pinching method.
p; if To even the lip of the pot, place it
kayy on the center of a turn table, and
pott hold a needle tool steady to mark the
surface as the pot is slowly turned.
Score the lip until it is sliced of. Soft-
en the edge with a moist sponge.
C Pinch pots with iron oxide wash on the exterior and glazed interiors by Teresa Genovese
HAND BUILDING 61
hand building 105
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C Clay slab with stamped decoration
STAMPING CLAY Another idea is to make an insignia stamp for

Clay is very responsive to the impression of your ware. Many potters have logo or initial
stamps and textures. Roll slabs of clay and press stamps. Play around with your initials to create a
leaves, fabric, buttons, shells, and homemade symbol on paper, place it against the flat area of
stamps into the surface to see the different marks the clay, and gently trace it in reverse onto the
that they will leave on the clay. The detail that clay with a toothpick or pencil. Remove the
clay retains is remarkable. paper and use a pencil or needle tool to carve the
Open your eyes to all the textures around an impression in the clay and let dry. Follow the
you; soles of shoes, kitchen tools, and trinkets all instructions above for finishing the stamp.
can make great marks in clay.
It is fairly simple to make your own stamps SLAB CONSTRUCTION
out of clay. Using fine clay, such as porcelain, for Constructing vessels with slabs is great fun
these stamps is best but not necessary. Shape a because you can build pieces easily and work in
little knob of clay in your hand, flatten it on the large scale. The trick to working with slabs is
table, and impress into the flattened end the tex- timing the drying and moisture control. It is best
ture of your choice. to roll slabs from very plastic clay because it far
While the stamp is still leather hard, press it less work to flatten soft clay. Stiff clay will be
into soft clay to see the mark it makes. This is more difficult, and it will show signs of stress
the time to test it because you can still clean up early on in the process. All you need to roll a
the lines at this point. Once the clay is bone dry, slab is a flat work surface, a heavy rolling pin,
clean off any burrs of clay by using fine sandpa- canvas or fabric, and two slats of wood that are
per. Once you are happy with your stamp design, of the same thickness you want your slabs to be.
bisque-fire it so it keeps a permanent shape.


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1. Wedge about 3 pounds (1.5 kg) of clay and

slam it onto the canvas. Pound it with your
hands or a paddle and then begin rolling
the clay.
2. Lift the clay off the canvas and flip it over to
release the tension from the fabric and also to
change direction of the rolling. Remember that
clay has memory and it is good to work it in
several directions to minimize warping when it
C Rolling a slab of clay (step 3).
dries.
3. Place the slats on either side of the clay slab
and glide the rolling pin over the slats, displac-
ing the clay evenly onto the fabric. (See photo,
above right.)
4. Once your slab is rolled, you can move the fab-
ric onto a board and let it set up while you roll
another.
5. You can stamp or impress texture in the slab by
laying a piece of textured material over the slab
and rolling gently with the rolling pin. Peel the
C Adding texture to a slab of clay (step 5).
material back and see the texture. (See photo,
right.)
Tip
6. Drying stages will be very important when slab
There are industrial-scale slab rollers for
building. If you want to make cups and cylin-
people who produce a lot of slab ware.
drical forms, it wise to use soft slabs that can
I have one in the studio but use it rarely
hold their shape but can curve without stress-
because hand-rolled slabs are more plastic
ing or cracking. If you see cracks emerging, the
and easier to work with. They are handy if
clay is too dry. If the slabs collapse when you
a lot of slabs are needed and if a consistent
cut and hold them, they are too wet. Timing is
thickness is desired. (See page 38 for more
everything!
on slab rollers.)
Cutting and Joining SlabS

Building with slabs offers so many possibilities. knife), or a hobby knife is perfect for cutting into
This section will cover how to cut and join slabs slabs with precision.
into three-dimensional shapes. Later in the book Whenever a section of slab is cut that is to
you can find projects with slabs that will elaborate be joined to another, bevels can be cut along the
on the basic construction techniques. edges for better attachment. For this example, we
To cut slabs that will be joined, it is important will first make a mug using a clay slab (continued
to use a thin, sharp knife. A fettle knife (potter’s on the following page).
hand building 107
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S LAB C ONSTRUCTION OF A M UG
Begin by rolling a slab of clay to the desired thickness. Make a paper template of the size
cylinder you wish to make. (The circumference of the mug is the length of the template,
the height of the mug is the width.)
1 2 3
1. Lay the slab on newspaper or fabric 2. Cut the edges that are to be joined 3. Score and add slip to the seams.
and place the template on top of the at an angle to create a bevel.
slab.
4 5 6
4. Place the cylinder over a slab to trace 5. Align the seams and press gently to 6. Notice that with the bevel the seam will
the circumference and determine the size join them. have far more integrity than it would with a
for your base, then cut the base with a h-
90-degree edge. Gently press the clay togeth-
beveled edge, score, and apply slip. Align er with dry hands so as not to deform the
the slab over the base to form a cylinder. shape. Score and smooth the inner seam.
TIP
Paper templates can be used to create specific shapes of slabs
for precision building.They are very useful in determining
design elements and proportions, and they save a lot of time
and clay.


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7 8 9
7. Press gently, then turn the cylinder 8. Roll a thin coil and place around 9. Cut a strip of clay to make a handle;
upside down in order to score and the inner seam of the base. Using a smooth the edges with a wet hand. Score
smooth the base. If you do so at an round-tipped wooden modeling tool, the areas to be joined and apply pressure
angle, you will create a nice beveled smooth the interior. Once the piece to the seam. Be sure to join the handle
bottom and line that will visually lift the is leather hard, use a damp sponge to thoroughly from the underside.
piece from the table surface. soften the seam. If you do so too soon,
however, the piece will deform.
10
ill 10. Using a rubber rib, smooth the

ha outer surface and finish off the lip edge
eth-h- with a damp elephant ear sponge.
e
.
C Slab-constructed mug fired to cone

6 in an electric kiln
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S LAB C ONSTRUCTION WITH A S LUMP M OLD
1 2 3
1. Roll a slab slightly larger than the 2. Lift the slab and drape over and onto 3. Lift the mold and drop it lightly to
mold you want to drape it into. the plaster mold. encourage the clay to drape into the
form.
4 5 6
4. Use a damp sponge to gently press 5. Place a ware board on the mold to 6. Trim the edges with a wooden or
clay into the mold. use as a cutting template. plastic tool so as not to damage the
mold.When the piece is leather hard,
clean up the lip of the piece with a
damp elephant ear sponge (not shown)
and remove from the mold. Removing it
from the mold as soon as the clay will
hold its shape is important to prevent
cracking due to uneven drying.
7.To clean up the edge, use a rasp tool. (You

can buy one at a ceramic supply house or a
hardware store. Rasps are used for wood
working and plaster drywall and look like
cheese graters.) If you rasp at an angle,
7 the result will be a nice beveled edge that
can also be softened with a damp sponge.


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SLUMP AND HUMP MOLDS improve your throwing skills by giving you a
Clay slabs can be draped into slump molds to clear sense of what clay can do and when it is
make forms. Any bowl or tray can be used as a ready to do it. Plasticity, structural strength, join-
slump mold, but it must be lubricated with a ing methods, compression, and timing (clay con-
spray lubricant in order to prevent sticking and sistency) are keys to success.
cracking. The best slump molds are made of You can make coils by hand or you can
plaster. A plaster mold should be dampened extrude clay coils through die forms to quicken
before placing clay on it to slow down the the process. As a student, I learned to hand-roll
absorption of moisture. Economical and practical coils on a table. This was tricky because often
slump molds can be made by using coils of clay the coils dried out in the process of rolling. Then
covered in newspaper or paper towel, formed to I saw Korean potters hand building huge pots. In
the desired shape. (See photos at left for an a matter of hours, they completed pots that were
illustrated guide to using a slump mold made 3 feet (about 1 m) in height. They rolled the clay
of commercially available plaster.) between the palms of their hands, not on the
Any shape over which a slab of clay is draped table. I tried to imitate this technique and refined
is a hump mold. Some commercially sold hump it when I took a few classes with Peter Callas,
molds made of plaster are great and work quickly who uses traditional Japanese and Korean coiling
because of the moisture absorption. Some potters techniques, and then with Joyce Michaud, a pro-
use balloons and plastic beach balls as hump fessor at Hood College in Maryland who special-
molds because the air inside can give way to the izes in Eastern coiling techniques. The fact is,
shrinking clay. Note: Since clay shrinks as it when you roll coils in the palms of your hands,
dries, you absolutely must remove the clay as you are wedging the clay as you roll. The coil
soon as it is stiff enough to hold shape. that is formed is very plastic and compressed.
Otherwise the clay will shrink and crack. The compression of the rolling has much more
structural strength than an extruded coil. This is
why one can build faster and more efficiently
COIL BUILDING with this technique.
Coil building is a method that was—and still Some potters use extruded coils because they
is—used by potters in many cultures to build are so quick to make. However, because the clay
ceramic vessels, with or without using pottery particles are forced through a die form, they
wheels. Many primitive cultures still use coiling tend to have far less plasticity and structural
to build large storage jars or traditional and strength than hand-rolled coils. The plasticity of
ceremonial pottery forms, preserving their the clay is key to coil building. Clay that is too
cultural heritage. dry does not like to stretch and is difficult to
Coiling is a wonderful way to create large ves- hand build with.
sels or sculptures. It is a useful way to embellish
work and can be used to increase the volume of
wheel-thrown pots. I highly recommend practic-
ing some coil building before or while you are
learning to work on the potter’s wheel. Even if
you prefer to use a wheel, working with coils will
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ROLLING COILS IN THE PALMS OF Y OUR H ANDS

With this technique there is no need to pre-wedge the clay as it will be wedged in the rolling.
Lay some plastic on the table to keep your finished coils moist.
1 2
1. You should stand to make coils. 2. Place the base of the coil in your palms. Hold your hands paral-
Pinch a handful of clay from the clay lel to the floor. Begin with the right hand rolling forward and the
mound and squeeze it into a fat coil left rolling gently backward.The movement is in opposition (from
shape. front to back) to the base of your fingers on the left hand and the
bone of your palm on the right and back again. Use gentle but firm
pressure to roll the clay between the base of your palms and fin-
gers.The movement is back and forth with the finger tips moving
slightly upwards as they move forward and then slightly down-
wards as the hand moves closer to the body.
COIL ROLLING TIP

Rolling coils is a rhythmic
skill that takes practice to
master. Some of the most
common problems are
that the clay is too dry
and that hand pressure is
too strong. Clay prefers to
3 4 displace gradually.This
principle will become ever
3. The coil will emerge at the base of 4. If the coils are squared, it’s because
your hands. Once you are finished, place more evident as you work
they are not making a full rotation (360
the coil in plastic and form another. You degrees) in the hand. Pay attention that the with clay and build larger
can store the coils in plastic for up to 24 clay is making a full rotation and that it is forms and especially when
hours, until you are ready to use them. rolling from the fingers through the palms
of hands. If a half rotation is maintained, working on the wheel.
the coils will become misshapen.


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MAKING A BASE
AND B UILDING WITH C OILS
To form the base, prepare a small ball of clay,
about 1 to 11/2 pounds (0.5–1 kg).
1. Roll the ball into a patty.
2 3 4
2. Place the clay on your left hand and 3. Turn the patty and strike it again. 4. Gently pinch up the walls to create a
with your right strike from the center Repeat this rhythmic striking until the base for the first coil to attach. Place
of the patty, displacing clay against the patty is flat and has even wall thickness. the base on a small piece of cloth on a
base of your thumbs in the palms of turntable.
your hands.
5 6 7
5. Take the first coil and place it on end 6. With your fingers in position, apply 7. Slightly turn the turntable and feed
on the inside of the base with the pressure upward with the thumb on the more coil into the pot. Align your finger
index, middle, and ring fingers along the outside wall, apply pressure in a down- on the top and your thumb on the bottom
top of the coil and the thumb under- ward fashion with the top fingers.The and repeat until you are finished with the
neath on the outside.The other hand movement is in opposition.This will coil.Then add another in the same fashion.
holds the coil.You can choose to use wedge the coil into the wall and stretch it. (continued next page)
either hand for this process.
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M AKING A B ASE
A ND B UILDING WITH C OILS (continued)
8 9 10
8. Once you have 3 to 4 coils on the 9. Smooth the interior using a curved 10. Shown here is the texture from the
piece, use the serrated scraper or rib rib. (I like to use a mini-CD.) Continue coil building that has created a pattern.
to score the inside of the walls. As you to build upon the newly compressed Everyone will develop their own unique
score the inner walls, rotate the vessel wall. If the walls of the vessel begin to patterns; it’s like handwriting.
and support the outer wall with the show signs of weakness, take a break
outer hand.You can decide how open and let it dry for a few hours before
or how closed you want the shape by continuing to build.
how you support the outer wall and
how much pressure you apply from
the inside.
11 12 13
11. To smooth the pattern, score the 12. Finish by scraping the textured sur- 13. To give a closed form more volume,
surface in one direction and then in the face with a smooth metal or rubber rib. try blowing into it while it is fairly soft.
opposite direction. If you still have bumps or low areas, try
scraping the high points with the serrat-
ed rib and smoothing again.With a little
patience and perseverance, the surface
can become very smooth.


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COIL-BUILDING
TIP
I prefer to build slightly
inward with the coils
because when I join
the coils with the
serrated rib I stretch
the clay and open the
form. It gives more
control to the shape. If
you build too open, it
is difficult to close and
easy to lose control of
the shape.
C Hand-held extruder with metal die forms and freshly extruded coils
USING EXTRUDED COILS

A NOTE ABOUT JOINING CLAY Extruded coils are a great shortcut to making
Joining clay is easy if the clay is plastic; it will want to coils, though this method has its flaws. Clay
stick to itself.Through pinching and wedge coiling needs to be very soft to extrude properly
techniques, there is so much compression and through the round die forms. Extruding
stretching that the clay particles become easily forces clay particles through and weakens the
aligned and stay together. structural strength and compromises some of
However, with slab construction or when the plasticity. This can be remedied through-
adding one consistency of clay to another it is out the building process by allowing more
important to score the surface of the clay and time between layers of coils and through
add a little slip.The slip helps even out the compression.
moisture content in the clays and acts as a Another consideration with extruded coils
is that the process requires many coils be
bonding agent.
extruded at once. Because coil construction
There is an ongoing debate about scoring in the
requires drying time every 4 to 6 coils that
potting community, however. Some potters work
are applied, coils must be kept wrapped until
quickly with soft clay and don’t score at all.
they are used. Otherwise the surface of the
Others, like me, believe it’s important to score clay will dry and create a skin that compro-
the surface of the clay. mises the plasticity.
Some clays, such as porcelain, require slip in
order to bond.The point is to reduce disparity
of shrinking between two consistencies of clay.
HAND BUILDING 71
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C
T
C H A P T E R
S I X
H ROW I N G
ON THE P O T T E R’ S W H E E L
W
atching someone form a pot from a mound
of clay on a potter’s wheel is breathtaking. In no
time the lump of clay is opened, raised, and
formed seemingly without effort by the potter.
But in fact, any potter will tell you a lot of practice is necessary to
master throwing on the wheel.
The hand-building projects in the previ- are easier to move. Second, because they
ous chapter clearly illustrate how pinching can be set up at different heights, potters
pots and coiling both require the clay to can choose to work sitting or standing.
rotate in order to create even wall thick- And third, motorized wheels are less
ness. Potters around the world have fatiguing for extended periods of throwing.
devised different ways of making turntables Choosing a wheel is a personal decision.
to facilitate the forming of vessels. Up until Some models boast large motors that will
the twentieth century, potters worked with center 100 pounds (50 kg) of clay, others
kick wheels and treadle wheels that used claim silent motors, yet others better pedal
manpower to rotate. Motorized kick wheels control. They come in all price ranges.
revolutionized the pottery industry by Smaller models (1/4 to 1/2 horsepower)
speeding up production. are great for home studio use because it
Some contemporary potters prefer kick is doubtful that anyone will have the need
or treadle wheels because of the rhythmic to center 100 pounds of clay. However, in
nature of throwing and the subtle control cases where the potter intends to start a
over wheel speed that they provide. production line for sale or plans to work
However, in most schools and modern pot- on a larger scale, a full horsepower is rec-
teries, electric wheels are used for several ommended.
reasons. First, they occupy less space and
C Wood-fired stoneware bottle by Kristin Müller

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SETTING UP THE WHEEL AND CLOCKWISE AND

COUNTERCLOCKWISE ROTATION
STOOL
Western-style wheels turn counterclockwise,
Place the wheel near an electrical outlet so that
Eastern-style wheels turn clockwise, and most
the wheel can easily be plugged in. A surge pro-
wheels can be reversed. In this text, instructions
tector is recommended to protect the motor in
will be for western-style, counterclockwise rota-
case of power surges. (Newer wheels have com-
tion of the wheel. (If you choose to work in
puter chips and circuit boards.) The stool should
reverse, reverse the instructions and hand posi-
allow the potter to sit with thighs parallel to the
tions.) It doesn’t matter whether a potter is left or
ground and not at an angle. An adjustable stool
right handed because pottery is an ambidextrous
is a versatile choice. When sitting in front of the
activity. One of the benefits of working with clay
wheel the potter should be seated slightly higher
on the wheel is the development of dexterity in
than the wheel head. If necessary, the wheel can
both hands. To balance the body during throw-
be elevated by placing bricks underneath the
ing, place the control pedal on the left side and a
legs. Check that the wheel is level with a level
brick on the right side to elevate the right foot.
and use shims to make adjustments as needed.
(The pedal can go on either side, but the left side
Maintaining a level wheel is very important or
allows for more balance during throwing.) The
the pots will always be crooked.
concept of body mechanics will be elaborated on
in the following section.
POTTER’S WHEEL DYNAMICS

Understanding certain forces at work when clay
is rotating on the wheel can save the potter a lot
of work and frustration. Three principles will
affect the clay in motion: centrifugal force con-
trolled by speed of the wheel, gravity, and pres-
sure from the potter’s hands. The potter controls
the wheel speed and learns to use the pedal to
increase and decrease speed dependant on the
amount and consistency of clay and the stage of
raising and shaping. This requires coordination,
good body mechanics, and an understanding of
the forces at play.
Simply put, gravity applies downward pres-
sure on particles of clay and centrifugal force
pulls particles away from the center of the vessel.
The potter applies pressure accordingly and dis-
C Proper wheel alignment: Be sure that the stool places clay in ways that work with these forces
you are sitting on is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) or more
higher than the wheel head and that your thighs are rather than against them.
parallel to the ground for proper posture. Adjust the Centrifugal force displaces matter from the
wheel and stool height accordingly.
center out in the form of a dome. When clay is


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E FFECTS OF CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
gravity
gravity
gravity
stable area
centrifugal force centrifugal force

centrifugal force
speed speed speed
C If the wall is kept vertical during C By slowing the wheel speed, cen- C The forces take over if the wheel
raising, it opposes gravity and centrifu- trifugal force is reduced. During shap- speed is too fast. Also, if the clay is
gal force.The wall is in the stable area ing, the inner hand works with gravity too wet, the piece collapses.
and the wheel can rotate at a medium and centrifugal force to splay out the
to fast speed and resist the pressure clay wall and create a curve.
the forces are exerting on it.
raised, if kept aligned in an inward and upward quickly because they have mastered the ability to
position, the centrifugal force cannot overtake harness the forces and use the dynamics to their
the clay. There is a stable area in which rotating advantage.
clay can resist the outward pull of centrifugal With practice, muscle memory and kinesthetic
force and the downward pull of gravity. In order cues develop, which will inform the potter about
to raise a tall cylinder, the clay wall must be how much pressure to apply to the moving clay.
raised quickly and the rim must never leave the A novice needs to think about everything that is
stable area. If a bowl form is desired, the wall of applied to the clay (speed, pressure, lubrication)
clay will be raised within the stable area and the and is usually happy to make anything at all.
shaping will occur by reducing the wheel speed However, the repetition of movements builds and
thus reducing the centrifugal force as the rim refines skills that signal when to increase or
moves outward. If this step is carried out with decrease wheel speed and how much pressure to
too much speed, the centrifugal force will domi- apply or release as walls are raised and shapes are
nate. When gravity and centrifugal force take formed. As throwing skills develop, forming a pot
over, the form will collapse on the wheel. will be quick and easy, allowing the focus to be
Constant balance of centrifugal and gravita- on composition and design elements of the ves-
tional forces is needed to control shapes. Most sel. The artist builds and refines basic skills to
beginning potters struggle with the combination make beautiful work that can be both expressive
of forces at play and usually fight rather than and well-crafted.
work with them. Experienced potters make pots
THROWING ON THE POTTER ’ S WHEEL 75

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developing SkillS through mounds of clay. Potters, like musicians, must

repetition warm up before every session so that the steps to
Muscle memory skills are developed by repeti- making a specific form are focused and fluid.
tion throughout our lives. All of our voluntary
movements are based on muscle memory, which pottery FormS
send messages to our brain to control activities Vessels made on the potter’s wheel are all deriva-
such as walking, driving, and writing. We have tive of the cylinder. Platters are formed from
learned how to gauge our motions based on low cylinders, vases are formed from tall cylin-
practice. ders, and bowls are formed from cylinders with
Working in series is the only way to develop interior curves. There is structural strength in
the muscle memory skills required for pottery. In straight walls because clay particles are flat and
fact, working in series is a common principle in they maintain their alignment if raised vertically
all art disciplines because in doing so one builds without the change of direction of a curve. No
the skills necessary so that the mind can direct matter what shape the potter aims to make, it
the creation of meaningful and beautiful work. will require centering, raising, and thinning walls
To facilitate learning how to throw, the pot- before introducing curves and final shaping.
ter should work with a series of mounds of clay
that are the same size and weight. This also baSiC Wheel teChniqueS
applies to learning how to throw specific shapes, Working with the potter’s wheel is both chal-
including intermediate and advanced pottery lenging and fascinating. Read through all the
techniques. This is why production potters will steps a couple of times before you begin. This
dedicate a throwing session to a specific form. will help you connect the steps in a fluid manner.
They are aware of the power of muscle memory (Remember, have fun while you practice maneu-
and know that the first few bowls of the day are vering and gaining control of the clay, too!)
never as good as the bowls that emerge from the
clay toward the end of the session. Many pot- Throwing and CenTering Clay
ters throw a number of cups to warm up before Gather the basic throwing tools: a sponge, cut-
launching into the days production schedule. off wire, throwing rib, wooden angle tool, small
In many ways learning to throw on the wheel bucket of warm water, absorbent towel, and ware
is like learning to play a musical instrument. You board. Weigh out and wedge 5 mounds of clay
must begin with the basics—reading music, play- that each weigh 2.5 pounds (1 kg) and place
ing scales, and playing measures of music—and them on a ware board by the potter’s wheel.
then eventually by building these skills, you will Place the water bucket and tools on the wheel’s
play songs. Once comfortable playing songs, it’s work table and drape the towel over your legs.
easier to compose original ones. In much the The potter sits at 6 o’clock and all hand and fin-
same way, potters begin by learning to center ger positions will be assigned according to their
and raise walls efficiently to make simple forms position on the clock. An illustrated guide to
and progress to making forms that are uniquely centering follows on page 123.
theirs. The potter’s wheel is a tool that provides Stage one
rotation for the clay. The potter provides the Sit comfortably with your thighs parallel to the
force and finesse to move and shape vessels from floor and practice bracing your elbows on your
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the top of the cone. Gently release pressure while

the clay is moving. If pressure is applied or
Right hand removed when the clay isn’t rotating, the clay
at 1 o’clock
for centering may go off center. Make sure that any pressure
changes (applied or released) occur gradually
while the clay is rotating. Sudden pressure
For raising
changes and abrupt movements are a potter’s
and shaping, worst enemy.
pressure is
applied within It may take several attempts to get the body
Left hand the 6 and 3
at 7 o’clock o’clock position mechanics in line with wheel speed to move the
for centering of the wheel
clay upward. Make sure that the pressure at the
C Hand positions for counterclockwise rotation. base is held long enough for the base of the clay
The clock is used as a frame of reference for
to fall into a centered alignment, because as the
wheel work.
clay is moved upward, so is the unevenness.
Once the cone is formed, the clay must be
torso and thighs. The potter uses power from the lowered. Place your left hand at the top of the
entire body to throw pots. Body mechanics are cone at 7 o’clock while the wheel is rotating at
key to controlling rotating clay. Remember that medium speed and push slightly forward and
your hands will tell the clay how to move. Turn down. About halfway down you will feel the clay
on the wheel and make sure the pedal is in the off pulling in toward the center of the mound. The
position. inward pull is centripetal force.
Place a mound of clay on the center of the Stage Three
wheel head, depress the pedal to a medium-fast After lowering the cone of clay with one hand it
speed, wet your hands with water or slip, and may have gone off center due to lack of oppos-
apply pressure to the clay from the top down. ing pressure. Raise the cone again by placing
Your left hand should be at 9 o’clock and your your left hand at 7 o’clock and your right hand
right at 3 o’clock, with your elbows and upper at 3 o’clock and move the hands up, coming
arms supported by your torso. Gently lessen pres-
sure on the clay while the wheel is spinning.
Place your left hand at 7 o’clock with your elbow CENTRIPETAL FORCE
braced between the thigh and hip. Using the This center-seeking dynamic is created by
bones at the base of the left hand, apply steady the pressure of the hands in opposition to
pressure from the base of the clay and move centrifugal force that draws the clay to the
upward. The clay should begin to move up. center of the axis (center of the wheel
head). It is very helpful for the potter to
Stage Two
become aware of this center-seeking
With the wheel spinning at a medium-fast speed,
dynamic when centering clay. Feeling this
lubricate the clay. Go back to 7 o’clock with the
phenomenon is one step toward working
left hand, place the base of the right hand at 1
with the dynamics of the rotating wheel
o’clock, begin applying pressure from the base,
rather than fighting them.
and steadily move hands up coming together at


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together at the top of the cone with the wheel opening clay follows on page 126.
spinning at medium speed. Maintain a steady During the opening, place hands on the cen-
(medium-fast) speed, relubricate if necessary, tered mound with thumbs in the center and
place your left hand at 7 o’clock just below the pinky fingers touching the wheel head at 9 and
top of the cone and your right hand over the 3 o’clock. With the wheel spinning at a medium
top of the cone, with the bones from the side speed and thumbs on center, apply pressure
of the palm in contact with the clay. Apply for- equally, lowering the fingers to the desired
ward pressure with the left hand and downward depth. Make sure to leave about /2 inch (1 cm)
1
pressure with the right. As you begin to feel the at the base. Release pressure gently and lubri-
centripetal force pulling the clay toward the cen- cate the newly formed well. Place your hands
ter, brace the left arm into your torso, finishing on the mound with thumbs at 9 and 3 o’clock
with the elbow between the thigh and hip. The on the interior of the well and the other fingers
left hand is in charge of keeping the base of the on the outside of the clay. Apply outward pres-
clay centered. The right hand lowers the clay sure from the thumbs to widen the well, and be
and keeps the top of the mound centered. With sure to release pressure within the dimensions
the wheel rotating at a slightly slower speed, of the mound. Be careful not to stretch beyond
keep the left hand at 7 o’clock with the bones of the mound because the integrity of the walls will
the base of the hand perpendicular to the wheel be weakened and it will be nearly impossible to
head. Use the bones from the side of the palm of raise a wall. A proper base will have a 90-degree
right hand to apply a steady gentle pressure par- angle at both interior and exterior bases.
allel with the wheel head. Re-center the open clay by compressing the
troubleshooting lip. This is done by holding the rim of the clay
Centering clay is challenging, but once the pot- between the thumb and index finger of the left
ter practices speed and hand control to harness hand at 6 o’clock and gently applying pressure
the forces at play, it will become a simple task. from the right index finger until the rim of the
Remember, you are in control. If the clay isn’t mound comes into center. Clean the wheel head
moving in the way you want it to, ask yourself and compress the interior base of the mound by
what your hands are doing. When the mound of holding the sponge in your right hand and plac-
clay is rotating smoothly in your hands the clay ing pressure on the base moving from 2 o’clock
is centered. Gently remove pressure and proceed to the center and then counter spin to 6 o’clock.
to the next stage. Repeat this step until the base is level and
centered.
opening Clay
troubleshooting
Opening the mound of clay will establish the
Remember to keep elbows anchored to the torso
diameter of the base of the pot and the true base.
for stability. The most common problems dur-
Every shape will require a certain amount of clay
ing opening are not enough lubrication, uneven
to achieve desired dimensions. Opening requires
pressure from hands, not leaving enough clay at
two steps; first, the hands must press the clay
the base for removing from wheel, and widening
from the center down to the desired depth, and
the base beyond the mound.
second, the hands widen the base of the clay to
determine the true base. An illustrated guide to
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GUIDE TO CENTERING CLAY
2 3
2. The clay mound is attached and lubri- 3. Lubricate and repeat the raising move,
1
cated.With the left hand at 7 o’clock and gradually displacing clay. Be sure to bring
right hand at 1 o’clock, begin to apply your hands together as they approach
1. Center mound with left hand at 7 opposing pressures from the base and the top of the mound.
o’clock and right hand at 1 o’clock. raise the clay into a cone.
4 5 6
4. Place the left hand at 7 o’clock 5. As the clay is pushed into center, the 6. The left hand at 7 o’clock holds the
just below the top. Place the right left hand assumes a braced position at edge of the mound at a 90-degree angle
hand on top of the cone. At a medi- 7 o’clock perpendicular to the wheel and gives way to the downward pressure
um speed, apply pressure forward head.The elbow rests on the thigh for from the top. Notice the angle of the
and down.You should feel the clay support.The right hand applies pressure right hand creating isolated pressure.
pulling toward the center of the with the bones of the palm of the hand
wheel. at an angle. Fingertips are pointing to
11 o’clock, and the base of the palm is at
5 o’clock. Notice that thumbs are touch-
ing to create a bridge for stability.
7. To ensure proper centering, it is

important to align the clay at 90-degree
angles before opening.The right hand
holds an elephant ear sponge to lubricate
fingers while applying opposing pressure
at 2 o’clock.The left hand counters the
pressure of the right hand, placed at 7
o’clock.This fine-tunes the mound.


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C ENTERING P ROBLEMS AND T ROUBLESHOOTING
1 2 3
1. Problem:The base of the mound 2. Problem:The top of the cone is 3. Problem: There is a well develop-
is off center and has formed a severed from the rest of the clay. ing at the center of the cone. This
spiral. This occurs when hands apply This occurs because the hands stopped will trap air in the clay. It is caused by the
pressure and move up too quickly. moving up and continued to apply hands not coming together but instead
Squeeze and wait for clay to move pressure, cutting through the clay. only applying pressure from the side of
upward before raising hands. Make the hands parallel to the wheel head
sure that your hands are moving rather than applying pressure perpendicu-
with the wheel speed and not faster. lar to the wheel.
4 5 6
4. Problem: The cone has a mush- 5. Problem:The clay mound has an 6. When clay rotates without hesi-
room top. This is caused when the uneven top. This unevenness is caused by tation, the clay is centered. Gently
hands are not aligned. Notice that the top sudden pressure release or stopping the remove pressure while the clay is
hand is applying too much pressure and wheel before releasing pressure. spinning to maintain the center.
the left hand is angled out. Solution: Be
sure to maintain the left hand angled
inward at 7 o’clock.This counters the
pressure from the right and keeps the
mound in proper shape.


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for a few revolutions until the clay moves up. (It’s
CenTering Tips okay to gently release pressure to re-lubricate
If you’re not sure the clay is centered, close and check the newly established high point of the
your eyes and feel if the clay gives your hands clay.) With the wheel spinning at medium-slow
resistance. If it does, it’s not centered. If it speed, place the right knuckle underneath the
feels smooth, the clay is centered. highpoint, apply steady pressure, and begin to
Many of the problems encountered during turn the knuckle in to achieve a 90-degree angle.
centering have to do with lack of lubrication, Pressure from the left middle finger will be slight-
unsteady speed, abrupt hand pressure changes, ly higher than pressure from the right knuckle.
With hands in position, work hands together to
and poor hand positions. Use the bones of
apply steady pressure and raise them in sync with
p- your hands to apply isolated pressure on the
wheel speed to thin and raise the wall. As the
surface of the clay. Do not use fingers and
e small pressure points displace the clay upward,
hands because they create too much friction
ease then gently remove, pressure as the lip is
on the surface and require too much pressure approached. Compress the rim by supporting the
u- to move the clay. Too much surface contact top of the clay wall between the left thumb and
will make it very difficult to displace clay. index finger, applying gentle pressure over the
supported clay to define the lip and re-center the
newly raised walls. It will take a few attempts
raising Clay
before the throwing rhythm becomes fluid. Most
Before the walls of clay are raised, the rim and
pots take 2 to 3 upward pulls to raise the clay
base of the clay should be compressed and cen-
before shaping. An illustrated guide to raising fol-
tered. Hydrate a sponge with some water and
lows on page 127.
clay slip from the water bucket and drip it onto
the wall of the mound (both inside and outside) Collaring Clay
while the clay is spinning. This disperses the Collaring clay, which is also sometimes called
lubrication evenly. Wipe the excess moisture choking clay, is an efficient technique for raising
from the interior base and clean the wheel head. clay quickly without saturating it. It also helps
The speed of the wheel should be medium-slow build structural strength, gaining height in the
until you develop a sense of how quickly to move cylinder while thickening the walls. To collar,
the pressure from your hands up the sides of the apply equal pressure at three pressure points at
clay and maintain even wall thickness. The left the base of the mound. This moves clay upward,
hand will work the interior while the right hand displacing it and narrowing the diameter of the
works the exterior, moving clay up and into the cylinder. An illustrated guide to collaring follows
core of the wall. With your arms braced against on page 129.
your torso, place the middle finger of the left Turn the wheel speed to a medium-fast speed.
hand, supported by the other fingers, at the tran- Lubricate the outer wall, and touch your thumbs
sition point of the interior base and the wall at together at 6 o’clock with left middle finger at
3 o’clock. Bend the second knuckle of the right 10 o’clock and right middle finger at 2 o’clock.
index finger and place at 3 o’clock on the exterior Beginning at the very base of the cylinder,
base. Apply inward pressure at a 60-degree angle squeeze the clay, lock into position, and move
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G UIDE T O O PENING C LAY
1 2 3
1. With the wheel in motion, place 2. Maintain a medium to fast wheel 3. Once you reach the base, gently
thumbs on the center of the mound speed while pushing down with equal release pressure and relubricate the
with pinky fingers touching the wheel pressure. Leave about a 1/2 inch (1 cm) interior walls of the clay. Place thumbs
head for stability.When you feel the thick base for the foot that will be at 3 and 9 o’clock and apply outward
center, apply downward pressure. trimmed later. pressure. Be sure not to open beyond
the base of the mound.
4 5 6
4. Use the throwing sponge in your right 5. Compressing the rim or recentering 6. A good way to measure depth of the
hand to compress the base of the clay the rim is done by gently squeezing the base is to use two bamboo skewers or
and get rid of any bumps or ridges that wall with the left hand between thumb chopsticks. Place one on the inside and
will unsteady the interior hands during and index finger and applying pressure one outside the mound, touching the
raising. Begin with the sponge at 2 o’clock from the right index finger with a sponge wheel.Thickness, is shown by the different
and move toward the center, then coun- until the rim sinks into the center. heights of the tops of the sticks.
terspin to finish at 6 o’clock. Repeat until
the base of the well is level.
7. Sometimes it is neces- 8. Finish setting

sary to recenter the clay up the mound by
after opening by com- compressing the
pressing the rim. Place rim.This will ensuree
hands in the opening evenness as the
position and apply equal, raising begins. In
symmetrical pressure fact, compressing
while the wheel is spin- the rim after each
ning until the clay is cen- pull will recenter
tered. I call this doughnut the piece.
centering because the
7 pressure is equal all 8
around the doughnut ring.


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G UIDE T O R AISING C LAY
1 2
1. Lubricate the walls evenly. Place the 2. With the wheel spinning at a medium-
right hand with the knuckle against the fast speed, apply pressure with the right
base at 3 o’clock. Place the left hand hand at the base. Counter the pressure
inside the well with the middle finger with the inside hand and wait for the clay
slightly bent at 3 o’clock. to begin moving up.The inside pressure
point is slightly higher than the outside
pressure point. Notice the left thumb touch-
es the right hand to stabilize the raising.
3 4
3. Both hands move up in sync with the 4. When the top of the cylinder is
wheel speed.The outer pressure point approached, be sure bring the clay in the
remains under the highpoint to evenly dis- center to keep the rim within the stable
place into the core of the wall and gain area. Gently release pressure.
height. It is important to gently release
some of the pressure from both hands as
the clay is raised to maintain even wall
thickness. 5. To lubricate the wall evenly, spin
y the wheel and make gentle contact
with the rim. Drizzle slip down your
uree hand to make a curtain of lubrica-
tion all the way around the piece.
Remove excess moisture from the
g interior of the base.
ch
Repeat the raising and pulling
r
steps one more time and proceed
to the collaring steps.
5

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G
your hands swiftly up to the top of the clay. shaping Clay
Gently release the pressure and compress the Once the clay has been centered, opened, and
lip to strengthen the rim and re-center the cylin- raised, it is ready to be shaped. For a pot to be
der. After the collaring is complete, return both balanced and have even wall thickness, the pro-
hands to 3 o’clock and raise the clay as described file of the exterior wall must follow the profile of
earlier. This pull will thin the walls and straight- the interior wall. The interior hand adds shape
en them too. and volume to a form. The exterior hand brings
trimming an uneven lip clay into the form and defines exterior lines. For
shaping a cylinder, the wheel should turn at a
Sometimes, the top of the piece will become
slow speed so the pot does not collapse as curves
uneven. The lip can be trimmed with a needle
are introduced. An illustrated guide to shaping
tool.
follows on page 130.
With the wheel rotating, place a needle tool at
Place the fingers of the inside hand and the
4 o’clock. With your arm braced on your torso,
fingers of the outside hand at 3 o’clock. With
hold the tip of the needle against the clay just
the inside hand, begin to draw a curve, pushing
under the uneven top to cut off a ring. The inte-
outward and upward before coming back in. The
rior hand must be ready to meet the needle as it
outside hand follows along to compress the wall
cuts through the clay, lifting the ring of clay off
and control the shape of the vessel.
the piece while the wheel is in motion. Complete
Production potters often use throwing ribs to
the trimming by compressing the lip.
make specific curves. Ribs can work the clay with
troubleshooting much less lubrication than is possible with fin-
Common problems with raising and collaring are gers and place isolated pressure on the clay sur-
due to unsteady hands, uneven pressure, uneven face with the sharp edge. Metal ribs are especially
speed, excessive moisture, and air bubbles. good for sealing and compressing the clay wall,
Potters don’t often feel air bubbles until the making it stronger more easily manipulated with
wall of a vessel is thin enough to feel the bump. bare hands. Too much friction on the surface of
Air bubbles cause breakage during firing. During the clay will cause problems in the long run.
throwing, they are like speed bumps on the high-
Finishing your poT
way and will cause unsteady hands, throwing off
the balance of pressure. When the pot is complete, compress the base of
Excessive moisture (or saturation) happens the wall with an angle tool at 3 o’clock. Trim any
when the clay is worked for too long. If clay is excess clay so there is a slight undercut or bevel
over-saturated, it will collapse from gravity and at the base. Put some slip on the wheel head at
centrifugal force as soon as curves are intro- 12 o’clock and pull the cut-off wire taut and level
duced. The goal is to shorten the steps and dis- with the wheel head, releasing the vessel from
place clay quickly and efficiently so that it main- the wheel. Remove all clay and moisture from
tains the structural strength and can be shaped both hands with a towel and gently but swiftly
with confidence. pick up the vessel from the base and place on a
paper-lined ware board. An illustrated guide to
finishing follows on page 132.
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G UIDE T O C OLLARING C LAY

1. Collaring requires 2. Apply inward and
establishing three iso- upward pressure at the
lated pressure points. very base of the clay with
Lubricate the exterior the wheel rotating at a
wall.Touch thumbs at medium speed.When you
6 o’clock and have mid- feel the clay narrowing
dle fingers ready to apply and moving up after a
pressure at 10 o’clock few rotations, hold the
and 2 o’clock. inward pressure steady
1 2 and move the hands up
the cylinder wall.
3. It’s important to keep 4. Be sure to re-center

your hands moving up the rim by compressing the
the wall of the cylinder lip.The rim is supported by
with pressure points the left index finger and
locked in position all the thumb; compression is
way to the top. applied by the right index
finger. Sometimes a sponge
to lubricate the top of the
piece is helpful.
3 4
5. To remove an uneven lip, 6. After collaring, raise

hold the needle tool at the clay again by applying
4 o’clock, with the wheel pressure from the out-
rotating, and slice underside at the base to create
neath the uneven lip. Lift a new high point.
the ring of clay off the
piece while the wheel is
rotating. Compress the lip.
5 6
7. Notice the outer hand 8.With each subsequent

is dominant during rais- pull, the pressure is
ing. It is guiding the clay diminished and the speed
up and in.The left hand is of the wheel is reduced.
receiving the pressure If the wall remains
and raising the clay but straight and the rim
not fighting the outer remains within the stable
pressure. area, clay can be raised
and thinned to shape
7 8 extremely fine forms.
9.Try using a metal rib to 10. In this cross-section

compress and seal the of a cylinder, notice the
wall of the clay. Gently walls are fairly even and
approach the clay at a there is some extra
2 o’clock angle. As the rib thickness at the base of
rides the outer wall, turn the pot.This extra clay
the edge of the rib slightly can be trimmed when the
toward you until the top piece is leather hard, but
is reached.This will try to pull as much clay
remove excessive slip from the base as possible
9 10
and tighten the wall for into the core of the wall
shaping. before the clay dries.


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G UIDE T O S HAPING C LAY
1 2
1. The inside hand is used to create the vessel’s curve.The 2. Shaping requires a dialogue between the inner and outer
middle finger applies isolated pressure, and the others are hands.The first part of the curve is dominated by the inner
there to support it. Apply pressure from the base slightly hand, but as the neck is approached, the inner hand releases
down and out and then up again to create a smooth curve. pressure and the outer hand applies pressure to bring the
The outside fingers steady the curve and seal the clay as curve in.
the curve shapes the pot.
3 4
3. Many potters use ribs for shaping because they have a 4. Contours and shapes introduced to cylinder forms are
sharp edge that applies isolated pressure, allowing the pot- the bases of most pottery forms. Fingers create a dialog with
ter to work without using slip. Shaping without lubrication the clay.The inner and outer pressure changes as the shape
allows the pot to be thinned while maintaining structural is defined.
strength. Notice the angle of the rib and the pressure point
slightly under the inner hand that is doing the shaping. Ribs
can also be used on the inside or two at a time, one inside
and one out.


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Lip / Rim
Neck
Shoulder
Belly
Foot
C The terminology used to describe the components of vessels

is based on the human body.The image above reveals the anthro-
pomorphic nature of pots. The arrows indicate basic components
of a vase: Lip, neck, shoulder, belly, and foot

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TROUBLESHOOTING COMMON F INISHING Y OUR P OT

THROWING PROBLEMS
When you are learning to throw, it is normal to have pots
that are uncentered or that collapse as you finish the
forms. Here is a list of common problems and remedies
that you can use as a quick reference.
• If the clay is too stiff, it is nearly impossible to center
and very difficult to throw. Check for softness when
wedging. If you have to use too much force, try spray-
ing water into the clay as you wedge to soften it or 1
layer some soft clay and wedge until it is a nice plastic 1. Clean the base of the pot. Lubricate the
consistency. If you don’t want to work at it, put the wheel head and pull the cutoff wire through
clay back in a bag with a wet washcloth overnight. the base of the vessel.
• If you find that you have air bubbles in the walls, go

back to wedging and check to see that you are not
folding air into the clay. This can happen easily when
the clay is being folded into itself rather than gradually
wedged into itself. If you can’t seem to get rid of the air
bubbles, try slamming the clay on the table in different
directions and then wedge carefully, rolling clay into
itself. Or try piercing the air bubble with a needle and
filling in with soft clay during throwing. 2
• If the clay is off center, be sure the mound is absolutely
2. Clean and dry your hands. Use the index
centered before you open. When the mound is opened, and middle fingers to lift the pot off the
be careful to release the pressure gently while the wheel.
wheel is moving.
• If the clay mound seems off center once it’s opened,
make sure the opening is centered. Place your right
hand on the wall with your thumb on the inside and
your fingers on the outside, squeeze and hold steady
until the clay travels without hesitation through your
hand, then gently release the pressure.
TIP 3. Place vessel on a paper-lined ware board.

Keep a clean towel handy to wipe your hands
between moves and before removing a pot from
the wheel.
88 THROWING ON THE POTTER ’ S WHEEL


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• If the top of the wall lip seems off, compress ence in height (see also page 83). Make a
one on the outside of the walls to see the dif-
• the lip between two fingers and then apply
If the top of the wall lip seems off, compress mental note of how far you are going down
ference in height (see also page 126). Make a
gentle pressure from the top until it comes to
the lip between two fingers and then apply into the mound by gently stopping as you
mental note of how far you are going down
center. Try to compress the lip after every pull;
gentle pressure from the top until it comes reach the bottom and proceeding if you feel
into the mound by gently stopping as you
the action of pulling brings the unevenness to
to center. Try to compress the lip after every there is too much clay.
reach the bottom and proceeding if you feel
the top in a spiral-like form. It also serves to
pull; the action of pulling brings the uneven- there is too much clay.
strengthen the lip of the pot.
ness to the top in a spiral-like form. It also
• Remember to always make sure that the pot is
serves to strengthen the lip of the pot.
• centered throughout the throwing process.
Remember to always make sure that the pot
This will give you symmetrical shapes.
is centered throughout the throwing process. THROWING TIPS
• If your pots are collapsing, pay attention to
This will give you symmetrical shapes. Don’t stress about making the perfect pot
how much water is being used and to how
• If your pots are collapsing, pay attention to when you are learning to throw.The
long you are throwing. Chances are the clay is
how much water is being used and to how potter’s wheel is a tool and a means to an
oversaturated. Try using clay slip instead of
long you are throwing. Chances are the clay end. In fact once you learn to make
water; it is less prone to penetrating the clay
is oversaturated. Try using clay slip instead of perfect pots, you may want to experiment
wall. Set a timer for ten minutes throwing
water; it is less prone to penetrating the clay by allowing some of the process of
time. If you pass ten minutes for an average-
wall. Set a timer for ten minutes throwing throwing show in the work. Some potters
size pot, it is probably becoming weak. Try
time. If you pass ten minutes for an average- purposely avoid perfectly centered pots
throwing with either a metal or flexible rubber
size pot, it is probably becoming weak. Try and leave the rims slightly off center or
rib to remove excess slip and compress the
throwing with either a metal or flexible rubber throwing marks on the surface of the clay
wall. Using a rib allows potters to throw
rib to remove excess slip and compress the to evoke a sense of movement in the pots.
longer while staying relatively dry.
wall. Using a rib allows potters to throw lon- When learning to shape particular
• Think about wheel speed. The thinner the
ger while staying relatively dry. forms, try shaping when the walls are
walls or the further along in the shaping
• Think about wheel speed. The thinner the slightly thicker than you would want in a
process, the more vulnerable to speed the
walls or the further along in the shaping pro- finished pot.This will give you strong clay
piece will be. Slow down the wheel as you
cess, the more vulnerable to speed the piece to work with while honing your
proceed, and you will see that the work won’t
will be. Slow down the wheel as you proceed, techniques. As you master shaping. thinner
collapse as often.
and you will see that the work won’t collapse walls will become easier.
• If you are tearing the walls as you pull, try
as often.
Always turn off the wheel’s power
• pulling with less pressure. Remember, clay
If you are tearing the walls as you pull, try switch when not in use.This should be
likes a gradual transition. Also, be sure the
pulling with less pressure. Remember, clay done for two reasons. First, curbing the
walls are properly lubricated to avoid the
likes a gradual transition. Also, be sure the constant electrical current going through
drag or pull that can cause the piece to go
walls are properly lubricated to avoid the the circuit board will reduce the wear and
off center or tear.
drag or pull that can cause the piece to go tear on the foot pedal control. Second, it
• If you find that you are going through the bot-
off center or tear. will prevent accidentally depressing the
tom of the base, try checking your depth as
• If you find that you are going through the pedal and sending a freshly thrown pot
you approach the bottom of the piece. Use two
bottom of the base, try checking your depth flying off the wheel.
chopsticks, placing one on the inside and one
as you approach the bottom of the piece. Use
on the outside of the walls to see the differ-
two chopsticks, placing one on the inside and
THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK 89

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C c h a p t e r
s e v e n
Decorative anD Finishing

techniques
T
his chapter will focus on the basics of glazes, including
choosing, mixing, applying, and firing them. Many
books focus on the topic of glaze mixing and others
focus on the decorative applications of glaze. These
will be a lot of fun to read once you become comfortable with
simple glaze preparation.
Glaze is a glass-like coating that is applied ChooSing glazeS

to ceramic ware and fired to cover the A very important thing to consider when
surface of the clay. Practically, it makes a choosing a glaze is the maturing tempera-
pot nonporous, but it has many decorative ture of the clay being used. This is impor-
applications, too. The glaze mixing and tant for several reasons. First, a clay body
firing aspects of the ceramic cycle require should be fired to its maturing temperature
a scientific approach that will aid your to achieve the strongest density in the body
understanding of how to work with the for durability. Second, the glaze should
materials. Fear not, the science can be have a good fit on the fired clay. When
fairly basic, but it can evolve into a very melted, glaze should expand and contract
precise chemical process if you choose with the clay body and not craze, crawl,
to investigate glaze chemistry at a or run off the pot during the firing.
deeper level. Sometimes a glaze will shrink more
than the clay and create an interrupted
surface. (For functional ware this is
C Faceted utensil jar holds an assortment of brushes used for

decorative glazing. (For project instructions, see page 244.)
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have an open clay that can resist the thermal

shock of cooking because of the lack of density.
There are beautiful examples of burnished
earthenware pots in native North and South
American, ancient Middle Eastern, and African
pottery traditions, to name a few. Ancient
Greeks applied and burnished fine clay slips
called terrasigillata onto the surfaces of their
famous jars. They developed ways of applying
particular terrasigillatas and firing them in very
controlled environments to develop incredible
detail and colors on the surface without a glass-
C Glaze-mixing aspects of the ceramic cycle require a like sheen. The clay surface maintains a warmth
scientific approach to precision and record keeping.
and soft quality that glaze would cover up.
undesirable yet for aesthetic reasons some potters Traditional Native American potters use several
choose to work with this discrepancy.) And third, different fine clay slips to paint decorative pat-
if you put a high-fire glaze on low-fire clay and terns on the surface of the clay.
high fire it, the clay will melt into a puddle dur- In the Middle East, there is a long tradition of
ing the glaze firing. Conversely if you put a low- glazing architectural tiles and ornamental vessels
fire glaze on a high-fire pot and over fire the with a basic white glaze that is painted over with
glaze it will run off the pot onto the kiln shelf
and create a puddle of glaze on the shelf. A good
way to avoid some of these problems is to think
about the type of work you want to make, talk to
the ceramic supplier, and begin with the appro-
priate clay for a particular temperature range of
glazes.
HISTORICAL LOW-FIRE GLAZES

AND DECORATIVE TECHNIQUES
Even the oldest historical pots have some sort of
decoration on them. Some have just simple tex-
tures and patterns carved on them and are marked
by the fire. Others have a burnished surface, which
is created by rubbing the clay with a smooth
stone while it’s still leather hard. The action of
burnishing compresses the smallest particles of
clay into the surface, making a shiny smooth sur-
face. Many functional pots such as primitive
cooking vessels were burnished and sealed with
animal fat post-firing. Low-fire earthenware pots C Majolica-glazed pitcher in white earthenware by Maggie
East de Muller


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C Goat bowl by Ron Meyers.Terra-cotta clay with under- C Porcelain bowl by Karen Copensky fired to cone 6 with
glazes applied to leather-hard bowl, bisque fired, and clear mason stains painted over white glaze
glazed and fired.
pigments to develop ornate painterly surfaces. UNDERGLAZES

They, too, develop color and effect and luster Underglazes are commonly used to paint bisqued
surfaces by controlling the firing temperature ceramics before being coated with a second, clear
and atmosphere. glaze. Underglazes are available in hundreds of
In Italy, Spain, and Portugal there is a strong bright colors and textures and can be used as
tradition of majolica, said to originate from paints. Some artists embrace underglazes because
Majorca. This ware features a white glaze applied of their painterly quality. They differ from majolica
to red terra-cotta clay, which is then overglazed in that the glass coating covers the painting
with pigments such as metal oxides and carbon- underneath instead of the painting being fused to
ates and in modern day with commercial stains the surface of the glaze.
and colorants. This technique renders beautiful
LOW-FIRE COMMERCIAL GLAZES
painted surfaces and can be very ornate. The
color palette can be very bright because of the Commercial stains, which are additives to clays
low firing temperatures, as some colors do burn and glazes, can be mixed with a little water to
out at high temperature. Potters who like to paint on the clay surface. They contain base met-
approach vessels as a blank canvas really enjoy als and other synthetic ingredients to achieve
the majolica process. very specific colors. They allow potters an unlim-
Many historical European, especially English, ited amount of color and decorative development
pots were made using a technique called slip- in glazes.
ware. A small variety of different colored clay A lot of commercial glazes are specifically
slips are used to create low-relief decoration on formulated for low-fire use. The colors are pre-
the surface of pots, which is then covered with dictable and controllable if fired to the correct
clear glaze. Some pots had extensive writing and temperature. They are ideal for many school
were created to commemorate special events. applications because the glazes are brushed on
DECORATIVE AND FINISHING TECHNIQUES 93

decorative and finishing techniques 137
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the work. Thus, you can glaze many pieces with

a small jar, eliminating the need for chemical
storage and larger buckets of glaze. Potters that
are just starting to fire their own work enjoy
commercial glazes because they come with
instructions. If the glaze does not fire correctly it
is a usually a sign that something went wrong in
the firing, not the glaze chemistry itself.
AMERICAN RAKU FIRING

American Raku firing is a low-fire technique in
which pots are glazed and quickly fired to about
1800°F (982°C), swiftly pulled from the kiln
with tongs, and placed in a post-firing reduction
atmosphere. (A reduction atmosphere is typically
a container with combustible material that is
ignited by the hot pot and covered to create an
oxygen-starved environment.) The fire burns and
pulls the oxygen from the clay and glaze, which
causes a chemical reaction with the copper (in
some of the more typical Raku glaze) and beauti-
ful iridescent colors develop. Any unglazed clay
will turn black from the carbon impregnation
that occurs from the reduction. Raku firing pro-
vides near instant gratification because the pots
are quickly fired and cooled in about an hour. All
other types of firing take many hours to reach
temperature and usually just as many to cool
down.
Raku is a high-risk technique because of the
thermal shock that the clay goes through during
the quick heating and cooling. But the results are
worth the risks for the clay artists who work with
this technique.
HIGH-FIRE GLAZES
Glazes that mature at temperatures of 2100°F
(1149°C) are commonly referred to as high fire.
They are applied to stoneware and porcelain clays
that mature at higher temperatures. The advan-
tage of this type of clay is that they are much C Raku-fired vessel with copper glaze by Kristin Müller


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that in the past decade many cone 6 glaze recipes
art hiStory have been published in ceramic magazines and
High firing temperatures were first achieved books. Many more commercial glazes are now
by the Chinese, whose technical knowledge available in this firing range, complementing any
of kilns, porcelain, and stoneware glazes took glaze palette.
centuries for the rest of the world to gain.
mixing glazeS
denser than low-fired clays and earthenware. Let’s begin with some simple concepts that will
When a clay is fired to maturity, the clay particles help you understand what glaze mixing is all
fuse together, forming a nonporous clay body. A about.
glaze applied and fired to the maturing range of
basiC glaze CoMponenTs
a clay body creates a very strong bond. There is a
silica is the glass component of glaze. It has a
depth to the color and quality of a high-fired glaze
melting temperature of about 3092°F (1700°C).
that is just not achievable at lower temperatures.
Since we don’t have clays or kilns that fire that
The glaze bonds to the vitrified clay, melting onto
hot, a melting ingredient is added to act as a
the surface, allowing the iron particles in stone-
flux. Flux lowers the melting point of the silica.
ware to speckle the glaze. A rich depth is apparent
alumina naturally occurs in clays and is refractory
in the reflective quality of the glaze. High-fired
(heat resistant) by nature. It is used to control
glazes on porcelain are incredibly tight and bright.
the viscosity or flow of the glaze. Alumina helps
The effect is that of a coating of colored glass
control how much the glaze will flow on the pot
fused to the pure white form.
when it is melting. It can also be used to control
eleCTriC Kilns and certain qualities in a glaze, such as texture and
Mid-range Firing opacity.
With the popularity of electric kilns, mid-range These three ingredients make up the actual
clay bodies and glazes have become more popu- glaze coating. A colorant is added as a decora-
lar, firing in the cone 5 to 8 (2201°F to 2316°F tive feature and is generally a base metal such as
[1205°C–1269°C]) range. The heating elements iron, cobalt, or copper, rutile, or a combination of
in electric kilns last longer when they are fired at metal colorants. The many synthetic colorants on
lower temperatures. Even though most electric the market have helped modern potters broaden
kilns fire to at least cone 8 (2316°F [1269°C]), the color spectrum available for glazes.
most potters fire to cone 6 (2201°F [1205°C]) to Any glaze batch recipe that you see in a maga-
conserve energy and extend the life of the heating zine or book will contain the three basic ingredi-
elements. ents and colorant. These ingredients are weighed
If an electric kiln will be fired in the studio, as powders and mixed with water to make the
a good mid-range stoneware, one that matures glaze a liquid.
at cone 6, will produce functional work. A glaze There are many different sources of silica, flux,
palette that works with that temperature should and alumina in ceramic raw materials used for
be developed. glazes. So when you read a glaze batch recipe, you
mid-range glazes won’t know which ingredients are the source for
A benefit of the popularity of mid-range firing is each of the basic components unless you
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glaze batch. For example, here is a glaze batch

recipe for a cone 6 satin white glaze:
THE PROS AND CONS OF
COMMERCIAL GLAZES Nepheline Syenite 54 grams
If you have never mixed glazes or have very Dolomite 11 grams
limited space and access to water, you may EPK 6 grams
want to consider using commercial glazes. Zircopax 12 grams
They don’t take much room to store and Gerstley Borate 7 grams
small quantities are used because they are 100 grams
applied with a brush. Brushing glaze makes a
lot less mess than dipping and pouring. To make the glaze green, add 1 percent of the
Commercial glazes can be layered to create total weight of the glaze of copper carbonate to
different effects.They are formulated for use the glaze batch.
at specific firing temperatures and overall To make blue glaze, add 1 percent of the total
are a straightforward introduction to glazing weight of the glaze of cobalt carbonate to the
and firing your own work. glaze batch.
Despite the many advantages of working A glaze formula in parts per weight can be
with commercially made glazes, many measured in grams, ounces, or parts as it is based
potters mix their own glazes.The cost of on proportion. As in the example above, most
commercially made glazes is much higher recipes are listed in grams. It will be easier and
than mixing your own glazes. Also, developing more conventional to use a gram scale to meas-
a unique glaze palette or a signature glaze is ure raw materials rather than convert.
possible when using your own glazes, ensuring The example above makes 100 grams of glaze,
your work will be unique. which is less than a stick of butter in volume and
won’t do much more than cover a test tile. When
testing glazes, aim to mix at least 500 grams of
memorize a few. The good news is that you don’t glaze, how the glaze handles in application and
need to know the chemical breakdown of each how it will fire on different pieces can be ade-
ingredient to mix a glaze, but it does help to quately tested.
understand what they are and their purpose in To convert a 100-gram recipe to yield larger
the glazes. The ceramic process is a scientific amounts, simply multiply each ingredient by the
craft and the more you know, the more control desired factor. For example, multiply quantities
you will have of your finished work. by 5 to make 500 grams, 10 to make 1,000
grams, and so on.
Glaze Calculation
The unity molecular formula is the proper combi-
nation of silica, flux, and alumina to achieve a
particular maturing temperature and quality in a
glaze. It lists the glaze ingredients in parts by
weight that add up to 100. The colorants are
added in a quantity that is a percentage of the


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The calculation will look like this: the clay being glazed. If the clay is white, colors
will be very crisp; if the clay is dark, the iron in
Nepheline Syenite 54 x 10 = 540 the clay will create a dark undertone to the glaze.
Dolomite 11 x 10 = 110 Think of the clay color as a colored canvas on to
EPK 6 x 10 = 60 which glaze will be applied.
Zircopax 12 x 10 = 120 Beware of old books that use outdated
Gerstley Borate1 7 x 10 = 170
ceramic materials that are either toxic or no
100 x 10 = 1000
longer available. It’s better to look at more
For green glaze add copper carbonate 1% 1 x recent glaze books that will have up-to-date
10= 10 information, including safety warnings and
chemicals that are readily available. It’s a good
TIP
idea to ask a trusted potter for a glaze batch
Determining how much glaze to mix is
recipe to try. An experienced potter can be a
entirely personal. A word of caution, do not
sounding board for questions, and the recipes
mix a large quantity of a glaze until you have
provided are sure to be tried-and-true.
already tested it. Mix a 500- to 1,000-gram
recipe and glaze several pieces to see if you Keeping Glazes in Suspension
really like it.Then mix a larger batch; a Glazes are suspensions. They are made up of a
4,000- to 6,000-gram batch of glaze will fill a range of materials with different particle sizes
5-gallon (about 20-L) bucket and should and weights that once stirred are suspended in
provide a generous amount to glaze for the water. After the mixture sits for a while, the
dipping and pouring lots of ware. heaviest particles begin to settle out.
Commercial glazes contain binders, such
as gum-based products, to keep the ingredients
At first, the names of the materials in a glaze suspended. These commercial binders are avail-
recipe may seem daunting. If you read the supply able for home use, as well. You can aid the sus-
catalogs and ceramic magazines the names of pension of the glaze mixture when mixing your
own glazes, too. Add 1 percent Epsom salts or 2
chemicals will become familiar and it will be less
percent bentonite in a water solution to the mix-
intimidating. Ceramic suppliers usually list their
ture. Neither addition will change the glaze for-
raw materials and what they’re used for in clays
mula, but either will help suspend the heavier
and glazes in their catalogs. They are a quick
particles. Some glaze recipes already list bentonite
resource when you have a question about an in the recipe. If you are mixing a glaze that con-
ingredient. I recommend reading this section on tains bentonite, you won’t need Epsom salts. If a
raw materials to build knowledge base. As famil- glaze has been stored for a while, stir a little more
iarity with raw materials develops, reading books Epsom salts (or bentonite) solution to the mixture.
on glaze chemistry will be much easier.
Experimenting with recipes from books with-
out knowing what the glaze solution looks like
or how it was fired is a challenge. Many times
books and magazines fail to mention the color of

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SaFety preCautionS gloves when you glaze to avoid the absorption of

Following basic safety precautions in the glaze heavy metals into your bloodstream.
studio is necessary. Always read all product labels Do not pour unused glazes down the drain—
before experimenting. they pollute the water supply. Instead, allow the
It is essential that you avoid using toxic chemi- glaze to settle out, then decant the water and
cals and follow all warnings about potentially allow the glaze to dry. It can be thrown out as is
toxic materials. It’s a good practice to treat all or fired in a bisque-fired bowl or clay cylinder,
raw materials as toxic. When handling powdered creating a solid mass that can be disposed of. An
ceramic materials, always use an approved par- environmentally friendly approach to dealing
ticulate mask to block the inhalation of ceramic with unwanted glaze is to have a mystery glaze
dust. Inhaling ceramic materials can cause damage bucket where all unwanted glaze is added and
to the lungs. Consult your physician before using samples are test fired. Colorant can be added to
a respirator mask because they can be a risk to be used as liner glaze for the inside of vases and
people with certain health conditions. bottles. Sometimes the resulting mystery glaze
If you have cuts or abrasions on your hands, will be beautiful enough to use for exterior glaz-
use surgical gloves, and make a habit of using ing, too.
Some common sense rules apply, too. Never
eat, drink, or smoke in a studio when mixing
glazes. Covering the mixing and glazing area in
paper makes cleaning up quick and easy—just
roll it up and dispose of it afterwards.
gathering SupplieS
When you are ready to begin mixing a glaze, get
all the tools and supplies ready.
• Newspaper (for lining table)
• Plastic bucket with lid to mix glaze in
• Additional bucket to sieve glaze into
• Assorted buckets and bowls
• Marker to label bucket
• Gram scale
• Calculator for calculating amount of ingredi-
ents
• Rubber gloves
C Two types of particulate masks: Above, • Scoops and spoons
top is a disposable particulate mask, avail-
able at hardware stores. Above, bottom • Pitcher with water
is a higher quality, heavy-duty particulate • Dust mask rated for small particles
mask, with disposable filters, available from
ceramic suppliers and some larger hardware and fine dust
stores. • Clean-up sponge
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• Cloth towels tions that come with the scale.

• Paper towels Digital scales are also commonly available,
• Brushes: watercolor, hake, and sponge brushes and they make it very easy to weigh materials.
Choose a glaze recipe that will suit the firing
• Rubber spatula and large stirring spoon
temperature or cone of the clay that is going to
• Scrub brush for cleaning dishes and plastic
be glazed. Mix a small test batch of 500 grams.
putty knife
(Most books suggest 100 gram recipes, but they
• 60 or 80 mesh sieve are too small to really coat a small pot and see
• Glaze batch recipe and pen how the glaze works.) After testing, if you like
the results, mix a larger batch.
Good glaze mixing habits from the beginning
will keep you organized and focused. One of the
most useful habits is to write down the recipe in
the quantity that you are going to mix on an
index card. Mark off each ingredient as it is meas-
ured and poured into the bucket. When mixing
large quantities it is not uncommon to measure
out the same material in small increments.
Making note of each addition will ensure an
accurate glaze batch. It is easy to get distracted
and lose count of the mixture. When weighing
C Glaze mixing supplies: Gram scale, sieves, mask, glaze materials, it is essential to concentrate so as
chemicals, and scoops
not to waste time, materials, or a finished piece
of ware.
MEASURING INGREDIENTS
A gram scale is a precision instrument that is MASTERING CONSISTENCY
used to measure specific amounts of material to Determining the consistency of the glaze is
the tenth of a gram. Gram scales are easy to use, tricky because each glaze behaves differently,
but they demand attention to detail. depending on thickness of the coating. It will
When you purchase a scale, be sure to buy the also depend on method of application and the
container that accompanies the model so the thickness of the ceramic ware. Bisque ware is
manufacturer’s scale can be properly tared. Any very porous and if the pot is thick it will tend
plastic container can be used, but it must be to absorb a lot of glaze.
placed empty on the scale with all the markers Some glazes are applied thinly because they
on the balance beam at 0 grams. The container bring out the color and textures in the clay. There
should weigh in at zero on the balance marker. are other glazes that benefit from a generous coat-
This way, the weight of the container will not ing for depth in color and richness in texture. If a
count toward the amounts of ceramic materials glaze is too thin, the result typically is more of a
you are weighing. There is a small dial on every sheen on the clay with little to no color. If a glaze
scale for adjusting the balance beam and aiding is too thick, it will tend to crack as it dries and
in achieving the proper tare. Read the instruc- will be prone to crawling off the pot and also


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A G UIDE T O M IXING G LAZES
1 2
1. On a level surface, set the scale for the desired weight. After 2. Set the balance beam markers to the next desired weight
each weighing, make sure that all three markers on the balance and add the next ingredient until the balance beam is level. Pour
beam are set to zero and set the next weight.This will ensure the ingredient in the glaze bucket.
that you don’t incorrectly weigh any ingredient.
Place the ingredient in the measuring container until the bal-
ance beam begins to rise and reaches the middle marker that
indicates the proper weight. If the beam moves higher, remove
some powder until it levels off.
3 4
3. Place the powder in the glaze bucket and check off the ingre- 4. Cover the glaze bucket after each addition of powder to
dient on the index card with the recipe.The glaze bucket should keep the dust contained. After all the ingredients have been
have some water in it to slake the powder.Wipe off any excess weighed and added to the glaze bucket, add some more water
powder from the container and the scoop. Set the balance beam then slake the dry ingredients into the water. How much water
markers to zero. depends on how much glaze you are mixing. Add the Epsom salt
solution, 1 percent of the total weight of glaze.


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5 6
5. Stir thoroughly and sieve.When you sieve the glaze, be care- 6. Check for consistency of the glaze. It should be like heavy
r ful not to use too much pressure on the sieve. A plastic putty cream, not like pudding. If it’s too thick, add water to the mix-
knife or a dishwashing brush is really useful to promote the ture and stir until when you dip your gloved finger it coats
mixture through the sieve. Sieve the mixture two to three times evenly and drips one or two drops off the tip.
until the clumps are gone. Sieving a glaze a few times really inte-
grates the ingredients.
TIP
The rule of thumb is to use about the same
weight in water as is the total weight of the
dry ingredients. I usually put a little less
water than I expect to use.This method
prevents the clumping of dry material. Keep
in mind that it’s easier to add water than to
remove it.
r
lt

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KEEPING A GLAZE JOURNAL

A glaze journal is a very useful tool. I still
use my college journal on occasion.When I
started keeping recipes and notes in college,
I could have never projected that some of
that information would be applicable years
later. Here are some things you may want to
track.
Keep a record of the clay bodies that you
use, including supplier, clay code, and
C Try testing the glaze consistency by dipping a test cup in temperature range.
the bucket.
Write down glaze recipes, including
running during the melting, which runs the risk amounts mixed and how they were applied,
of adhering the pot to the kiln shelf. and if possible, take a picture of the test
Some potters measure the ratio of water to piece or results. I know potters who take
glaze to ensure consistent results. You can train digital images, creating a computer journal.
yourself to do it by eye, or a tool called a The results can be printed as desired.
hydrometer, which measures percentage of water Make notes about the glaze application
in a glaze, can be purchased instead.
method and the firing results. Over time you
How the glaze will be applied also determines
will see patterns emerge that will inform
the consistency. For brush application, a thicker
your approach to working with glazes.
consistency is good. For dipping and pouring, a
thinner consistency is preferable. For spraying,
the size of the nozzle may require an even thin-
ner consistency to prevent clogging. PREPARING WARE
Make sure that glaze chemicals are stored in FOR GLAZING
sealed containers and that they are not cross- Work should first be bisque fired to a tempera-
contaminated. Label everything from chemicals ture of at least cone 010 up to cone 04, depend-
to glazes—write the name, recipe, and firing ing on the type of clay. The convention is cone
temperature on the bucket, not the lid, as lids get 06 for commercial clays and glazes. The higher
easily separated from the glaze bucket. Glazes in the firing temperature, the less absorbent the
the raw state look nothing like they do once they bisque ware will be. Before you begin to glaze
are fired, so labeling is essential. Making test work, examine the bisque ware to see if there are
tiles, or test cups, of each glaze will help you stay any clay burrs or highpoints that need sanding.
organized, too. Particular care should be paid to functional pots
Many factors determine the end result and so at the lip or handle section. Any clay debris that
there really is no absolute answer, just guidelines gets glazed will become sharp.
to help you find your way with the process. You can use a piece of kiln shelf or sand
paper to sand any rough surfaces. Be sure to do


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this outdoors and with a mask on for protection.

You do not want to create dust in the studio.
Quickly rinsing the bisque to remove dust
and debris and to add a little moisture to the
ware. Let it stand a few hours before glazing.
This way it will absorb just the right amount of
glaze. If work has sat around for a long time it
does get dusty, but if you keep your bisque cov-
ered you may not have to rinse it. Some potters
use a damp sponge to wipe off excess dust, but
sponge debris can get caught on textures.
Other potters briskly rub their bare hands on
C Latex wax applied with a sponge to the foot of a bowl
the bisque to remove dust. This works, but it can
be abrasive if you have a lot of work to glaze. Do wax resist works best if applied at least four
not blow on the bisque to dispel dust because it hours before glazing. This way it has a chance to
will send debris right into your eyes and nose. dry and resists glaze more efficiently. The bottoms
It is important to have clean hands that are of pieces will need to be checked and wiped
free from oils when handling bisque. Wash any before loading the kiln.
hand lotion off with soapy water before handling Glaze can be brushed, dipped, poured on,
bisque; otherwise, the oils will resist glaze. sprayed, sponged on, and slip trailed for different
effects. The ultimate goal is to get an even coat of
APPLYING WAX RESIST glaze on the piece and then decorate. You can
Wax resist is used to coat the base of pieces overlap glazes but be careful not to overlap more
before they are glazed. The purpose of this is to than two glazes and test for results. Often glazes
ensure that glaze does not adhere to the base of a that have a different glaze batch recipe will com-
piece. If there is glaze on the base, it will fuse to bine and lower the melting point. This can be
the kiln shelf and crack. beautiful on the top of a vessel but disastrous at
You can buy a number of latex-based wax the base of a piece.
resists. They are easy to use and clean up. Some Keep in mind that glazing takes as much
potters use hot paraffin wax, which is quick to practice as making the pottery itself, so keep
use but highly flammable if it gets too hot. Latex some of your not-so-favorite pieces to practice
wax can be applied with a brush, a sponge brush,
or a small piece of sponge, which can be pinched
for more control. Be sure to work carefully and TIP
not get wax on other areas because the wax will Most glazes are applied to bisque-fired
resist the glaze. If you do get a drip, use a lighter pieces, but there are potters who single fire;
or other source of flame to heat the area, melting in other words, they glaze greenware and
off the wax. Gently sand the surface. If this fire only once.This is a tricky process and
doesn’t work try re-bisque firing the piece. usually used with wood-fired kilns because
A good rule of thumb is to apply wax to your the ware can be fired very slowly to draw
piece 1/4 inch (1/2 cm) up from the base. Liquid out the moisture.

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A PPLYING G LAZES
Commercial glazes are easy to use and are usually applied in two to three coats. Each coat applied
with brushstrokes in opposite directions. For dipping glazes you will need enough glaze and a con-
tainer that is large enough to accommodate the shape to be dipped.
There are several different ways to apply glaze to work.
Dipping Pouring
1 1
1. The easiest way to dip a bowl is to hold it and dip 1. Another way is to pour glaze into the vessel to be
into the glaze bucket two-thirds of the way. glazed and swish around.
2 2
2. Let dry and hold the bowl from the opposite side 2. When the glaze has covered the inside, quickly
and dip two-thirds of the way again. If you use the same pour the glaze out.When the glaze has dried, dip the
glaze, you will get a thicker coat in the middle, creating outer surface into the glaze.You can use the same
a color variation. glaze or two different glazes.
3 3
3. If you use two different colors, you will get three 3. Glaze can be poured on the exterior of a vessel if
different color effects in one piece. the hand is placed inside the vessel so that it can be
turned while the glaze is being poured.

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dipping a Cup
1. To dip a cup, hold the handle and dip into bucket. Be sure
to empty the glaze as you lift the cup out of the bucket.
2. When the glaze has dried, dip the handle.
C Cone 6 electric-fired vase with overlapping

glaze at the top. The combination of two glazes
caused a crawled effect.
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Spraying
Spraying imparts an even application of glaze.
@
Spraying can also be an effective method for applying glaze in once-firing, as
the atomized glaze contains less water, allowing for a better mechanical glaze
fit on the leather-hard or bone-dry clay.
!
The liquid glaze is poured into the spray
gun container. After each spraying applica-
tion, the container should be shaken to
prevent the glaze from settling. Agitating
the glaze will ensure a uniform glaze
content in the spray.
#
The spray gun should be thoroughly cleaned after any spraying application.
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Brushing
Brushing allows for the glaze to be applied to specific areas of the
pottery. Care must be taken to ensure an even glaze coating.
@
! Clean the brush after any glaze application.
Carefully brush the glaze on the bisque pot.

Touch-up Tips
tip
Studio Note
The depth of the glaze layer can play an important part !
in duplicating a glaze effect. If a glaze layer is too thin,
the color of the clay body predominates. Often a thin ap- 1. To cover bare spots the glaze, try touching up
plication can slow the development of color, texture, and glaze with a brush.
opacity in the fired glaze. If a glaze layer is too thick, a
glaze layer can cause the glaze to run off vertical surfaces
or pool excessively in horizontal areas. Unfortunately, most
glaze formulas do not contain a notation section offering
information on glaze thickness or application techniques.
@
2. It is possible to paint over the glaze with wax
resist and then apply another glaze for a wax resist
decoration. Or use an oxide such as iron oxide or
cobalt oxide mixed with a little water to paint a
design over the glaze.
151
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Here are some helpful tools

that offer a range of glazing
effects and techniques:
A. Dipping tongs are used to
hold pieces while dipping into
glaze buckets.
B. Assorted watercolor brushes
are used to paint details or
correct glaze application.
C. A fine-tipped squeeze bot-
tle is used to trail glaze in a
detailed fashion.
D. Hake and bamboo brushes
hold a lot of glaze and are
good to use for brush applica-
tions of glaze. E
E. A bulb syringe is used to
apply glaze to isolated areas.


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GLAZiNG Tips
Here’s how to fix some common problems applying glazes. If you practice on your least
with glaze application. favorite pieces, you will do a great job on the
If the dry glaze looks crackled, the chances pieces that you’re most proud of.
are the coat of glaze is too thick. Try When you are finished glazing, be sure to
scraping it off with a metal rib and re-glaze wipe the bottoms of pieces with a clean damp
with a thinner coat. sponge to remove any glaze that may have
If you have glaze drips, wipe them off beaded up. Then place the pieces on clean
(especially from the base of the piece) or paper-lined ware boards to carry work to the kiln.
let them air dry and scrape it off with a Do not forget this step—it is too easy to place a
metal rib. piece of work on dirty paper. It will
If the surface looks blistery or bubbly, try pick up any glaze drips and cause problems
rubbing the surface of the dry glaze with a in the kiln.
paper towel to smooth it out. Be careful not
to chip the glaze or inhale the dust.
C Turquoise bowl fired to cone 6 in an electric kiln
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C
glaze
c h a p t e r
e i g h t
chemistry
Defined in the simplest terms, glaze is liquid glass subjected to heat. When glazes are fired in a kiln, they
g melt and adhere to the clay body, eventually hardening and forming a glossy, satin matte, or matte surface
texture. Glazes contain silica, alumina, and any combination of flux oxides. Various raw materials—calcium,
magnesium, frits, boron, and a multitude of others—are combined to form glazes that act differently, depend-
ing on the clay body and firing conditions. Ultimately, you will choose a glaze based on the purpose of your
clay piece and your kiln’s firing temperature and atmosphere.
Glazes can serve many functions. Base glazes appear transparent, semi-opaque, or opaque when fired.
As the name implies, these glazes often serve as a “base” for adding other materials, such as metallic color-
ing oxides, stains, gums, or suspension agents that alter the fired outcome. Liner glazes are applied to func-
tional pottery, such as mugs or plates—anything you plan to use that will come into direct contact with food or
drink. Liner glazes are inert when in contact with acidic or alkaline food or liquids. These glazes are durable
enough to withstand dishwashing soaps—even dish-
washers. Liner glazes do not contain lead or soluble
materials that could leach into food or beverages, but
can contain coloring oxides or stains.
The way glaze melts onto clay is like magic, or so it
seems. You apply a milky white liquid to a pot, fire it in
a kiln, and the final product is a rich, cobalt blue. As
with many things in pottery, what you see when glaze
is in its raw, pre-fired form is not what you get once the
clay piece has been heated in the kiln.
Wheel-Thrown Covered Jar by Tom White

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deSirable glaze When soluble materials are required in a glaze formula,
Reliable, defect-free glazes share certain characteristics. store them in waterproof plastic bags. A conservative
They apply easily onto the clay surface, whether sprayed, approach is to mix only enough glaze containing soluble
dipped, or brushed. Glazes that require minimum touch- material for one glazing session. Remember, the stored
ups after dipping save the studio potter time, especially liquid glaze can change over time.
if production and sales are considerations. Also, quality Soluble materials include boric acid, Gerstley borate,
glazes have a temperature buffer in the kiln; preferably a colemanite, soda ash, wood ash, Gillespie borate, Boraq,
two to three pyrometric cone maturing range. At any point potassium bichromate, and pearl ash (potassium carbon-
in the cone range, the fired pot should have a smooth, non- ate). Other glaze materials, such as lithium carbonate, mag-
pitted surface. An abrasion-resistant surface is important nesium carbonate, nepheline syenite, strontium carbonate,
for functional pottery. Functional pottery glazes should and some frits, can have lesser degrees of solubility. These
not leach when in contact with acidic or alkaline foods. soluble materials can be found in glaze formulas, and they
And, most important, the best glaze formulas are reliable generally do not interfere with the glaze application or fired
and yield consistent texture and color time after time. glaze effects.
Achieving such desirable glaze characteristics is only
possible with raw materials that are reliable and stable in sTabiliTy
particle size, chemical composition, and organic content. When glazing pottery that you plan to use for food or
You should examine a glaze’s solubility, stability, and firing liquids, you must know how the glaze will react in acidic
conditions to ensure the best results. and alkali conditions. Acidic or alkali conditions from
lemons or dishwasher soap can attack glaze surfaces,
solubiliTy resulting in discoloration, pitting, or penetration of
Soluble materials will leach into the water system of the liquids into the glaze. Extracted elements from the
glaze, changing its chemical composition over time, which glaze can contaminate food or liquids.
can result in multiple glaze defects. As water evaporates In the presences of strong alkali (high pH) silica, the
from the glaze layer during application, soluble materials glaze converts to caustic sodium silicate, altering the origi-
travel by wicking action, drawing higher concentrations of nal glaze as well as feeding on itself and causing further
material to the ridges and edges of the pot. Essentially, the damage. In extremely acidic (low pH) conditions found in
glaze formula in the elevated edges of the pot is different, food or drink, alkalis are drawn out of unstable glazes. The
due to the concentration of soluble materials. The altered leaching effect can discolor or mar the glaze surface. This
glaze area can cause blisters, pinholes, dry surfaces, or reaction is often observed when tomatoes, limes, or lemon
changes in the glaze color. juice (all acidic) are left on compromised glazed surfaces
for any length of time.
Any concave or convex disruption of the glazed surface,
such as blisters, pinholes, or clay body eruptions through
the glaze, are possible sources of entry for contaminants
and/or corrosive reactions. Glaze defects such as crazing
(see page 182), which is a fine network of recessed lines,
can provide a place for bacteria and mold to grow and
contaminate food or drink.
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Liner Glaze Requirements Firing Conditions
Every clay body and glaze combination will react differ-
While potters have a good idea of what characteristics ently to the rate of temperature increase in the kiln. As a
constitute a glaze—color, light transmission, temperature general guideline, take at least 12 to 14 hours total firing
range, and surface texture—liner glazes can offer some time to reach cone 6, or 2,232°F (1,222°C), in a fully-
challenges to achieve their intended function. Here are loaded, electric kiln. In a computer-controlled electric kiln,
a few things to keep in mind. use the “slow” setting with a fully-loaded kiln. (For more
• Liner glazes should not contain lead or lead frits. information on kiln temperature, see page 164.)
Although such glazes can be formulated for safe use, If there are not enough pots to fill the kiln, place shelves
many variables make the formulation process and and posts in the kiln to create greater thermal mass, which
storage of raw materials impractical for most pottery will contribute to an even heat distribution and slow the
operations. rate of heating and cooling. Hydrocarbon-fueled kilns and/
or larger kilns with greater thermal mass may require differ-
• Test for solubility if the glaze contains more than ent firing cycles to achieve glaze and clay body maturity.
5 percent of metallic coloring oxides or stains. Glaze maturity is especially important in liner glazes,
Metallic coloring oxides or their carbonate forms, because they are often applied to enclosed forms, such as
such as cobalt oxide, cobalt carbonate, and iron covered jars, teapots, or casseroles, which can be insulated
oxide (which are readily soluble in the glazes) can somewhat from outside heat sources. Ceramic materials
also be used in small amounts, less than 3 percent. are good insulators of heat, and an enclosed interior glaze
surface will not mature like the outside glazed surface if the
• Glazed surfaces should be smooth, without concave kiln is fired too fast or does not reach glaze maturing tem-
or convex irregularities. perature. Determine kiln temperature by placing pyromet-
ric cones inside the kiln, or by taking a pyrometer reading.
• Glazes should be free of crazing, a fine network of
Firing the glaze too fast to its end-point temperature can
cracks in the glaze surface, and shivering, when the
result in rough, jagged surfaces. Kiln firing conditions can
glaze peels off the fired clay surface similar to paint
change the glaze surface and clay body maturity, causing
chipping.
it to leach its oxides or trap food particles. Also, glazes and
• Glazes should apply evenly to the pottery surface by clay bodies can become unstable in over-reduced or under-
dipping, brushing, or spraying. reduced kiln atmospheres, or when exposed to wood, salt,
or soda firing. Atmospheric kiln firing conditions can
• Glazes should have high abrasion resistance when introduce variable factors that slow or intensify the melting
fired, creating a strong blemish-free surface when in action and surface texture of the glaze formula.
contact with household utensils. In other instances, the clay body itself can alter the glaze
by drawing out oxides from the glaze. This will inhibit the
• Glazes should resist high alkali and acidic condi- glaze’s melting potential, resulting in a surface that leaches
tions in daily use. water or an unsanitary surface that traps food particles in
its microscopic voids (due to glaze not melting completely).
• Glazes should be easily reproducible, giving consis-
Some matte glazes can be unstable, leaching their oxides
tent results in every kiln firing.
into foods or liquids because they achieve their matte
• Glazes should be stable when fired slightly above effect through under-firing or fast firing. Such glazes also
or below their recommended firing temperature can cause chipping, crazing, and scratching, or display a
because not all kilns will fire evenly. bleached lighter fired color.
• Field-test glazes in actual heating, freezing, and

cleaning conditions.
• Send suspect glazes to a testing laboratory before

tip
using the formula in your studio.
Using Trial and Error
Test kilns allow the trial and error adjustments of several
different glaze formulas. If successful, glazes can be
produced in larger amounts for pottery production.
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TesTing glaze
Always test glazes before applying them to pottery. Glazes
will react differently on brown and white clays and when
subjected to different firing temperatures. Because you
are not using the same kiln as the ceramics supplier, do
not rely on their test tile samples as a completely accurate
depiction of how a glaze will look after it is fired.
Equipment
100-gram test batch of glaze
80-mesh sieve
4” (10-cm) test tiles, with smooth and textured
surfaces
@
Bucket
Instructions
1. Measure out a 100-gram test batch of glaze (dry
material).
2. Add enough water to achieve a glaze thickness of 0.5

mm to 1.5 mm or the equivalent of 3 business cards
stacked together.
3. Strain the mixture through an 80-mesh sieve, allowing

the glaze to collect in a bucket.
4. Apply the glaze to several 4” test tiles with smooth and

textured surfaces. Allow for a 1” unglazed area on the
bottom of each tile, because some glazes might drip.
#
5. Place the test tiles on the top, middle, and bottom
shelves of the kiln. Not all kilns fire evenly, so this will
give an indication of how the kiln’s heat work affects
the glaze. The multiple tiles will indicate the tempera-
ture range at which the glaze will mature.
If the kiln were firing to a higher temperature, on the top,

the glaze might have an exceptionally high-gloss surface
and run on the vertical tile. If in another part of the kiln
the temperature was too low, the same glaze might have
a dry matte surface and not run on the vertical tile. If the
same glaze looks identical despite variations in temperature
throughout the kiln, it is an indication of an adequate glaze
maturation range.
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glazeS For FoodS potassium oxide, lead oxide, lithium oxide, or titanium
oxide) will increase its resistance to acid/alkaline condi-
and beverageS tions. However, high percentages of a single alkaline-earth
Many potters will use a glaze habitually without consid- material can contribute to a matte surface texture and glaze
ering how it will react when coming into contact with instability. Alkaline-earth oxides can be found in several
food or drink. Some potters believe any glaze that melts ceramic materials, such as barium carbonate, whiting,
can serve as a liner glaze. However, not every liner glaze magnesium carbonate, dolomite, and talc. Alkaline oxides
can stand up to alkaline/acidic conditions or produce an can be found in several ceramic materials such as feldspars,
abrasion-resistant surface. frits, lead, lithium carbonate, and titanium dioxide.
The three factors that influence more than 90 percent of Because both groups of alkaline and alkaline-earth
attack by acidic and alkali substances on unstable glazes are materials act as fluxes in varying strengths, they should
time, temperature, and extreme pH levels. The remaining be used in the lowest amounts possible to achieve a glassy
10 percent encompasses the hardness of the water, sanitary melt. Alkaline and alkaline-earth fluxes will not contribute
condition of the container, and any suspended material in color to glazes, but they do influence color when metal-
the water. The longer a glaze is exposed to acidic or alkali lic coloring oxides are present in the glaze. Greater glaze
substances, the greater the chance of leaching. Additionally, stability can be achieved by using combinations of fluxes, as
the higher the temperature of acidic or alkali substances, opposed to a single flux.
the greater the possibility of leaching. Extremely low or Increasing the silica content of a glaze can prevent acidic
high pH levels can increase leaching in glazes. It’s impor- and alkali reactions on the glaze surface. However, a glaze
tant to note that with normal pottery use, time, tempera- with not enough flux and too high a silica content will be
ture, and pH conditions will have no adverse effect on immature and subject to chemical attack, while additions
stable glazes, only unstable glazes. of alumina, titania, and zirconia improve a glaze’s acid
resistance. A common source of titania is titanium dioxide.
aCid/alKaline resisTanCe Superpax, Opax, and Ultrox (or their equivalents) are glaze
Several selections of raw glaze materials can enhance glaze opacity–producing agents that contain zirconia. A balance
stability in acidic and alkali conditions. Acidic conditions of fluxes, alumina, and silica will produce stable glazes
attack alkaline materials in the glaze such as feldspars or along with the appropriate firing conditions.
high-alkaline frits. To a lesser degree, they also react with A surprising number of glazes, when critically exam-
alkaline earth materials in the glaze, such as dolomite, ined, are overly fluxed and can accept more silica (flint) to
calcium carbonate, or magnesium carbonate and strontium achieve a resilient glaze. One indication of overly fluxed
carbonate. glazes is running on vertical surfaces or even a slight bead-
Often, decreasing a glaze’s alkaline-earth oxides (such ing on the bottom of the form where the glaze ends and the
as barium oxide, calcium oxide, or magnesium oxide) foot begins.
and substituting alkaline oxides (such as sodium oxide,
Some glazes are “soft” when fired, meaning they can be

easily abraded by utensil marks in daily use. Glaze designed
for functional pottery must meet the test of abrasion resistance.
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abrasion resisTanCe
When a glaze shows scratch marks, the physically soft
quality of the glaze is giving way to a harder material Using Metallic Coloring Oxides
moving across the surface. Some glazes are soft compared
Do not overload a durable, safe glaze with metallic col-
with household utensils and scrubbing pads. Glazes can
oring oxides, such as cobalt, copper, or chrome. When
be scratched when they have not reached their maturation
multiple metallic oxides are used, even in low levels,
temperature or if they reached their correct temperature
their combined effect can cause leaching in a stable
too quickly. Both conditions can result in insufficient glass
base glaze. The amount of oxides it takes to overload a
formation in the glaze. Often, immature glazes are incor-
base glaze depends on the base glaze formula, firing
rectly classified as satin matte or matte, with a semi-opaque
temperature, time to temperature, kiln atmosphere, glaze
or opaque light transmission and a rough surface texture.
application thickness, and clay body composition.
The simplest solution is to fire the glaze to a higher
temperature and/or longer time to temperature, which
will result in glaze maturity. Both firing methods subject
the glaze to greater heat work in the kiln. This causes
silica and alumina contained in the glaze formula to reach
a glassy hard consistency. Or, try increasing the primary
glaze fluxes, such as feldspars or frits. (Remember, adding
too much feldspar or frit can subject the glaze to acidic or
Liner glazes should have a smooth surface that can contain
alkali attack.) A careful balance of flux materials, silica, and
food or liquid in an inert condition. The fired glaze should
alumina fired to maturity in a compatible kiln firing cycle be easy to clean and not subject to alkaline or acid attack.
will develop glazes that resist chemical attack and abrasion. Below, a stoneware bowl
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adJuSting and teSting glazeS
At some point, you will want to experiment with glazes. Whether using commercial
premixed glazes or your own formulas, venturing outside of the familiar into new glaze
palettes is important. Before you do so, understand how raw materials, particle size, kiln
atmosphere, and other variables affect a glaze formula.
This pitcher was dipped in ZAM Gloss Blue cone 9 glaze.
glaze chemistry 161
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Ask the Right Questions
Each ceramics supplier can use different sources for the differently. Sometimes, the difference is enough to change
raw materials they sell to potters. To further complicate a glaze radically. When a glaze formula states it should be
things, generic names are often used for raw materials fired to cone 9 (2300°F [1260°C]), do you know what size
that are often not an accurate representation of specific kiln the glaze was fired in or how long it took to reach the
materials. Also, each processor or wholesaler of raw mate- glaze maturing temperature?
rial can have several different grades of that material. The Following is a sample of a typical glaze formula and
result is a common name for a raw material that can be questions you should ask a ceramics supplier concerning
completely different depending on where it is processed the raw materials it contains. These questions address
and eventually sold. particle size, chemical composition, solubility, and the
Nevertheless, the largest areas of misunderstanding existence of additives such as metallic coloring oxide.
occur when potters do not fully appreciate the effects of
heat work on clay and glazes. Every kiln heats and cools
Glaze Contents Questions

ZAM Gloss Blue c/9 What is the kiln firing atmosphere?
Nepheline syenite 55 What mesh size?
Flint 27 What mesh size?
Whiting 8 What is the chemical composition and particle size?
Gerstley borate 10 Is this variable in chemical composition, and is it soluble?
Cobalt oxide 6% What is the strength of the metallic coloring oxide?
A functional piece is dipped into a bucket of glaze. Stir

the glaze periodically during glazing operations to prevent
it from settling in the bucket. Each glaze might require a
shorter or longer interval between stirring due to the density
of its raw materials.
tip
Ceramic raw materials are processed in different mesh
sizes. The higher the mesh number, the smaller the particle
size. For example, flint can be obtained in 60x—a granu-
lar particle, 200x—a powder, or finer grades up to and
exceeding 400x.
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PARticle size
The particle sizes of ceramic raw materials are critical fac-
nodules or conglomerate particles into a homogenized mix-
tors in their ability to melt. A smaller particle size denotes
ture of material and water. A coarser open-mesh sieve can
increased surface area, which melts more efficiently than
allow large particles of material such as kaolin or flint to
a larger particle size. A finer mesh material might cause
mix into the glaze and appear as small specks on the glazed
a lower melting point, which can result in the fired glaze
surface. The screening process is especially important for
dripping or a semi-opaque glaze appearing transparent.
soluble materials, such as Gerstley borate, colemanite, soda
All glaze materials look like powder, so knowing the actual
ash, borax, or pearl ash (potassium carbonate). These can
mesh size is important for duplicating any glaze formula.
clump together in storage and must be broken into smaller
For example, flint, a glass-forming oxide and major com-
particles.
ponent in any glaze, can be purchased in 60x mesh, 100x
It’s important to note that metallic coloring oxides and
mesh, 200x mesh, 325x mesh, and 400x mesh. (Larger
their reaction with glazes can also be influenced by the
numbers indicate finer particles.) Even finer mesh sizes are
size of the screen. For example, cobalt oxide, when used
available by special order. Frequently, a glaze formula will
in a satin matte or matte glaze, can sometimes reveal itself
not specify a mesh size for flint. In such instances, use 325x
as a blue glaze with blue specks in the fired glaze sur-
mesh flint.
face. The larger particle size of cobalt oxide as compared
When you screen glaze material in your own studio,
to cobalt carbonate will pass through undisturbed in a
reach for the 80x mesh sieve. The small size of the screen
coarser mesh sieve.
causes a mechanical mixing action of the glaze materials
suspended in the glaze water. The sieve breaks down any
Testing glazes can offer the potter an assurance of a good result. Pottery is time- and labor-intensive, and it can
be discouraging to unload a kiln with glaze defects. Always test any glaze before committing yourself to a large body of work.
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Kiln Size and atmoSphere Kiln Firing CyCle
When selecting a glaze, keep in mind how that glaze will Do you know the kiln firing cycle of the glaze? If so, there
be affected by your kiln’s size, atmosphere, and firing cycle. is a greater chance of duplicating the glaze. A fast-kiln
As a general guideline, the chart below illustrates what firing cycle will produce an immature clay body that can
happens to a clear, transparent glaze when subjected to a be highly absorbent, less durable, and contribute to glaze
cone 6 (2232°F [1222°C]) firing in small, medium, and problems such as crazing. A fast-kiln firing cycle can alter
large kiln electric kilns. The time to cone 6 was approxi- the fired color, texture, glaze durability, and light transmis-
mately the same in each kiln firing, with the only difference sion of the glaze, while an excessively long firing cycle can
being kiln size. The larger kilns, having more thermal mass, cause the glaze to become markedly glossy or to run off
created more “heat work” in the kiln with greater glaze vertical surfaces. Some glazes work best when held at their
maturation, resulting in a smooth, transparent glaze with maturing temperature for a given period of time. Other
a hard durable surface. The craze lines produced by the glazes, when held at temperature, can blister or run down
1-cubic-foot kiln were due to the immaturity of the clay vertical surfaces due to increased heat work on the glaze at
body with the glaze under tension upon cooling. the high end of glaze vitrification. The kiln cooling cycle
The size of the kiln can play an important part in the also can play an important part in the development of a
development of surface texture (gloss, satin matte, dry glaze. Devitrification or crystal growth can cause small or
matte), light transmission (clear, semi-opaque, opaque), large crystals to develop in the cooling glaze. The growth
color (red, green, blue, brown etc.) and glaze hardness of crystals is dependent, in part, on the glaze formula, clay
(soft surface, easily scratched or hard surface-abrasion body, and rate of cooling.
resistant). Ceramic materials melt under several conditions While there are no perfect kiln firing cycles that will
aside from the absolute, or end-point temperature, they work for every glaze, a 75°F to 80°F (24°C to 26°C) heat
reach in the kiln. The time it takes to reach that tem- increase per hour from cone 06 (1828 °F [998°C]) to cone
perature and the rate of cooling are factors that inhibit or 9 (2300°F [1260°C]) using self-supporting Orton cones is
promote more melting in clay bodies and glazes. a recommended starting point for high-temperature cone 9
Kiln size also influences the vitreous quality of the glazes.
clay body. Larger kilns have greater thermal mass. Kiln Do you know what kind of atmosphere was used in the glaze
bricks, posts, shelves, and stacked pots are all factors that firing? Electric kilns generate clean oxidation atmospheres.
radiate heat. Larger kilns radiate more heat during their However, carbon-based fuels such as natural gas, propane,
heating and cooling cycles than smaller kilns. The larger wood, coal, oil, and sawdust can produce oxidation, neu-
kiln promotes more heat work and greater melting in clay tral, and reduction atmospheres. Oxidation is when there is
bodies and glazes. Larger kilns can cause a different glaze more oxygen than fuel in the combustion process. Neutral
reaction compared to smaller kilns with less thermal mass, occurs when there are equal amounts of oxygen and
which dissipate heat at a faster rate. Because small test kilns fuel in the combustion process. Reduction atmospheres
have less thermal mass, they are an inaccurate indicator of have more fuel than oxygen in the combustion process.
clay body and glaze reactions if you will use a larger kiln in Reduction kiln atmospheres can cause greater melting,
production. due to the increased fluxing action of the metallic color-
ing oxides contained in the clay body and glaze. Variations
in the duration and amount of reduction can also change
clay body and glaze colors and glaze surface textures. The
variability of the reduction kiln firing atmosphere is usually
responsible for glazes not firing as expected.
Kiln Size as a Determinant of Fired Glaze Characteristics

Size of Kiln Surface texture Light transmission Glaze hardness
Small: 1 cu/ft. dry rough opaque/crazed lines easily scratched
Medium: 5 cu/ft. slightly rough semi-opaque hard
Large: 12 cu/ft. smooth transparent hard
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Kiln atmosphere can affect any glaze color, texture, or RAw mAteRiAl
melting capacity. For instance, the cobalt oxide in ZAM
Gloss Blue will fire blue in almost any kiln atmosphere, but substitutions
its color intensity will vary, depending on the atmosphere Many glaze formulas were first developed using feldspars,
in the kiln and fuel used to maintain that atmosphere. clays, or other raw materials that are no longer in pro-
In soda and salt firings, ZAM Gloss Blue can run or drip duction. Even if the raw material is still in production,
on vertical surfaces or pool in horizontal areas, due to the it might have subtly changed in chemical composition,
fluxing action of sodium vapor in the kiln atmosphere. In particle size, or organic content, all of which can alter the
wood-fired kilns, the alkaline content of the wood ash dur- current glaze result.
ing the firing can flux the glaze excessively, causing glaze The best course of action, though time-consuming and
dripping. In many instances, the glaze reactions to salt and somewhat inefficient, is to test raw materials before com-
wood firing are aesthetically positive. But both atmospheres mitting to a large production batch of glaze. You should
can flux or melt the pyrometric cones prematurely if they also ask the ceramics supplier if there have been any cur-
are not protected. rent problems or customer complaints with a raw material.
Do you know the exact position of the cone in the glaze Apply the same “always changing” mentality for clay with
firing? Potters read the melting of pyrometric cones at glaze materials.
different positions. Some potters consider the cone at its If a substitution is required, clays in the glaze formula
correct temperature when it bends at the 3 o’clock or 9 should be replaced within the same general group, such as
o’clock position (or, bending over half way in relation to ball clays, kaolins, or fireclays. Each group has subgroups
the bottom of the cone pack). Other potters read the cone based on metallic oxide content, plasticity, organic content,
as being down when it actually touches the cone pack. and particle-size distribution. However, a good starting
Certain glazes are very sensitive to slight temperature point is to obtain a chemical analysis sheet from the ceram-
variations indicated by the exact position of the pyrometric ics supplier. The information listed will determine the most
cone. In these glazes, the exact position of the cone can suitable substitution.
alter color, opacity, or glaze texture.
Keep in mind kilns can “coast,” or continue to supply
more heat work to the clay body and glaze after the kiln
has been shut down. This condition can be observed when
the potter turns off the kiln and notices that the position of
the cone has fallen as the kiln cools.
tip
Studio Note
Test-fire different glazes in close proximity to find out how
they will react in the same kiln.
Fuming occurs when part of the glaze formula vapor-
izes during the firing. A fuming reaction is most noticeable
when a glaze containing chrome oxide is placed next to
a glaze containing tin oxide. A pink blush on the glaze
containing tin is the result.
Typical cone pack configuration for a kiln being fired to cone

6 (2232°F [1222°C], second cone from left.)
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metAllic coloRing oxide/ glAze wAteR And
cARbonAtes soluble mAteRiAls
Use the same processor of metallic coloring oxides when The amount of water used in a glaze formula is rarely
ordering materials. If this is not possible, test the oxide. stated. The volume of water added to a dry glaze is one of
Metallic coloring oxides and their carbonate forms are the major areas of miscalculation, and that can result in too
processed by different international companies. Oxides thin or too thick of a glaze layer on the ceramic ware. Each
include cobalt oxide, cobalt carbonate, manganese dioxide, formula requires a specific amount of water, due to the
manganese carbonate, copper oxide, copper carbonate, particle density of the raw materials, glaze suspension addi-
nickel oxide, and nickel carbonate, along with chrome tives, glaze gums, glaze material solubility, and the chemical
oxide, iron chromate, rutile light, rutile dark, llmenite composition of the water used in mixing the glaze. The
powder, red iron oxide and its variations. Each can differ in method of application—sprayed, dipped, or brushed—also
purity, particle size, and trace material content, depending affects the water needed for success.
on the processing plant. For example, cobalt oxide (Co3O4) Water quality can affect the glaze viscosity (thickness or
is processed in three grades: 71.5 percent, 72.5 percent thinness). The hardness of the water can cause the glaze
ceramic grade, and 73.5 percent. The percentage represents to flocculate (liquid glaze appears thick in the bucket),
the cobalt contained in the oxide. Each grade can affect the and soft water can deflocculate (liquid glaze appears thin
intensity of the blue that will be generated in a glaze. in the bucket). Soluble glaze materials can break down in
In addition, the quantity of trace elements in a metallic the water system of the glaze, depending on the chemical
coloring oxide can influence its effect on the glaze color. composition of the water and the level of soluble materials
Although slight differences in trace metallic oxide content in the glaze. Excess water poured from a glaze can alter the
usually will not cause a radical color change, particle size chemical composition of the glaze, since soluble material
can affect the look of a glaze. A coarser particle size of may have dissolved in the water.
cobalt oxide can cause blue specks in a glaze; a finer grind Dry soluble materials can also take on moisture in stor-
of the same oxide (or cobalt carbonate, which is a finer age. Soluble material weight can change, depending on the
grind) will just produce a blue color glaze field. amount of moisture it has absorbed, with such transforma-
tions having an effect on the total glaze formula.
Notice the fuming reaction on this test tile. A metallic salt Pottery fired in an oxidation kiln atmosphere, which can
(stannous chloride) is introduced into the kiln while it is still produce consistent clay body and glaze colors.
hot, leaving a colorful film on the previously fired glaze
surface.
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TIP
Vitreous Qualities
When testing a glaze formula, consider the vitreous character- and glaze can influence the texture of the glaze, depending
istics of the clay body. on the clay body formula, glaze formula, kiln atmosphere,
The clay body and glaze interface is where fired clay and clay body maturity. Some clay bodies will draw part
and glaze meet and fuse together in the ceramic structure. of the flux content from the forming glaze during the firing
The interface plays an important part in the development of process. This reaction can cause opacity in light transmission
the fired glaze. The interaction of clay body or dry surface textures in the glaze.
Examples of opaque, semi-opaque, and transparent glazes.
Adjusting and Testing Glazes .167

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Adjusting clAy content
While any glaze can be altered by several methods, a simple
glaze opacity and cause a rough surface texture, depending
technique is to manipulate its clay component. You do not
on the amount of clay introduced into the formula.
have to know how every possible raw material reacts in a
On the other hand, removing the clay component from
glaze, but it’s a good idea to study ten to twelve of the most
glaze creates a more fluid mixture with less opacity. Remove
commonly used raw materials. Clay is a component in a
clay from a glaze mixture in 5- to 10-part increments.
large percentage of glazes.
Even if clay is not part of the original formula, you can
add it to glaze as a suspension agent. Added clay will stop
a glaze from dripping or will create matte, opaque surfaces.
However, note that clay additions will also increase the
Transparent to Opaque-Matte Glazes: Modifying Clay Content Cone 6 (2,332°F [1,278°C] Glaze
The clay component of this glaze is called E.P.K. (Edgar Plastic Kaolin), a plastic, high-temperature kaolin.
Increasing the E.P.K. component of a transparent, glossy glaze by 15 parts and 30 parts, based on the dry
weight of the glaze, causes it to become opaque and matte.
Transparent Gloss Glaze Matte Glaze

(original glaze formula) Parts (addition of 30 parts of E.P.K.) Parts
Nepheline Syenite 270x 20 Nepheline syenite 270x 20
Whiting 20 Whiting 20
E.P.K. 20 E.P.K. 50
Flint 325x 20 Flint 325 20
Ferro frit #3124 20 Ferro frit #3124 20
Semi-opaque Satin
(addition of 15 parts of E.P.K.) Parts
Nepheline Syenite 270x 20
Whiting 20
E.P.K. 35
Flint 325x 20
Ferro frit #3124 20
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Creating test tiles
Occasionally, a glaze formula will not work as expected.
Start by mixing a small batch of glaze; the main goal when
testing glazes is to find out how they react on a small scale.
If the tests are not successful, you have a chance to adjust
the glaze for further testing before mixing a large volume.
When you test, keep a notebook at hand so you can
write down each weigh-out of material. Record all tests in
your notebook. In a very short time, the number of test
pieces can grow. A notation system allows you to refer to
past glaze test results without guesswork. You’ll avoid mak-
ing the same mistakes twice.
PreParing Tiles
Vertical test tiles should be at least 4” (10 cm) in height
and 2” (5 cm) wide. Test tiles must also be of sufficient sur-
face area to approximate the actual pottery. Many times, a
small test tile will be successful because the molten weight
of the glaze is not heavy enough to cause it to run down
vertical surfaces. However, when larger areas are glazed, the
weight of the fluid glaze might cause it to be pulled down,
causing drips or runs on the pots or kiln shelves. The les-
son: Don’t skimp on size when creating test tiles for glaze.
Place the test tiles in many kiln locations to give an
indication of how well the glaze responds to different
temperatures. Not every kiln fires evenly, and the test tiles
will show the maturing range of the glaze. Also, the results
of one glaze test should not be the determining factor indi- Clay extrusions glazed in (left to right): transparent gloss,
cating a successful glaze. It should be followed by placing semi-opaque, and opaque matte.
more glaze tests in several different firings.
For accurate results, form test tiles from the same clay
and technique you’ll use in production. Your goal during
the testing process is to obtain as much information as
possible from the test tile, so you know what to expect
when you apply glaze to your bisque-fired work.
tip
Test Glaze Batch
A 300-gram batch of glaze with the appropriate amount of water should be ad-
equate to glaze several test tiles. The tiles can then be placed in a number of different
kiln firings. If the test glaze does not need an adjustment, it is often a good policy to
mix up a pre-production batch of 4,000 grams, or roughly 1 liquid gallon. This larger
batch will allow you to glaze several pots and place them throughout the kiln.
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PRePARing the glAze 3 Place the glaze mixture through an 80x mesh sieve
3 times. In most instances, a 60x mesh sieve is too
mixtuRe coarse and will allow larger particles of raw materials
As a general guideline, approximately, 4,000 grams (141
to remain in the liquid glaze. A100x mesh sieve will
oz) of dry glaze materials will yield 1 liquid gallon (3.8
take longer for the wet glaze to pass through. If a
L) of glaze. Following are steps to make 1 gallon of glaze.
wet glaze is stored for a week or longer, it should be
Not every glaze will conform to this ratio, but it is a good
sieved again.
starting point whenever a dry raw material has to be added
to a liquid glaze. Such additions can occur when adding a
suspension agent, metallic coloring oxide, gum, stain, or 4 Glaze settles over time. Add 2 percent bentonite (80
dye to a glaze. grams [2.8 oz]) to ensure that the glaze mixture stays
in suspension.
Equipment
• Triple beam balance scale with scoop 5 Bentonite will not completely blend into the liquid
and counterweight glaze. Therefore, sieve the entire mixture (80x mesh)
three times.
• 80x mesh sieve
• Glaze bucket
• Mixing spoon
• Test tiles ready for glazing
tip
Instructions Safety in the Studio
1 Measure out 4,000 grams (141 oz) of dry glaze Always wear protective glasses, gloves, and approved
material. respirator when performing any pottery test.
2 After the dry materials are accurately weighed, add

water to the mixture. Every glaze will require different
amounts, but it is best to use less water at first. You
can always add more later.
Wheel-Thrown/Hand-Built Sculptural Disk

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diPPing test tiles
This procedure allows before and after comparison of
how thick to apply the glaze in the next glazing session.
Equipment
• Triple beam balance scale with scoop and
counterweight QB0259-445
• 80x mesh sieve
• Glaze bucket
• Mixing spoon
!
• Test tiles ready for glazing
• Needle tool
Instructions
1 To obtain the optimum glaze layer on test tiles, start
with an application thickness of 3 cardboard match-
book covers stuck together, or slightly thinner than a
dime. About 80 percent of glazes will work success-
fully within these parameters.
2 Leave several glazed test pieces out of the firing.

Compare the unfired pieces to the test pieces that
went into the kiln.
@
3 Using a needle tool, scratch down through Test tiles that have been glaze fired; unfired tile
the unfired glaze test to the bisque surface, visually
noting the glaze thickness.
useFul glAze tests

No two glazes will react the same on a clay body, or in your
kiln, for that matter. Before you dip a prized piece into a
glaze mixture, be sure the glaze has been tested. You can
test-glaze for its reaction to alkaline and acid exposure,
its resistance to abrasion, and ability to withstand ther-
mal shock. (You want to know your teacup will tolerate
near-boiling water.) Following are some practical tests you
should execute on test tiles. #
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70 (Text) (RAY) #175 Dtp:204 Page:171
AlkAli ExposurE TEsT 1 • Glazed and fired tiles
Remember, dishwasher liquids have relatively high pH • Control sample of the fired glaze
levels, which can create alkaline exposure to glazed surfaces.
Equipment Instructions
• Glazed and fired tiles 1 Mixing solution: Start with hot water and slowly add
• Dishwasher baking soda (sodium carbonate) until the mixture
has reached a saturation point where no more of the
• Dishwasher detergent baking soda can be suspended in the water. Mix the
solution until it is a thick soup consistency. Stir the
Instructions mixture until all particles dissipate. Some potters will
compare an ideal mixture thickness for application to
1 Run several glazed and fired test tiles through multiple a cross between thin cream and half-and-half.
dishwasher cycles and note color or texture differ-
ences. Reserve a control tile that has not been placed
through the dishwasher for comparison.
2 Place the glazed tile into the solution. Withdraw the
tile and allow it to sit for 24 hrs.
AlkAli ExposurE TEsT 2 3 Rinse the glazed tile with water and wipe dry. Note
Baking soda (sodium carbonate) also has a relatively high any color or texture differences as compared to a
pH level, which can duplicate alkaline exposure from other control sample of the fired glaze.
sources that might come into contact with glazed surfaces.
Equipment Acid ExposurE TEsT

• Hot water Many foods are acidic. Often, staining can occur when
acidic foods such as blueberries, tomatoes, or limes are left
• Baking soda on an unstable glaze surface.
Alkali discoloration on glazed plate.
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Equipment Equipment
• Lemon • Glazed and fired test tile
• Glazed and fired test tile • Steak knife
• Control sample of the fired glaze • Fork
Instructions Instructions
1 Cut the lemon in half. 1 Run a steak knife over the glazed surface, as though
you are cutting food.
2 Leave the lemon, exposed surface down, on the
glazed/fired test tile. 2 Make similar movements against the test tile with the
tines of a fork.
3 Wait 24 hours. Note alterations in glaze color by
comparing it with the control sample of the fired 3 Continue this abrasion and observe results. Look for
glaze. If any discoloration or bleaching is evident, the scratches.
glaze will not be stable in everyday use.
abrasion-resisTance TesT
Pottery that fails abrasion resistance testing might also be
subject to alkali/acid attack. Plus, scratches can collect
bacteria and mold, therefore contaminating food.
Wheel-Thrown Covered Jar

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ThErmal Shock TEST aSTm ThErmal Shock TEST
If the clay body/glaze combinations are unstable, the pot This stock test conforms to the American Society for
will eventually break when in contact with boiling water. Testing and Materials.
Sharp, jagged cracks can also occur when pots are taken
from a refrigerator and placed in a hot oven. Both failures Equipment
are due to thermal shock. Ideally, clay and glaze should • Glazed and fired pot
cool in the kiln at a compatible rate, with the glaze staying
under slight compression. If the glaze is under tension, • Oven
crazing (a fine network of fault lines in the glaze) can • Clean, lint-free cloth
result. Shivering can occur if the glaze cools under extreme
compression, causing slivers of sharp glaze sheets to break Instructions
off from the underlying clay body. Unstable clay body/
glaze combinations and extreme temperatures can stress the 1 Place the pottery in an oven heated to 250°F (121°C)
pottery’s ability to remain intact. We’ll discuss crazing and for at least 45 minutes. Remove the pottery from
shivering more in a later chapter, page 176. the oven and carefully pour room-temperature water
Perform a thermal shock test to find out how your fin- into the form. Allow the water to cool. Dump out
ished pottery (fired clay and glaze) will handle extreme heat the water and dry out the pot, using a clean, lint-free
and cold. cloth.
Equipment 2 Examine the pot for defects. If the pottery is still

• Glazed and fired test pot defect-free, repeat the test 3 times, increasing the oven
• Freezer temperature by 25°F (12°C) each time, until the final
oven temperature is 325°F (162°C).
• Clean, lint-free cloth
• Water-based ink (optional)
• Metal screwdriver
Instructions
1 Place the pottery in the freezer for 3 hours. Remove
and carefully fill the pot with boiling water.
2 Pour boiling water out of the pot and dry it with a

clean, lint-free cloth.
3 Examine the pot carefully for defects. You may wish

to apply a water-based ink to the surface of the pot to
identify craze lines. When testing dark glazes, which
can hide defects, place the pot over steam and study
the surface. Caution: Always protect yourself from the
boiling water and steam by wearing long oven mitts.
4 Test for shivering by tapping the side of the pot with a

metal screwdriver to see if sheets of glaze begin to peel
off. If so, you can assume that all glazes with the same
clay body/glaze formula combination are suspect.
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glAze cAlculAtion
soFtwARe One of the most effective ways to use the software is
Formulating new glazes or adjusting existing formulas is in conjunction with actual glaze testing. If the fired glaze
much easier and faster today, thanks to glaze calculation needs revising, you can quickly recalculate it with the soft-
software. These programs give you the ability to add or ware. One or two cycles of calculation and testing should
delete materials from the glaze and observe the results on yield a successful glaze.
several levels, such as batch weight and unity formula. The When using glaze calculation programs or developing
impressive factor in calculation programs is their ability to your own glaze formulas, always use the recent chemical
compress the whole process of formulation, allowing the analyses of the raw materials. Over time, raw materials
potter to obtain an overall picture of the glaze at every step such as feldspars and clays can shift in their oxide con-
of adjustment. tent. A ceramics supply company might not have the
current chemical analysis sheets on each raw material. In
such cases, contact the mine or processor for up-to-date
information.
Glaze shivering. As the glaze cools in the kiln, it comes under extreme compression. Glaze peels off like a paint chip.
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74 (Text) (RAY) #175 Dtp:204 Page:175
C c h a p t e r
TroubleshooTing
n i n e
glazes
W
e noted symptoms of crazing and shivering
during our glaze test discussions. These glaze
defects and others—such as blistering—are not
always easy to diagnose. Now we’ll review the
symptoms of blistering, crazing, and shivering and ways you can
avoid these defects.
A kiln densely stacked with

pottery, shelves, and posts will
reduce the chance of glaze
blistering (from fast heating and
cooling) by increasing the
thermal mass within the kiln.
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glAze blisteRs
Blistering appears as a pronounced, sharp-edged burst
bubble. It looks like a crater on fired glaze and often reveals
the underlying clay body.
Blisters occur in some of the following kiln firing
conditions.
Glaze blistering is also called “boiling,” which is an appropri-

ately vivid term.
Kiln-Firing Conditions That Cause Blistering
Problem Correction
Overfiring can result when any glaze is taken past its matu- Firing the glaze one or two cones lower will bring it into its
ration temperature and lower melting point oxides within maturing range.
the glaze volatize. The effect is similar to water taken past
its boiling point.
Excessively long firing in the glaze maturing range can Shorten the firing cycle while still firing the glaze to its
cause volatilization of oxides, resulting in blisters. A maturing range.
longer time to temperature imparts additional heat work
to the glaze, even if it is taken to its correct maturating
temperature.
An excessively long cooling cycle in the glaze kiln contrib- Long cooling cycles are more prevalent in hydrocarbon-
utes more heat work when the glaze is in the molten state, fueled kilns (natural gas, propane, wood, oil, sawdust),
causing oxides to boil in the liquid glaze. Similar results which tend to be better insulated and larger in size,
can occur in overinsulated kilns, which allow the glaze to having more thermal mass than electric kilns. Upon reach-
remain in its maturing range for extreme periods of time. ing temperature, pulling the damper out and unblocking
the secondary burner ports for a short time will cool the
kiln faster.
Down-firing the kiln, or leaving burners or electric ele- In most instances, it is not necessary to down fire a
ments on after the glaze has reached maturity, exposes it kiln to achieve a stable glaze. However, if a particular
to excessive heat work when molten. glaze requires down firing, progressively shortening the
down firing interval will decrease its time in the maturing
range.
troubleshooting glazes 177
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76 (Text) (RAY) #175 Dtp:204 Page:177
Kiln-Firing Conditions That Cause Blistering
Problem Correction
Fast firing leaves blisters in the glaze that would have Extend the length of time to reach the end-point
healed in a longer firing. Some glazes go through a heat- temperature.
ing period when they boil and blister on their way to matu-
rity. If this interval is too short, blisters are “frozen” in place
and do not heal. Fast firing can also trap mechanical and
chemical water locked in the glaze materials, which are
not completely driven off until above 932°F (500°C).
Firing the glaze below its maturation range can leave a Fire the glaze to its correct maturing range.
dry, pale color or blistering in the glaze surface.
Fast firing of the bisque kiln can trap organic materials in A longer bisque firing cycle will enable organic material
the clay, which can then volatize during the glaze firing. to escape.
The gas exits through the stiff liquid glaze, causing a
blister.
Non-oxidation bisque firing can trap organic material In hydrocarbon-fueled kilns, always use more air than fuel
in the clay, which exits at higher temperatures as a gas to create an oxidation atmosphere. In electric kilns, an
through the molten glaze as a blister. Large platters stacked active venting system will remove organic matter from the
together or tiles placed atop one another do not allow for kiln atmosphere.
combustion and removal of organic material because their
relatively large surface areas touch.
Direct flame impingement can result in an over-fired Moving pottery away from the heat source will stop
and/or over-reduced area on a glaze, causing a blister. over-reduction and over-fired areas on the glaze.
Early and/or too heavy reduction in the glaze kiln can Use an excess of air-to-fuel ratio in the burners until 1860°F
trap organic material in the clay or add carbon through (1015°C). This will remove organic matter from the clay
excessive fuel introduction. Carbon trapped in the clay body. Then, use a slightly reducing atmosphere until the
body can release at higher temperatures as a gas through end-point temperature is reached.
the molten glaze, causing a blister.
A loosely stacked glaze kiln reduces thermal mass and A densely stacked kiln can produce slower increases
subsequent radiant heat in the transmission to pottery. and decreases of temperature while radiating more heat
between pottery, kiln shelves, and posts. A densely packed
kiln will increase the thermal mass and apply more heat
work to the glaze, which liberates gases trapped in the
glaze.
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Clay Body Conditions That Cause Clay Blistering
Problem Correction
Higher than normal levels of organic material not A clean oxidization atmosphere in the bisque kiln, fired
removed from the clay during bisque firing. Periodically, to the correct temperature in enough time, will release
some clays (notably fireclays) can contain abnormally organic material from the clay.
high percentages of organic material. In such instances, a
normal bisque firing cycle will not remove all the organic
material from the clay. During the subsequent glaze firing,
organic material carbonizes and releases as a gas through
the clay body into the molten glaze, causing a blister.
Raw glazing an unfired clay body can drastically The use of gums such as C.M.C. (carbonxymethylcel-
increase its absorbency. When glaze is applied, it can lulose), Vee Gum CER, or other binders (1/8 to 2 percent
be drawn into the clay body too rapidly, causing bubbles added to the dry weight of the glaze) can slow down the
and air pockets as the glaze dries. During firing, the drying rate of the glaze, preventing fast absorption.
bubbles migrate to the surface, causing a blister.
Raw glazing can trap organic matter and/or moisture Slowing down the rate of heat increase in the 572°F to
in the clay body or engobe, which at higher tempera- 1292°F (300°C to 700°C) range can safely release vis-
tures exits as a gas through the glaze layer. ible organic materials and moisture from the clay body.
Soluble salts in the clay body can migrate to the surface The addition of barium carbonate (1/4 to 2 percent
as the clay dries, leaving a disruptive layer of sulfates based on the dry weight of the clay body) can neutralize
releasing gas into the covering molten glaze. soluble salt migration.
Thin-walled pottery saturated by water during spraying, Use less water in the glaze batch and wait until the first
dipping, or painting during glaze application can result glaze layer dries before applying another to prevent
in blisters. Trapped moisture on the clay surface can be blisters.
released as a vapor during glaze firing, causing blisters.
Low bisque firing can yield extremely absorbent ware Increase the bisque firing by one or two cones to
that sucks in the wet glaze. If the glaze is highly viscous, decrease the absorbency of the pottery. Also, add gums
air pockets formed in the application process can such as C.M.C. (carbonxymethylcellulose), Vee Gum
migrate to the surface, leaving blisters in the stiff glaze. CER, or other binders to the glaze (1/8 to 2 percent
based on the dry weight of the glaze) to slow down the
drying rate of the glaze.
Contamination in the clay from plaster molds or deterio- Cover the wedging board with canvas to prevent chips
rating wedging boards can impart plaster chips into the from entering the clay. Mix plaster with the correct ratio
moist clay, which, upon heating, release gas and/or of water to ensure maximum set strength. Discard plaster
water vapor in the covering glaze layer. molds that show signs of wear to prevent plaster contami-
nation in the moist clay.
179
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78 (Text) (RAY) #175 Dtp:204 Page:179
Glaze Conditions that Cause Blistering
In particular, bubbles commonly form in leadless glazes, and some of these bubbles will break the surface as blisters.
When lead was used in glazes, it caused a strong reactive effect with other oxides and increased the release of glaze
bubbles, creating a smooth, blemish-free surface. But because lead is not a recommended glaze material, greater care
must be taken in glaze formulation and application and kiln firing to ensure a defect-free glaze surface.
Problem Correction
High-surface-tension, high-viscosity glazes that contain Lower the percentage of zirconium in the glaze or
zirconium can trap escaping gases from other glaze substitute other opacifiers, such as titanium dioxide
materials, metallic coloring oxides, stains, gums, and or tin oxide.
binders. This type of stiff glaze is less likely to heal
itself of surface irregularities, due to its inability to flow
when molten.
Cobalt oxide in an underglaze or glaze, along with Slow down the rate of heat increase until 1652°F
copper oxide and iron oxide in reduction atmosphere, (900°C) so oxygen in the underglaze will dissipate.
loses oxygen at 1652°F (900°C) and can migrate
through the glaze layer, causing a blister.
Glazes containing an overload of metallic coloring Decrease the percentage of metallic coloring oxide and/
oxides in reduction kiln atmospheres can blister, due to or decrease the amount of reduction atmosphere in the
excessive fluxing of the glaze. kiln to eliminate blistering.
Contamination of the glaze with materials such as silicon Carefully clean and maintain the pottery shop, tools,
carbide, wood, rust, salt, or other pottery shop materials equipment, and supplies. Always sieve the wet glaze
can cause blisters. before application to remove any unwanted particles.
An excessive amount of medium, such as C.M.C. or Use less medium and keep wet mixtures in cooler storage
other gum binders, used in underglazes, engobes, areas.
glazes, or overglazes can cause gas bubbles exiting as
blistering in the glaze layer. The rate of fermentation, if
any, is determined by the wet storage life of the materi-
als, storage temperature, water pH, and organic materi-
als in the mixture.
Glaze viscosity in the fluid state can promote blisters. Lower the viscosity by increasing the time to maturity
High-viscosity stiff glazes can trap bubbles, which break or firing the glaze to a higher temperature. This will
at the surface, forming blisters. increase the flowing characteristics, allowing bubbles to
rise to the surface, break, and heal. Also, increase the
flux content of the glaze, so the mixture will flow when
mature.
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Problem Correction
Excessively thick glaze applications can delay the time Apply thinner layers of glaze.
for bubbles to reach the glaze surface. Once bubbles
are at the surface, the firing cycle can already be com-
pleted, leaving a blister.
Glaze Blister Q&A Are blisters present on one clay body, but not another?
Check the level of organic material in the clay body. Has the
As you diagnose the cause of glaze blistering, ask yourself clay body been bisque fired long enough in an oxidation kiln
the following questions: atmosphere? If the clay body contains high levels of iron-bear-
Does the blistered glaze heal when fired again? A general ing clays or iron oxide, it can be more reactive to extreme
rule for any glaze defect is that if the glaze can be refired reduction atmospheres produced in hydrocarbon-fueled kilns,
successfully, it should have been fired longer during the first which can cause glaze blistering.
glaze firing. The second firing supplies more heat work to the Are blisters present only on underglaze, engobe, or over-
glaze, which can bring it into a defect-free configuration. glaze areas? Check levels of gums and metallic coloring
Are different glaze formulas in the same kiln blistered? If oxides in the underglaze, engobe, or
yes, the problem probably originates in the firing proce- overglaze. Gums during the first stages of
dures, glaze mixing errors, or a common clay or glaze raw the firing process can volatize, causing the
material. overglaze to blister. Some metallic coloring
oxides can make the underglaze, engobe,
Are the blisters only on one side of the pot? If so, direct or overglaze extremely refractory, causing
flame impingement might cause an over-fired area and/or the glaze layer to blister.
an over-reduced area in hydrocarbon-fueled kilns. In electric
kilns, the pottery could have been placed too close to the kiln Does the glaze have a high percentage of
elements. whiting? Whiting, calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), is one of the leading causes of
Are the blisters only on overlapping glaze surfaces? glaze blistering. Wollastonite, which is
Incompatible glazes when overlapped can have a eutectic calcium silicate (CaSiO3), dissolves more readily in the molten
effect with resulting over-fluxed areas and blisters. glaze, does not release a gas, and can be substituted for
Are the blisters only on horizontal surfaces? High-surface- whiting with an adjustment to the silica content of the glaze.
tension glazes with high viscosity do not move when molten. Are blisters present only on one color glaze and not on other
Gravity on the vertical molten glaze pulls down, causing the color glazes that use the same base glaze formula? Some
formed blister to heal. Another possible cause occurs when glazes have an excessive percentage of refractory metallic
flat pots are placed directly on the kiln shelf. If the glaze is coloring oxides. Also check if the kiln atmosphere has been
not formulated or fired correctly, the radiant heat from the too heavily reduced.
shelf upon cooling can cause it to remain in its maturity range
longer, causing a blister. Are blisters present only after a new batch of glaze is used?
Often, a new bag of material is mislabeled, causing a glaze-
Are the blisters only on the edges or high areas of the pots? blistering defect. Many glaze defects can be traced to incor-
Fast cooling of the kiln and/or pottery loosely stacked can rectly weighing out the glaze raw materials. Also, consider
“freeze” the glaze in its maturation process. any kiln firing or clay body changes that might have taken
Are blisters present only in one kiln and not in others? This place before the defect occurred.
could be an indication of an error in kiln firing.
Are blisters present in only one part of the kiln? Check
for direct heat source impingement or kiln atmosphere
irregularities.
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07-C63649 #175 Dtp:204 Page:181
cRAzing is correcTion Possible?
Understanding glaze theory is an important tool if you Before starting a correction, consider the following factors:
want to solve any glaze problem, the most common of • The closer the craze lines, the harder the fix. If craze
which is crazing. Glaze crazing can happen at any tempera- lines are tightly packed and close together (spaced
ture range and can occur in oxidation- or reduction-kiln less than 1/8-inch [3 mm] apart), there is a decreased
atmospheres. Crazing occurs when glaze is under tension; it chance of eliminating crazing lines using this simple
is ten times more likely to happen than shivering, which is method. In such instances, the entire glaze formula
when the glaze is under extreme compression. will have to be recalculated, which is best accom-
Crazing presents as a series of lines or cracks in the fired plished by any one of the glaze calculation software
glazed surface. The craze pattern can develop after remov- programs that are now available. The eight steps that
ing a piece from the kiln, or it can appear years later (called follow likely will not solve the problem. Conversely,
delayed crazing). While crazing is classified as a glaze if the craze lines are wider spaced (more than 1/4-inch
defect, you can correct the problem by adjusting the glaze [6.35 mm] apart), the fix is easier.
and/or the clay body to cool at a compatible rate with the
• Consider the absorption rate. If the clay body
glaze coming under slight compression.
absorption rate exceeds 4 percent after firing,
correcting crazing is more difficult.
• Try another glaze formula. If you’ve tried several
corrections with no success and the glaze is common
(such as gloss transparent, satin matte, matte, gloss
blue, black, or brown) try to find a better glaze fit
for the clay body.
• Choose another clay body. If you cannot change
the glaze, change the clay body, with the possibility
of obtaining a compatible clay body/glaze fit upon
cooling.
Glaze crazing occurs when the glaze is under tension (stretch-

ing on the clay body as it cools).
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Crazing develops during the cooling process or after removing a piece from the kiln or, in some situations, years later, as in
the case of this dish. Notice the craze stains, which resemble hairline cracks.
Glazes that are under tension when cooling in the kiln can create a fine network of stress lines called crazing, which can be
visible when subjected to food or liquids.
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82 (Text) (RAY) #175 Dtp:204 Page:183
CorreCting Crazing 3 By firing higher and/or longer, the glaze and clay
After considering the points on page 182, attempt a body have a better chance of maturing for a better fit.
correction, or a combination of corrections, to solve glaze Remember, what must change is the rate of shrinkage
crazing. Depending on the severity of crazing, you may try in the clay body, glaze, or both, which results in the
several of these corrections until test results show craze lines glaze being under slight compression. However, if the
moving farther apart, which is an indication that you are clay body is already over-fired or on the edge of its
alleviating the problem. The following eight steps are not maturity range, firing higher will cause more crazing
the only crazing corrections available, but they have shown in the glaze.
consistent results.
4 Add flint 200x mesh to the clay body. Increase flint
by 5, 10, or 15 units of measure. Flint found in clay
Equipment
bodies remains a crystalline solid that has different
• Gram scale characteristics than flint in a glaze, but it will still
• Glaze bucket work to stop crazing in a glaze.
• Mixing spoon
5 The kiln should be cool enough to unload pottery
Instructions without gloves. Waiting for the kiln to cool will cause
no problems; fast cooling increases the chance of
1 Most flint used in glazes comes in 200, 325, and 400 crazing. If the pots are “pinging” when you open the
mesh. Finer-grind sizes might be available on special kiln door, the glaze is under stress and is more likely to
order from a ceramics supplier. Also try fused silica, craze.
which has been calcined (fired) and has a very low
shrinkage rate, which will help stop crazing. Most 6 When using a low-fire clay body, bisque-firing one
glaze formulas can accommodate additions of flint, or two cones higher will bring the glaze under slight
without the glaze becoming opaque or dry when fired. compression, preventing crazing.
Try additions of 10, 20, or 25 units of measure. For
instance, if the glaze has 50 grams of flint, increase 7 The ceramics supplier or the manufacturer of the frit
flint to 60 grams, 70 grams, and 75 grams. Do not will have the coefficient of expansion rates for each
change the other glaze materials. frit. Materials with low coefficients of expansion (for
example, flint) are less likely to cause crazing.
2 Prolong the last third of the glaze firing by two to
three hours. This will give the clay body the best 8 A thinner coat is not an option for all glazes, but even
chance to tighten up, or reach its maturity, which a slight decrease in thickness can stop crazing. Still, a
will help in achieving a good glaze fit. The kiln thinner application does not address the underlying
should be fully loaded with pottery or shelves and cause of crazing, which is the glaze being under ten-
posts to ensure greater thermal mass and increased sion as it cools on the clay body.
radiant heat transmission.
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! @
1 Add increasing amounts of flint to the glaze
formula.
2 Fire the kiln to the correct temperature over a

longer time.
3 Fire the kiln one or two pyrometric cones

higher, but only if the glaze or clay body will not
be adversely affected.
4 If many different types of glazes are crazing on

the same clay body, first adjust the clay body.
5 Slowly cool the glaze kiln. Do not open the

kiln door until the temperature is below 200°F
(93°C).
6 If you use a low-fire body and the glaze begins to

craze, try bisque firing one or two cones higher
than the recommended glaze firing temperature.
7 If the glaze contains frit and is crazing, try using

a frit with a lower coefficient of expansion.
# $
8 Crazing can often be eliminated by applying a
thinner glaze.
% ^ &
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84 (Text) (RAY) #175 Dtp:204 Page:185
shiveRing shivering Fixes
Shivering is the opposite problem from crazing. Though Consider the following points before attempting to fix a
statistically not as common as other defects, when shiv- glaze shivering defect.
ering occurs, it can spoil the functionality of glaze on • Clay body formulas containing too much free silica can
pottery. Shivering forms when a glaze is under too great cause shivering. Fireclays are known to have randomly
a compressive load as it cools in the kiln, resulting in the high levels of free silica. Fine-grind grog that is high in
glaze being too large for the underlying clay body. The silica also can cause shivering, especially if it’s burnished
defect looks like a paint chip peeling off the underlying or rubbed into the clay surface during the forming pro-
clay body. Sometimes, shivering can reveal itself years later cess. Low-expansion-rate, lithium-based feldspars used
because the clay body/glaze combination is under constant in clay bodies such as petalite, lithospar, lepidolite, or
stress. When the glaze is under extreme compression, it spodumene can cause shivering in glazes with higher-
can buckle any time. While shivering is classified as a glaze expansion-rate potassium and sodium-based feldspars
defect, it can be corrected either through adjusting the used in glazes.
glaze, clay body formula, or a combination of both. • Reduction causes instability and, therefore, shivering.
Shivering can happen at any temperature range, and it Too much and/or too early reduction in a clay body
can occur in oxidation- or reduction-kiln atmospheres. causes an unstable carbon bond between the clay and
Frequently, glaze starts peeling on the edges or raised areas glaze layer that can result in shivering.
of the clay. Chips of shivered glaze range from 1/16 inch
(2 mm) to 2 inches (5 cm). Tapping seemingly stable clay/ • Thick glaze aggravates shivering. If any or all of the
glaze surfaces with a hard object will cause a glazed area to aforementioned conditions are present, a thick glaze
flake off, sometimes removing part of the supporting clay application can exacerbate shivering. Apply a thinner
body. The goal of any correction is to cool the clay body layer of glaze to resolve symptoms, understanding that
and glaze at a compatible rate, with the glaze coming under this “fix” will not alter the underlying cause of extreme
slight compression. glaze compression.
Above, shivering occurred at the base of this bowl, resulting

in a peeled-paint look that indicates glaze under stress. At
left, shivering glaze flakes off of the fired bowl, revealing the
underlying clay body.
other methods
Keep in mind, some corrections can change glaze color,
texture, light transmission, or maturing range. Other less
practical methods for correcting shivering include the
following:
• Lowering the maximum firing temperature
• A firing faster to the glaze maturation point
• Reducing the amount of lime or iron in the clay body to
improve the glaze/clay body fit
• Substituting a sodium feldspar for a potash feldspar,
because sodium feldspars have a higher coefficient of
expansion (high shrinkage).
6/6/11 1:27:43 PM

CorreCting Shivering
In most instances, shivering can be corrected by adding 4 If many different types of glazes are shivering on the
sodium- or potassium-based feldspar, frit, or other high-
same clay body, start the correction by adding 5, 10,
expansion materials to the glaze, provided the clay body
or 15 units of sodium- or potassium-based feldspar (or
does not contain lithium-based feldspars. When shivering
other alkali-bearing materials) to the clay body.
is very severe (glaze under extreme compression), it can tear
or break the underlying clay body, causing the whole piece
to crack apart upon cooling. 5 Decrease flint in the clay body by 5 or 10 units.
Other shivering correction methods involve adding
high-expansion materials to the clay body and/or glaze
(feldspars or other alkali bearing materials) or decreasing
low-expansion materials in clay bodies and glazes, such as
flint, petalite, lepidolite, lithospar, spodumene, and lithium
carbonate. Sometimes a combination of all these methods
is necessary.
Equipment
• Gram scale
• Glaze bucket
• Mixing spoon
Instructions
1 If only one glaze is shivering on the clay body, correct
!
shivering by adding 5, 10, or 15 units of measure of
sodium- or potassium-based feldspar to the glaze. Or,
add other alkali-bearing materials. (For example, if
the glaze has 10 grams of feldspar, increase feldspar to
15, 20, or 25 grams. Do not change the amounts of
other materials in the glaze formula.) Adding any flux
or glass former will increase the chance of the glaze
becoming glossy or running off vertical surfaces. The
ideal fix is to get just enough feldspar or frit into the
glaze to correct shivering but not overload the glaze
with more flux than needed.
@
2 Decrease the flint in a glaze by 5 or 10 units to
adjust the clay body/glaze fit.
3 Add sodium- or potassium-based feldspar/frit to a

glaze and take out flint from the glaze. In rare
instances, this correction must also be carried
out in the clay body.
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s-cRAck issues
At some point, every amateur or professional potter is disappointed and humbled by the
sight of a crack in a favorite pot. Clay can fracture at any time during the forming, drying,
or firing stages. There are several different types of cracks, all of which are preventable—
most of the time. Identifying the type of crack is the first step in finding the cause and
subsequent correction.
An S crack is one of the most common clay defects in wheel work. Understanding the
configuration on how clay platelets are aligned in the centering and cone pulling up opera-
tion is essential to developing the techniques to prevent S cracks.
An “S” on the bottom of a piece of wheel-thrown pottery. The crack can reveal itself in the forming, drying, bisque, or glaze
firing stages. The defect is caused by improper cone pulling up techniques before the clay is centered on the potter’s wheel.
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The disTincT s-crack shaPe
As the name implies, the crack is shaped like the letter S.
They are found at the bottom of pots. S cracks develop
during the forming stages of the pot on the wheel and
appear in the drying, bisque-firing, or glaze-firing stages.
As the pot dries (dry shrinkage) and during the bisque and
glaze firing (fired shrinkage), the ware shrinks, causing the
crack to fully develop and become visible. When a pot has
been glazed, an S crack will appear with a round edge.
S cracks are formed in the initial stages of the throwing
operation and can be eliminated by properly bringing the
clay up into a cone shape on the wheel.
tip
S-crack Qualities
When do cracks form? Find out by determining whether
the crack has a round edge or a sharp edge.
Round-edge cracks generally are covered with glaze
and have rounded borders where the fired-glaze surface
rolls back from the edge. These cracks are caused in the
drying, forming, or bisque-firing stages before glaze is
applied to the pot.
Cracks that have a sharp, hairline edge on a fired-
glazed surface are cooling cracks. These occur after the
liquid glaze has set or hardened on the pot.
Sharp-edge cooling crack.
comparison of clay and Glaze cracks

exposed non-glazed
crack with round edge
glaze
surface
S Crack Round-edge Crack Sharp-edge Crack
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88 (Text) (RAY) #175 Dtp:204 Page:189
s-crack FormaTion Five stePs to PRevent
S cracks can occur on the inside or outside bottoms of
wheel-thrown forms. Wider-based forms, such as plates,
s-cRAcks
Prevent S cracks by pulling up clay into a cone shape and
have a greater chance of producing S cracks. These cracks
then pushing it down before the actual centering takes
also occur in forms thrown “off the hump.” (A hump is
place in the throwing operation. Pulling the clay up into a
a large piece of clay from which small objects such as tea
cone, if executed properly, will prevent S cracks.
bowls are formed. The form is cut off and the next pot
Note: The following directions apply to right-handed
is formed from some of the remaining mound of clay.) S
potters.
cracks also result from incorrect technique before pulling
up the thrown form.
Now, let’s examine the dynamics of S-crack formation. Equipment
Clay bodies consist of numerous clay platelets that are held • Moist clay
together by thin films of water. This unique bonding struc-
ture gives moist clay its plastic quality. S cracks can develop Instructions
when clay platelets in the base of the pot are not aligned in
concentric rings (see diagram). The crack forms when the 1 Make sure the left hand is positioned straight up at
base of the pot and its wall structure have different rates of a right angle to the bat before pushing in toward the
shrinkage in the drying stage. center. Apply equal pressure down with the right palm
To correct S cracks, the clay platelets in the base of the and in with the left hand, pushing the clay toward the
pot must be aligned with the direction of the spinning center of the bat. Be sure to use water to lubricate the
wheel. This way, the base and walls of the pot have equal centering clay. During this process, rest your elbows
shrinkage rates. on your knees or brace them close to your body to
gain stability and improve leverage.
2 As the wheel is turning, apply equal pressure inward

with both hands to bring up the clay The compres-
sion will cause a convex “nipple” of clay to form at the
top.
3 At this stage, the form should look more like a cyl-

inder than a pyramid. When the form is complete, it
should have a slightly wider base.
4 Sometimes, the form can take on a “mushroom” shape

Diagram A: Clay platelets Diagram B: Clay platelets as it is pressed downward. Correct this by increasing
are correctly aligned in are not aligned in concen- the pressure with the left hand, pushing toward the
concentric rings, which tric rings; this could result center as the wheel spins.
will prevent an S crack in an S crack.
from forming.
5 Now consider the height and width of the object you
will throw. Horizontal forms, such as plates, will start
with a wider base than narrow forms, such as cups.
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1 Center the clay. 2 Pull up the cone.
3 Create the cone shape. 4 Push down the cone.
5 Determine a shape.
Troubleshooting glazes .191
S Cracks
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incoRRect coning
techniQue
Improper technique when centering and coning clay on
the wheel can allow S cracks to form in moist clay. There
are several situations to avoid when pulling up the clay into
a cone shape. Often, potters are discouraged when they
attempt the cone-up procedure, only to eventually see an
S crack appear in their ware in the leather-hard, bone-dry,
bisque, or glaze-firing stages. At this point, review the cone-
up procedure. This process is almost always the origin of an
S crack.
First, when bringing the clay up into a cone shape, keep
the base of the cone narrow. A wide base will defeat the
purpose of the cone-up procedure. The correct cone pro- B. Incorrect cone shape
cedure produces a form more like a cylinder (see photo A)
than a pyramid shape (see photo B).
If the top of the cone develops a recessed or concave area
(see photo C), the clay platelets are not aligned correctly.
In many instances, an S crack is already in place when the
cone is pushed down and the clay is finally centered on
the wheel head. To prevent the defect, apply equal pressure
with your index fingers and thumbs when arriving at the
upper part of the cone (see photo D). The top part of the
cone should never have a recessed area at any stage when
bringing the clay up into a cone or pushing it down for the
centering operation.
If the clay platelets are not aligned properly, there is a
greater chance of an S crack forming because of centering
technique and clay body formula. When using the correct
cone-forming technique, a circular alignment of the clay
body platelets helps prevent S cracks. C. Incorrect concave shape
A. Correct cone shape D. Correct convex shape
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Wheel-thrown Bottle by Joel Harley
See formula on page 292
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090-129_9
C
C
c h a p t e r
eramiC Kilns
t e n
and Firing WorK
p
hysical changes through the exposure to high
temperature and yet retains its shape. Because of the
durable nature of clay, vessels that are thousands of
years old are still being found, providing an insight into
ancient cultures. Clay can withstand the test of time, and even
when exposed to elements, fired clay will not decompose (though
it is very vulnerable to impact and shatters easily). In this section,
we’ll talk about the different ways clay is fired.
tyPes oF kiln FiRing

There are a few ways that firings are dif- Understanding the temperature that clay
ferentiated from one another: type of kiln, should be fired to will determine the glaze
temperature, and atmosphere. Type of kiln firing range. The type of kiln that work will
and atmosphere are linked because the type be fired in will determine the atmosphere:
of fuel used affects the atmosphere. Firing oxidation or reduction.
temperature is an essential factor because
bisque Firing
clay bodies should be fired to their matur-
Bisque firing is the first stage of clay fir-
ing range to reach the strongest state. Clay
ing in a kiln. This firing is at earthenware
should not be over-fired or it will bloat,
temperatures, between cones 010 and
or worse: completely melt onto the kiln
04 (1648°F to 1940°F [898°C–1060°C]).
shelf and make a huge mess of expensive
During bisque firing, clay that is bone dry
equipment, the kiln, and kiln shelves, nev-
is placed in the kiln and the temperature
ermind the damage to your hard work.
is raised very slowly for the first 1200°F
C Glazed ware fired in a top-

loading electric kiln to cone 6
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(650°C). This is done to evaporate moisture and work will go through and is intended to mature
eliminate physical and chemically bonded water the clay body and fuse the layer of glass on the
from the clay particles so the work has the surface of the clay to seal it and give the ceramic
opportunity to go through quartz inversion with- surface a decorative element. During a glaze fir-
out damage to the piece. ing, ceramic ware can be heated up a little faster
Sometimes, pieces can explode or disintegrate than in the bisque cycle, but it is recommended
during bisque firing. This is caused by moisture that this firing also be slow.
trapped in the clay walls. Moisture within air With the exposure to high temperatures, clay
bubbles in the walls of pieces also promote the particles fuse together and bond at higher temper-
bursting of the clay. When water heats up beyond atures, which helps make the clay less porous and
the boiling point, it evaporates into steam. If the more dense. If clay is fired to maturity, it is at the
moisture is allowed to steam quickly, it pushes so strongest, densest consistency and is referred to
hard that the pot explodes. This is why thicker as vitrified. This means that the glass particles
areas on ceramic pieces are susceptible to blowing have melted and bonded to the clay particles.
out during firing and why even wall thickness
and a slow heat rise is recommended. Oxidation Firing
Another way that pieces can be damaged dur- In oxidation firing, there is plenty of oxygen
ing bisque firing is during quartz inversion. (See present in the combustion. Electric kilns fire in
page 46 for an explanation of quartz inversion.) oxidation because there is no burning of fuels
At around 1063°F (573°C), the alpha crystals inside the kiln; the electrical elements emit only
change to beta crystals and then back to alpha heat. It is a stable environment, so the glaze
crystals. The clay particles increase in size and results are consistent and predictable. In oxida-
change shape during the heat rise and decrease tion firing of glazes, there is not much carbon
in size during the cool down. present, to chemically alter the glaze.
During quartz inversion ceramic pieces are Experienced potters can learn how to fire
susceptible to developing cracks if there are areas fuel-burning kilns in oxidation; the key is ensur-
of different wall thickness or if the work is very ing oxygen is in ample supply for mixing with
large. It’s best to take work through this transi- the fuel as it combusts.
tion slowly. Another way to avoid problems dur- Reduction Firing
ing quartz inversion is to leave space around the Most high-temperature firings occur in fuel-
work when glazed ware is loaded in the kiln. If a fired kilns and therefore use reduction firing as
kiln is packed too tightly, glazed pieces may fuse part of the effect. Reduction is literally the reduc-
together during quartz inversion because of the ing of oxygen during the firing process.
pieces, increase in volume. With fuel-burning kilns, there is a constant
GLAZE FIRING introduction of fuel that combines with oxygen
Glaze-firing temperatures can be as low as to combust. If there is too much fuel introduced
bisque-firing temperatures, around cone 06 or not enough air going into the kiln, there is a
(1823°F [995°C]) or as high as cone 12 (2516°F reduction atmosphere in which strong carbon
[1380°C]). Most clays are not fired beyond cone particulate forms and creates deposits on the
12. Glaze firing is usually the last firing that ceramic ware. Potters use reduction during the


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firing process at specific temperatures and in dif- the wares’ position within the kiln. Typically,
fering degrees of intensity to manipulate visual some locations in a kiln are more heavily reduced
effects. than others.
When the flame is starved of oxygen, it draws
WOOD-BURNING KILNS
oxygen from the clay body and glazes, affecting
Until the twentieth century and the advent of liq-
the base metals present, such as iron, copper,
uid propane, natural gas lines, and electric kilns,
cobalt, and many more.
virtually every kiln was fueled by wood or coal.
The amount of oxygen in the kiln is con-
Today, many people still choose to fire with wood
trolled by the burner at the fuel source and the
for aesthetic and economic reasons.
damper in the chimney that affects the draw of
Reduction occurs naturally in wood-burning
air into the kiln. In a gas-fired kiln, the burners
kilns because as the wood is introduced into the
can be adjusted to control the air that mixes with
kiln the initial igniting of the gases causes the
the gas before it ignites affecting the reduction
atmosphere to be in reduction. Wood-stoking
atmosphere. In a wood-fired kiln, the timing and
cycles are closely monitored to allow the wood
amount of wood introduced in the kiln affects the
to combust, reduce, and reoxidize during the
reduction atmosphere. Potters get to know their
temperature increase. This constant cycling
kilns and control the air intake at certain temper-
between oxidation and reduction, plus the fly
atures to develop color in glazes and clay.
ash that is a byproduct of firing with wood, cre-
When reduction firing, there are two points
ates rich earth tones and flashes of color on the
during which potters typically reduce the air
bare clay. Glazes are also affected in wood kilns
intake. This is achieved by adjusting the air
so potters maximize the atmospheric conditions
intake of the kiln by closing down the damper in
in the kiln to create work that looks good under
the chimney or adjusting the primary air intake.
these conditions.
The first is for body reduction, that is to encour-
Wood-burning kilns come in many different
age the clay body to develop a toasty color before
shapes and sizes. (In Asia, for example, some
the glaze begins to melt between 1600°F and
wood-burning kilns extend the full length of a
1800°F (871°C and 982°C); the second is at
football field and are fired by a whole community
about 2100°F (1149°C).
of potters.) Wood-burning kilns also have differ-
These are just approximate guidelines because
ent designs for the fireboxes.
potters develop their firing schedules and tech-
Some wood-burning kilns are very efficient at
niques based on the kiln, clays, and glazes they
raising temperature with little fly ash, while other
use. Fuel-fired kilns provide subtle differences
kilns (such as the anagama that I fire) need about
in every firing. The flame pattern and flow can
a week to reach stoneware temperatures, all the
have a very dramatic impact on the ware, depend-
while accumulating fly ash on the clay surface.
ing on its path. Potters who work with reduction
The longer an anagama fires the heavier the coat
firing enjoy the challenge of controlling the com-
of glaze.
bustion and the variations that emerge from
In the United States, Europe, and Australia,
each firing.
the firing of Asian-style wood kilns has become a
The reduction process often makes stoneware
major area of study for clay artists. Conferences
clays toasty colored and the glazes bright and
and publications are dedicated to further the
beautiful with a variety of effects, depending on
CERAMIC KILNS AND FIRING WORK 111

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C These two bowls have the same copper red glaze on a porcelain body.The red one (by Br. Iain Highet) was fired in a heavy
reduction environment, but the green one (by Kristin Müller) was fired in an oxidized environment.The difference can be quite dramatic.
knowledge of wood-firing techniques that are rel- SALT KILNS

atively unknown outside of their place of origin. A salt kiln is a special type of kiln. Salt kilns can
be wood, oil, or gas fired. Salt is introduced at
GAS-BURNING KILNS
high temperatures of about cone 6. The turbu-
Gas-burning kilns are often used in industrial and lence of the combustion propels and vaporizes the
production potteries as well as schools, art cen- salt, which lands on the surface of the clay, fusing
ters, and private pottery studios. They can be so to it and creating a glaze. This type of firing is
huge that they require conveyer belts to move the often referred to as atmospheric or vapor firing.
clay pieces through their production. For exam- The salt emits very noxious gases, but it renders
ple, factories of sanitary wares, such as sinks, toi- beautiful results. Salt kilns aren’t very common
lets, bathtubs and sewer pipes, have entirely auto- because they need to be built outside and of
mated production and firing systems, which are ceramic-hard brick to resist the corrosive effects of
truly incredible to observe! Institutions like to use the salt. Salt kilns can be fired in oxidation or
large gas-burning kilns because they can fire a lot reduction, depending on the desired effects.
of work at once, therefore being cost efficient.
Most potters who fire with gas build their RAKU KILNS
kilns from firebrick. Ceramic suppliers, however, Raku is the name of a Japanese family that devel-
now sell smaller studio gas kilns that are easy to oped tea ware for the traditional Japanese tea cere-
fire and offer very predictable results. Manufac- mony. Although the family carefully handed down
tured kilns come with instructions and are very the technique from generation to generation, one
well insulated for efficiency. British (but Hong Kong–born) potter named
Bernard Leach was privy to the techniques and


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quickly. Fiber kilns are light and portable. Other
raku kilns are made of soft insulation bricks.
They take a little longer to heat up, but they
retain the heat for subsequent firings.
American raku firing is a lot of fun and
gives instant gratification because you can have
a piece ready in about an hour as opposed to
traditional firings that take about 24 hours for
firing and cooling. It is a decorative firing tech-
nique that is very high risk though, because
pieces can crack due to the thermal shock of
quick heating and cooling.
elecTric kilns
Electric kilns produce heat from electrical cur-
rent and do not burn a fuel inside the kiln. The
emissions from an electric kiln are the organic
materials burned off from the clay. Electric kilns
C Pictured above is a fast-fire wood-burning kiln built fire in oxidation; there is no reduction of oxygen
amatic. by Douglass Phillips at the Abbey of Regina Laudis in
Connecticut. This kiln has two fire boxes and is stoked inter- during the firing cycle. Electric kilns are designed
mittently from side to side. It reaches cone 10 in about 24 to be used indoors, are easy to use, and give very
hours. It is used primarily to fire functional stoneware vessels.
predictable results.
wrote about it in his famous text The Potter’s Book. An electric kiln is a good choice for a home
In the late 1950s in the United States, a studio because it can be used for a wide range of
ceramic artist named paul Soldner, intrigued firings. They come in handy for testing clay bod-
by what he had read in Leach’s book, began ies and glazes and are especially good for bisque
experimenting with quickly removing ware from firing. All electric kilns have an information plate
a hot kiln and crash cooling it. This eventually attached to the exterior that lists the specs such
developed into a post-firing reduction technique as amperage, volts, interior dimensions, and
that is known as American raku that differs from maximum firing temperature listed in cones or
Japanese raku in several ways. A molten hot degrees. These specs are usually listed in cata-
piece of pottery is removed from the kiln and logs, too, and should be heeded carefully.
placed into combustible material such as saw- Electric kilns prefer low- to mid-range firing
dust, leaves, or newspapers, and then covered. temperatures. Although a kiln may list cone 10 as
Since the work ignites the combustibles and the maximum temperature, firing to cone 6 to 8
has no source of oxygen other than the pot, the will extend the life of the kiln elements. The ele-
flame bonds with the oxygen, deposits carbon on ments in an electric kiln will need replacement
the unglazed clay and develops wonderful colors after a number of firings; they do wear out. The
with copper-rich glazes. less stress that is placed on the elements, the longer
Raku kilns are best made with ceramic fiber they will last. (See page 32, to see an electric kiln
blanket, because fiber blanket heats up very with manual controls and a venting system.)
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PYROMETRIC CONES
Pyrometric cones were developed by two
different people, Edward Orton Jr. and
Herman Seger.
They each developed a system to meas-
ure heat absorption inside a firing kiln.
Before the development of high-tempera-
ture pyrometers, it was hard to know if
temperatures had been reached.
Traditionally potters would pull small
loops of clay with glaze on them called
draw rings through spy holes in the hot
kilns to see if the glaze had melted.
Pyrometric cones are special clay for-
mulations shaped like elongated pyramids,
stamped with the cone number correspon-
ding to their melting points. They are
lined up in cone plaques in temperature
increments. When they reach their respec-
tive cone temperature, the cone melts. The
bending of the cone is a visual indication
of what is happening inside the kiln and
the temperature reached.
Pyrometric cones measure heat work
more than actual temperature. Heat work
comprises the conditions in the kiln and
what is happening to the ceramic ware.
Usually three cones are used in a cone
plaque. One cone is rated below the
desired temperature, one cone is rated at
the desired temperature, and one cone is
rated above the desired temperature,
which is called the guard cone. When a
C Shown above is a personal studio-size gas-burning kiln (by Geil
cone melts halfway down, its temperature
Kilns) that is installed indoors. It requires serious venting and good has been reached. When a cone melts flat,
air exchange during the firing. It also needs a lot of room around the its temperature has been surpassed. If a
kiln, but it shows that it is possible to have a gas kiln indoors. It is
easy to fire, rendering very beautiful reduction firing results. But as cone does not bend, it indicates that its
you can see, even a small version of a gas kiln takes up a substantial temperature has not been reached.
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C Cone plaques with large pyrometric cones used for measuring C Junior pyrometric cone in kiln sitter ready to be fired.
heat work in the kiln When the cone bends, the kiln will shut off.
Cones have many applications besides estab- between so that when the heat rises and begins
lishing when a firing is finished. By placing cone to melt the cone, the top two prongs move down,
plaques throughout the kiln, one can see the releasing the relay that turns off the kiln. This
cooler and hotter spots in a kiln. If glaze results simple setup works very well if the cone is
are not consistent, cones will reveal the varia- placed properly in the sitter.
tions of kiln temperature. The kiln sitter can be A kiln sitter that uses a junior cone can be
calibrated, or adjustments can be made to your calibrated to shut off with a slightly less bent
firing. In an electric kiln, monitoring cone cone or a more severely bent cone by adjusting
plaques can help determine whether or not the the sensitivity of the release of the relay switch.
heating elements are worn out and if the kiln (The kiln manual will explain this more
sitter settings are correct. In fuel-burning kilns, thoroughly.)
placing cone plaques in several spots can help to To calibrate a digital kiln controller, you may
monitor the temperature throughout the kiln by want to program the controller to fire one cone
peeking into spy holes during firing. hotter or cooler depending on what the witness
Junior pyrometric cones are smaller versions cones indicate.
used in manual kiln sitters to activate the relay
switch that shuts off the kiln. A manual kiln sit-
ter has three prongs—two on the bottom and
one on the top. A junior cone is placed in
CERAMIC KILNS AND FIRING WORK 115

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090-129_C
C c h a p t e r
e l e v e n
How to Fire an
electric Kiln
F
or this studio handbook, I felt it necessary to give a
solid starting point on how to use an electric kiln. My
students often share their fears of connecting and firing
a kiln. With some information and attention to detail,
you can have years of fun firing your work. Know that a kiln
is an insulation box; it will not catch fire. What will ignite are
flammable materials and chemicals near a kiln and poor electrical
wiring. If you take precautions to install a kiln properly and
monitor firings, chances are that you will prevent any accidents.
Choosing and PreParing once. A normal bisque or glaze firing takes

Your eleCtriC Kiln between 8 and 12 hours to reach tempera-
Manufacturers of electric kilns offer kilns ture. Consider the time that will be spent
with different features such as the type of monitoring a kiln firing and then think
insulation brick used to house the electric about the size that will work best for you.
elements that conduct the heat. Some models Also consider the electrical requirements
have elements on the floor of the kiln. As and the limitations of your space. Keep in
previously mentioned, there are options of mind when making or firing ceramics that
purchasing a model with a manual kiln sitter slower is always better. Clay particles do
or a digital controller. Each has its advan- not respond well to sudden changes.
tages, and choosing one over another is a For a home studio, an electric kiln that
personal choice. The size of the kiln will has interior dimensions of 7 cubic feet
control the size of the work that can be (about 2 cubic m) is ideal. It is easy to load
fired and the amount that can be fired at because it’s not too deep or too wide; the
C Porcelain bowl by Mother Perpetua Giampietro,

of the Abbey of Regina Laudis
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kiln shelves are of manageable size and weight. APPLYING KILN WASH
This size kiln is sufficiently wide and deep to Kiln wash, which is sold by ceramic suppliers, is
make fairly large work and has enough interior a mixture of flint (silica powder) and refractory
space to fire plenty of functional ware too. clay without any flux. It looks like white glaze
A kiln that can fire to at least cone 8 is reco- and is carefully brushed onto the surface of kiln
mmended, even if most firing will occur to cone shelves to protect them from glaze drips. Kiln
6, which today is a standard mid-range firing wash will bond to glaze drips so it flakes off
temperature for electric kilns. There are many the shelf.
commercial glazes, recipes, and stoneware clays Kiln shelves are expensive and delicate and
available in this temperature range. A cone 6 to 8 should be protected. If glaze drips onto an
kiln will more than suffice for working in low- unwashed shelf, it will permanently damage the
fire clays and glazes. shelf and the piece. If the kiln shelf has a good
coat of kiln wash, it will be protected from per-
PRELIMINARY SETUP AND FIRING
manent damage.
Previously, we’ve discussed where to place your Before firing your kiln, brush some kiln wash
kiln. (See Chapter 1.) So now you’re ready to get onto the floor of the kiln also, just in case there
firing. Every new kiln will need to be first fired is a firing mishap. Glaze drips on soft brick will
without work to allow the electrical elements to corrode the brick. If the kiln has elements on the
burn off residue. It is good to post kiln shelves floor of the kiln, however, check the manufactur-
as if you were firing work in the kiln and place er’s recommendations before applying kiln wash.
a few cone plaques to check for temperature Applying kiln wash to new kiln shelves is
accuracy. Place cones on the bottom shelf, the fairly easy. Get a bucket of water, a large clean-up
middle shelf, and the top shelf so you can see sponge, and a large flat brush.
how each reacts. 1. Mix the kiln wash with water to a smooth,
KILN SHELVES AND POSTS
milky consistency. You do not want a thick
application, but rather a layered one.
Kilns require both kiln shelves and kiln posts for
stacking ceramic wares inside a kiln. They are 2. Wipe the surface of the kiln shelf with a damp
made of refractory materials that withstand high sponge to remove dust and to add a little
temperatures. Though the heat resistance makes moisture to the porous shelf.
them strong, they are brittle and will chip and 3. Using a large flat brush, coat the top of the
break if they are not stored properly. When shelves shelf with brushstrokes in one direction in a
are not in the kiln, store them upright in a secure smooth, even layer. Note: Avoid getting kiln
manner so they do not tip over. Kiln shelves wash on the edges of the shelf. Kiln wash is
should never be stacked on top of one another. flaky when it is fired. If it is on the edges of
Kiln posts or stilts come in different lengths the shelf and those kiln-wash flakes land on
to accommodate firing a range of ware heights. glaze ware, they ruin perfectly good pieces.
Store them by height to facilitate the loading
4. If you get a drip, wipe it off with the damp
process. Take care in handling them; they too
sponge.
will break very easily. Plan space for easy access
and proper storage near the kiln. 5. Proceed to the next few shelves.


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people use a plastic triangle straight edge to

CAUTION span from post to post for measuring height. It
Never touch glaze drips.They are glasslike is just as easy to hold the post size you are using
and extremely sharp. Remove all glaze drips to the piece prior to loading to see if you have
from kiln shelves before the next firing. enough clearance.
Grind smooth all glaze drips on ceramic
wares to prevent personal injury.
BISQUE FIRING
Once the ware is dry and properly loaded into
the kiln, you’ll decide the bisque-firing tempera-
6. When the first coat is dry, apply a second coat ture. The most common bisque-firing tempera-
with strokes in the opposite direction. ture is cone 06, but as previously mentioned this
7. When the second coat is dry, apply a third temperature can be higher or lower depending
coat with strokes in another direction. on the type of ware and decoration methods that
8. It is helpful to quickly dip the ends of the will be later used.
kiln posts in the kiln wash; it’s extra insurance Typical bisque firing will take about 12 hours
against fusing if there is a kiln mishap. to fire and another 10 to 12 hours to cool properly.
9. Allow the shelves to thoroughly dry before
loading them into the kiln.
POSTING KILN SHELVES

FOR LOADING
After you’ve applied kiln wash to the floor of the
kiln and the kiln shelves, it’s time to move on to
the next step, posting your kiln shelves.
The bottom kiln shelf needs to be elevated at
least an inch (a few centimeters) to allow heat
underneath it. At least six short kiln posts should
be used for this purpose.
Kiln shelves are always posted on three points
for balance. Subsequent postings should be
aligned with the posts underneath. If all the kiln
posts are aligned, the kiln shelves will not warp
during the firing and the load will be balanced.
Half shelves should be posted on each corner
and at the highpoint of the curve. Whole shelves
should be posted with four opposing points.
However, if you plan on posting half shelves on
the higher levels, post with six posts so that the
three points of the half shelf will align.
C Top: a kiln shelf; bottom: proper kiln posting and
When posting shelves, be sure you have stacking
enough clearance to accommodate ware. Some
HOW TO FIRE AN ELECTRIC KILN 119

how to fire an electric kiln 205
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LOADING green
Loading GREENWARE
ware
FOR BISQUE FIRING
for Bisque firing
When the clay is bone dry, itit can can be
be loaded
loaded for
for bisque
bisque
firing. Clay
Clay pieces
pieces cancan touch
touch or
or even
even bebe stacked
stacked forfor
bisque firing because in this firing the clay will not fuse
to itself. It differs from
from loading
loading glaze
glaze ware
ware for
for firing,
firing,
which does not allow ware to touch or stack.The stack. The main
purpose
main of thisoffiring
purpose is to drive
this firing off moisture
is to drive and and
off moisture
carbonaceous material. Greenware
Green warewillwillshrink
shrinkduring
duringthe
firing.
the firing.
•HHere
• are a few pointers for stacking ware.The key is
ere are a few pointers for stacking ware. The key is
to place lighter pieces on top of heavier ones. MakeMake
sure that the pieces that are stacked have
have equal
equal wall
wall
thickness and that they have at least a 11⁄44 inch (6 mm)
clearance between them to prevent them getting
stuck inside the other. Here are a few examples:
stuck inside the other. Here are a few examples:
• PPlates
• of equal weight can stack on each another (two
lates of equal weight can stack on each another (two
high), but do not place
place aa bowl
bowl with
with aafoot
footrim
rimon
ontop
top
plate or
of a plate or the
the isolated
isolatedweight
weightwill
willwarp
warpthe
theplate.
plate.
•BBowls
• can be nested provided they have enough
owls can be nested provided they have enough
clearance (see above).
•CCups
• should be stacked bottom to bottom. Stacking
ups should be stacked bottom to bottom. Stacking
them lip to lip can cause stress on the lip, cracking,
cracking, or
warping. Bottle forms can stack inside of bowls.
or warping. Bottle forms can stack inside of bowls.
• LLids
• should always be fired on the piece it is made for
ids should always be fired on the piece it is made for
so they can shrink and move as one.
In general, keep
keep pieces
pieces from
from touching
touching the
the walls
walls of
of the
the kiln.
kiln.
If a piece touches a wall, the heat transfer will be too
strong and cause breakage.
•KKeep
• in mind that a kiln load should be balanced to
eep in mind that a kiln load should be balanced to
fire evenly. For example, if you have only a few pieces,
fire evenly. For example, if you have only a few pieces,
spread them outout from
from top
top to
to bottom.
bottom.IfIf you
you have
have aa lot
lot of work,
of work, be be
suresure to pack
to pack thethe
kilnkiln
withwith
equalequal density.
density.
• IfIf you are loading a kiln with a manual kiln sitter, be
• you are loading a kiln with a manual kiln sitter, be
C Green ware by Br. Iain Highet, ready to be fired in a sure to place the cone in the sitter before you load
front-loading kiln. Note the kiln posts in the front and one the shelf above it. Finishing
Finishing loading
loading only
only to
to realize
realize that
directly behind the ware and the cone plaque.
you
that have to unload
you have the top
to unload theshelf to reach
top shelf the kiln
to reach the
sitter is frustrating.
kiln sitter is frustrating.


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C Top shelf of a top-loading electric kiln with greenware ready for a bisque firing
This initial firing of work is for driving off the For a manual kiln:
chemically bonded water, and it is important that 1. Prop the kiln door open a few inches (or sev-
the water evaporation proceed in a slow and eral centimeters) with a fire brick wedge,
steady fashion. If the heat rise is too sudden, the which should have come with the kiln.
steam pressure will blow out the walls of the
2. Power on the ventilation system.
ceramic pieces. For this and the quartz inversion
that the clay will go through, the first 1200°F 3. Set all switches on low for 3 hours.
(649°C) must proceed slowly. The remaining 4. Close the kiln lid and leave on low for
heat rise can proceed at a faster pace. 3 hours.
Sample Bisque-Firing Schedule: If you are firing 5. Set all switches on medium for 3 hours.
very thin work, the cycle can proceed at a 6. Set all switches to high until the firing com-
quicker pace. On the other hand, if the work is pletes—about 4 hours.
larger, the cycle needs to be slower. This sched- For a digital kiln:
ule is just a guide, and you will need to adjust 1. Prop the kiln door open a few inches (or sev-
it accordingly. eral centimeters) with a fire brick wedge. (One


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should have come with the kiln.)

TIP
Before closing the lid of the kiln, you can do
3. Program the digital panel for the desired cone. a moisture test. Hold a mirror in front of
4. Be sure to choose the slow cycle or the work the propped lid. If it fogs up, wait to close
may be damaged. the lid to allow moisture to evaporate.
5. Leave the lid propped open until the tempera-
ture reads 900°F (482°C), then close it.
may have gotten lodged on the element wires.
If the work to be fired is thick, large, or has Work from top to bottom and make sure to
uneven wall thickness, it is important to slow the clean every row.
firing down further. One way to do this with a
manual controller is to turn one switch on low
for at least 3 hours. Then proceed to turn the LOADING GLAZE WARE
next switch until they are all on, then follow the FOR GLAZE FIRING
schedule. Before glazed ware is loaded for firing, make sure
With a digital controller, you can program a the kiln shelves have a good coat of kiln wash.
ramp hold mode. Program the kiln to hold a Also, check that the base of the ware is clean and
temperature slightly under the boiling point of free of any glaze drips. When loading a glaze
water (which is 212°F [100°C]). I suggest drying kiln, always have a bucket of water and sponge
at or under 180°F (82.2°C) for 6 to 10 hours. available. Check every piece. Even if the bottoms
A propped lid allows the gases to escape. were wiped already, it may have inadvertently
Note that some ventilation systems that attach to come in contact with a dirty surface.
kilns require that the kiln lid be closed through- Keep an eye on drips or heavy coating of
out the firing cycle because they have air intake glaze at the very base of pots. Sometimes these
holes that provide continuous air exchange. need to be gently scraped to prevent a large drip
Also note that spy holes should all be closed, from forming during melting.
with the exception of the top spy hole, which is When the pieces are loaded for glaze firing,
left open for air exchange. Some of the newer keep them apart. Glazed pieces should not touch;
ventilation systems do require them to be closed. they require at least a 1/4 inch (6 mm) space
Refer to kiln and ventilation system instructions between pieces. This is because quartz inversion
for proper air exchange. will occur as the temperature rises and falls.
After the loading is finished, check to make
CLEANING THE KILN sure that no glazed areas overhang the kiln shelf
If work explodes during bisque firing, the kiln and that nothing is touching the kiln walls.
must be properly cleaned. Otherwise the electri- If you have a manual kiln, place the pyromet-
cal elements can become damaged in subsequent ric cone in the kiln sitter. Also, be sure to place
firings. First put on a mask and avoid inhaling witness cones in front of the peep hole to check
the dust. Empty the kiln completely, unplug it, the accuracy of the kiln sitter or digital controller
and use a shop vacuum cleaner with a soft brush during the firing. The kiln manual will have
attachment to remove all the tiny debris that detailed instructions on how to do this.


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C Glazed pieces loaded into electric kiln. Notice the three kiln posts ready for another shelf.
C A kiln shelf is placed over the ware and rests on kiln posts. Make sure that the ware is shorter than
the posts.

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As when the kiln was loaded for bisque firing,

make sure to load it evenly. Even distribution of
ware in the kiln will help build thermal mass and
will even the heat distribution. A uneven load
will render uneven results.
Glaze FirinG
Glaze firing can proceed at a faster pace during
the initial temperature rise than bisque firing, but
it should slow down toward the end of the fir-
ing to ensure a good melt and bond with the clay
body. One of the most common mistakes potters
make is to fire a glaze kiln too quickly. Common
glaze flaws such as pin holes, crawling, and craz-
ing are caused by fast firing and cooling.
General Glaze-Firing Schedule
For a manual kiln:

1. Load the kiln with the proper cone in the kiln
sitter.
2. Place witness cones in front of the spy hole
and check for a clear view.
3. Close the kiln lid.
5. Set all switches on low for 3 hours.
6. Set all switches on medium for 3 hours.
7. Set all switches on high until the firing is com-
plete. Monitor the witness cones until temper-
ature is reached. Be sure to use eye protection
such as welding glasses to peer inside the kiln.
8. If the kiln shuts off before the desired cone
bends, you can restart it and monitor every 10
minutes until the desired cone bends.
C Wood-fired stone ware vessel made by Kristin Müller

using a combination of hand-built and wheel-thrown parts

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For a digital kiln:
1. Load the kiln.
2. Place witness cones in front of the spy
hole and check for a clear view.
3. Close the kiln lid.
5. Program the digital controller for the
desired cone.
6. Program the speed of the firing. Most
programs come with slow, medium,
or fast. Slow or medium speeds are
more suitable; avoid fast mode.
Monitor the witness cones until
the temperature is reached. Be sure
to use eye protection such as welding
glasses to peer inside the kiln. C Teapot fired to cone 6 in oxidation in an electric kiln by Kristin Müller
7. If the kiln shuts off before the desired
cone bends, follow the programming the cone is barely bent or more severely bent,
instructions to hold the temperature for 10 which allows for some temperature control (see
minutes and monitor progress. Refer to the page 200). Witness cones placed in front of the
programming instructions for details. top spy hole help gauge the temperature dur-
Once the kiln is calibrated and working with ing and at the end of the firing. Placing witness
favorite glazes, chances are each potter will make cones on different shelves will give you a reading
adjustments and develop personal firing cycles. of the heat distribution of the kiln. If the kiln
Many books on glazing refer to soaking cycles, needs to fire a little higher or lower, the relay can
which means holding the temperature for a peri- be adjusted. Manual kiln sitters also have timers
od of time to allow the glaze to bond to the clay. to back up the function.
Soaking can provide a temperature hold that Make sure that the prongs are free of clay and
allows special effects to develop in glaze. glaze and that glazed ware is not overhanging the
kiln sitter or too close. If glaze drips it can cause
Kiln Sitter the sitter to not work. Note that cones can only
Junior pyrometric cones are smaller versions be fired once—even if a firing is interrupted,
of the large cones and bend when they reach a replace the cone because it will lose the ability to
specific temperature. The junior cone is placed measure heat work.
in the prongs of a manual kiln sitter and when With the digital controller or kiln sitter, there
the temperature is reached the cone bends and is no cone, just a probe (called a thermocouple)
releases the relay that shuts the kiln. This system that reads the temperature for the digital pyrom-
works very efficiently if it is calibrated. The relay eter. They too should be checked for calibration
that drops can be easily adjusted to release when
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by using witness cones throughout the kiln and
in front of a spy hole. If you find that the kiln is
under-firing, the firing program can be adjusted
to go slower or raise the cone. Conversely, if it
shows that the kiln is over-firing because the
witness cones are bending too far or the glazes
are running off the work, the kiln can be pro-
grammed to fire faster or lower the cone. Do not
make the assumption that digital is accurate.
Always test for accuracy. Tip
To make a cone plaque, roll a clay snake and insert cones,
Pyrometric cones
and cone Plaques aligning the cones at a slight angle (as shown in diagram).
Pyrometric cones are the most accurate measure-
ment of heat work in a kiln. They reflect what is
actually happening to the ceramic pieces inside Keeping a Kiln log
the kiln. It is very easy to rely on pyrometers but and a glaze Journal
they won’t show the whole picture. Placing cones Two essential tools for the studio are a kiln log
throughout a kiln and keeping records of the and a glaze journal.
results will help track knowledge about the kiln Kiln log
that will help determine where to place the work A kiln log is an a firing journal in which a
and whether heating elements need replacing. record is kept of every firing. The type of infor-
For assembling cone plaques, the convention mation that should be included in a kiln log is:
is to place the desired cone in the middle with a
• What clay and/or glazes are fired?
lower cone to the left and a higher cone to the
right. With three cones, the first one will indicate • What cone/temperature is the firing?
that temperature reached and the higher cone • What is the firing cycle’s speed and length?
will indicate the temperature surpassed. Ideally, • What did the witness cones do? How far did
the lower cone will bend and touch the plaque, they bend?
the desired cone will bend halfway over, and the
• What were the results?
higher cone will have softened edges. (Remember
from Chapter 10, if cones are flattening they are • How much energy was used?
over-firing, if they are standing straight they are A kiln log will help keep track of what works
under-firing. See page 200 for more on pyromet- and what doesn’t. It will provide the information
ric cones.) necessary to figure out the cost of firing. It will
keep the actual record of how many firings the
kiln has completed and may be useful in deter-
mining when it’s time to replace elements.
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glaze Journal Cooling the Kiln
A glaze journal should be kept in conjunction Cooling is as important to the development of
with the kiln log. It will provide a record of texture and color in a glaze as firing. In fact,
which glazes work best and how to fire them. many potters who use fuel-fired kilns experiment
By keeping thorough records, you will observe with cooling cycles for effect.
patterns that indicate failure and success. Over Pots can crack if they are cooled too quickly.
time, this record will be very helpful in recreat- Opening the kiln will cause its temperature to
ing a particular result. The type of information drop rapidly. It is recommended that a kiln not
that should be included in a glaze journal is: be open until the interior temperature is below
• Clay bodies used and forming techniques 250°F (121°C). Waiting until the kiln has cooled
ert cones, prevents the work from cracking, and it also pre-
iagram). • Glaze recipes and quantities mixed
vents the glaze from crazing. If pinging sounds are
• Glaze application methods heard when the kiln is opened, close it up and let
• Pictures of results and descriptions of details the work completely cool. The pinging sound is
the glaze crackling because of the thermal shock.
• Comments about the firing and results,
perhaps a note on pyrometric cones and how
far they bent
• As much information as can be put down will
help later. (Trust me, in a few years you will
not remember the details!)
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C Slump-molded dish and small wheel-thrown bowl fired in an electric kiln to cone 6
UNLOADING THE KILN mond or silicon carbide will work to grind the
Unloading a glaze kiln can be like unwrapping glaze). Note that ceramic materials are very hard
presents—there is always an unexpected result. and require special grinding bits.
When the ware is unloaded, take a few moments Always wear eye and lung protection when
to check the bottom of pieces for any rough working with grinders as they emit a lot of very
spots. Do not use your bare hand to do this— fine dust and sharp debris that can injure unpro-
wear a leather glove. If the bottom is a little tected eyes and pollute lungs.
rough, try sanding the base with aluminum oxide If a pot is fused to the kiln shelf, gently tap
sand paper (the black one used wet or dry for the end of a metal putty knife with a hammer
metal). It works wonders for rough clay bottoms. while holding it at an angle against the base of
If there are glaze drips in the kiln or on the the piece. A gentle tap will usually suffice. If it’s
pieces, be extremely careful handling the ware. necessary to hit harder, chances are the piece is
Glaze drips are as sharp as razor blades. Resist damaged from the glaze melting.
the temptation to pick at glaze. Remove the drips After a piece has been fused to a kiln shelf,
with a piece of silicon carbide or a grinding tool the kiln shelf will have to be scraped and kiln
with the appropriate grinding bit (either dia- wash should be reapplied.


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R EMOVING A VESSEL FUSED TO THE SHELF
C To remove a pot fused to a kiln shelf, place a protection, use a metal putty knife or a chisel and
metal scraper at a 45-degree angle on the kiln, just at with a hammer gently tap just beyond the drip to
the base of the piece. Gently tap the handle of the flake off kiln wash without damaging the kiln shelf. If
scraper with a hammer, increasing intensity until the tapped too hard the shelf can chip. Once the big
piece comes loose. Sometimes just a gentle tap will drips are removed, rub a silicon carbide block over
do the trick. Other times the kiln wash and edge of the surface of the shelf to remove any additional
piece need to be tapped all the way around with glaze and loose kiln wash. Use a damp sponge to
some force to break the glaze bond. slough off any remaining debris and apply three even
To scrape glaze drips, lay the kiln shelf flat on a coats of fresh kiln wash.
soft surface such as a wooden table.Wearing eye

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inside the Kiln
Most miscalculations in the ceramic process occur during firing. Many clay body and
glaze defects can be directly related to faults in the kiln’s heating and cooling cycle. For
a thorough and diverse knowledge of kiln firing, fire as many different kilns as possible,
rather than learning to just fire one. Craft centers and college ceramics departments offer
the best locations for this experience.
Wheel-Thrown Bottle
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Conduction heat movement
Conduction is the transfer of energy through
matter (as in the movement of heat from an atom).
brick
flame
heat source
*heat waves move upwards

from heat source (flame)
*hot air is moving

Convection up from flame
The process by which heat is transferred
through the movement of air. This method of
heat transfer can be felt when opening a hot
air circulating heat
oven. Air molecules are heated from the heat pottery
source and then move about the kiln, heating kiln
the interior of the kiln, shelves, and pots.
heat source
Convection is the transfer of heat through flame flame
mass-movement of either air or water.
Radiation
Heat is transferred through the kiln by energy
waves. When a kiln is heated, it generates
thermal mass in the kiln from kiln bricks, electric kiln
shelves, posts, and pots. The radiant heat is elements
transferred to every object in the kiln. After
the heat source is turned off, radiant heat still
affects all objects in the kiln. radiation
kiln shelves heat waves
from heat
Radiation comprises electromagnetic waves that move
source
energy directly through space (as the Sun’s rays transport
heat to the Earth).
*heat waves are radiating inward electric kiln (top view)

from the outside of the kiln
Inside the Kiln .217

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Heating a Kiln
Heat is a form of energy produced by the movement of
atmospheres. An electric kiln produces an oxidation-kiln
molecules, capable of transmission through convection,
atmosphere because the ratio of air is higher than fuel.
conduction, or radiation.
In reduction-kiln atmospheres, the ratio of fuel-to-air is
Conduction: The transfer of heat through solids. When
higher, producing carbon monoxide. This colorless and
the kiln is fired, kiln shelves gather and release heat dur-
odorless gas is oxygen-hungry. When the gas is in the pres-
ing and after the firing. The heat is transferred directly
ence of easily reduced metallic coloring oxides found in
through the solid kiln shelf, posts, and other pots on the
clays and glazes, it draws an oxygen molecule from them,
shelf. When the heat source is turned off, the overall kiln
changing their color and lowering their melting character-
temperature drops, but the kiln shelves and other kiln fur-
istics. Other oxides found in clay and glaze formulas are
niture act as a thermal reserve, transferring heat to pottery
not so easily reduced and need higher temperatures than
on the shelf. Some materials transfer conduction heat more
pottery kilns can economically achieve.
efficiently than other materials. (Anyone who has touched
a pizza stone fresh from the oven has experienced burn- Eutectics: These are combinations of two or more materi-
ing conduction heating first-hand.) There is still a great als that cause melting at the lowest possible temperature.
amount of heat stored within the hard brick shelf, which Eutectics can be formed when different oxides are brought
takes a while to dissipate. together in glazes. The most common example is lead and
silica. When the mixture is heated, it produces a lower
melting cHaracteriSticS melting point than lead or silica melted separately. A strong
Ceramic materials react or melt under specific conditions. eutectic can develop when two or more glazes are over-
The absolute, or end-point temperature is the most com- lapped on a pot. The mixture of glazes can cause blistering,
mon factor causing clay and glazes to melt. The higher the pinholes, or glaze running off vertical surfaces, as well as
temperature for any given ceramic material, the greater the pooling excessively in horizontal areas.
degree of melting that takes place in the clay body or glaze.
Glass formation (called vitrification) occurs when fluxing Metallic coloring oxides: Iron oxide, for example, can act
materials react with alumina and silica in clay and glazes. as a strong flux (melting agent) in glaze if used in high per-
However, other factors that contribute to melting may not centages. On the opposite end of the spectrum is chrome
be so apparent to potters firing their kilns. oxide, which is a refractory or heat-resistant oxide. High
percentages of chrome oxide can dry the surface texture of
Convection: The process by which heat is transferred the fired glaze. Other metallic coloring oxides, to various
through the movement of air. This method of heat transfer degrees, can be classified as contributing a refractory or flux
can be felt when opening a hot oven. Air molecules are component to clay body or glazes.
heated from the heat source and then move about the kiln,
heating the interior of the kiln, shelves, and pots. Clay body: A clay body that is absorbent when fired can
leach out fluxing oxides in the melting glaze during the
Radiation: Heat is transferred through the kiln by energy firing. A dry surface texture and/or glaze opacity can result
waves. When a kiln is heated, it generates thermal mass in when some portion of the flux oxides in the glaze are
the kiln from kiln bricks, shelves, posts, and pots. The radi- leached into the clay body surface.
ant heat is transferred to every object in the kiln. After the
heat source is turned off, radiant heat still affects all objects Glaze thickness: Whether a glaze is sprayed, dipped, or
in the kiln. brushed on the ceramic surface, the actual thickness of the
glaze can play an important part in its ability to melt. As a
Particle size: The particle size of ceramic materials also can general rule, the thinner the glaze layer, the greater degree
affect the melting characteristics of glazes and clay body of melting. A thick glaze application can need more heat
formulas. The smaller the particle size, the greater the melt- work (the time it takes to arrive at the maturing tempera-
ing potential of any ceramic material. Small particle sizes ture of the glaze) to cause complete vitrification (glass
expose greater surface areas to heat. formation) of the entire glaze layer.
Kiln atmosphere: Depending on the heating source,
a kiln can be fired in oxidation, neutral, or reduction
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Glaze application technique is critical for func-
tional pottery, whether sprayed, dipped (like this
piece), or brushed, in order to achieve a smooth
defect-free fired surface.
When overlapping one glaze with another there

is always the possibility that the glaze materials
will be incompatible due to an eutectic reaction,
which can cause glaze blistering or dripping in
the overlapped area.
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tHe Kiln at WorK temperature also enables faster heating and cooling cycles
The heating and cooling cycle in a kiln firing can affect and less wear on kiln shelves, posts, and bricks.
how clay and glaze materials melt. We refer to heating The medium- to high-temperature ranges produce dense,
cycles and the stages of firing as “heat work.” A significant glass-like, hard ceramic clay bodies and glazes. Clay and
amount of heat work must occur before the kiln reaches its glaze may be integrated more fully when heated to medium
end-point temperature. The kiln heats in stages, the first or high temperatures. The greater interface development
being a bisque firing. This prepares the clay for future glaz- produces glazes that look integral to the clay body surface,
ing. The pot is fired again after glazing. as opposed to a “painted–on” superficial glaze coating
The three most common temperature ranges used found in low temperature clay body and glaze ranges.
to produce pottery and sculptures are: low fire, cone However, there are several exceptions where low fire-clay
06 (1,828°F [998°C]); medium fire, cone 6 (2,232°F bodies can be formulated to create dense, nonabsorbent
[1,222°C]); and high fire, cone 9 (2,300°F [1,260°C]). ceramic forms.
Each temperature range has several qualities that can be Slower bisque-firing times are necessary if pots are
beneficial to the function or aesthetic considerations of the thicker than 1/2 inch (1.3 cm) or taller than 14 inches (36
ceramic object. Low-fire temperature ranges can produce cm). Longer bisque firing times are essential if plates, tiles,
glaze finishes in bright, crisp colors. Firing kilns to low wide-based forms, or thicker forms are fired. A common
Kiln Heat Work

As the kiln temperature rises, clay body and glaze undergo chemical changes that dictate the quality of the final product.
Temperature Chemical Change
212° to 392°F (100° to 200°C) Mechanical or free water is removed from the clay body.
842° to 1,112°F (450°C to 600°C) Chemically combined water is removed; shrinkage can occur during this
temperature range.
1,063°F (573°C) Quartz or flint components of clay body expand.
572° to 1,292°F (300° to 700°C) Organic matter in clay is oxidized and removed; if the kiln is not fired in
a complete oxidation atmosphere, carbon can cause bloating in the clay
body at higher temperatures.
1,796°F (980°C) Metakaolin, an intermediate product formed when kaolin is heated,

changes to spinel, which ejects silica.
1,922° to 2,012°F (1,050° to 1,100°C) Spinel changes to mullite; feldspar melts; vitrified clay body reacts with
silica ejected in spinel/mullite formation.
2,195°F (1,202°C) Clay body porosity decreases sharply.
2,012° to 2,282°F (1,100° to 1,250°C) Silica or quartz in the clay body starts to change to cristobalite. If high
amounts of cristobalite are formed in the clay body at this point, it
can cause cooling cracks in the 392°F (200°C) temperature range.
Cristobalite cracking in clay bodies is often encountered when a
kiln stalls or takes an exceptionally long time after cone 8 (2,280°F
[1,249°C]) to reach its final firing temperature.
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firing mistake is firing functional pottery at a “safe” bisque-
firing cycle, then firing plates or large sculptural pieces with
the same cycle. The plates or larger pieces often crack or
blow up, throwing small shards throughout the kiln. Larger
and/or thicker pieces need slower temperature increases
to safely release their mechanical and chemical water. Play
with temperature settings and choose appropriate heating
cycles for the work you are firing.
firing too fast

A clay body can be strong and durable with the right clay
body formula, appropriate end-point temperature, and
correct time to temperature. A fast-fired clay body has not
achieved its maximum strength potential. The clay might
look dense, but functional pottery that is fast-fired often
breaks or cracks in normal, daily use.
On the other hand, an overfired clay body can slump,
bloat, shrink excessively, stick to the kiln shelf, or warp. If
a kiln is fired to increasingly higher temperatures, any clay
body can be eventually transformed into a glaze.
A fast kiln firing can affect glazes in several visible ways,
resulting in a dry, rough, or dull surface texture, immediate
glaze crazing, pinholes, blisters, a muted or dull glaze color, Any clay body can slump or deform past its maturing range,
and a less durable glaze surface. Fast firing also can increase due to firing. Depending on the amount of overfiring, the
solubility in a glaze, which results in staining on plates or pottery can warp, stick to the kiln shelves, or deform into a
functional pots. A “soft” glaze surface might look perfect, horizontal mass.
but it can be easily scratched and dulled by abrasive clean-
ers or alkaline dishwasher liquids.
Take Your Time

A kiln can be programmed to hold at a specific tem- glaze-maturing temperature over a longer period of
perature for a period of time. Holding at temperature time. Or, down-fire the kiln, which delays the cooling
increases melting, because the materials are given cycle of the kiln. In electric kilns, down-firing can be
more heat work, resulting in greater glass formation. If achieved simply by turning on the element switches to
you choose to hold at the maturing temperature of the low or medium after the kiln has reached its end-point
glaze, there is always the possibility of boiling off lower temperature. In hydrocarbon-fueled kilns, such as natural
constituent glaze oxides. This causes glaze blisters, run- gas or propane, leave the burners on a low setting after
ning, or clay body bloating. The safe approach is not the kiln has reached its end-point temperature. Both
to hold the glaze at temperature. Instead, fire to the techniques will expand the heating and cooling curve
of the kiln firing.
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Kiln tyPeS and conSiderationS Kiln size
The type of fuel used to fire the kiln can be a determining Many potters use electric kilns for bisque firing their ware
factor in studio location and the overall cost of producing and gas kilns for glaze firing. On average, you can fill a kiln
pottery. with 40 cubic feet (1.1 m3) of usable stacking space with
Kilns fired by hydrocarbon-based fuels such as natural 65 to 120 functional pots, depending on their size. Use
gas, propane, wood, coal, or oil might require permits from these figures as a starting point for planning the kiln size
the local fire department as well as a survey of neighbors that will fit your production requirements.
for potential objections. For example, kilns require enough If you’re interested in selling your wares, consider esti-
space for the potter to easily walk around for inspections mating the wholesale versus retail price of pots contained in
during the firing process. Hydrocarbon-fueled kilns also a single kiln firing. Smaller kilns offer greater flexibility to
require a room large enough to facilitate fresh air circula- meet production schedules or custom orders, but they are
tion to encourage combustion and then remove the prod- labor-intensive for stacking, firing, and unloading. On the
ucts of combustion within the kiln. Also plan for the kiln other hand, larger kilns offer the economy of scale, because
stack and its exit through the roof structure. it takes just as much effort to fire a large kiln as it does to
The proximity of neighbors and the gases exiting from fire a small kiln. Ask for advice from other potters before
the stack during a firing are significant factors in kiln and you purchase or build a kiln.
subsequent stack location. Some potential studio kiln loca-
tions might be off-limits, due to local zoning restrictions or
individuals and businesses that do not want a pottery close
by. Research the existing area and the neighborhood. Kilns
fired by propane require a storage tank. Consider place-
ment of the tank, which can be large, in relation to the kiln A wood-kiln-fired pot (such as the pot in the middle below)
and your outside surroundings. allows ash deposits to fall on exposed pottery surfaces. Gas-
Electric kilns should be installed by professional electri- kiln-fired pottery (such as the cup at right) offers reduction,
cians. You need dedicated circuit breakers for each kiln oxidation, or neutral atmosphere options or combinations
used in the studio and sufficient electrical capacity to power of atmospheres during the firing, all of which can change
kilns, equipment, and tools. the color of the clay body and glaze. Electric-kiln-firing can
Active venting of the kilns to an outside source is also produce consistent clay body and glaze colors (such as in the
recommended to ensure a safe studio atmosphere. The mug at left).
fumes from improperly vented electric kilns can drift into
the studio and other building occupants, causing com-
plaints and possible legal action for eviction. Even outdoor
electric kilns can require venting, depending on their loca-
tion, to safely remove exhaust from the immediate environ-
ment or prevent exhaust from endangering other areas.
tip
Electric Kilns
Electric kilns are easy to maintain and produce consistent
fired results. Many potters work in small studios and base-
ments, ideal locations for electric kilns.
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Wheel-Thrown Disk
Kiln Safety
All kilns require careful attention to safety. Different types present to monitor the entire firing process. A rotating
of kilns, however, have specific safety requirements. staff is best, because the wood-firing process can be
Wood-fired kilns require constant stoking to achieve time-consuming, labor-intensive, and tiring.
a steady temperature increase. They also require a Gas-fired kilns need monitoring and should be
dry storage area for stacking wood that will be used checked at frequent intervals to ensure appropriate tem-
in the firing. Large kilns might need one or more cords perature increases and the correct atmospheric environ-
of wood per firing, depending on their size. It is not ment for the ware.
unusual for the firings to last two or three days. Electric kilns can be programmed to fire automati-
Always observe the following safety considerations: cally, but the safety aspects of being present during any
Store the wood away from any possible heat sources. kiln firing operation cannot be overlooked. An automatic
Keep the immediate areas around the wood-fired kiln shut-off device can turn off a kiln at the end of a firing,
free of any hazards that can cause injury to potters firing but you should not rely completely on this mechanism.
the kiln. Wear heat-resistant gloves for stoking the kiln If the shut-off device fails, all pots would be lost and the
and to prevent wood splinters. Someone should be kiln damaged.
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Changing ClaY Color Instructions
The individual properties of a clay body formula, kiln
atmosphere, firing temperature, and special effects all 1 Add 1/2 percent of manganese dioxide screened
work together to produce the fired clay body color. Each through a 60x mesh sieve (based on a total clay body
factor can have a major or minor influence on the final of 100 percent) to the moist clay. This will result in
outcome of a fired piece of ceramic material. While clay approximately 200 specks per square inch in the
body color variations are infinite, you can change the fired clay surface. Form pottery by hand building
color of a clay body through firing techniques. or wheel work.
The clay body formula itself is a critical element in
determining the fired color of the clay. Iron oxide is one 2 Fire the finished pottery in an electric kiln. To see the
of the strongest metallic coloring-producing agents found specks, fire the clay body to maturity, which means the
in clays. It is also very sensitive to changes in kiln atmo- clay will be dense, hard, and vitreous when removed
sphere, which can bring about a color change in the clay from the kiln.
body. You can incorporate iron oxide into a clay body for-
mula by adding raw ore (the synthetic oxide form of iron
Note: This speckling effect often looks uniform
oxide) or iron-bearing clays. Iron oxide is a strong flux,
in the size and spacing of the specking, unlike the
and when used in high percentages in the clay body, it can
typical random specking found in clay bodies fired
cause over-vitrification, resulting in bloating, slumping,
in a reduction-kiln atmosphere. Be careful. In some
and excessive clay warping in the fired state.
instances, the manganese can cause bloating in the
Other oxide components in the clay body formula can
fired clay body because part of the manganese goes
contribute to a lighter or darker fired color in the clay
off as a gas during the firing.
body. Clays containing iron and titanium dioxide with
low percentages of alumina (less than 23 percent) will
exhibit darker fired colors than clays containing iron and
titanium, in which higher amounts of alumina in the clay
cause increased mullite in the firing, which masks the fired
color. Ball clays are composed of approximately 75 percent
kaolinite (Al2O3 . 2 SiO2 . 2 H2O), which will fire darker
than kaolins, which contain approximately 95 percent
kaolinite and correspondingly fewer impurities, such as
iron and titanium.
Manganese dioxide can also have a profound effect on
the color of clay bodies. Manganese dioxide in various
concentrations and particle sizes is often found in fire-
clays, ball clays, and stoneware clays. Manganese dioxide
granules can cause black/brown specking in fired clay.
sPeCKing effeCt
If you fire an electric kiln, you can duplicate the specking
that occurs in reduction atmospheres by adding granular
manganese dioxide 60x mesh to the clay body.
Equipment
• Moist clay
• 1/2 percent manganese dioxide
• 60x mesh
Granular, 60x mesh manganese dioxide sieved into the moist

clay can produce black specking in the fired clay body.
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White clay bodies often reveal the additions of metallic Metallic oxide washes are suspended in water and
coloring oxides or stains better than dark bodies. applied to exposed clay. Metallic coloring oxides can be
Dark-firing clay body formulas, which already contain in the form of pencils, crayons, or water-soluble disks of
high percentages of iron-bearing clays, can produce even dry pigments.
darker fired color clays when metallic coloring oxides or In the raku firing process, metallic coloring oxides are
stains are added to the clay body. For example, adding brushed on a bisque surface, heated, and then subjected
cobalt oxide to a clay body containing high percentages to a reduction atmosphere when removed from the kiln.
of iron-bearing clay will result in a black clay body color. The metallic coloring oxides bond to the clay surface
Additions of metallic coloring oxides or stains to a clay and produce various colors. Copper, as one of the most
body are also subject to the effects of the kiln atmosphere reactive oxides, can create gold, red, yellow, orange,
and temperature, which can produce many variations in purple, and blue flashing in reduction conditions.
color intensity.
Metallic oxide/stain fuming: Brush a kiln post or refrac-
tory surface with a paint-consistency mixture of oxide,
sPeCial glaze effeCts carbonate, or stain. Then place the post close to the clay
As you experiment with clay body formulas, try these body or glaze surface. At temperature, the color fumes, or
special effects that involve adding stain washes, metallic vaporizes, off the refractory painted surface and onto the
oxides, and clay slips. clay surface, leaving a “blush,” or vapor trail, of color. The
pattern and color of the fume is dependent on the tempera-
Metallic oxide/stain wash: Try combining coloring oxides
ture at which the coloring agent volatizes, the shape of the
and their carbonate forms with water and paint the mixture
refractory surface, the shape of the pot, the fuming agent,
on a raw or bisque-fired clay body to impart color to the
and the kiln atmosphere.
fired clay.
Coloring oxides: rutile, copper oxide, cobalt oxide, Metallic salt fuming/metallic lusters: Introduce fuming
manganese dioxide, iron oxide, or chrome oxide salts of tin chloride and bismuth sub-nitrate to the kiln
Carbonate forms: copper carbonate, cobalt carbon- during its cooling cycle, at approximately 1,292°F (700°C).
ate, or manganese carbonate. Add strontium nitrate and barium chloride to tin chloride
to produce red and blue lusters. As the salts volatilize, they
land on exposed clay body surfaces. The pattern and area of
coverage depends on the amount of salts introduced (100
Clay Handling Characteristics grams per 40 cubic feet (1.1 m3) of interior kiln space is a
Adding oxides can affect the clay’s handling char- workable ratio of salt to kiln space) and the point of entry.
acteristics. Here’s how: The salts can produce a thin, easily abraded, dull pearl-like
Metallic coloring oxides can affect the handling iridescence on exposed clay body surfaces. The fuming
characteristics of moist clay. Adding red iron oxide effects on the fired clay look very much like oil on a water
to a clay body can produce a darker fired color.
However, high percentages of iron oxide (more
than 2 to 5 percent, based on the dry weight of the
clay body) can cause moist clay to slump in forming Metallic Fuming Colors
operations and become gummy when moist. Blue Parts
Iron oxide can act as a flux (melting agent),
Stannous chloride 7
forming with other clay body fluxes, such as feld-
spar. The result is increased vitrification, shrinkage, Strantium nitrate 2
bloating, and deformation in the fired piece. In Barium cloride 4
reduction-firing conditions, increased percentages Red
of iron oxide can cause brittle fired clay with low
Stannous chloride 16
tensile strength. Iron oxide can be mixed with water,
creating a wash. A watercolor-consistency iron Strantium nitrate 2
oxide wash can be applied to the leather-hard, Barium cloride 1
bone-dry, or bisque pottery, changing the fired Pearl
color of the clay body.
Stannous chloride 7
Bismouth subnitrate 3
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surface. Vapors from metallic salt fuming are toxic. Use the
correct respirator filter in a well-ventilated studio.
Or, try using gold and silver metallic lusters in an oil
base. Lusters also can be applied directly to an unglazed
surface by brushing, spraying, sponging, or other applica-
tion methods. Fire to cone 022 (1,087°F [586°C]). At this
point, the oil base is driven off, leaving a thin layer of metal
that fuses with the underlying clay body. You can formulate
luster colors or purchase them from a ceramics supplier.
Clay Slips (engobes): Slips can contribute color to a clay
body surface; in fact, they are essentially colored clays. Slips
contain water, clay(s), and other ceramic materials that
adhere to a leather-hard or bisque clay body when brushed,
dipped, or sprayed. Color the slip by adding metallic
coloring oxides, metallic coloring carbonates, or stains.
Although there is not enough glass formulation in the slip
to result in a fired glaze surface, the slip will fuse to the
underlying clay body and alter its color.
Terra sigillata: The Latin term terra sigillata means “sealed

earth,” and it is derived from a specific platelet size liquid
clay, which is spread thinly on a leather-hard pot. After A chrome oxide wash (left) is painted on the clay body and
the terra sigillata coating dries out, it can be burnished to is deposited in the recessed areas. A black stain, mason
#6600, (right) is applied using the same technique.
align the clay platelets parallel to the underlying clay body.
When the terra sigillata surface is fired, it fuses slightly,
causing a smooth, satin-colored clay surface. Experiment
with clay base and metallic coloring oxides or stains to
create different terra sigillata effects. As with slips and
engobes, a white clay base will showcase colored additives.
Glaze Flashing: Change in clay body color can occur on

the exposed clay edge of a glaze-fired surface. Salts con-
tained in glaze migrate out into the clay body during firing,
resulting in darker clay flashing along the clay/glaze line.
A darker brown vapor line is prevalent when iron exists in
the clay body and it is fluxed by the soluble salt migration
from the glaze. The line of discoloration on the clay body
can extend 1/4 to 1/2 inch (6 to 13 mm) past the glaze line.
tip
Glass Formation
Increasing the firing temperature of a clay body will
produce additional glass formation within the clay. Any
iron, manganese, or metallic coloring oxides found in the
The refractory tile (left) is painted with cobalt oxide and fired
clay will cause the clay body to darken in the fired color next to an unglazed clay surface.
as metallic coloring oxides flux.
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CeramiCs showCase: sPeCial glaze effeCts
This ceramic piece features blue slip trailing; it was fired in an oxidation atmosphere at
cone 6 (2,232°F [1,222°C]).
A fishing lure with a metallic luster surface. Metallic lusters can be applied to a fired glaze
surface. When fired at a lower temperature, the luster fuses to the underlying glaze surface.
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Terra sigillata fired in an oxidation kiln atmosphere at cone 08 (1,728°F [942°C]). Artist: Richard Buncamper
Glaze fuming on to the clay body. Some glazes go through a period during the firing where
vapors are released from the melting glaze surface landing on the exposed clay surfaces.
Artist: Emily Pearlman
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“The craftsman must practice skills
until they are in him. By doing so, arms,
hands, and tools can act as a conduit
for the heart and mind to create objects
of beauty that capture the spirit through
human nuance.”
—Toshio Odate, author and sculptor
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part
two
a step-by-step
guide to
hand-building
and pottery wheel projects
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C c h a p t e r
t w e l v e
H a n d -B u i l d i n g
Projects
T
he hand-building projects presented in this section build
upon the basics presented in Chapter 5. Remember that
joining techniques are as important as clean, dry hands
when handling the clay.
Hand building requires patience to allow Once you feel comfortable hand build-
the clay to dry and just as in throwing, ing, there are a number of avenues for
working in multiples is a good idea. In further exploration. Try increasing the
this section, you will find a few slab scale of your work, experimenting with
and coil projects to test your skills. By size and proportion. Another possibility is
using your creativity you can expand on to embellish your wheel-thrown pots with
them easily. surface decoration and additional applica-
You’ll notice that precise measure- tion of clay. Also, consider building up
ments are not included for the projects. the rim of a wheel-thrown pot with coils,
This is by design—these pieces should which can lead to the creation of very
inspire you to experiment, to play, and to sculptural forms.
“sketch” with clay.
C Two-part vase thrown by Kristin Müller and decorated

with clay appliqué and turquoise glaze by Tommy Simpson
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S LAB P LATES
C Slab dishes with pine impressions; one with white

glaze, one with a dark glaze applied then wiped off

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To make the following plates, you need canvas, a

rolling pin, and a few wooden slats on which to
roll the pin to get an even slab. Start with 2 to 3
pounds (1–1.5 kg) soft plastic clay. Slap the clay
to flatten and then roll between the slats, smooth
the surface, and lay your source of texture on the
slab. Note that the slump mold technique is used.
1. Roll pine sprigs into the surface of the clay slab.
2 3
2. Cut the slab to the shape of the plate desired. Note that 3. Make a clay coil that is the size of the slab for the slump
the slab is placed on a wooden board. mold.You can create custom slump molds in different shapes
and sizes by using coils that will shrink at the same rate as the
clay slab. Cover the coil with paper towels to prevent the
draped slab from sticking.
4 5
4. Lay the slab over the coil mold and tap into the form by 5. When the clay is leather hard, remove it from the mold
lifting and dropping the board. Gravity will feed the clay into and clean up the edges.
the form.
HAND - BUILDING PROJECTS 135
hand - building projects 235
andbook
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W HIMSICAL T EAPOT
Using slabs, you can make teapots and vases in

different shapes and sizes. Use heavy-weight
paper to make templates of different shapes. To
create a more permanent template use Quilter’s
Plastic, a lightweight plastic that is easy to cut
and won’t break down the way paper does.
This basic teapot derives its shape from a cir-
cle. Begin by rolling a slab of clay that is about
1/4 inch (6 mm) thick. Trace a circle that has the
diameter that measures the desired width of the 1

teapot and remove extra clay.
1. Cut the circle in half. The half circles will make the body
sides of the teapot.


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2 3
2. Be sure to bevel the cut edges of the slabs that will be 3. Cut a strip of slab with beveled edges to serve as the bot-
attached. tom of the teapot body. Score and slip the edges.
4 5
4. Attach the sides of the teapot to the base and join with a 5. Cut and attach another slab of clay to close the body of
wooden modeling tool. Add a thin coil to strengthen the the teapot.
seams on the inside at the base of the pot.
6 7
6. Join all the seams well by scoring and smoothing with the 7. Roll another slab for the spout. (The one in this photo was
modeling tool or your fingers. It may be impossible to reach rolled over a textured mat to create the ridges.)
the interior seam so make sure the exterior is well joined. (continued next page)

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W HIMSICAL T EAPOT ( CONTINUED )
8 9
8. Fashion the spout, cut a hole in the teapot body, and raise 9. Use a long thin tool to get inside the spout and join the clay.
the edge of the hole to ensure a secure seam.
PROJECT NOTES
This teapot has six feet attached to the base
that were made by rolling a coil with texture.
The coil was sliced into equal sections, and
then scored.The base of the teapot was scored
and slip was applied, and then the feet were
attached. As soon as the feet were attached,
the pot was turned over to rest on them.
10
10. Attach a handle and a knob to the lid.When the clay is

stiff leather hard, cut the lid with a sharp hobby knife at a
beveled angle. By angling the bevel, the lid lifts up and rests
easily in the top of the pot without falling in.


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C oiled and P addled J ar

Large ceramic storage jars are a decorative arts
tradition in many Asian countries. Today we
admire the scale of the old jars and marvel at
how they were made with such precision. There
are several ways to make coils and build with
them. Some ways are structurally stronger than
others. This technique is very strong because the
coil is formed between your hands and as it is
formed the clay is compressed. This joining tech-
nique differs slightly from the technique shown
in Chapter 5 because it uses a lot more wrist
action to wedge the coil onto the coils below. For
larger work it is easier on your hands and pro-
gresses at a faster, rhythmic pace.
You need a sturdy turntable for coil building
because the pot needs to rotate manually as the
coils are applied. An electric potter’s wheel will
not suffice, as they are belt driven and do not
spin freely. A kick-wheel can work because the
fly wheel allows the pot to turn with the coil-
1
ing action. A good turntable will do. For this jar,
there is a turntable resting on the potter’s wheel.
1. Roll coils by hand to attach to the body of the jar. (See
The height of the wheel was perfect for building Chapter 5, page 112, for how to make coils.)
the jar.
For this project, start with a mound of
plastic clay. For a large jar you will need about
25 pounds (11 kg). (For larger jars, use more
clay but start with a small amount and work your
way up to more clay.) Make the base of the piece
by pounding a circle to the desired diameter, the
same way the base is made in Chapter 5; see page
113. Continue to create about ten to twenty coils
by hand and cover them with plastic. The jar will
2
require more coils, but this will get you started.
2. Lay the coil on your arm and into your hand. Hold the clay coil
in your hand between your fingers. As the coil is laid upon the wall
of the clay, the index finger is curled under the coil. With the outer
hand supporting the wall, twist the inner hand up pushing the coil
into the wall and up.
(continued next page)
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C OILED AND PADDLED J AR ( CONTINUED )
3 4
3. Feed more coil into your hand and move forward about 1 4. When you have layered four or five coils, take the serrated
inch (2 cm) and repeat until you run out of coil. Pick up rib and score the coils in an upward motion to strengthen the
another coil and start where you left off. join.
5. When the scoring

is complete, use a
smooth rib to
smooth the interior.
Always support the
wall with the oppo-
site hand.This is very
important to keep
the wall from getting
out of center and
misshapen.
5 6
6. You can use a wooden paddle on the outerwall and a hand-held d

anvil on the inner wall to paddle the jar into shape. A handkerchieff
with a little sand in it works well as an anvil.You may choose to
retain the exterior texture or smooth it out.
7. Continue building 8. As the pot is
coils in sections, tak- smoothed, check the
ing the time to score shape and narrow
and smooth the coils the top. If you have
for strength. Also high points on the
check to make sure surface, score and
the shape is under smooth them away.
control. If at any time
during building the
clay seems to be los-
ing its shape, stop and
allow the clay to dry
slightly and then pro-
ceed.Timing is key
with this technique.
7 8


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9 10
9. In order to narrow the top, the coils need to be applied at 10. To continue narrowing the neck, the scoring is done
an angle. Notice that the outer hand is not parallel to the wall carefully, directing and stretching the clay inward.The wall is
anymore. It is angled inward to allow the compression of the supported by the inner hand.
coil that is applied to be angled inward as well.
eld
d 11 12
hieff
11. The final narrowing of the neck is done in preparation for 12. The rim coil is rolled on a flat surface to attain an even
the application of the rim coil. Notice that the edge is raised thickness and cut with a wire cutter at a bevel for an even
for a stronger seam. seam.The interior of the coil is carefully joined to the edge
of the body by scoring and smoothing, leaving the exterior
untouched.
13. Wet the fingers
and while gently
turning the turntable,
apply pressure on
the rim.
PROJECT NOTES
Working rhythmically and evenly will help
shape the jar.The ribbing action will, too. If a
rounded curve is desired, use a round rib or
a CD to smooth the interior of the jar.The
ribbing stretches the wall of clay, shaping and
thinning simultaneously. Be sure to apply the
same pressure all the way around the pot to
ensure the walls are even.
13
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C c h a p t e r
t h i r t e e n
Beginning wHeel
Projects
T
his chapter has a selection of projects that build upon
throwing skills that get progressively more difficult.
Refer to the basic throwing skills in Chapter 6 for
information
on wedging, centering, raising walls, and shaping techniques.
As you tackle each project, you’ll find that making at least ten of
each form will help you understand the mechanics of each shape.
This does not mean that every piece should be glazed and fired;
in fact, it is best to generate a lot of work and keep only the best
examples. Push yourself to evaluate and edit the pots.
Initially, throwing pots on the wheel difficult at times. You will be surprised at
should be considered a warm-up exercise, how quickly your skills develop. It is also
similar to playing scales on an instrument. important to glaze and fire the work to
Do not get caught up in the preciousness really see how you are improving.
of a piece. Remember, throwing is a learn-
ing process, something new that will be
C Throwing forms in multiples

improves your skills as a potter.
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P ROPER S ETUP FOR

T HROWING P OTS FACETED
U TENSIL H OLDER
C Diagram of properly centered mound

opening and hand positions for raising of
walls
1. Centered mound
2. Open mound with flat bottom. Note the
wheel head is free of excess clay.
3. Initial raising of high point of clay
4. Displacing clay upwards and raising a
wall. Note the outer hand is slightly below
the high point.


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This project is fairly simple and fun to make.

It is a simple cylinder embellished by cutting
away clay when it is freshly thrown. It may
be difficult to slice away the clay if the clay is
too wet. If you find that the clay cannot han-
dle the pressure, let it set up a few hours and
then try slicing it. You will need a cheese cut-
ter or wire cutter to cut through the clay with
ease. Some potters use other cutting tools or
twisted wires to make cuts that have texture. 1
The slices in this example are vertical, but 1. Throw a straight cylinder, with even wall thickness that is
they can be diagonal or anything you want not too thin. Compress the outer wall with a metal rib to
them to be. In fact you can wait until the straighten the wall and strengthen it by eliminating slip. Avoid
curves on the shape or you may cut through the wall.
piece is leather hard and carve an intricate
pattern instead.
Do not despair if you cut through the
cylinder. It is bound to happen and will show
you how thick the wall should be and how
deep or shallow the slices should be. A thick
cylinder will permit deep cuts, and a thinner
cylinder much shallower cuts. The choice is
up to you.
Prepare ten balls of clay that weigh about
3 pounds (1.5 kg) each. 2
2. With a wooden tool, define the lip of the piece.This will

give you a visual guide for cutting the facets.
3. Wipe the wire with a wet sponge before making each cut.
This will prevent the slice from sticking to the pot. Begin slic-
ing away curved outer sections of the cylinder, from the top
to the bottom.
B EGINNING WHEEL PROJECTS 145
beginning wheel projects 245
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FACETED U TENSIL H OLDER ( CONTINUED )
4. As you reach the base of the piece, pull the tool away swiftly to remove the slice of clay. Distribute the slicing evenly.The
second slice should be 180 degrees from the first; the third slice should be halfway between the first two slices; the fourth slice
180 degrees from the third; and so on, until all surfaces have been faceted.This will ensure an even number of cuts.
5 6
5. When the cutting is finished, define the lip. Sometimes if 6. Use the wooden angle tool to remove excess clay and to
the piece is sturdy and the clay is soft you can even throw the define the base of the piece.
lip a little bit to refine the shape.


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B OTTLES AND VASES

Throwing vase and bottle forms is a lot of fun and
challenges your ability to throw cylinder forms
with isolated pulls. The basis of these forms is a
cylinder that narrows at the top. The form
requires that the walls be pulled to a properly
proportioned height for the amount of clay used,
which differs from piece to piece. Even wall
thickness is the goal. Once this is achieved, the
belly of the vessel is formed as you introduce the
curve to the mid-section of the cylinder and then
stop as the shoulder is approached. Once the
belly has been stretched to the desired curve, the
neck is collared in carefully and then thrown to
define the shape. It is important to pull the walls
up quickly and efficiently so as to avoid over-sat-
urating the clay. The use of metal or rubber ribs
on the exterior wall compresses the wall and
strengthens the curve; it will also remove excess
moisture.
Practice the following steps to make narrow
neck forms. It will take a few attempts to get the
right pressure points. Begin with simple forms
and progress to more dramatic shapes.
Prepare ten balls of clay that weigh about 3
pounds (1.5 kg) each.
1 2. Shaping the piece will require isolated moves.With a rib on

the outer wall, begin at the base of the piece to create the
curve of the belly with the inner hand pushing gently against
1. Throw a cylinder that has even walls and collar in the top. the rib. Be sure to stop as the shoulder is approached.

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B OTTLES AND VASES ( CONTINUED )
3 4
3. Gently apply slip to the neck of the piece and collar in by 4. Gently check to make sure that the walls are lubricated
using three points of pressure (thumbs together and index fin- and proceed to throw the neck upward, thinning the walls and
gers). Apply inward pressure and move upward swiftly as the narrowing the neck with the outer hand dominating the pull.
wheel turns. Do this at a fairly slow wheel speed.
5 6
5. As the lip is approached, release pressure very gently. 6. Use a thin metal rib to compress the outer wall and define
the neck.
7. Note that as the neck is formed the wall remains vertical.

As the final shaping occurs the curves are introduced.


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P ITCHERS
Pitchers are wonderful forms that not only serve
liquid but can be used as decoration, too. The
pouring vessel is found in all cultures, comes in
the simplest or most intricate forms, and is used
in rituals as well as everyday life.
Pitchers should be relatively lightweight
because when they are filled with liquid they will
be quite heavy and difficult to maneuver. They
should have comfortable, well-attached handles
to accommodate the weight of liquid and the
pouring action. Their spouts should pour well
and minimize dripping. Perfecting the spout is
the trickiest component of making a pitcher,
while the size and placement and alignment of
the handle is the other challenging element.
As you practice making vases you might want
to try forming a pitcher. They are a great way to
practice curves on simple forms and can be
embellished in many ways.
You can practice forming spouts on a simple
cylinder before taking on the challenge of mak-
ing a pitcher. To make the spout, wet your fin-
gers and gently squeeze a section of the rim back
and forth for the width of the spout. This will
thin the edge and ensure a better pour.
Prepare ten balls of clay that are about 2.5
pounds (1 kg) each.
C Pitchers by Chris Alexiades, reduction fired with iron-bearing glazes
1
2 3
1. Begin by making a simple vase form 2. Place one hand underneath the 3. This position will counter the pressure
with a lip that widens at the top. spout and gently cradle the spout from the top index finger as it moves
between your thumb and index finger. back and forth forming the spout.

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P ITCHERS ( CONTINUED )
TIP
Do not overwork the spout.The less
it is touched, the better it will look.
If the edge needs to be cleaned up,
wait until the clay is leather-hard then
clean with a sponge or finger. Resist
the temptation to readjust it. A great
way to practice making spouts is to
4 throw a cylinder and make several 5
spouts along the rim, slice them off,
4. To finish the spout, use your index and repeat. By doing so, you will gain 5. Trimming pitchers is not easy—try to
finger and thumb to push in at the practice (and muscle memory) for throw a balanced, thin cylinder and
edges and define the spout as the top making fresh, well defined spouts. remove excess clay from the base with
finger pushes slightly downward. the wooden angle tool before removing
from the wheel.
The pitcher needs to dry until the clay is at foot but it will take off extra clay with ease.
the leather-hard stage. If it feels heavy, it will Once the pitcher is ready, it is time to pull a
need to be trimmed. An easy way to trim a pitch- handle. As with throwing a pot, the clay should
er is to put a small amount of water on the wheel be wedged well and plastic. If it is too hard or
head and center. Wait a minute for the water to too soft, it will be difficult to make a handle.
form a strong bond with the pot. Then turn the Making several handles will ensure there are
wheel at a slow/medium speed and use a trim- choices.
ming tool to trim the excess clay from the bottom
of the piece. This will not give the pot a raised
6 7
6. To pull a handle, form a carrot shape with the clay.Wet 7. For a strap-like handle, keep your fingers straight and pull
your hand and the clay with slip to avoid friction. Hold the downward, turning the handle so that both sides are worked
carrot of clay with one hand and pull with the other.The clay equally. It is also good to push upward for compression. Do
will travel between the long section of the thumb and index not overwork or make too thin. Once the handle is attached
finger; the other fingers do not touch the clay. to the pot, it can be pulled again to thin and shape. Pinch the
handle off the carrot and lay it on clean plastic.


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8 9
8. Use a bamboo skewer to align the handle with the 9. With clean, dry hands, pick up the handle
spout. Score and apply slip to the handle attachment. and pinch off the end on a diagonal. Score the
attachment with a serrated rib.
10
11
10. Being mindful of the alignment, attach the handle
to the pitcher. Notice the inner hand counters the 11. Once the handle is attached, it can be thinned
pressure from the handle attachment.Work the clay and shaped. An upward pull is good for shaping and
from underneath the handle for a strong join. Leave pushing soft clay into the join.
the top looking fresh; it will get filled in with glaze.
12
12. Attach the bottom of the handle, being mindful of 13

the handle alignment.
13. Once the handle is attached, mild adjust-
ments to the curve can be made with clean,
dry hands.

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B ATTER B OWL WITH H ANDLE

A batter bowl is a great shape with which to
practice spouts and handles. They are perfect for
scrambling eggs and making pancake batters, and
they make great gifts. You can practice with a
small amount of clay and later make larger bowls
with more clay. As with pitchers, be sure to keep
the bowl fairly lightweight for easier maneuver-
ing. The handle can be like a mug handle (shown
C Batter bowl with lug handle
below) or a simple lug handle (shown at right),
like the ones on casseroles. A wide base is nice if
you are going to use it as a mixing bowl. A nar-
row foot is not recommended because the bowl
will be prone to tipping.
Prepare ten balls of clay that are about 2.5
pounds (1 kg).
C Batter bowl with mug handle


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1 2
1. Throw a simple wide base bowl.Wet your fingers, thin the 2. Shape the spout and define the pouring area by applying
spout, and shape as seen in the pitcher project. pressure with your index finger and thumb, moving up and
down until the throat of the spout appears. Wait until bowl is
leather hard, trim the foot, and pull a couple of strap-like han-
dles from which to choose.
3 4
3. Align the handle attachments with the spout, score with a 4. Align the handle with the score marks, check to make sure
serrated rib, and apply slip. it is aligned with the spout, and press into the wall of the
bowl. Notice that thumbs are countering the pressure from
within the bowl.
ADDING A STAMP
OR SIGNATURE
A finishing touch to the piece is
the potter’s stamp or signature.
It can be placed on the foot of a
piece. Placing it on the handle
attachment, however, adds a
decorative element, while the
stamping action compresses the attachment. Glaze can
5 pool on the texture.
5. Adjust the handle so that it has a little lift and touches on

the wall of the bowl on the inner edge.
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S ET OF MUGS
Mugs are often a first throwing project, but I

believe that they are a challenging project for a
beginner potter because centering a small amount
of clay (about 1 pound [0.5 kg]) is actually more
difficult than centering a larger amount of clay
(about 3 pound [1.5 kg]). Once you are adroit at
centering, mugs will be much easier to make.
Prepare ten balls of clay that weigh about 1
1 pound (0.5 kg) each.
1. Begin by throwing the first mug to the desired height and
width. Place a piece of clay with a paint brush sticking out to
the top edge of the mug.This will be your visual gauge for size.
2 3
2. Use your index finger and thumb to make an inverted-V 3. Use a rib to compress the wall. A straight-walled design
shape on the lip of the cup. A comfortable lip is important to can simplify making a set. Note that each mug will be slightly
a drinking vessel; any sharp edges will be even sharper once different and that it is the point of having something hand-
they are glazed. made. Allow the mugs to dry to leather-hard stage. Prepare
clay for pulling handles. Pull all the handles in one session for
consistency in shape and size.
4 5
4. Make a carrot shape of clay, wet your hands and the clay, 5. Wet your hands and the clay with slip and carefully apply
and pull the clay between your index finger and thumb until a pressure with the thumb on each edge to bevel the edge of
strap-like handle is formed. the handle.This will give the handle the optical illusion of thin-
ness and still provide the strength needed in a handle.


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6 7
6. Leave all the handles slightly thicker than desired so that 7. With clean, dry hands pick up the handle. Use the back of
they can be pulled and adjusted on the mug once they are your thumb to scrape/pinch off clay in a diagonal.
attached.
8 9
8. Tap the edge of the handle to compress and fatten up the clay. 9. Score the mug and handle, and if the mug seems too
leather hard, apply slip to help create a homogeneous consis-
tency. Attach the handle from underneath the mug.
10 11
10. Pull the handle to thin and finish shaping. 11. Be sure to secure the bottom attachment of the handle
and that it is aligned with the top.Try not to touch the han-
dle.The less it is touched, the better it will look.

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1 2
1. With a bat on the wheel head, open a basic cylinder 2. The outer knuckle compresses clay at the base to create a
and allow the inside hand to move the clay outward as high point and raise the clay upward and outward.The inside
the wall is raised. (Bowls are best thrown on bats to hand counters the pressure and keeps the wall straight.
reduce warping.)
T HROWING B OWL F ORMS

Bowl forms depart from cylinders in that the
interior base and wall of the open mound is
not at a 90-degree angle. Instead it has a very
slight curve in the transition area and the clay
is not collared after two pulls.
Stage one: For a medium-size bowl, begin
3
with 2 to 3 pounds (1–1.5 kg) of clay. The
opening steps are the same as with a basic 3. At the end of the third pull, allow the inner fingers to splay
cylinder, however, establish the base with a the clay out at 3 o’clock.This will form an upside-down, trape-
slight curve before beginning to raise the clay. zoidal shape. Remember to compress the lip.
When you begin raising with pressure points

at 3 o’clock, rather than coming in toward the
center (as in forming a cylinder) the interior
hand will be slightly dominant and widen the
opening at the top as the clay rises. Be sure to
compress the lip after each pull to define the
rim and re-center the clay. Repeat this two to
three times, keeping the wall without a curve
in an upside-down, tall trapezoidal shape.
Compress the lip again and splay it out toward
3 o’clock. Lubricate the interior. 4
Stage two: Begin at the center with your left 4. Once the trapezoid is formed, check to make sure the wall
hand pushing gently at 3 o’clock. As the wheel thickness is even, and lubricate the interior and exterior walls
before shaping. (Remove excess slip from the interior.)
rotates slowly, draw the curve with your fin-


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5 6
5. With the wheel at a medium-slow speed, use the inner fin- 6. The outer fingers simply follow along to seal the clay wall
gers to draw the curve from the very base with delicate but and steady the curve.The inner pressure is stronger than the
steady pressure. First press down and then press out and up. outer pressure. Pressure points are aligned to form the curve
Release pressure as the curve is completed. with an even line.
7 8
7. The shaping can also be done with a rib on the exterior to 8. With each progressive shaping move, the wheel should
smooth and seal the surface of the clay as the inner hand cre- rotate at a slower speed to allow for control of the form.
ates the constant curve.The advantage of the rib is that it As the final shaping finishes, be sure to ease the pressure as
allows the clay to stay dry as it is shaped. your hands move to the top.
9 10
9. Use a chamois cloth between your fingers to support the 10. When the bowl is finished, wipe the excess slip from the
wall as the lip is rounded.This final touch defines the rim of bat and wire the bowl to release it from the bat. It’s easier to
the bowl. move a bowl on a bat onto a shelf to set up before trimming.
257
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gers pushing down and out and then releasing interchangeable with metal and wooden ribs.
the pressure as the curve is laid into the lip of Compact discs are terrific substitute ribs for
the bowl. With the exterior hand slightly under making large bowls; mini discs are great for small
the interior hand, follow the curve to seal and bowls. They are thin and can make beautiful
compress the clay lightly. Do not interfere with constant curves.
the pressure of the interior hand or the curve
will be weakened. Pay attention to the interior Variation: Large Bowl
profile. A constant curve is structurally strong Making large bowls uses all the skills of making
and is also inviting to a spoon scooping food smaller bowls, but gravitational pull is much
from the interior of the bowl. Bumps and ridges stronger and so precision with pressure points
should be avoided on the interior of bowl forms. and mastering wheel speed will become essential.
Centering a large amount of clay may be more
SHAPING A CONSTANT CURVE challenging. Try using faster wheel speed, but too
AND USING A THROWING RIB much speed will require more muscle. Make sure
The interior curve of a bowl will determine its the clay isn’t stiff because it will put unnecessary
exterior profile. It is best to strive for a constant stress on your hands and wrists. As the wall is
curve and avoid showing the transition from the thinned and shaped, slow the wheel to reduce
true base to the wall. Throwing ribs are very the stress from centrifugal force and gravity. By
useful in creating rhythmic lines. They require the time you finish the lip of the bowl, the speed
practice to use successfully, but it is well worth should be very slow and the pressure very gentle.
the effort. Ribs come in all shapes and sizes and
are made from many different materials, includ- PRINCIPLES OF TRIMMING
ing wood, metal, plastic, Plexiglas, and rubber. Trimming is often neglected and thought of as
Ribs all serve the same basic purposes: to help just a way to remove excess clay from a pot. In
shape the clay, dry the surface, and strengthen fact, trimming adds visual definition and is
clay walls as they are formed. Which rib to use is essential to finishing a piece.
a matter of personal choice that will be defined When a pot is thrown, there is always excess
by the clay bodies used and by experience. clay at the base. If you examine the interior and
Wooden ribs, which are a little thicker than the exterior, there is likely a slight difference
metal ribs, give the clay a very soft skin. They in the shapes. To achieve even wall thickness
are not at all flexible and are great to use with and balance in a form, the exterior should be
larger forms. trimmed to conform to the inner shape of
Metal ribs have very sharp edges due to their the piece.
thickness. They can be stiff or flexible, depend- A few elements to keep in mind when consid-
ing on the gauge of the metal, and they compress ering trimming:
the clay very well. The foot of a piece defines how the piece will
Rubber ribs come in different hardnesses that sit on a surface and thereby give a piece a sense
range from super soft and flexible to quite stiff. of weight or a visual lift from the surface. The
The soft ones are great to use with fine clays and foot can define the application of glaze, and it
for finishing touches while the stiffer ones are can contribute to the functionality of the piece


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G UIDE TO S HAPING A C ONSTANT C URVE
1 2
1. To form a beautiful curve, the inner hand has to do the 2. The inner fingers transition upward, and the outer fingers
most important work. By beginning at the center of the bowl, remain slightly below, supporting the newly formed curve.
the curve begins at the very center, moving down and out.
The outer fingers are poised to receive the pressure.
3 4
3. As the curve is completed, the wheel speed is steady but 4. A round throwing rib is especially useful at the transition
slow, and the fingers move to the top of the piece, applying point at the base. Gentle steady downward pressure will
gentle pressure. ensure a great curve as the rib is raised.
5 6
5. As the rib moves up the inner wall, there is almost no 6. Cross-section of constant curve and trimmed foot.When
pressure.The rib is completing the move, sealing the clay, the excess clay is trimmed, the bowl’s profile mirrors that of
and removing excess slip while tightening the clay surface. the interior curve.
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G uide to t rimminG C lay

and its overall beauty. A messy, clumsy foot can
make a piece look unfinished.
Variation: Set of Bowls

For making multiple forms, such as a set of bowls,
muscle memory will be a very useful skill to devel-
op. This will come with practice and repetition,
but there are some tricks you can use to help along
the way. Start by weighing out the same amount of
clay for each bowl you wish to make.
As you form the first mound, make a mental
note of the height and width of the mound. I prefer
to use my fingers as a measuring gauge but some
people use a ruler. The first few times you do this it
will be helpful to measure each step and write the
measurements down to create the steps for making
the same shape. As you progress, training your eyes
and hands will expedite the process.
You might also want to note how many pulls
it takes to get the walls thinned out and ready for
the curve. By using the same rib to create the inner
curve the bowls should have the same interior
shape, and when trimmed to even wall thickness
they should have the same exterior curve. Placing
a mound of clay with a paintbrush pointing into
the wheel at the edge of the first bowl will help you
make subsequent bowls to the same dimensions.
(See page 263.)
Prepare ten balls of clay that are about 1 pound A few trimming options for similar bowl shapes are
shown in the above illustrations. The foot design can
(0.5 kg). Follow instructions for Throwing Bowl dramatically change the look of a bowl.
Forms (see page 256) for each ball of clay.
Trimming mulTiple FormS

When you have multiple forms to trim, it’s helpful
to make a trimming chuck, which is a clay shape
1. Read the interior of the shape and mark with a

needle where the thickness begins. It will be a visual
reminder of where to trim clay.
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2 3. To center the piece to be trimmed, place a needle tool between

6 and 3 o’clock, close to the clay without touching it, and hold
2. Mark the true base of the pot. (The true base is one steady as the wheel turns slowly.Where the needle touches, the pot
wall thickness to the inside of the base.) That is where is farthest from center and should be gently positioned closer to
the foot ring should be.This, too, will serve as a visual center.The needle trick should be repeated until the mark is even all
reminder of where to trim clay. the way around, indicating a centered base. If you do not take the
time to center, the trimming will leave the piece looking off center.
(Centering will be more challenging with asymmetrical pots.)
4 5
4. Once the piece is centered, it must be secured to the 5. Begin by trimming the wall with the tool moving downward at
wheel head. Use three coils of clay evenly spaced and push a medium speed. Note how the left hand bridges the right for
down on each coil. Note that the pressure is on the outer steadiness. A great way to check for thickness it to tap the pot
edge of the coil so as not to misshape the pot or lip. before any clay is removed at the base and side.The thick wall
will sound like a flat thud. As clay is removed and the wall is
tapped, you will hear a more hollow sound.
7
6
6. Once the side is designed, trim the excess clay from 7. When you have finished trimming the clay, take a moment to
the center. Begin at the center and move outward to burnish the foot ring with a dry finger. It will spread the fine parti-
the edge of the foot while the wheel is turning at a cles of clay over the sandy clay and smooth the foot. Always pay
medium speed. attention to detail when the clay is still soft enough to correct.
Rough edges on clay will scratch table tops once it is fired. 261

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C Using the same technique as for making a set of mugs, you can produce a set of bowls.The trick
to creating identical bowls is to make the interior curve the same.
that a pot fits over or into. Pictured here is a chuck when the pots are thrown so that it will
chuck that fits inside bowls or cups. They are have the same dryness at the trimming stage.
custom made by the potter to suit the dimen- This technique only works with leather-hard
sions of the work to be trimmed. They are clay; if the clay is almost bone dry it won’t work.
extremely useful for odd-shaped rims. Make the


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G UIDE TO T RIMMING
M ULTIPLE FORMS
1 2
1. Center the chuck. (Keeping the chuck on a bat makes it 2. Once the piece is centered, apply pressure from the base to
easy to handle.) Place the bowl on the chuck and center. attach the bowl to the chuck.
3 4
3. Use a small trimming tool to cut away clay. Apply pressure 4.Trim the side first then the foot ring at the base.
with your left hand while trimming with the right. Note the
left thumb touching the right hand to steady it as it trims the
excess clay.
5.When the wall is centered the base is leveled, if the piece

was cut evenly.

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C c h a p t e r
f o u r t e e n
IntermedIate
Wheel Projects
T
he following projects will further hone your throwing
skills and help you progress in leaps and bounds. Some
of the projects require focus and planning, such as the
teapot. They will require you to think about the finished
vessel before you begin to make it. This is a great leap forward in
practicing design and construction. All the pots you make will
inform your clay knowledge and help you make better work.
A mentor of mine once said that you envision your work, including its compo-
should picture the finished piece—includ- sition and scale. Also, imagining how the
ing its clay body, glaze, shape, and execu- pot will be used allows functional details,
tion—before you even begin making it. A such as handles or lids, to be incorporated
sketchbook can help organize all of your into the sketch.
ideas. Even a rough sketch will help you
C Pit-fired pot by Kristin Müller with terrasigillata (clay slip)

burnished, pit-fired, then rubbed with butcher’s wax
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P LATES AND P LATTERS

Plates and platters are very low cylinders with lips
or rims that can be simple or delicate and wide.
The clay mound should be centered low and wide
to accommodate the base of the plate. Opening
the clay for a plate is different than for smaller,
taller pieces. Instead of using your fingers to open
the clay, it is recommended to use the bones at
the base of the palm of your right hand. They will 1
provide a strong, wide edge to displace the clay 1. Center the clay as you normally would but apply more
outward from the center. (With some practice, pressure from the top and allow the left hand at 7 o’clock to
relax slightly.
this technique will be useful for throwing large
bowls, too.)
The advantage of using the bones from the
palm of your hand is their added strength. If the
clay is properly lubricated, there will be almost
no hesitation in the opening move and it will be
smooth. Fingers, on the other hand, can hesitate
and create throwing rings in the center of the
plate that are difficult to get rid of in the finish-
ing moves. Also by using the palm, you can feel
for the interior angle of the base of the plate.
2
Thinning the wall of a plate that will be the
rim should be done carefully and purposefully. 2. The top hand presses with the bones of the palm from 2
o’clock to the center then in an outward motion toward the
Once the wall is thinned and the edge is cleaned, left hand at 7 o’clock.The left hand gives way to the pressure
the plate should be wired loose from the bat and but keeps the mound centered.
then the edge of the rim should be splayed out.
By wiring prior to finishing there is less chance
of warping the rim. Clay has memory and in
plates even the slightest movement will show up
after the firing. Place plates on a level surface to
dry to leather hard for trimming.
The amount of clay required to create a din-
ner plate will depend on the design and size. An
average dinner plate requires about 3–4 pounds
(2 kg) of clay. It may seem like a lot, but plates
3
require clay for the wide span at the very base
that will be trimmed to give it a raised foot. 3. Repeat the opening move until the desired diameter for
the base of the plate is achieved. Keep the interior base of the
plate smooth—remember, this is where food and utensils will
be placed.


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4 5
4. Recenter the rim of the mound to begin throwing the wall. 5. Pull up the wall as you would a cylinder. Pull up and out to
thin the wall.
6 7
6. To prevent warping of the rim, clean up the base of the 7. Use a rib to gently press down on the lip with the wheel
plate with a wooden angle tool and wire cut before laying out turning at a slow speed. Use a chamois cloth to finish the
the lip. rim edge.
VARIATION: LARGE FLANGE

PLATTER USING THE RIB
To make a plate with a large flange, be sure to

leave enough clay to raise the wall to an even
thickness. Clean up the interior, wire the base,
and carefully take a rib to the edge and lay out
the flange. A rib with a sharp edge is preferable
because a dull edge will create too much drag
8 and misshape the lip.
8. You can embellish the surface by gently pressing a tool on

the rim while the wheel is spinning. Some people leave a thick
rim and carve the edges when the work is leather hard.
INTERMEDIATE WHEEL PROJECTS 167
intermediate wheel projects 267
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T RIMMING A P LATE
Trimming plates should be done with great care
to avoid warping the piece. Consistency is very
important because of the wide span at the base.
If the clay is too soft it will collapse with the
slightest pressure.
1. Cut a piece of foam to the size of the plate’s interior diam-

eter.This way, the plate will be supported during the trimming.
Do not pick up the plate; instead use the bat and turn it onto
another bat for trimming.This will facilitate the removal of the
plate from the wheel.
2 3
2. Center the plate before starting to trim,. (See page 161). 3. Trim the edge first, and then mark the foot ring by remov-
ing some clay at the edge.This step will prevent any slip ups in
the trimming that could damage the foot ring.
4 5
4. Carefully remove excess clay from the base of the plate, 5. To remove the plate from the wheel, lift the bat, place a
and then smooth the edge of the foot ring with your bare fin- clean bat on the bottom of the plate, and flip over to dry
ger to soften the edges. evenly.
268 168potter
the THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO
’ s complete HANDBOOK
studio handbook

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C HIP AND D IP D ISH

This simple chip and dip is a takeoff on the platter concept. In
essence, you will make a low cylinder and a small bowl that will be
attached freshly thrown. This project is a lot of fun to make, and
this interesting serving dish is sure to impress guests. Try making
smaller versions of this project to serve small groups of people as
well as larger ones for large gatherings.

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C hip and d ip d ish ( continued )
1 2
1. Center a 5 pound (2.5 kg) mound of clay. Leave enough 2. Raise the wall and compress the lip. Wire through the
clay to pull up a generous wall. base and proceed to making the dip bowl.
3 4
3. When making the bowl, check to see that the shape of 4. Place the bowl to one edge of the platter.
the walls mirrors the walls of the platter so that they will fit
nicely together.
5 6
5 With clean hands, make a spout (see page 249 for how 6. Define the spout by pushing in from the outer wall.
to make a spout). By pressing on the lip with one hand and
supporting from underneath, both pieces of freshly thrown clay
will be joined nicely.
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C ASSEROLE WITH L ID AND H ANDLES

Lidded casseroles are great for serving food as well as for baking. They
benefit from low, open forms with shallow lids to prevent condensation
from forming inside the lid. They need not be thin; some heft will help
hold heat. Casseroles can be made to suit the number of people you
plan to serve. Start building small lidded containers until you feel com-
fortable with all the elements of these forms.
Casseroles will need handles, a flange (or gallery) for the lid to rest
on, a lid, and handle or knob for the lid. For the piece shown above,
begin with 4 pounds (1.8 kg) of clay.

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C ASSEROLE WITH L ID AND H ANDLES ( CONTINUED )
2
1
2. Making the flange is a little tricky and requires practice.
1. Begin by centering and raising a wall in the same manner (You may want to try making flanges on a thick cylinder first.)
as the chip and dip dish. (See page 169.) This time, be sure to With the wheel spinning at a medium speed, press on the
leave a generous amount of clay at the rim for the flange. inner ring of the rim with your index finger while the outer
index finger counters the pressure and raises the rim. It is
called a shear movement because you are throwing in opposi-
tion: one finger down and the other up.
3 4
3. To define the edges, or if you are having trouble using your 4. Calipers can be used to measure the diameter of a rim.
fingers, try applying pressure with a wooden tool with a right
angle. It will give a nice crisp line.Wire the casserole base
from the bat.
5 6
5. Alternatively, the diameter of a rim can be measured by 6. Throw the lid. A lid is a bowl shape, and a shallow lid is
using two little points of clay on a bamboo skewer.This shows more like a low, open bowl. Use the calipers or skewers to
how wide the lid will need to be in order to fit the casserole control the size during the throwing.
base. Remove the dish from the wheel.


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7 8
7. The final size check is done with the skewers or calipers. If 8. Trim the lid to even wall thickness.When shaping it, think
the rim is too big, it can be trimmed with the needle tool. about the profile and its relationship to the casserole base.
Allow all parts to dry to leather hard, trim, then proceed to
making and attaching handles.
9 10
9. As soon as the lid is firm enough to handle, place it on the 10. To make rolled handles, use both hands to roll clay
casserole base so that they dry together. (They should be between your fingers and palms.The clay needs to make a full
fired together too.) rotation back and forth to stay round.
11 12
11. To embellish the coil, try rolling the coil on a textured surface. 12. To make a set of handles that are the same size, try
making them from one long coil and cut in half (or to size).
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C ASSEROLE WITH L ID AND H ANDLES ( CONTINUED )
13 14
13. Align the handles by placing sticks parallel across the top 14. Score the handles before attaching them.
of the lid, spacing them equally.
15 16
15. Score and slip the handle on the lid, reinforcing the 16. Check to see that the handles are well attached and that
attachment with a small tool if needed. they are aligned for composition.


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T EAPOT WITH L ID , S POUT, AND H ANDLE
Teapots are one of the most com-

plex pottery forms. In the world of
ceramics, teapots are sculptural;
they can be incredibly ornate or
very simple. Potters love the chal-
lenge of making interesting teapots,
and you probably will too.
Teapots not only require making
several components—including the
body, spout, lid, and handle or han-
dle attachment—but they need to
function well and look well
designed. Assembling all the parts
requires attention to detail and to
the consistency of the clay. To make
teapots, you should set aside
enough time to not only shape all
the parts but also to assemble them
before they are too dry.
Making several teapots at a time
will help you recognize what works
and what doesn’t and help you
design better pouring vessels. The
ease of the pouring action should
help shape the design. The handle
should be far enough away to hold
comfortably without touching the
hot surface. The lid should remain
secure when in the pouring posi-
tion, and the spout should not leak
when the pot is full of water.

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T EAPOT WITH L ID , S POUT, AND H ANDLE ( CONTINUED )
1 2
1. Begin with a 2.5 pound (1.1 kg) ball of clay.Throw to a 2. Center a generous amount of clay from which you will
cylinder, then turn it to a rounded vase shape. Determine the throw the lids and spouts. Cup a small amount in the center
size of the vessel’s mouth (you will use this measurement to and open to make a lid. It will be trimmed round.
later determine the size of the lid). Remove from wheel.
3 4
3. Measure to see that the width of the lid is close to the 4. Define the lid and measure it for accuracy.
width of the teapot opening and proceed to make a flange in
the lid by pressing downward with the outer finger and
upward with the inner finger.
5 6
5. Hold the wire underneath what will be the top of the lid 6. Trim the lid on a trimming chuck. Another type of lid
and turn the wheel to cut through evenly. (shown next) is made upright off the mound of clay.


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7 8
7. Cup a small amount of clay in your hand to center. 8. Throw the base of the lid to the desired width. Remember
Depress the clay just to the right of the center—this will to measure its diameter.
leave a little nub of clay.
9 10
9. Gently throw the knob in the center. 10. Carefully wire the lid from the mound.
11 12
11. The spout is made from the mound of clay and is a bottle 12. Raise the walls, narrowing as you pull.
shape. A wide base for a spout is good because the spout will (continued next page)
need to be cut at a diagonal to attach to the teapot.The spout
should be wide to cover the straining holes. Cup a small amount
of clay in your hands, center, and open wide.

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T EAPOT WITH L ID , S POUT, AND H ANDLE ( CONTINUED )
13 14
13. Collar in the spout and raise the clay while it narrows. 14. Repeat the collaring until you like what you see.
15
16
15. Define the spout and cut below the base to set it up for
attaching. Assembling the teapot will require that parts be at a 16. Slice the spout at a diagonal. Cut less than you think you
soft to medium leather-hard state. need—you can always cut more but it’s hard to replace the
clay once it’s cut. Hold the spout up against the teapot to see
if the angle is good and remove clay accordingly.Trace around
the spout placement with a needle tool.
17
17. Pierce the straining holes carefully with a hole-punching

tool. Note how the inside hand supports the wall. 18
18. Score and slip the edge of the spout and the ring around
the straining holes.

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TEAPOT-MAKING TIPS
When making a teapot that is meant to

be used, there are a few details of
which you should be mindful:
• The teapot should be relatively
lightweight and easy to maneuver with
one hand.
19
• It should have a sturdy handle that
19. Apply the spout to the teapot, using mild pressure to allows the teapot to be held
make a strong connection. Score around the connection. comfortably, even when full of hot
water.
• Water should pour freely from the
spout. (Be sure not to glaze the strainer
holes!)
• The teapot’s lid should not fall out
when tea is being poured.
• The top of the spout should always be
placed above the pot’s water level.
20
Otherwise, the spout will leak when the
pot is full.
20. Roll a fine coil and place it around the seam and join into
the soft clay for extra support. Smooth into the body of the
teapot.
21
21. Attach coil handles that will be used to attach a non-

ceramic handle after the firing. Bamboo handles or handles of
other materials can be purchased, or handles can be fashioned
from twigs or basketry materials.

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T WO -PART VASE
To make larger-scale work, it is necessary to
learn how to attach sections of clay to one
another. You can try making smaller two-
part vessels to hone the skills to center and
attach two pieces to make one. To make
this vase, start with about 7 pounds (3 kg)
of clay for each section.
TIP
Drying sections of the clay to the
proper consistency is challenging. If you
wrap the sections in plastic, they will
be too soft to join.Try placing
newspaper over the rims to hold some
air inside the pieces. It will keep rims
soft and allow the bottoms to set up.
This is all dependent on your climate. If
it is very damp, you may have to wait a
day or so. If it is dry, a few hours might
do the trick.


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1 2
1. Throw the base of the pot to the desired shape but nar- 2. Throw the top section. Notice that the base is narrow
row the vessel at the top. Later when it’s time to join, the rim because it will be the neck of the pot. Leave a little extra clay
can be widened, but it can’t be narrowed. Leave enough clay at in case you want to throw it a bit at the end. Do not wire
the lip to create a groove on which the top piece will fit. from the bat (removal is done after sections are joined).
Measure the width.
3 4
3. Take the top and place it on the rim of the bottom. Once it 4. When the pots are stiff enough to hold their shape, but
is on, check to make sure the top is aligned and centered with soft enough still to be joined, score and apply slip to the rims.
the bottom. If a rim needs to be widened, you can remove the
top and make the adjustment with the wheel spinning.
6. Score the inside
and the outside seam
with a serrated rib
while the wheel is
spinning slowly.
5. Place the top section on top of the bottom section, align-

ing both rims. Use the needle tool to score through the rim 6
of the top and wire the top from the bat. (continued next page)

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T WO -PART VASE ( CONTINUED )
7. Use a large metal rib to smooth the seam and do some

gentle shaping. If you try to change the form, the pot will
become off center because it is already leather hard.
8 9
8.Trim about 1/2 inch (1 cm) from the rim to expose soft clay 9. Gently define the rim of the vessel and check to see
and finish throwing the neck and rim of the pot. that it is centered and all seams have been integrated.


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Functional stoneware pottery
Glaze Technique .283

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C c h a p t e r
f i f t e e n
clay and glaze

formulas
Potters often ask about other potters’ work, “How did they make that?” The clay and glaze
formulas here are yours to enjoy and experiment with. Clay body formulas, glaze formulas,
forming, and firing methods often give insight into how potters accomplish their aesthetic
goals. The technical aspects behind a piece can jumpstart your own work, but formulas
alone are not the final arbiter of quality. Good pots are more than the sum of their parts.
They are the result of experience, trial and error, practice, and persistence.
Because the formulations for clay and glaze components change over time, always test
clay bodies and glazes to ensure an accurate result.
The glaze formulas and clay body formulas are listed in percentages. This allows potters
to generate batches of material in any quantity desired. G-200 feldspar at 45 percent can
be used as 45 grams, 450 grams, or 4,500 grams, as long as the other materials in the
formula are increased by the same factor. The base clay body and glaze components
total 100 percent, and coloring oxides, stains, grogs, gums, and other additives are added
beyond 100 percent.
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Thrown Cylinder Thrown Jar
7” (17.8 cm) tall, 3” (7.6 cm) diameter 7 1/2” (19.1 cm) tall, 10” (25.4 cm) diameter
Firing: Cone 9 (2,300°F [1,260°C]), reduction atmosphere Firing: Unglazed, cone 01 (2,046°F [1,119°C]),
oxidation atmosphere (electric kiln)
Clay Body Color: Brown/Stoneware % Clay Body: Black %

A.P.G. Missouri fireclay 35x 25 Goldart stoneware clay 34
Goldart stoneware clay 41 Pine Lake fireclay 20
Thomas ball clay 15 Tennessee ball clay #1 16
Custer feldspar (potassium) 12 Nepheline syenite 270x (sodium) 16
Flint 200x 7 Flint 200x 10
Grog 48/f 6 Redart earthenware clay 4
Grog 80x 6
Glaze Color: Matte Yellow
Cobalt oxide 11/2
G-200 feldspar (potassium) 45
Flint 325x 5
E.P.K. 25
Dolomite 22
Whiting 3
Red iron oxide 1/4
Glaze Color: Matte Red

G-200 feldspar (potassium) 48
E.P.K. 21
Dolomite 13
Whiting 8
Tin oxide 4
Bone ash (natural) 6
Red iron oxide 4
clay and glaze formulas 285
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Square-Sided Thrown wheel-Thrown alTered
raku CoVered Jar oVal
14” (35.6 cm) tall, 3 3/4” (9.5 cm) diameter 31/2” (8.9 cm) tall, 7 1/4 “ (18.4 cm) wide
Firing: cone 04 (1,945°F [1,063°C]), reduction atmosphere Firing cone 10 (2,345°F [1,285°C]), reduction atmosphere
Clay Body: Gray/Black/Raku % Clay Body: Brown/Stoneware %

Goldart stoneware 50 Hawthorn Bond fireclay 50x 21
Tennessee ball clay #1 15 Goldart stoneware clay 50
Pine Lake Fireclay 18 Kentucky ball clay OM#4 15
A.P.G. fireclay 28x 5 Custer feldspar (potassium) 8
Custer feldspar (potassium) 7 Flint 200x 6
Flint 200x 5 Grog 48/f 8
Grog 48/f 7
Glaze: Gloss Red
Glaze: Opaque White Custer feldspar (potassium) 57
Gerstley borate 36 Whiting 20
Custer feldspar (potassium) 32 Ferro frit #3134 6
E.P.K. 2 Flint 325x 15
Flint 325x 30 Tin oxide 2
Superpax 12 Copper carbonate 21/2
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QB0259-918
wheel-Thrown unglazed wheel-Thrown/hand-

Bowl BuilT SCulpTural diSk
7” (17.8 cm) tall, 7 1/2” (19.1 cm) diameter 11” (27.9 cm) tall, 12” (30.5 cm) diameter
Firing: cone 04 (1,945°F [1,063°C]) oxidation atmosphere Firing: cone 9 (2,300°F [1,260°C]) reduction atmosphere,
(electric kiln) unglazed
Clay Body: White/Earthenware % Clay Body: Black/Stoneware %

Tennessee ball clay #1 47 Goldart stoneware clay 38
Texas talc 50 Pine Lake fireclay 20
Whiting 3 Tennessee ball clay #1 15
Wash: Brown/Black Nepheline syenite 270x (sodium) 12

Flint 200x 7
Red iron oxide 40 Redart earthenware clay 8
Rutile powdered lt. 40 Grog 80x 14
Ferro frit #3195 20 Cobalt oxide 1 1/2
Red iron oxide 1
Clay Body: Brown/Stoneware %

Goldart stoneware clay 25
Pine Lake fireclay 33
Tennessee ball clay #1 10
Nepheline syenite 270x (sodium) 20
Flint 200x 8
Redart earthenware clay 4
Grog 80x 12
Glaze: Satin Matte Green

Cornwall stone 46
SlaB ConSTruCTion oVal Whiting 34
plaTTer E.P.K. 20
arTiST: Jim Fineman Copper carbonate 4
1” (2.5 cm) tall, 101/4” (26 cm) diameter
Tin oxide 4
Firing: cone 9 (2,300°F [1,260°C]), reduction atmosphere
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wheel-Thrown BoTTle wheel-Thrown diSk
9” (22.9 cm) tall, 4” (10.2 cm) diameter 2 1/2” (5.7 cm) tall, 9” (22.9 cm) wide
Firing: cone 9 (2,300°F [1,260°C]), reduction atmosphere Firing: cone 04 (1,945°F [1,063°C]), oxidation atmo-
sphere (electric kiln)
Clay Body: Brown/Red Stoneware % Clay Body: Light Brown/Earthenware %

Hawthorn Bond fireclay 50x 30 Redart 85
Goldart stoneware 35 Thomas ball clay 15
Thomas ball clay 12 Barium carbonate 0.3
Newman red stoneware 10
Custer feldspar (potassium) 8
White Slip
Flint 200x 5 E.P.K. 25
Grog Ohio #3 40/f 12 Pioneer kaolin 15
Glaze: Gloss Brown/White
Nepheline syenite 270x (sodium) 47 Flint 325x 10
Soda ash 13 Superpax 10
E.P.K. 15 Soda ash 5
F-4 feldspar (sodium) 10 Ferro frit #3110 10
Thomas ball clay 10
Redart earthenware clay 5
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wheel-Thrown Bowl wheel-Thrown oVal Cylinder
6 1/2” (16.5 cm) tall, 7 1/2” (19.1 cm) diameter
Firing: cone 10 (2,345°F [1,285°C]) soda firing
arTiST: Tom whiTe
8 1/2” (21.6 cm) tall, 5” (12.7 cm) wide
Firing: cone 11 (2,361°F [1,294°C]) wood/soda/salt
Clay Body: Brown/Stoneware % Clay Body: Light Medium Brown/Stoneware %

Grolleg kaolin 25 Hawthorn Bond fireclay 50x 33
A.P.G. Missouri fire clay 28x 25 Goldart stoneware 24
Goldart stoneware clay 30 Lizella stoneware 10
Tennessee ball clay #9 10 Tennessee ball clay #9 12
XX sagger clay 5 Custer feldspar (potassium) 13
Custer feldspar (potassium) 5 Flint 200x 8
Silica sand F-65 48x 4 Silica sand F-65 48x 12
Grog 48/f 4
Glaze: Gloss White
Glaze: Green Gloss Custer feldspar (potassium) 30
Albany slip 80 Nepheline syenite 270x (sodium) 39
Whiting 20 Soda ash 8
White Slip
E.P.K. 6
E.P.K 35
Flint 325x 20
White Slip
Tennessee ball clay #1 15 Helmer kaolin 65
Superpax 5 Grolleg kaolin 20
Cornwall stone 25 Nepheline syenite 270x (sodium) 15
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wheel-Thrown CoVered Jar wheel-Thrown Bowl
arTiST: Tom whiTe arTiST: Tom whiTe
51/2” (14 cm) tall, 51/2” (14.6 cm) diameter 21/2” (7 cm) tall, 4” (10.2 cm) diameter
Firing: cone 11 (2,361°F [1,294°C]) reduction atmosphere Firing: cone 6 (2,232°F [1,222°C]) reduction wood
(soda firing) firing then cone 10 (2,345°F [1,285°C]) soda firing
Clay Body: Medium Brown/Stoneware % Clay Body: White/Stoneware %

Hawthorn Bond fireclay 50x 20 Cedar Heights bonding clay 50x 22
Goldart stoneware clay 40 Goldart stoneware clays 19
Kentucky ball clay OM#4 15 Hawthorn Bond fire clay 35x 21
G-200 feldspar (potassium) 12 Tennessee ball clay #10 13
Flint 200x 8 XX sagger clay 10
Redart earthenware clay 5 Flint 200x 9
Grog 20/48x 12 Custer feldspar (potassium) 6
Silica sand F-95 70x 9
Glaze: Gloss Light Green with White Stripes
Glaze: Gloss Clear/Red White
Flint 325x 34 Custer feldspar (potassium) 49
E.P.K. 2 E.P.K. 21
Talc 4 Dolomite 19
Whiting 18 Whiting 4
Barium carbonate 12 Tin oxide 7
Copper carbonate 1/4
Bone ash (natural) 2
Copper carbonate 2
White Overglaze
E.P.K. 21
Dolomite 19
Whiting 4
Tin oxide 7
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wheel-Thrown goBleT wheel-Thrown CoVered Jar
7 1/2” (19.7 cm) tall, 5” (12.7 cm) diameter 7” (17.8 cm) tall, 8” (20.3 cm) diameter
Firing: cone 10 (2,345°F [1,285°C]), soda firing Firing: cone 10 (2,345°F [1,285°C]), reduction atmosphere
Clay Body: White/Porcelain % Clay Body: Brown/Stoneware %

Grolleg kaoliin 50 A.P.G. Missouri fireclay 28x 21
Custer feldspar (potassium) 25 Goldart stoneware clay 44
Flint 200x 25 Tennessee ball clay #9 16
Silica sand F-95 70x 8 G-200 feldspar (potassium) 12
Flint 200x 7
Glaze: Gloss Brown Grog 48/f 12
Albany slip 75
Glaze: Matte Blue/Gray
Whiting 20
Flint 325x 5 Custer feldspar (potassium) 45
Flint 325x 5
Green Slip E.P.K. 25
E.P.K. 35 Dolomite 22
Grolleg 40 Whiting 3
Cobalt carbonate 1/2
Ferro frit #3110 5 Nickel carbonate green 1
Flint 325x 5
Glaze: Matte Pink
Copper carbonate 2
Flint 325x 5
E.P.K. 25
Dolomite 22
Whiting 3
Copper oxide (red) 1/2
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90 (Text) (RAY) #175 Dtp:204 Page:291
White Slip %
E.P.K. 30
Thomas ball clay 25
M44 ball clay 10
Goldart stoneware clay 5
Flint 325x 20
Superpax 10
Bentonite 2
Yellow Slip Variation

Mason stain Titanium Yellow #6485 10
Dendritic Slip: Brown/Black

Manganese dioxide powder 20 grams
Water 29 grams
Apple cider vinegar 29 grams
Tobacco 0.75 gram
(one cigarette)
Mixing
wheel-Thrown BoTTle Mix all ingredients. Break open and add the contents of one
cigarette to the dendritic slip (discard the cigarette filter). Age
arTiST: Joel hunTley the slip for 24 hours, then place the liquid through a 100x-mesh
91/2” (24.1 cm) tall, 6 1/2” (16.5 cm) diameter sieve three times before using. Discard any material left on the
Firing: cone 04 (1,945°F [1,063°C]), oxidation atmosphere 100x-mesh screen. The shelf life of dendritic slip is two weeks.
(electric kiln) After that the properties of the growing tree patterns rapidly
decline.
Clay Body: Brown/Earthenware %

Redart 55 Application
Cedar Heights bonding clay 50x 9
After the pot has been thrown, hand-built, or otherwise formed,
Thomas ball clay 17 apply the base slip to the moist and leather-hard clay surface
M 44 ball clay 7 as soon as possible to ensure a stronger bond between the slip
Custer feldspar (potassium) 6 and clay body. While the base slip is still wet, immediately dip
a soft bristle brush in the dendritic slip mixture. Fill the brush with
Goldart stoneware clay 3 a small amount of the watercolor-consistency dendritic slip, then
Flint 200x 3 barely touch the surface of the wet white slip with the brush. The
dendritic slip will flow off the brush onto the base slip, leaving
Glaze: Clear Transparent Glossy a pattern. A tree-like tentacle decoration can be developed by
holding the pot on the vertical. Concentric ring patterns can be
Ferro frit #3269 90 obtained by applying dendritic slip to horizontal pot surfaces.
E.P.K. 8
Flint 325x 2
Red iron oxide 1
Epsom salts 1
/2
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wheel-Thrown raku- preSS-molded Bowl
11/2” (3.8 cm) tall, 51/2” (14 cm) diameter
Fired VaSe Firing: cone 9 (2,300°F [1,260°C]), reduction atmosphere
arTiST: STeVen BranFman
8” (20.3 cm) tall, 7” (17.8 cm) diameter
Firing: cone 04 (1,945°F [1,063°C]), fired in an oxidation
atmosphere and fast-cooled in a reduction atmosphere
Clay Body: Black/Gray % Clay Body: White Stoneware %

Hawthorn bond fireclay 50x 45 Tile #6 kaolin 30
Talc 20 Tennessee ball clay #10 30
Kentucky ball clay OM#4 15 G-200 feldspar (potassium) 20
Goldart stoneware clay 20 Flint 200x 20
Grog 48/f 20 Silica sand F-95 79x 8
Glaze: White Satin Matte Glaze: Light Brown/Yellow

Gerstley borate 65 Cornwall stone 50
Tennessee ball clay #9 5 Whiting 30
Nepheline syenite 270x (sodium) 15 Grolleg kaolin 20
Tin oxide 10 Red iron oxide 4
Flint 200x 5
Overglaze wash: Yellow

Mason stain Naples #6405 60
Ferro frit #3195 40
Overglaze wash: Green

Mason stain Bermuda #6242 60
Ferro frit #3195 40
Overglaze wash: Red

Mason stain Crimson #6003 60
Ferro frit #3195 40
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wheel-Thrown Bowl wheel-Thrown SCulpTural
71/2” (19.1 cm) tall, 8” (20.3 cm) diameter
Firing: cone 04 (1,945°F [1,063°C])
raTTle
5” (12.7 cm) tall, 121/2” (31.1 cm) long
Firing: cone 9 (2,300°F [1,260°C]), salt-fired with red
fiber flocking
Clay Body: Red Earthenware % Clay Body: Black Stoneware %

Redart earthenware 75 A.P.G. Missouri fireclay 28x 20
Sheffield earthenware 15 Goldart stoneware clay 25
Goldart stoneware 6 Ocmulgee stoneware clay 15
C&C ball clay 4 Kentucky ball clay OM #4 12
F-4 feldspar (sodium) 12
Clay Body: White Earthenware
Flint 200x 10
C&C ball clay 50 Redart 6
Talc 47 Silica sand F-95 70x 12
Whiting 3 Cobalt oxide 2
Red flocking (Cloth fibers sprayed on adhesive surface)
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wheel-Thrown Jar wheel-Thrown Cup
81/2” (21 cm) tall, 8” (20.3 cm) diameter 3 1/2” (8.8 cm) tall, 4” (10.2 cm) diameter
Firing: cone 9 (2,300°F [1,260°C]), reduction atmosphere
Firing: cone 9 (2,300°F [1,260°C]), salt-fired
Clay Body: White Stoneware % Clay Body: White Porcelain %

A.P.G. Missouri fireclay 28x 20 Tile #6 kaolin 10
Goldart stoneware 40 E.P.K. 16
Tennessee ball clay #1 18 Pioneer kaolin 6
G-200 feldspar (potassium) 12 Tennessee ball clay #10 25
Flint 200x 10 G-200 feldspar (potassium) 23
Silica sand F-95 70x 10 Flint 200x 20
Blue Wash Glaze: Dark Brown, Glossy

Cobalt carbonate 80 Custer feldspar (potassium) 52
Ferro frit #3124 20 Flint 325x 24

Whiting 13
E.P.K. 7
Barium carbonate 2
Zinc oxide 2
Bentonite 2
Red iron oxide 8
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C c h a p t e r
s i x t e e n
goIng Into the

ceramIcs busIness
The ability to sell what you make is seductive, and most potters will at some point face the
question of when and how to sell their work. However, without a thorough knowledge of
business practices, selling pottery can lead to a loss of money and time. Business people
who become potters make money; potters who try to become businesspeople lose money.
Business training makes all the difference.
At first, selling is easy. Relatives and close friends buy your goods, but before long, they
will exhaust their need for pottery. Meanwhile, the pottery market has low barriers to entry:
Expenses for starting the business are modest, and many potters sell their work with little
initial effort. The initial influx of income from an immediate circle of supporters to cover
equipment and supplies often is misleading.
To sell profitably requires developing skills necessary to run a business that just happens
to focus on pottery. You must have an extensive knowledge of the market in which you
hope to sell pottery. Handmade functional pottery competes with mass-marketed and mass-
produced commercial pottery. You must ask yourself: How many people within a limited
geographic market will buy a relatively expensive handmade piece instead of an inexpen-
sive machine-made cup?
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plan your BuSineSS Keep accurate, up-to-date financial records so you can
Some potters’ long-range plans consist of packing the car spot the first indications of business difficulty. Be sure to
up for the next craft show. Whether the expense of going calculate fixed and variable costs so you can establish a
to the show will justify the anticipated revenues is often wholesale and retail pricing structure. Fixed costs include
overlooked. Develop real plans for marketing and adver- studio insurance, rent or mortgage payments, heating and
tising your work that are based on research. Your plan lighting costs, and any other recurring costs to do business.
should include an evaluation of prospective craft shows, a Variable costs include materials and supplies to produce
timetable to reach short- and long-term goals, and a listing pots, supplies for stationary, and studio clean-up materials.
of primary and secondary markets for your pots. The plan In addition to keeping financial and inventory records,
should also include a complete financial breakdown of you will record the results of glaze tests and kiln firings so
direct and indirect costs of production, hourly wages for you can duplicate good results and continue to improve
yourself, and profit margins. Committing your ideas to efficiency and, ultimately, profit margin. Develop number-
paper in the form of a business plan allows you to prioritize ing systems and file test-tile results so you can refer to
your goals. For example, projecting revenues for particular them without sifting through a messy studio.
pottery shows allows you to establish production goals.
A Pottery Business Plan

A comprehensive business plan for your pottery should Should I concentrate on the whole market or a
include the following topics. segment? Should I try to sell pottery to everyone or to
Description of the product: What kind of pottery will potential customers who are craft-oriented?
be produced? What is the competition? Are other potters making
Marketing of the product: How will the company similar pottery? Are pottery imports a larger part of the
promote, distribute, and sell the pottery? market?
Financing of the company: Will personal savings What are the competition’s strengths and weak-
fund start-up costs and operating expenses, or will you nesses? Examples: The competition produces equal- or
seek outside financing? superior-quality pottery. However, the competition does
Management of the company: Will the business be not make custom pottery.
staffed by a sole proprietor, or will you employ others? How can I improve my product over the competi-
Ask yourself the following questions as you develop tion? Should I use unique glazes? Should I specialize in
a business plan. making pottery sets? Should I customize the pottery with
What exactly is the market? Who will buy my pot- slogans or names of customers?
tery? What is their income range, education, history of Is the market stable, growing, shrinking? Are people
buying pottery, and reasons for pottery buying? buying more pots this year than in the past five, ten,
Where are the customers? Do they live in-state, out- or fifteen years? What is the projected growth of the
of-state, in the city, or country? handmade-pottery market?
What are the customers’ buying patterns? Do they What is my plan for growing the business? I plan to
buy pottery every week, month, year? Do they buy advertise in a local newspaper. I plan on hiring studio
through craft shows, galleries, the Internet, catalogs, help to increase production. I intend to send literature to
direct from potters? past customers notifying them of future pottery sales.
Why should they buy pottery from my company?
List specific value-added features in pottery, such as
unique glaze colors, durability, ease of use, and wide
assortments of functional pottery.
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There is a great deal more to learn about running a pot- Don’t make custom individual pots to order. Turning
tery business; we’ve given the topic an extreme overview. down a request for a personalized plate or bowl is often dif-
Check into business classes and workshops at local com- ficult, but almost every potter has been placed in this situ-
munity colleges and ask other professional potters to share ation by family, friends, and customers. It can easily turn
their successes and failures. The more you educate yourself into a time and cost trap. If custom work is needed, first
about the business of your pottery, the better you will fare show samples of what the customer can expect and don’t
when selling your work. stray from the sample options in fulfilling the order.
Don’t make replacements to a set you no longer produce,
and do not make a replacement for a set by another potter.
plan your produCTion Time Changes in raw materials, firing cycles, glazing techniques,
Making pottery is a demanding, labor-intensive, and and other variables make it difficult to reproduce a pot pre-
repetitive activity. It can be doubly harsh if you don’t like cisely to match other pieces you made in the past. Consider
the actual pots you are making. Design and formulate pots making extra pieces in a set during the original production
that are fun to turn out. Then search for a suitable market, run. While storage and handling of the extra pots may be a
so they will sell. Succumbing to trends (such as a popular problem, future time and effort is saved.
glaze color) might produce short-term results but may
eventually make potting a dull job. Many potters compro-
mise and produce objects they know will sell, even though plan your purChaSeS
the pottery might be less than interesting to produce. Once and priCing
the “guaranteed-income pots” are finished, they create the Keep your clay body and glaze formulas simple by using
work they enjoy. If you choose this path, maintain a bal- as few raw materials as possible. Many basic versions of
ance between the “paycheck pots” and those that express clay body and glaze formulas produce the same fired effect
your aesthetic statement and beliefs. as formulas containing numerous raw materials. Fewer
As you strike a balance, be sure to set limits. Pottery raw materials in the studio translates to easier and faster
making requires planning, execution, and evaluation of weigh-outs of glaze or clay body formulas. It also simplifies
the outcome. Time is your most important commodity, ordering.
and your greatest business expense. Calculate your time Make buying decisions with care. Research moist clays,
carefully, and don’t underestimate the time invested in all tools, equipment, and raw materials before committing to a
stages of production. ceramics supplier. Before choosing a supplier, decide if you
Avoid the following common time traps. need a full-service supplier, with a store location displaying
equipment, tools, books, supplies, and a sales staff, or a dis-
count ceramics supplier, which might not have a store or an
extensive selection but offers competitive pricing. Always
inquire about return policies. Also, ask other potters about
their experiences with specific suppliers.
When pricing your pots, figure in all production costs,
including hourly wage and profit margin at every stage.
Cut costs where possible, but think how a cost reduction
can impact the whole system. One potter decided to elimi-
nate the bisque-firing process, thereby saving time and fuel
costs. However, he did not adjust the glaze formulas for
tip raw glazing and single firing. Several glazes peeled off of the
wares during glaze-firing, and he lost many pots.
Plan Your Income
Many potters do not rely on sales for their primary income.
Having a supplemental income will allow you to choose
where and when to sell your work. It can also help the
business survive periods of slow sales.
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The Retail Studio
A pottery studio located in a commercial district
can attract walk-in customer traffic. While you’ll pay
higher rent for a space in a high-traffic area, the extra
expense can pay off in product sales when passersby
are intrigued by beautiful window displays filled
with your finished work. Potential customers who are
interested in handmade objects are naturally drawn to
viewing the process. A studio/retail combination gives
the public a chance to watch the potter at work, which
is always a crowd pleaser. A display area within or
adjacent to the studio exhibiting the finished ware also
can help generate sales.
Retail tip: Don’t forget to develop a mailing list of
your customers. Send them an invitation before a kiln is
due to be opened. This gives an interested population
the opportunity to view and purchase pots warm from
the kiln.
A window display with attractive pottery lures passersby into

this working gallery.
Before moving into a new studio or remodeling a studio A deep sink with a gooseneck hose will allow you to
space, always be sure there is more than adequate electrical clean glaze buckets and tools quickly and efficiently. If
supply for all lighting and appliances. Electricians famil- possible, the sink should be located near glaze mixing
iar with kiln operations and kiln manufacturers are good areas and centrally located in your studio. Try to avoid a
sources of information on meeting the electrical capacity situation in which a sink is located on another level from
for the studio. the studio area. Constantly walking up and down stairs
to obtain water is labor-intensive, time consuming, and
Water possibly hazardous.
Having a source of clean hot and cold water in the studio Because sink wastewater will contain a percentage of
is a critical resource for any pottery producing operation. solid particles from glaze materials and clay, research the
Water is used in mixing glazes, clay-forming operations, correct drain installation traps, so pipes and leach fields
and in studio cleanup procedures. A water source within or sewer systems do not become clogged with solids.
the studio is also an important safety factor because any You can make a catch trap yourself or buy one. Several
time water has to be carried in from outside of the studio, commercial catch traps fit under sinks, allowing the solids
there is always the possibility of spillage and creating a to accumulate in a container and the liquids to proceed
slippery floor. If that water mixes with any clay left on the down the drain and out of the studio. Whether you make
studio floor, it can create an especially slick, unsafe surface. a catch trap yourself or buy one, clean out the solids
container frequently.
going into the ceramics business 299
6/6/11 1:33:03 PM
(Text)
Task lighting illuminates this pottery. Notice that a wide variety of glaze colors and surface
textures are easily apparent. A well-lighted studio is important to view work. Good lighting
also reduces eye strain and promotes an efficient production cycle.
300 the potter ’ s complete studio handbook Follow the Clay: A Sensible Working Studio . 19
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markeTing your poTTery
V
enues for pottery sales range from going to craft fairs to selling directly from
your studio. Consider the following factors when deciding where to sell pottery:
cost structure, location, personal contacts, individual style of pottery, and
supplemental income.
Wheel-thrown jar with cover.
. 19 going into the ceramics business 301
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Creative Marketing
One potter traveled to several local nurseries
that sell miniature trees (Bonsai plants) and sold
planters to the stores. Planned diversification
of sales outlets will ensure the best chance of
future sales. However, too many marginal ven-
ues can lead to loss of product or no income
for the effort of shipping and stocking.
You may sell your pottery in one venue—art shows or

craft fairs, for example—or you may diversify by targeting
several of the following outlets. Through trial and error
(and hopefully, some number-crunching and strategy on
your part), you’ll discover which sales avenues produce the
highest profit margins and income.
The STudio Gallery

Selling directly from your studio offers several benefits.
First, customers are attracted to the idea of purchasing
a pot hot from the kiln. You can even notify customers
about your firing schedule. Packing and shipping costs
are avoided, and there’s no risk of breakage during trans-
port. (This is a concern when traveling to craft shows, for
instance.) Ideally, your studio should be located in an area Galleries selling to the public either acquire pottery on
with lots of foot traffic, and attractive display windows are consignment or purchase pots directly from the potter for
important. Otherwise, shoppers will not know what’s going retail sales.
on inside.
CrafT ShowS ConSiGnmenT SaleS

Craft shows can generate fast income compared to other A gallery or retail store will exhibit your pottery on con-
selling methods, such as waiting for customers to buy your signment: you give the store free inventory and you will
pots from a gallery or retail store. Some craft shows are receive payment, less consignment sales, when the pottery
structured to sell wholesale and retail. Buyers from retail is sold. This type of sales has several negatives. The store
stores and art galleries are invited into the show the first and the potter have to keep exact records of transactions.
day or two, after which the general public is admitted. Often, tracking the sale of pottery, restocking pottery, and
Wholesale selling presents a different set of challenges to the payment are time-consuming repetitive efforts. The
the potter and should be carefully investigated. (We’ll talk potter must rely on the store’s personnel to maintain and
more about wholesale selling on page 149.) exhibit the pottery without loss or neglect. Finally, pottery
Regardless of your pricing, an inviting booth is the most on consignment is not available for sale in other venues in
important tool for increasing sales. Display business cards which money collection is immediate.
and post photographs of your work. Customers may wish
to contact you after the show to make a purchase. To take
advantage of high foot traffic, provide a sign-up book for
customers to leave their names, street addresses, and email
addresses. Use this later to market your work through post
cards or email announcements.
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WholeSale opportunitieS internet SaleS
You can sell pottery wholesale through art/craft galleries, Traditionally, Internet sales of pottery have not produced
retail stores, craft shows, or catalogs. Investigate the reputa- a high level of income for potters. The best use of the
tion of the seller before signing any business contract. Web has been to lead people to a potter’s studio or store
The first sale of pottery should be for cash-on-delivery or where the pottery is being sold. Most customers want to
a prepaid order. Generally, the wholesale price of pottery handle pots before committing to a purchase. That said,
is one-half the retail price, but this percentage can vary. the Internet is an invaluable marketing tool today, and a
Decide on some ratio of wholesale-to-retail sales to ensure professional-looking website will attract customers who are
a consistent revenue source. serious about buying quality pottery. The most productive
Always look for new wholesale markets and develop rela- websites feature professionally photographed, clear images
tionships with buyers. This applies to one-time retail sales, and well written, descriptive text of the pottery. If sales
wholesale selling, or pottery exhibited to sell in galleries. originate from the studio, a detailed map listing hours of
Consider enlisting a representative (a friend with a market- operation and directions will lead customers easily to your
ing brain or a polite family member). pottery shop. List retail store and gallery locations, along
Before committing to any venue, make sure you can with customer testimonials.
meet any eventual demand for the pottery. A potter may be
pleased when his work is highlighted in a catalog, but can
be ill-equipped when a high volume of orders is generated.
Pottery on display represents functional and sculptural work by professional potters.
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CreaTing FunCTional SeTS To Sell
A
complete set of dinner plates, lunch plates, cups, bowls, pitchers, and other forms
is enticing for prospective customers. In many instances, customers do not intend to
buy sets until they see the display. When customers are faced with grouping indi-
vidual pots to form a set, they may be overwhelmed and, instead, will purchase nothing at
all. Make the buying decision easy by creating and displaying sets of various glaze colors,
sizes, and details.
A set can be similar in size, glaze-color combination, or forming technique.
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What iS a Set? CreatinG a Set
A set can consist of any number of pottery forms. To cre- Usually, the first few pots in a set are “stiff ” and self-
ate a set, choose the defining characteristics of the group. conscious in form, while succeeding pots becoming more
Will all the bowls be the same size, shape, or glaze color? fluid and confident in structure. After several kiln loads or
Will all pieces have the same surface design elements and production cycles, you’ll begin to make improved editions
clay body color? of individual pieces within the set.
The next question is how many pieces comprise a set. A
set should be apparent to others when in use or on display. Equipment
Simply put, when customers enter a pottery display booth • Moist clay
or visit a studio, they should recognize without question
that a designated group of pottery objects is a set. • Scale
An important but simple rule to consider is that func-
tional objects need to function. Bowls should hold liquids Instructions
and solids, stack easily in the cupboard, be easily cleaned,
and generally fit into the kitchen workspace. A pitcher 1 Weigh out a fixed amount of clay for each pot in the
should pour liquid without dribbling down its spout. The set. This ensures a degree of uniformity in all pots.
lids of covered jars should fit properly. Before creating sets, For instance, if you weigh out four 1-pound (454-g)
make several prototype pieces and use them in your own pieces of clay, you will throw four coffee cups close
kitchen for a trial run. Tweak your design, if necessary, in size. Apply the same weighing technique to hand
then begin creating the sets. building to duplicate the scale of an object. This is
Sets should have a common design element that unifies your first step toward standardizing the clay form.
them visually and/or structurally. All of the pieces don’t Also, each piece of clay should contain the same
have to be exactly alike, but they should be similar on some moisture content to achieve consistency in the form-
level. Just as human beings are unique, handmade pottery ing process. The main idea in producing sets is to
sets should reflect that intrinsic aspect of their production. eliminate as many variables as possible, so you can
concentrate on making each piece similar.
2 Think functional. While some degree of random

qualities or handmade features are a definite promo-
tional point in functional pottery, selling items to the
public requires a number of basic constraints as to the
size and shape of the pottery. For example, it would
not improve the selling qualities of plates if they could
not fit into a standard dishwasher or kitchen cabinet.
Likewise, dinner plates with deep recessed throwing
ridges may appear attractive, but plates without a flat
surface on which to cut food are not functional. The
general public is interested in handmade products, but
they don’t want to spend extra time washing or alter
the way they would typically use a plate to accommo-
date “artistic license.”
3 Make a set during one sitting. Repetition yields effi-

ciency. On the wheel, most functional pottery can be
! thrown within a few minutes of starting to form the
clay. Making a set of six cups within one working ses-
sion should be possible. The average time to throw a
small cup should be one to two minutes. If you throw
one or two cups but wait until later in the day or the
following week to finish, they’ll be inconsistent.
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4 Make a series of the same form. Series also qualify as other. In the glaze kiln, place cylinder sets very
sets. A series can denote a slight but intentional change close to each other, using every part of the kiln shelf.
in each piece. The evolution can be in shape, scale, Denser stacking of the bisque and glaze kilns trans-
glaze, or pattern. A wheel-thrown cylinder shape offers lates into more pots per cubic foot of kiln space,
an excellent example of one way to think about series. greatly reducing fuel costs.
Starting from 1/2-pound (227-g) balls of clay, you can
form small cylinders to make teacups, coffee cups, and
small vases. The same procedures can be applied to
creating a set or series of nesting bowls, just by increas-
ing the amount of clay used to make the same bowl
shape in varying sizes.
5 Experiment with glaze techniques. It is often easier

to try various glaze patterns or glaze colors on similar TIP
forms. Working from a standard object (similar pots
or sculpture pieces in a set or series), apply glazes in Make Extra
numerous patterns. For example, glaze one piece blue, Always turn out more pieces than required to complete a set.
another yellow, the next green, and so on. It is usually Making additional pieces will ensure at least some will come
most productive to choose one type of form and work through the pottery-making process without defects. It will also
out the glazing techniques either through repetition or allow for choosing the best pieces to form the set. The extra
slight variations. time and effort required to produce the work is nothing com-
pared with the disappointment of not being able to assemble
6 Stack pots in a set to best use kiln space. Because all a complete set.
of the pieces in the set will be the same, or at least
have some common design elements, stacking the
pots in a bisque or a glaze kiln allows the wares to fit
in limited kiln space more efficiently. In the bisque
kiln, save space by placing nesting bowls within each
A set should feature pieces that are relatively similar in theme, such as glaze color, size, or form.
306. The
152 Potter’s
the potter Studio Clay
’ s complete and
studio Glaze Handbook
handbook
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SourceS of InSpIratIon The Potter’s Studio Handbook is a solid intro-
Discovering a personal style is part of the intel- duction to the ceramic process from start to fin-
lectual journey of an artist. It is a journey of ish. There are hundreds of books in print that
discovery and constant peeling away of visual cover specific areas of each part of the process.
layers. Sometimes there are so many choices that If there is an area that interests you, read about
it can be daunting, but each individual has pref- it at greater length to further inform yourself.
erences. We are all attracted to different visual The Internet is an incredible resource, as are the
cues. Keeping an inspiration journal can be many ceramic periodicals. The more you learn
beneficial and illuminating as well. You needn’t about clay, the more fun you will have in the
sketch; you can keep a collage of designs that studio. Don’t be afraid to try different approaches
you like from catalogs and magazines. Or, photo- to forming clay, put your own ideas to work, and
graph objects or scenery that you find beautiful remember, it’s only clay, a plentiful and recy-
and consider how you can integrate these ele- clable resource.
ments into your work.
I often suggest going to a museum to look at
historic pieces or to a store that has tableware
to observe the scale and proportion of vessels.
Industrial designers are trained to design shapes
that function well and are pleasing to the eye.
Learn from good and bad designs. If you don’t
like something, ask yourself why not. Even if you
don’t like to draw, push yourself to do it. If you
draw the shapes you want to make, they will be
imprinted in your mind. You will have thought
about the shapes in a different way, which will
be helpful when you get to the studio.
concluSIon
I hope that this text inspires you to pursue clay
and the ceramic process. It is a vast universe
unto itself, one that can take a lifetime to master.
To take on any creative endeavor is to take on
the challenge of problem solving and of applying
knowledge, instinct, and imagination. It is a chal-
lenge through which one must endure a series of
trials and errors to gain an understanding of the
tools, the materials, and the body, developing
skills to bring forth ideas in any given medium.
C Wheel-thrown bottle wood-fired in an anagama by
Kristin Müller
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C
BookS on CeramiCS
resources
Yanagi, Soetsu. The Unknown
Craftsman: A Japanese Insight
the edward orton Jr.
Ceramic foundation
Here is a list of inspiring, helpful
into Beauty. Adapted by Bernard www.ortonceramic.com
books to begin with.
Leach. Tokyo, New York:
Kristin müller
Berenshon, Paulus. Finding One’s Kodansha International, 1972;
www.kristinmuller.net
Way with Clay: Pinched Pottery re-issued 1986.
and the Color of Clay. material Safety and data
For the most complete listings of
New York: Simon & Schuster, Sheets online
ceramic books, contact:
1972. www.msdsonline.com
the potter’s Shop
Burleson, Mark. The Ceramic nCeCa; the national
31 Thorpe Road
Glaze Handbook: Materials Council on education for the
Needham, MA 02494 USA
Techniques and Formulas. Ceramic arts
Phone: 781-449-7687
New York: Lark Books, 2003. www.nceca.net
Fax: 781-449-9098
Cardew, Michael. Pioneer Potter. E-mail: [email protected] pottery information
New York: St. Martin’s Press, http://thepottersshop.blogspot.com www.robertcomptonpottery.com
1976. Virtual Ceramic library
Cooper, Emmanuel. A History of
inTerneT reSourCeS www.ikts.fhg.de/vl/VL.artistic.
World Pottery. 2nd rev. ed. New the american Ceramic ceramics.html
York: Larouse, 1981; and 3rd ed., Society Wood fire Website
Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton, www.ceramics.org www.sidestoke.com
1988.
american Craft Council Worldwide Ceramics pottery
Leach, Bernard. A Potter’s Book. www.craftcouncil.org directory
New York, London: Transatlantic www.clayzee.com
Ceramic material information
Arts, Faber & Faber, 1946: 18th
www.ceramic-materials.com
ed., 1965 CeramiC SupplierS
Ceramic Sculpture
Peterson, Susan. The Craft and Art alpine Kilns
www.ceramicsculpture.com
of Clay. www.alpinekilns.com
New Jersey: Prentice Hall: Simon the Ceramics Web
Kilns
& Schuster, 1992. http://ceramics.sdsu.edu
american art Clay Co inc.
Rhodes, Daniel. Pottery Form. Clay art
www.buyamaco.com
Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton, www.potters.org
Ceramic supplier
1976. the Craft emergency relief
axner pottery Supply
Rhodes, Daniel. Clay and organization
www.axner.com
Glazes for the Potter. Radnor, www.craftemergency.org
Pennsylvania: Chilton. Critical Ceramics
www.criticalceramics.org
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Bailey Ceramic Supplies & Mud Tools PERIODICALS

Bailey Pottery Equipment www.mudtools.com
American Ceramics
Corporation Rubber ribs and tools
9 East 45th Street
www.BaileyPottery.com
North Star Equipment New York, NY 10017 USA
Ceramic equipment and supplies
www.northstarequipment.com
Ceramics: Art & Perception
Bennett Pottery Supply Slab rollers, extruders and dies,
35 William Street, Paddington
800-432-0074 shelving, and more
Sydney, NSW 2021, Australia
www.BennettPottery.com
Olympic Kilns www.ceramicart.com.au
Kilns, wheels, and other equipment
www.greatkilns.com
Ceramics Monthly
BigCeramicStore Electric and gas kilns
P.O. Box 6102
www.bigceramicstore.com
Paragon Westerville, OH 43086-6102 USA
Online ceramic supplier
www.paragonweb.com www.ceramicsmonthly.org
Bluebird Electric kilns
Ceramic Review
www.bluebird-mfg.com
Peter Pugger Products 21 Carnaby Street
Clay-mixers and pug mills
www.peterpugger.com London WIV IPH UK
Bracker’s Good Earth Clay-mixers and pug mills www.ceramicreview.com
Clays, Inc.
Runyan Pottery Ceramics Technical
www.brackers.com
www.runyanpottery.com 35 William Street, Paddington
Ceramic supplier
Clay manufacturer and ceramic Sydney, NSW 2021, Australia
Ceramic Supply supplier
Clay Times
www.7ceramic.com
Sheffield Pottery P.O. Box 365
Ceramic supplier
www.sheffield-pottery.com 15481 Second Street
Continental Clay Co. Clay manufacturer and ceramic Waterford, VA 20197 USA
www.continentalclay.com supplier www.claytimes.com
Ceramic supplier
Shimpo Ceramics Pottery Making Illustrated
Dolan Tools www.shimpoceramics.com The American Ceramic Society
www.dolantools.net Potter’s wheels and tools 735 Ceramic Place
Specialty trimming tools Westerville, OH 43018 USA
Skutt Ceramic Products
Geil Kilns www.skutt.com www.potterymaking.org
www.kilns.com Electric kilns Studio Potter
Gas kiln manufacturer P.O. Box 65
Standard Ceramic Supply
L&L Kilns Co. Goffstown, NH 03045 USA
www.hotkilns.com www.standardceramic.com The Log Book
Electric kilns Clay manufacturer and ceramic P.O. Box 612 Scariff
supplier Co. Clare, Republic of Ireland
Laguna Clay Co.
www.lagunaclay.com Tucker’s Pottery Supplies, Inc. www.thelogbook.net
Clay manufacturer and ceramic www.tuckerspottery.com
supplier Ceramic supplier
185
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C G L O S S A RY
Alumina: Part of the clay molecule Carving: Removing or cutting of clay disproportionate expansion and con-
and used as the fitter or stabilizer in a from the surface of a piece, usually traction between clay body and glaze
glaze formula; highly refractory and done in the leather-hard state. formula.
controls the viscosity of a glaze. One of Centering: The action of pushing a Crawling: Glaze that peels away from
the three components of a glaze. mound of clay into center while it the clay surface during the firing; can
Anagama: A tube-like kiln that is rotates on the wheel. be caused by too thick a layer of glaze,
fueled by wood and usually slopes up China clay (or kaolin): High refrac- or firing too soon after glazing (the
toward the chimney. tory primary clay that is used in glazes steam pushes the glaze out of its path).
Anthropomorphic: The attribution as a fitter to help glaze adhere to the Sometimes a raw material in the glaze
of human form or characteristics to pot. A source of alumina in glazes. can cause crawling.
non-human objects. Chuck: A clay cylinder used for trim- Dampware room (or box): Place
Ball mill: A device for finely grinding ming a pot on the wheel. They are used to store uncompleted projects; keeps
ceramic pigments or glaze; a ceramic jar to support pots upside-down and cen- pieces damp and workable.
containing ceramic balls that rotate on tered. De-airing: The process of removing
driven rollers. Clay: Finely grained igneous rock air from plastic clay by using a machine
Batch formula: Glaze ingredients which, when pulverized, becomes plas- such as a pug mill or wedging clay by
stated in weighable amounts. tic when wet, leather hard when dry, hand.
Bisque (or biscuit): Unglazed clay and upon firing is converted to a per- De-flocculant: A chemical such as
that has been fired once at a low tem- manent rock-like mass. sodium silicate or Epsom salts added to
perature to about 1800°F (982°C). Clay body: A combination of primary a liquid glaze to help suspend particles.
Bisque firing: First firing of clay to and secondary clays especially com- Dipping: Technique for covering the
remove chemically combined water and bined for certain properties of plasticity, surface of a piece by quickly submerg-
carbonaceous materials. firing temperatures, texture, color, and ing it in glaze, slip, or engobe.
density. Dry foot: The bottom and 1⁄4 inch (2.5
Bone dry: Clay that is completely dry
and is no longer plastic; greenware that Coil: Rope-like clay used to build walls mm) up the sides of a piece kept free
is ready to be fired. of clay. from glaze so the piece will not adhere
Colorant: A metal oxide or carbonate to the kiln shelf when fired.
Blisters: Refers to bubbles in the glaze
that are a result of firing that is too fast used to give color to a glaze. Some col- Earthenware: Low-fired, porous clay
or cool. orants can affect the melting point, tex- that contains organic materials.
ture, and translucency of a glaze. They Engobe: Colored liquid clay with a
Bloating: Refers to clay bodies when are used in small percentages, alone or
they are over-fired and begin to become little added flux, which is applied to
in combination with other colorants. unfired or bisque ware, most often
misshapen. Stains are synthetic colorants manufac- under a transparent glaze.
Burnishing: The polishing of leather- tured for the ceramic industry.
hard clay with a smooth tool or stone. Epsom salts: Magnesium sulfate used
Cones: Represent specific tempera- to as a de-flocculant in a glaze. This helps
Also refers to polishing of applied ter- tures of pyrometric cones that measure
rasigillata. Typically fired below 2000°F suspend all of the particles in the water.
heat work in a kiln.
(1093°C) to retain its sheen. Eutectic point: The point at which
Crackled glaze: The surface of a a combination of ceramic materials
Carbonate: A less intense concentra- glaze that has cracked under the surface
tion of a metal colorant (oxide is a lowers the melting point of any or all
tension of the clay; usually caused by materials.
stronger form).


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Extruder: A tool that produces a par- Glaze fit: The harmony of glaze and Mold: A form made of plaster in which
ticular shape by forcing clay through a ceramic body with regard to thermal to shape clay, either by pouring clay slip
specially designed opening or die. expansion and contraction. or pressing or draping plastic clay.
Feldspar: A mineral found in granite Glaze run/viscosity: The amount Neutral fire: A firing atmosphere that
that is also used in glazes as an alkaline by which glaze moves under heat and is not totally oxidized or reduced.
flux. gravity. Opacity: The depth that light is
Fettle: To trim edges and smooth the Grain size: Particle size. A term used allowed to penetrate a glaze; a glaze’s
surface of clay with a fettling knife. when referring to the fineness or opacity is inversely proportional to its
Fire clay: Secondary clay that is highly coarseness of materials. translucency.
refractory, that is, it can withstand very Greenware: Unfired clay objects. Opacifier: Ceramic raw material such
high temperatures. Grog: Aggregate added to clay to as Zircopax or tin oxide that makes
Firing: Heating of clay to a specific make it stronger and reduce shrinkage; glaze opaque (nontransparent).
temperature in order to chemically usually consists of previously fired, Outgassing: The process by which
change its composition. pulverized clay. gasses from chemicals and organic
Flange: (Also gallery) A small shelf on Impressing: Pushing an object into materials are released from the clay dur-
the lip of a pot that allows the lid to rest plastic clay to leave a print or design for ing firing.
upon, or the long area of a lid that fits decoration. Oxide: Often used as a pure pigment
inside a pot. Incising: Engraving. in glaze a pure form of metal.
Flint: Powdered form of silica, which is Kiln: A structure made of ceramic insu- Oxidation firing: A firing where
the glass former in a glaze; one of the lation materials used to fire ceramic there is plenty of oxygen present to
three components of a glaze. wares. combine with the firing pots; the oppo-
Flux: Chemical, or combination of site of reduction atmosphere.
Kiln furniture: Shelves and posts
chemicals, used in glaze to help melt made of refractory clay. Peep hole: (Also spy hole) A hole in
silica, also used in clay bodies to pro- the wall of a kiln used to monitor the
mote density. Flux is one of the three Kiln wash: Used to coat kiln shelves firing. Usually covered with a piece of
basic glaze ingredients. to protect shelves from unfired glazes fire brick that can be removed to view
that may drip or run. the pyrometric cones.
Foot: Bottom or base of ceramic ware.
Kinesthetic cues: The perception or Pinching: A forming technique in
Frit: A mixture of previously fired glaze sensing of the motion, weight, or posi-
that is quickly cooled, pulverized, and which just the hands rhythmically
tion of the body as muscles, tendons, pinch the walls of clay to form a piece.
used to improve the glaze, stabilizing and joints move. Also called muscle
toxic ingredients. sense. Plasticity: Qualities of moist clay that
Fusion: Ceramic fusion, the melting of allows it to be easily manipulated and
Leather hard: The condition of still maintain its shape until fired.
different materials into a homogeneous unfired clay that is firm enough to hold
mass. its shape but still soft enough to be Porcelain: White firing clay that is vit-
Glaze: A layer of glass-like coating that worked easily. reous and translucent when fired to
is fused onto a ceramic surface by heat. high temperatures.
Majolica/maiolica: Brightly colored,
Glaze batch: A glaze recipe written ornate, tin-glazed earthenware that orig- Potter’s wheel: A tool designed to
as the molecular unity formula in parts inated in the Mediterranean region in rotate a base on which clay is thrown.
or weight. The basic recipe from which the thirteenth century. Can be electric powered or man
one can run glaze tests or one multi- powered.
Matte glaze: Dull or flat (non-glossy)
plies the materials to make a large glaze surface. Porosity: The ability of fired clay body
amount of glaze. to absorb water by capillary action.
Maturing range: When a clay
Glaze fire: Firing cycle where glaze body reaches its correct strength and Press-mold: Forming pots by press-
melts on to the vessel and the clay compactness through vitrification, ing plastic clay into molds.
reaches maturity. which comes from exposure to high Primary clay: Found at original site
temperature. of decomposing rock.
187
311
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Pug mill: A machine with revolving form; one of the three components This is converted to a glaze batch recipe
blades for mixing and compressing of glaze. that lists ingredients in parts by weight.
plastic clay. Silicosis: The sealing of lung capillar- Vitrification: Furthest stage to
Pyrometer: A calibrated instrument ies by lung tissue, which surround which a clay body can be taken without
that reads the temperature during a fir- inhaled silica particles. deformation.
ing. It’s connected to a thermocouple, a Sinter: The act of clay particles begin- Wax resist: A commercial, soluble
probe inside the kiln. ning to fuse and harden during firing to wax used to dry a piece’s foot or deco-
Pyrometric cones: Pyramid-shaped transform the raw clay into bisque ware. rate a surface so that glaze will not
clay structures calculated to melt at Slake: To break down dry clay or adhere to it.
specific temperature. Cones are the ceramic powders in water. Wedging: A hand-work process of
most accurate way to gauge the heat preparing plastic clay that involves
absorption/temperature inside a kiln. Slip/slurry: A homogenous mixture of
clay and water that is loose and thick, mixing and compressing the clay to
Quartz inversion: At around 1100°F used for joining plastic clays and also remove air.
(590°C), the silica/quartz in clay change for slip casting forms in molds. Witness cones: Pyrometric cones
form from alpha crystal to beta crystal placed inside the kiln and monitored
and then back to alpha crystal. It is crit- Soak: In ceramics, holding tempera-
ture in a kiln for a period of time. through the peephole in the kiln to
ical that clay fire slowly through this gauge heat work in the kiln. Usually
process to prevent damage to work. Spiral wedging: Kneading clay with a there are three cones in a cone plaque:
Raku: A fast firing technique in which pivotal motion to remove air and create one under the temperature, one at the
pieces are removed at around 1800°F a homogenous mass of clay. desired temperature, and one as a guard
(980°C) and quickly reduced in com- Stains: Commercially made ceramic cone to indicate whether the kiln has
bustible materials and cooled. colorants that can be used in place of, over-fired. Witness cones are placed in
Originated in Japan but was or in combination with, coloring the top, middle, and bottom to calibrate
Americanized by Paul Soldner in the oxides. They provide potters with an the temperatures in the kiln and with
1960s. expanded color palette. the pyrometer or kiln sitter. The potter
Reduction: The action of taking away Stoneware: A hard, strong, and vitri- can monitor witness cones to be sure
oxygen from metal oxides. This is fied ware, usually fired above 2100°F that the automatic shut-off on a kiln is
achieved by controlling the atmosphere (1150°C) between cone 6 and cone 11. working properly.
of the kiln during the firing process, Terra-cotta: Low-fire iron-colored
resulting in altered coloration of metal earthenware clay.
oxides. This is the opposite of oxidation
firing. In a fuel-fired kiln, the combus- Terra sigillata: Low-fired fine clay
tion is incomplete resulting in color slip applied to clay, burnished, and low
changes in the ceramic ware. fired to retain a sheen.
Refractory: Resistant to high temper- Thermal shock: Stress created within

ature. a ceramic object by temperature change.
Secondary clay: Clay that is not Throwing: The process of making

at the original site of decomposing pots on a rotating wheel with the
rock and has moved, picking up hands, using water for lubrication.
contaminants. Underglaze: Ceramic colors usually
Shrinkage: Contraction of clay and applied to bisque ware and covered with
glaze during the drying and firing a transparent glaze.
process. Unity molecular formula: States
Silica: Glass-forming component of the specific number of molecules of a
clay and glaze. Flint is the powdered given ceramic material in a glaze recipe.


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abrasion resistance, 160
Index
abrasion-resistance test, 173
belly, 131
bentonites, 68, 70–71, 74, 141
chrome oxide, 66, 67, 227
clay, 40–93
absorbency, 81 bisque firing, 14, 22, 48, 194–198, 205, ball clays, 67–70
absorption, 65 207–208 bentonites, 68, 70–71, 74, 141
correcting problems, 83 bisque temperature, 47 buying in bulk, 94
interpreting, 85 blistering. See glaze blistering challenges, 98
percentages, 88 blue slip trailing, 228 color, changing, 225
testing, 80–85 bottles, 247–248 dehydrating wet clay, 101
acid exposure test, 172–173 bowl forms, 256–263 dynamic nature of, 54
acidic conditions, 155, 158 boxwood modeling tools, 34 earthenware clay, 42, 70
Additive A, 75 Branfman, Steven, 90, 91, 283 fireclay, 68, 70–71
air bubbles, 95, 132 Buncamper, Richard, 229 handling characteristics, 226
air quality, 22 burnishing, 136 imperfections, 88–93
alkali conditions, 155, 158 business plan, 297–298 joining, 115
alkali exposure test, 172 kaolin, 40, 43, 70–71
alkaline-earth oxides, 158 calcium, 75 mining, 52–53, 76–77
alumina, 139, 225 calipers, 36 mixing own, 55, 58–61
ambiance, 23 Callas, Pete, 13, 111 origin of, 52–53
ambient lighting, 21 canvas cloth, 34 plasticity, 44–45, 67, 74–75
American Raku firing, 138 carbonates, 166, 226 premixed, 55, 61–65
American Society for Testing and casserole with lid and handles, 271–274 primary, 40, 42, 52
Materials Test, 82 casting slip formulas, 69–70 qualities of, 14
ASTM thermal shock test, 174 centrifugal force, 118–119 raw and fired color differentiation, 90
centripetal force, 121 recycling, 38, 58, 99–101
ball clays, 67–70 ceramics business, 296–307 rehydrating dry clay, 101
in casting slips, 69–70 business planning, 297–298 secondary, 40, 42, 52
coarse, 68 income planning, 298 shrinkage, 47, 65, 84, 86–87, 98
fine, 68 marketing, 301–303 stamping, 106
in glaze, 69 pricing, 298–299 states of, 44–47
for handbuilding and sculpture, production time planning, 298 stoneware clay, 43, 68, 70–71
68–69 purchases planning, 298–299 storage, 20, 59, 60, 94
plasticity, 74 retail studios, 299 transformation of, through fire,
quantity, 69 sets, 304–306 47–49
for throwing, 69 ceramics suppliers, 64–65 types of, 42–43, 67–71
bamboo skewers, 35, 36 ceramic temperatures. See temperatures underfiring, 43
banding wheel, 34 chalcopyrite, 71 uses of, 14
base, making, for coil building, chamois cloth, 36 versatility of, 14
113–114
cheese cutter, 37 See also clay bodies; clay techniques
base glazes, 154
China clay, 40 clay bodies, 55–57
bat pins, 37
chip and dip dish, 269–270 characteristics, 72–73
bats, 29, 37
Christy Minerals, 76 components, 56, 67–72
batter bowl with handle, 252–253
313
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defined, 66 consistency, managing clay’s, 95 recommendations for, 33
fluctuations in, 54 constant curve, 258, 259 safety considerations, 223
fluxes, 71, 218 contaminants, 57, 71 shelves and posts, 204, 205
formulas, 56–57, 65–87, 225, 284– in fireclays, 70 specking effect, 225–226
295 in grog, 89 unloading, 214–215
functions, 73 limestone, 92–93 electric shock, 100
mid-range, 43 convection, 217, 218 engobes, 227
screening, 57, 57 Copensky, Karen, 137 E.P.K. (Edgar Plastic Kaolin), 168
shrinkage, 47 copper, 71 Epsom salts, 75, 141
temperature chart, 51 cracking, 189 equipment
testing, 78–87 See also glaze cracks; S cracks essential, 30–34
vitreous qualities, 167 craft shows, 302 mixing, 59–60
clay formulas, 56–57, 65–87, 225, crazing. See glaze crazing placement of, 27–29
284–295
creative marketing, 302 pug mill, 38, 39, 60, 101
clay mixer, 60
Crespi, Doc, 45 See also kilns; tools
clay slips, 227
erubescite, 71
clay suppliers, 43–44, 64–65
decorative techniques eutectics, 218, 219
clay techniques, 94–101
American Raku firing, 138 extruded coils, 115
coil building, 111–115
high-fire glazes, 138–139 extruder, 38
cone shape, 190–191
low-fire glazes, 136–138
hand building, 102–115
dehydration, of wet clay, 101 faceted utensil holder, 244–246
managing clay consistency, 95
digital controllers, 33–34, 201, 211–212 fans, 98–99
pinch pots, 102–105
discoloration, 89, 172 fast firing, 178
reclaiming and recycling clay,
100–101 double pony roller, 34 feldspars, 71, 160
shrinkage and drying, 98–99 down-firing, 177 fettling knife, 34
slab construction, 106–110 draw rings, 49 fillers, 72
wedging, 61, 95–97, 96–97 drying, 98–100 filter press, 60
wheel throwing, 116–133 dry press, 73 fine ball clays, 68
clay tools. See tools dust, 47 Fineman, Jim, 54, 287
cleaning up, 99–100 fireclay, 68, 70–71
clean-up area, 20 earthenware clay, 42, 70 fire safety, 23–24
coarse ball clays, 68 electricity, 20 firing
cobalt oxide, 66, 67, 162, 163, 166, 227 electric kilns, 32–33, 199, 222 bisque, 48, 194–198, 205, 207–208
coil building, 111–115 bisque firing, 205, 207–208 cone plaques, 212
color, 47, 73 choosing and preparing, 202, 204 glaze, 14, 22, 48, 49, 156, 196–197,
cleaning, 208 210–211
colorant, 139
cone plaques, 212 heat work, 220–221
color differentiation, 90
cooling, 213 loading glaze ware, 208–210
coloring oxides, 66, 79, 160, 163, 166,
218, 225–226 glaze firing, 210–211 loading greenware, 206
combustion gases, 32 kiln sitter, 211–212 melting characteristics, 218
commercial glazes, 137–138, 140, 141 kiln wash, applying, 204–205 mid-range, 139
commercial stains, 137 loading glaze ware, 208–210 oxidation, 196
compact disc, 35, 36 loading greenware, 206, 207 pit, 48
concrete flooring, 24 mid-range firing and, 139 pyrometric cones, 200–201, 212
conduction, 217, 218 placement of, 27–28 raku, 138, 198–199, 226
cone plaques, 200, 201, 212 preliminary setup, 204 reduction, 196–197
coning technique, 190–192 pyrometric cones, 201, 212 single, 48
consignment sales, 302 temperatures, 47–51
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test, 78–87 chemistry, 154–160 dipping, 148, 149
too fast, 221 choosing, 134–139 pouring, 148
types of, 194–199 clay bodies and, 167 spraying, 150
firing cycles, 164–165 clay content, adjusting, 168 tools for, 152
flame ware, 73 commercial, 28, 137–138, 140, 141 gravity, 119–120
flint, 72 components, 139–140 greenware, 46–47, 206-7
Flint 27, 162 consistency, 143, 146 grog, contaminated, 89
flooring, 24 firing conditions, 156 ground fault circuit interrupters
fluxes, 71, 73, 139, 158, 218 firing cycle and, 164–165 (GFCIs), 23
food scale, 37 for foods and beverages, 158–160
foot, 131 functions, 154 hairdryers, 99
foreign objects, 88, 89 high-fire, 138–139 hammer mill process, 77
freeze/thaw conditions, 73, 79 ingredients, measuring, 143 hand building, 102–115
frits, 160 kiln size and atmosphere and, 164 ball clays for, 68–69
fuel-burning kilns, 30, 32 liner, 154, 156, 158, 160 coil building, 111–115
functional pottery, 73 low-fire, 136–138 hump molds, 111
functional sets, 304–306 matte, 168, 169 pinch pots, 102–105
furniture, 24–25 metallic coloring oxides, 66, 79, 160, slab construction, 106–110
163, 166, 218, 225–226 slump molds, 110–111
gas-burning kilns, 27–28, 198, 200, mid-range, 139 stamping clay, 106
222, 223 mixing, 139–146, 170 tools for, 34–35
Gerstley borate 10, 162 opaque, 167, 169 hand-building postures, 25–26
Giampietro, Perpetua, 202 preparing ware, 146–147 hand-building projects, 232–241
glass formation, 227 raku, 138 coiled and paddled jar, 239–241
glaze blistering, 176–177 safety precautions, 142 slab mug, 108–109
clay body conditions that cause, 179 semi-opaque, 167, 168, 169 slab plates, 234–235
glaze conditions that cause, 180–181 solubility of, 155 whimsical teapot, 236–238
kiln-firing conditions that cause, special effects, 226–229 hand towels, 35
177–178 stability of, 155 Harley, John, 193
questions about, 181 storage, 20, 28 heat lamps, 99
glaze calculation software, 175 substitutions, 165 Highet, Iain, 10–11, 198, 206
glaze chemistry, 49 supplies for, 142–143 high-fire glazes, 138–139
glaze cracks, 189 in suspension, 141 hobby knife, 34, 35
glaze crazing, 155, 156, 182–185 testing, 157, 161, 163, 165, 169–174 hump molds, 111
glaze drips, 214 thickness, 151, 218 Huntley, Joel, 292
glaze firing, 14, 22, 48, 49, 156, 196– tips for, 153
197, 210–211
tools for, 152 imperfections, troubleshooting, 88–93
glaze flashing, 227
touch-up techniques, 151 income planning, 298
glaze formulas, 69, 140–141, 284–295
transparent, 167, 168, 169 inspiration sources, 307
glaze fuming, 229
troubleshooting, 176–190 Internet sales, 303
glaze journal, 146, 212–213
underglazes, 137 iron, 70
glazes
water and soluble materials in, 166 iron oxide, 66, 225, 226
abrasion resistance, 160
wax resist, 147
acid/alkaline resistance, 158
See also glazing techniques jelly roll lamination, 89, 90
adjusting, 161–168
glaze shivering, 175, 186–187 jigger/jolleying, 73
applying, 147–153, 219
glaze ware, loading, 208–210 junior pyrometric cones, 201, 211
base, 154
glazing techniques, 14
calculation, 140–141
brushing, 151
index 315
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kaolin, 40, 43, 70–71 leather-hard state, 45–46 Odate, Toshio, 230
kick wheels, 116 lighting, 20–21, 300 opaque glaze, 167, 169
kiln atmosphere, 79, 164, 218 lime, 70 organic matter, 74
kiln closet, 28 lime pop, 92–93 Orton, Edward, Jr., 200
kiln logs, 212 liner glazes, 154, 156, 158, 160 overfiring, 177, 221
kiln posts, 204, 205 linoleum flooring, 24 oxidation, 30, 79, 164
kilns, 30–33, 194–229 lip/rim, 131 oxidation firing, 196
bisque firing, 194–198, 205, 207–208 lithium feldspars, 71 oxygen, 196–197
cleaning, 208 low-fire clay, 42
conduction, 217, 218 low-fire glazes, 136–138 paint brush, 34, 35
convection, 217, 218 paper templates, 108
cooling, 213 majolica, 137 particle size, 163, 218
eutectics, 218, 219 manganese, 70 particulate masks, 142
fire safety, 23–24 manganese dioxide, 66, 225 Pearlman, Emily, 229
firing cycle, 164–165 marbling, 88, 89 Phillips, Douglass, 199
firing temperatures, 49–51 marketing, 301–303 pinch pot absorption test, 83
firing too fast, 221 matte glaze, 168, 169 pinch pots, 102–105
fuel-burning, 30, 32 medium leather-hard clay, 46 pitchers, 249–251
gas-burning, 27–28, 198, 200, 222, melting characteristics, 218 pit firing, 48
223 mesh size, 71, 162, 163 plaster, 96
glaze firing, 196–197, 210–211 metal fork, 34 plaster molds, 111
heating, 218 metallic coloring oxides, 66, 79, 160, plaster slabs, 101
heat work, 220–221 163, 166, 218, 225–226 plastic flooring, 24
inside, 216–223 metallic fuming colors, 226 plasticity, 44–45, 67, 74–75
loading, 206–210 metallic lusters, 228 plastic sheets, 35, 99
particle size and, 218 metallic oxide/stain fuming, 226 plastic state, 44–45
placement of, 27–28 metallic oxide/stain washes, 226 plates and platters, 266–268
radiation, 217, 218 metallic salt fuming/metallic lusters, porcelain clay, 43, 73
raku, 198–199 226–227
porosity, 81
safety considerations, 223 Meyers, Ron, 137
posture, 25–26
salt, 198 Michaud, Joyce, 111
potash feldspars, 71
size, 32–33, 164, 202, 204, 222 mid-range firing, 139
potter’s cycle, 14
temperature controls, 33–34 mid-range stoneware clay bodies, 43
potter’s needle, 34
test, 73, 156 mining, of clay, 52–53, 76–77
potter’s wheel, 35–36
types of, 222 mixing equipment, 59–60
choosing, 116
unloading, 214–215 mold, 74–75
clockwise and counterclockwise
venting systems, 20, 22, 27, 33, 222 mugs rotation, 118
wood-burning, 197–198, 199, 223 slab construction of, 108–109 motorized, 116
See also electric kilns; firing wheel throwing, 254–255 placement of, 27
kiln shelves, 204, 205 Müller, Kristin, 116, 138, 198, 210, throwing on, 116–133
211, 232, 264
kiln sitter, 33, 201, 211–212 See also wheel throwing
Müller, Maggie East de, 136
kiln wash, 204–205 pottery
muscle memory, 120
King, Louise W., 102 intimacy of, 12–14
removing fused, 215
neck, 131
lace, 35 science of, 14–15
needle tool, 36
lamination patterns, 90 pottery forms, 120
Nepheline syenite 55, 162
Laundrette, 102, 103 powder, 44
neutral atmosphere, 164
Leach, Bernard, 198–199 premixed clay, 55, 61–65
newspaper, 35
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Press-Molded Bowl, 283 safety considerations, 23–24, 100, 142, soft leather-hard clay, 46
pricing, 298–299 171, 223 Soldner, Paul, 199
primary clay, 40, 42, 52 salt kilns, 198 special effects, 226–229
private clay formulas, 65 sample boards, 44 specking effect, 225–226
production time planning, 298 science, of pottery, 14–15 spiral wedging, 95, 96
propane, 222 scoring, 115 sponges, 34, 35, 36
pug mill, 38, 39, 60, 101 S cracks, 188–192 Square-Sided Thrown Raku Covered
purchases planning, 298–299 formation of, 190 Jar, 286
putty knife, 34 incorrect coning technique and, 192 stamping clay, 106
pyrometers, 49 preventing, 190–191 stamps, 34, 253
pyrometric cones, 49, 50, 165, 200– qualities of, 189 standard absorption test, 80, 81
201, 211, 212 shape of, 189 stiff leather-hard clay, 46
scrapers, 34 stock clay formulas, 56
quality control, 62 sculpture, 68–69, 73 stoneware clay, 43, 68, 70–71
quartz inversion, 48, 196 sculpture stand, 25 stools, 26
seating, 26 storage
radiation, 217, 218 secondary clay, 40, 42, 52 clay, 20, 59, 60, 94
raku, 48 Seger, Herman, 200 clay tools, 28–29
American Raku firing, 138 semi-opaque glaze, 167, 168, 169 raw materials, 23, 28, 29
firing, 226 serrated rib, 34 studio gallery, 302
kilns, 198–199 sets, 304–306 studios, 18–29
Square-Sided Thrown Raku Covered sgraffito tool, 34 ambiance, 23
Jar, 286 Sheffield Pottery clay pit, 40, 42 electricity, 20
Wheel-Thrown Raku-Fired Vase, 90, shelving, 20, 26–27, 204 flexible layout for, 29
91, 283
shivering. See glaze shivering flooring, 24
ram press, 73
shoulder, 131 floor plan, 21
rasp tool, 110
shrinkage, 47, 65, 84, 98 furniture, 24–25
raw materials
interpreting, 85 keeping clean, 99–100
availability of, 73
percentages, 88 lighting, 20–21
of clay bodies, 56
testing for, 84, 86–87 location, 22
particle size, 163
signature, adding, 253 physical requirements for, 18–27
processing, 162
silica, 47, 48, 70, 139, 158 planning, 20
storage, 23, 28, 29
single firing, 48 safety considerations, 23–24
substitutions, 75, 165
sink, 20 size, 18
reclaiming, 100–101
sintering, 48 storage, 28–29
recycling, 38, 58, 99–101
skills, honing your, 14–15 tool and equipment placement, 27–29
reduction, 30, 32
slab construction, 106–110 ventilation, 22
reduction atmosphere, 138, 164
Slab Construction Oval Platter, 54, 287 water source, 22–23
reduction firing, 196–197
slab plates, 234–235 workspace considerations, 18
rehydration, of dry clay, 101
slab rollers, 38, 39, 107 studio tables, 24–25
retail studios, 299
slip, 44, 227 suppliers, 43–44, 64–65
ribs, 34, 35, 36, 258, 267
slip casting, 73
roller, 35
slipware, 137 tables, 24–25
roller mill process, 77
slump molds, 110–111 talc, 71
rolling coils, 112
slurry, 23, 44 task lighting, 21, 300
rolling pin, 34, 35
soda feldspars, 71 teapot, 236–238, 275–279
soda/salt effects, 73 technical skills, 14
sodium, 75 temperature controls, 33–34
index 317
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temperatures troubleshooting, clay imperfections, finishing, 128, 132
C
clay body temperature chart, 51 88–93 opening clay, 122, 126
firing, 47–51 turntable, 34 pottery forms, 120
glazes and, 156, 157, 162 raising clay, 125, 127
heat work, 220 underfiring, 43 setup for, 244
kiln, 49–51 underglazes, 137 shaping clay, 128, 130
kiln atmosphere, 79 unity molecular formula, 140 skill development, 120
melting characteristics, 218 utility knife, 34 tips, 132, 133
pyrometric cones and, 50 UV rays, 50 tools for, 35–37, 120
terra sigillata, 136, 227, 229 trimming uneven lip, 128
testing vase, parts of, 131 troubleshooting, 122, 132–133
abrasion-resistance test, 173 vases, 247–248, 280–282 wheel, alignment of, 118
absorption, 80–85 ventilation, 22, 27, 33, 222 wheel, dynamics, 118–119
acid exposure test, 172–173 vessels, removing fused, 215 wheel setup, 118
alkali exposure test, 172 vitreous qualities, 167 Wheel-Thrown Altered Oval, 286
clay body formulas, 78–87 Wheel-Thrown Bottle, 193, 216, 288,
for freeze/thaw conditions, 79 ware boards, 27, 34–35 292
glazes, 157, 165, 169–174 ware carts, 27 Wheel-Thrown Bowl, 289, 290, 294
shrinkage, 84, 86–87 water, 22–23 Wheel-Thrown Covered Jar, 154, 173,
in glaze, 166 290, 291
thermal shock test, 174
plasticity and, 75 Wheel-Thrown Cup, 295
test kilns, 73, 156
source, 299 Wheel-Thrown Disk, 223, 288
test tiles
water bucket, 34 Wheel-Thrown Goblet, 81, 291
creating, 169
wax resist, 147 Wheel-Thrown/Hand-Built Sculptural
dipping, 170–171 Disk, 170, 287
textured cloth, 34 wedging, 61, 95–97
Wheel-Thrown Jar, 72, 295, 301
thermal shock test, 174 wedging table, 25, 96
Wheel-Thrown Oval Cylinder, 289
throwing stick, 35, 36 wet work area, 18, 20
Wheel-Thrown Raku-Fired Vase, 90,
Thrown Cylinder, 87, 285 wheel projects, 242–283 91, 283
Thrown Jar, 285 batter bowl with handle, 252–253 Wheel-Thrown Sculptural Rattle, 294
titanium oxide, 225 bottles and vases, 247–248 Wheel-Thrown Unglazed Bowl, 287
toggle wire clay cutter, 34 bowl forms, 256–263 wheel-working postures, 26
tools casserole with lid and handles, White, Tom, 87, 154, 289, 290
271–274
drying, 98–99 Whiting 8, 162
chip and dip dish, 269–270
for hand building, 34–35 wholesale opportunities, 303
faceted utensil holder, 244–246
placement of, 27–29 wire loop tools, 34, 36
mugs, 254–255
storage, 28–29 wood-burning kilns, 197–198, 199,
pitchers, 249–251 222, 223
time saving, 38–39
plates and platters, 266–268 wooden angle tool, 36
for wheel work, 35–37, 120
teapot with lid, spout, and handle, wooden paddle, 34, 35
transparent glaze, 167, 168, 169 275–279
wood flooring, 24
treadle wheels, 116 two-part vase, 280–282
workspace considerations, 18
trimming wheel throwing, 116–133
multiple forms, 260–263 ball clays for, 69
ZAM Gloss Blue, 161, 162, 165
plates, 268 basic techniques, 120–131
principles of, 258, 260 centering clay, 120–125
trimmings, reprocessing, 58 choosing wheel, 116
trimming tools, 36 collaring clay, 125, 128, 129
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C About
Kristin Müller is a ceramic artist who has
been working in clay since 1987. Her specialty is
the Authors
Jeff Zamek walked into a studio thirty six
years ago and started his career as a potter. After
in wood-fired ceramics, and she maintains a stu- completing a degree in business from Monmouth
dio with an Anagama hybrid kiln in Dingmans University in New Jersey he acquired BFA/MFA
Ferry, Pennsylvania. She uses forming and firing degrees in ceramics from Alfred University in
techniques of Japanese origin to make contempo- New York. While at Alfred he developed the
rary work based on a traditional aesthetic. soda-firing system at the college and went on
Kristin was born in Panama and raised in to teach at Simon’s Rock College and Keane
Argentina, Chile, and the United States. She College. In 1980 he started Ceramics Consulting
enjoys learning, nature, reading, photography, Services in Southampton, Massachusetts, through
travel, and meeting people of diverse cul- which he offers technical advice on clays, glazes,
tures. She loves spending time with her two kilns, raw materials, ceramic toxicology, and
daughters, working in her peaceful studio in product development for individuals, companies,
Pennsylvania and cooking delicious meals for and the greater industry. His clay body formulas
her friends and family. are presently used in the pottery industry.
Kristin is the education director for To view Jeff’s artwork, visit his website at
Brookfield Craft Center and schedules more www.jeffzamek.com.
than 400 classes a year in all fine craft disci-
plines, and she also teaches ceramics in the
vintage barn studio.
To view Kristin’s artwork, visit her website at
www.kristinmuller.net.
319
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18 (Text) (RAY) #175 Dtp:204 Page:319
© 2011 by Quarry Books
First published in the United States of America in 2011 by

Quarry Books, a member of
Quayside Publishing Group
100 Cummings Center
Suite 406-L
Beverly, Massachusetts 01915-6101
Telephone: (978) 282-9590
Fax: (978) 283-2742
www.quarrybooks.com
Visit www.Craftside.Typepad.com for a behind-the-scenes peek at our crafty world!
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the copyright
owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the artists concerned,
and no responsibility is accepted by the producer, publisher, or printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise,
arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure that credits accurately comply with
information supplied. We apologize for any inaccuracies that may have occurred and will resolve inaccurate or missing
information in a subsequent reprinting of the book.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN-13: 978-1-59253-746-4
Digital edition published in 2011

eISBN-13: 978-1-61058-160-8
Digital edition: 978-1-61058-160-8

Softcove edition: 978-1-59253-746-4
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available
Design: Dania Davies, Leslie Haimes & 4 Eyes Design

Cover Design: Quarry Books
Illustrations: Michael Wanke
Photography: Rob Cardillo & Randy O’Rourke
Special thanks to The Artisan Gallery of Northampton, Massachusetts, for location photography.
Printed in Singapore
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001-161_25395.indd 4 6/6/11 1:17:30 PM

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001-057_C41885.

qxd 7/27/07 11:20 AM Page 1

Job:07-97040 Title:RP-Potter’s Studio Handbook

Kristen Müller & Jeff Zamek

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Foreword by Brother Iain Highet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Testing Clay Body Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

studio preliminary clay techniques . . . . . . .

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Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 ceramic kilns and firing work . . . . 194

glaze chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 how to fire an electric kiln . . . . . . . 202

Dipping Test Tiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 a step-by-step

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going into the ceramics business . 296

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10 the potter ’ s complete studio handbook

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C Porcelain vase by Brother Iain Highet; iron-saturated glaze

10 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK

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My favorite cup was made by Pete Callas, a

C Wood-fired cup by Peter Callas

12 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK

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ways to render a technique,

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16 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK

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20 the potter ’ s complete studio handbook

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shelving sculpture stand

all three options available. For example, many

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STUDIO LOCATION important of which is your health. Ceramic mate-

20 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK

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22 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK

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inches (92 cm) tall. Its surface should be of an

It does not need to have a back rest, but it is a

24 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK

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large or tall, larger spacing between shelves or

28 the potter ’ s complete studio handbook

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C Ceramic raw materials in proper storage containers and

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C Working outdoors offers a change

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32 the potter ’ s complete studio handbook

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tools and equipment 33

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Small paint brush: This is useful for applying slip.

Assorted boxwood modeling tools: Used for

32 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK

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TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 33

book 001-161_25395.indd 35 Job:07-97040 Title:RP-Potter’s Studio Handbook

34 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK

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TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 35

TOOLS THAT EASE PRODUCTION S TUDIOTOOLS THAT

36 THE POTTER ’ S STUDIO HANDBOOK

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