A

LABORATORY REPORT

ON PHYSICO- CHEMICAL ANALYSES

BY

JOHN MONDAY MICHAEL

CHE/2016/047

GROUP D

SUBMITTED TO:

MR F.O. ADEDOKUN

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY

ILE-IFE

ON

16TH APRIL, 2019

IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR CHEMICAL

ENGINEERING STUDENTS WORKSHOP EXPERIENCE PROGRAMME

(CHE200)
 Department of chemical engineering

Obafemi Awolowo University

Ile-Ife, Osun State.

April 15th, 2019.

The SWEP coordinator,

MR F.O. ADEDOKUN,

Department of Chemical Engineering,

Faculty of Technology,

Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife, Osun State.

Dear Sir,

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

I hereby write to inform you that I have fully participated in the student workshop
Experience Programme, SWEP (CHE200) for every part two chemical engineering
students. I commenced the programme on 7th Febuary, 2019 and completed the
course on 28th Febuary, 2019. Experiments were carried out at various laboratories
of the department of chemical engineering O.A.U, Ile-Ife.

The report contains detailed experimental work and result of the experiment.
Thanks for the anticipated cooperation

Yours Faithfully,
 John Monday Michael

____________________

ABSTRACT

This report gives the summary of the student work experience programme which

took place for about 3 weeks at the department of chemical engineering O.A.U Ile-

Ife.

Courses learnt and summarized in this report includes basically the physico –

chemical properties of total classic engine oil SAE 40 which was tested for by the

following experiments which include density, pour point, viscosity, absorbance,

refractive index.

Production of liquid soap, bar soap, izal, familiarization and nomenclature of

laboratory apparatus took place.

Laboratories used for various experiments include petrochemical engineering,

analytical engineering, reaction engineering, pulp and paper engineering,

environmental engineering, bio-chemical engineering, process engineering,

simulation and control engineering, boiler room and unit operations laboratory.

Recommendations were also made on shortcomings experienced and

discrepancies on the parts on the experiment and laboratory works carried out.
TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENT PAGE

Letter of transmittal
Abstract
List of Tables
List of Figures
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY – EXPERIMENTAL WORKS I
SOAP PRODUCTION
3.1 Izal production
3.2 Liquid soap production
3.3 Bar soap production
EXPERIMENTAL WORKS II - CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINE OIL
3.4 Viscosity measurement
3.5 UV-Spectrophometry
I wavelength
Ii Absorbance
3.7 Density Measurement
CHAPTER 4
RESULT OF DISCUSSION
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
CHAPTER 6
REFERRENCES

LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF GROUP MEMBERS

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
LIQUID, BAR, AND IZAL SOAP PRODUCTION
There could be hundred different ways of explaining what a soap is and what can
be regarded as a soap; we can regard it as any cleaning agent, manufactured in
bars, granules, flakes, or liquid form, made from a mixture of mostly sodium or
potassium salts of various fatty acids of natural oils and fats.
It is an item of daily necessity as cleaning agent. There are few specialty soaps like
washing soaps, medicated soaps, specially flavored soaps, toilet soaps, baby soap
e.t.c. Population growth, especially households with children has a proportional
impact on the growth of the manufacturing sector of the industry. The soap
industry is vivacious, varied, creative , tricky and has the prospective to provide a
gratifying career. With increasing popularity there has been increase in potential
competitors but it still has the opportunity of further exploitation
ENGINE OIL
Engine oils are mixture consisting majorly of hydrocarbons and compounds
containing Sulphur, Nitrogen, oxygen and trace metals as minor constituents. Most
motor oils are made from a heavier, thicker petroleum hydrocarbon base stock
derived from crude oil, with additives to improve certain properties. The bulk of a
typical motor oil consists of hydrocarbons with between 18 and 34 carbon per
atoms molecule. The viscosity must be high enough that oil can flow around the
engine parts under all conditions. The pour point defined first this property of
motor oil, as defined by ASTM D97 as an index of the lowest temperature of its
utility. At a petroleum refinery, fractional distillation separates a motor oil fraction
from other crude oil fractions, removing the more volatile components and
therefore increasing the oil’s flash point (reducing its tendency to burn)
1.2 Aims and Objective
The Aims and objective of the study is:
 To produce cleaning agents derived from raw materials and determine the
combination of reactants that gives the best soap
 To investigate the properties of soap produced from PKO oil
 To carry out Physicho – chemical analysis of petrochemical oil such as the
pour point determination, refractive index, viscosity, Density, freezing point,
flashing point, surface tension and UV/visible spectrophotometry

1.3 DEFINITION OF EXPERIMENTAL WORKS.

DENSITY
VISCOSITY
POUR POINT
REFRACTIVE INDEX
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY ; ABSORBANCE AND WAVELENGHT

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

Blend of PKO oils is essentially good in the production of quality and cheap
multipurpose soaps that are firm to touch with high cleaning action and
formation of excellent lather in both hard and soft waters.
However the fundamental laws binding our theories on physico – chemical of
our sample oil like density, viscosity, pour point e.t.c were been accounted for
so as to the relationships between them.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Soap has been a product with over a 5000 years history. The production of soap
and izal is aimed at producing a cleansing agent which is capable of removing stains
or dirt in man and his environment so as to reduce the population size of
pathogenic micro organisms. Soaps are salts of fatty acids obtained by treating oils
and fast with strong alkaline solution. This bring about a chemical reaction called
saponification which is the mixture of alkali with fats to form crude soap. A mixture
of the strong alkali solution (caustic soda) and water poured into a bowl and
continuous stirring applies.
There is an ongoing demand for bar soap as a cleaning agent despite the rolls made
by modern detergents and soap powders (Barthelemy, 1883). Industrial
manufactured bar soaps first became available in the late eighteenth century. This
happened when advertising campaigns in Europe and the United States, promoted
popular awareness of the relationship beteween cleaniness and health. Until
recently, soaps and izal remained a primitive art, its manufacture being essentially
the treatment of fat with alkali, a chemical process which is the same whether the
production is done in a backyard or in a factory.
September 6, 1866 American john Ellis founded the continuous oil refining
company. While studying the possible healing powers of crude oil, Dr. Ellis was
disappointed to find no real medicinal value, but was intrigued by its potentioal
lubricating properties. He eventually abandoned the medical practice to devote his
time to the development of an all-petroleum, high viscosity lubricant steam
emgines. Then using ineffient combinations of petroleum and animal and vegetable
fats. He made his breakthrough when he developed an oil that worked effectively
in high temperatures, this meant no more gummed valves, corrode cylinders or
leaking seals
Motor oil is a lubricant used in internal combustion engines which power cars,
motorcylces, lawnmowers, engine - generators and many other machines. The
society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has established a numerical code system for
grading motor oils according to their viscosity characteristics. The original viscosity
grades were all mono – grades e.g typical engine oil was a SAE30. This is because
as all oils thin when heated, so to get the right film thickness at operating
temperatures oil manufacturers needed to start with a thick oil.
This meant that in cold weather it would be difficult to start the engine as the oil
was too thick to crank. However, oil additive technology was introduced that
allowed oils to thin more slowly (i.e. to retain a higher viscosity index); this allowed
selection of a thinner oil to start with, e.g. "SAE 15W-30", a product that acts like
an SAE 15 at cold temperatures (15W for winter) and like an SAE 30 at 100°C.

Therefore, there is one set which measures cold temperature performance (0W,
5W, 10W, 15W and 20W). The second set of measurements is for high temperature
performance (8, 12, 16, 20, 30, 40, 50). The document SAE J300 defines the
viscometrics related to these grades.
Kinematic viscosity is graded by measuring the time it takes for a standard amount
of oil to flow through a standard orifice at standard temperatures. The longer it
takes, the higher the viscosity and thus the higher the SAE code. Larger numbers
are thicker.
A refractometer is a scientific machine that measures the amount that light
is bent (or refracted) when it moves from the air into a sample. Refractometers are
typically used to determine the refractive index of a liquid sample.

Types of Refractometers
There are three main types of refractometers. One type is a portable hand-held
machine, used to make measurements in the field. There are two types of bench
refractometers that are typically used in laboratory or industrial settings. Abbe
refractometers, named for the instrument's inventor, are optical-mechanical
machines based on Abbe's original design. Automatic digital refractometers are
electronic machines that incorporate the use of modern software into their
measurements.

Refractive Index
Refractive index, or index of refraction, is the measurement of the speed of light
through a substance. The refractive index (n) is calculated by dividing the speed of
light in a vacuum by the speed of light in a substance. The resulting value is a unit-
less number between 1.3000 and 1.7000. The value is typically reported to the ten-
thousandths place.
Sample Analysis
A refractometer is most often used to determine the characteristics of a liquid
sample. By calculating the refractive index, a researcher may be able to identify a
liquid sample, assess the sample's purity, and determine the concentration of
solute (that is, dissolved materials) in a liquid solution. A secondary scale used in
refractometry is the Brix scale--this scale relates the concentration of sucrose in
water at a certain temperature to the refractive index of the solution.
The values of sugar contents determined in soft drinks using this technique is within
the range of 8.62-12.30% which is also quite similar with previously reported by
other techniques such as densitometer and refractometer, Spectrophotometeric,
and HPLC. The assessment of the sugar level of the ten soft drinks samples studied
using densitometer and refractometer is within the range of 7-14% . Also the sugar
contents of soft drinks available in Nigeria studied by spectrophotometer are in the
range of 9.91-13.55% . The sugar contents of the three soft drinks (Pepsi, Coca-cola
and Sprite) studied using powerful instruments HPLC are 11.40, 11.10 and 8.20
respectively. From the study results the new technique analyzed the level of sugar
within the acceptable limit of regulatory standard. Moreover, the techniques are
also simple, fast and inexpensive.
In Food Industry, A variety of relatively low-cost handheld or digital refractometers
(a large selection on online auction websites!) find their niche here catering to food
applications such as fats, waxes, and sugar (Brix) — for example, in fermentation,
salinity, coffee, and fruit juices. Such instruments do not measure concentration
directly, although they are often calibrated in such a manner. The simple biprism,
Abbe-like, construction provides a dark field and light field in the viewfinder via the
critical ray concept (see “Abbe refractometer type” section). A simple solution such
as sugar in water provides an increase in RI for increasing sugar concentration, and
thus, an instrument can be directly calibrated in % sugar equivalent (1% sugar =
1°Brix). It is useful to note that the actual solution RI can be obtained by using a
lookup chart, such as that found in the CRC Handbook, indicating the RI for various
sugar concentrations, so that these relatively cheap systems do allow access to the
RI. Slightly more complicated systems with temperature control or a full Abbe
system allow waxes and fats to be measured in liquid form above their melting
point. Note that other dissolved solids will also add to the RI increment and care
should be taken in interpretation. Sugar in urine and coffee concentration (for the
optimum, 18–22% dissolved solids) are two other application areas. It is easy to
digitize such instruments. These can provide more decimal places and a digital
readout but suffer from the need to have batteries or an electrical supply. The
simplest systems obviously use ambient light (Figs. 1 and 2).
Uses of refractometer
Refractometers are commonly used for quality control purposes in industrial
settings, particularly in the food and beverage industries. Refractometers are also
used by gemologists to identify gemstones. In addition, home-brewers may use a
refractometer to determine the specific gravity of their beer, and home aquarium
hobbyists may use a refractometer to determine the salinity and/or specific gravity
of the water in their fish tanks.
Density
A material's density is defined as its mass per unit volume. Put another way, density
is the ratio between mass and volume or mass per unit volume. It is a measure of
how much stuff an object has in a unit volume (cubic meter or cubic centimeter).
Density is essentially a measurement of how tightly matter is crammed together.
The principle of density was discovered by the Greek scientist Archimedes, but it is
easy to calculate if you know the formula and understand its related units.
Density Formula
To calculate the density (usually represented by the Greek letter "ρ") of an object,
take the mass (m) and divide by the volume (v):
ρ=m/v
The SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3). It is also frequently
represented in the cgs unit of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).
Using Density
One of the most common uses of density is in how different materials interact
when mixed together. Wood floats in water because it has a lower density, while
an anchor sinks because the metal has a higher density. Helium balloons float
because the density of the helium is lower than the density of the air.
When your automotive service station tests various liquids, like transmission fluid,
it will pour some of the fluid into a hydrometer. The hydrometer has several
calibrated objects, some of which float in the liquid. By observing which of the
objects float, the service station employees can determine the density of the liquid.
In the case of the transmission fluid, this test reveals whether service station
employees need to replace it immediately, or whether the fluid still has some life
in it.
Uv spectrophotometry

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY - EXPERIMENTAL WORKS
DISINFECTANT AND SOAP PRODUCTION
3.1 IZAL PRODUCTION
S/N CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTION QUANTITY
1 Texapon This is a thick pale substance that acts as
boosting agent in the production process
¼ litres
2 Phenol This is a white aromatic crystalline solid that is
volatile(also sold in liquid form). It is also
¼ litres
called carbolic acid. It kills germs. It gently
acidic so it should be properly handled with
caution because it burns
3 Pine oil This is an important oil that is produced from
steam distillation of twigs, needles, and cones
¼ litres
from different species of pine. It acts as a
cleaning agent in the germicide.
4 Izal booster Just as the name implies, it boosts the
quantity of the germicide produced
¼ litres
5 Izal This is the active agent in the germicide. It is a
concentrate very poisonous acidic compound and must be
¼
litres
handled with care. It kills germs on contact
6. Whitener This is what gives the germicide the
characteristic white colour
¼
litres
7. Carboxylic This is a natural occurring acid. Example of
acid which are acetic acid(as vinegar), insect’s 1 litre
stings (formic acid), amino acids etc. it also
forms part of the disinfecting agent in the
disinfectant.
8 Lysol This is a cleaning and germ killing agent and
active in the disinfectant.
¼
litres
9 Water Naturally occurring liuid required to repress
the strength of the phenol and dilute the 8 litres
solution

TOOLS NEEDED FOR IZAL PRODUCTION

 Plastic bowl
 Hand gloves
 Nose mask
 Stirring rod

PROCEDURE
 In a big bowl, we measured 6 liters of water into it
 We added carboxylic acid and stirred thoroughly
 In a separate bowl, we poured texapon and mixed phenol with it and
added our carboxylic solution
 Lysol, izal concentrate, pine oil followed by booster and whitener
were added gently stirring simultaneously. We now added the
remaining 2 liters of water and stirred well. It was then left for a while
before packaging.

3.2 LIQUID SOAP PRODUCTION

S/N CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTION QUANTITY
1 Nitrosol It is a thickening agent 250g
2 Caustic soda Cleansing agent, It is a stain removal 125g
3 Sulphonic acid Foaming agent 1 litre
4 Texapon Foaming agent 500g
5 Sodium Laurate Foaming agent 125g
Sulphate (S.L.S)
6 Sodium Water softener 500g
Tripolyphosphate
(S.T.P.P)
7 Formalin Acts as a preservative 2 caps of a bottle
8 Soda ash It regulates caustic soda 1/8 – 125g
9 Colorant Gives product a colour (Green) As desired
10 Perfume A Fragnace, it gives the production nice As desired
scent
11 Water Dilute solution 15 Litres

TOOLS NEEDED FOR LIQUID SOAP PRODUCTION

 Plastic bowl
 Hand gloves
 Nose mask
 Stirring rod

MIXING PROCESSES
 Soda ash, SLS, and STPP was dissolved in 1 liter of water each in a separate
bowl
 We mixed nitrosol directly in 8 litres of water in a big bowl B and added
texapon and mixed gently
 Sulphuric acid was added and the stiring continues
 The solution of soda ash, SLS and STPP was added to bowl B
 We added our fragnace(perfume), colouring and formalin in a little quantity
 We added 4 more litres of water and stirred thoroughly
 The mixture was allowed to settle for some days and packaged in a bottle for
use.
3.3 PRODUCTION OF BAR SOAP
SN CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTIC AND FUNCTION QUANTITY
1 PKO Cleansing and bubbles 1 cup
2 Caustic soda Neutralizes acidic materials 1 cup
3 Soda ash Regulates caustic soda 1/6 cup
4 Sodium Hardener 1/8 cup
sulphate
5 Perfume Fragnace, nice scent production 10 CL
6 Colorant Production pigment (green) 10 g
7 Water Dilute solution 5 Cups

EQUIPMENTS
1. Nylon sheet
2. Hand gloves
3. Nose Mask
4. A Mixer
5. A measuring scale
6. A mould ( Carton )
PROCEDURE
 Caustic soda, Soda ash and sodium sulphate were soaked for about 24hours
for fermenting.
 A cup of caustic soda and 5 cups of water were poured into a 5 litre bowl
and mixed thoroughly using a turning stick in bowl A
 1/6 cup of soda ash, 1/6 cup of caustic soda and 1/8 cup of sulphate were
added to the solution(Bowl A) and stirred thoroughly. The solution was left
for up to 24hours to gel.
 5 cups of palm kernel oil and 5 cups of the gel were stirred thoroughly
 10cl of perfume and about 10g of oil soluble colouring were added and
stirred thoroughly
  A solution of the thicker Gel was poured into a carton(60cm X 30cm X 8cm)
with nylon spread inside to solidify.
 The thicker gel in the carton was left for about 48hours minimum to solidify.
 We sliced the after product into simpler moderate forms and were packaged
for sale and use

QUALITIES OF THE SOAP PRODUCED

1. Soapy
2. Solid, strong and durable
3. Atrractive, Nice scent
4. Doesn’t itch the hand or body
5. No whitish flakes produced after use
LIQUID, BAR, AND IZAL SOAP IMAGES

3.4 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT

Canon fenske Reverse flow viscometer was used to measure the viscosity of a ROAD
– SIDE Engine oil. The viscometer constant C was inscribed on the viscometer by
the manufacturer. The viscosity obtained from this instrument is typically reported
as kinematic viscosity.
PROCEDURE
 The viscometer was cleaned using suitable solvent (ethanol) and dry with
clean air
 To charge the sample into the viscometer, the instrument was inverted and
suction was applied to tube G using a hose then immersing tube A in the
beaker containing the oil sample.
 The oil sample was drawn to above E, avoiding air bubbles. The viscometer
was then immediately placed horizontally.
 The instrument was then clamped to a restort stand vertically.
 Stopwatch was used as a timer and it was started when the engine oil got to
the upper mark and stopped when the engine oil got to the lower mark of
the reservoir
 The above step was carried out up to three times and the average value of
the time in seconds was gotten.
APPARATUS
 Single bulb canon veske viscometer
 Restort stand
 Beaker
 Pipe

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
SAMPLE : OIL VISCOMETER CONSTANT : 2.759
Viscosity of fluid = viscometer constant (cSt) X time (s)

Time Viscosity
ST
1 READING 265 seconds 731.135
2ND 263 Seconds 725.617
READING
3RD READING 267 Seconds 736.653
AVERAGE 731.135

VISCOCITY IMAGES
PRECAUTIONS
1. Air bubbles was avoided while the fluid is being drawn through the pipe
2. Vertical placement of the viscometer was ensured while it was being fixed to
the clamp
3. Sitting and banging of the benches while the experiment was going on was
avoided
4. Proper cleaning of the viscometer was done after the experiment

OBSERVATION
The higher the viscosity constant of the viscometer, the lesser time It will take the
oil to hit the lower mark of the viscometer.

3.5 UV/VISIBLE SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

Spectrophotometry is an experimental technique that is used to measure the
concentration of solutes in a specific solution by calculating the amount of light
absorbed by those solutes. This technique is powerful because certain compounds
will absorb different wavelengths of light at different intensities. By analyzing the
light that passes through the solution, you can identify particular dissolved
substances in solution and how concentrated those substances are. A
spectrophotometer is the device used to analyze solutions in a laboratory research
setting.
EXPERIMENTAL PRECAUTIONS TAKEN
1. We Turn on the spectrophotometer. Most spectrophotometers need to
warm up before they can give an accurate reading. Turn on the machine and
let it sit for at least 15 minutes before running any samples.
Use the warm-up time to prepare your samples.
2. cuvettes or test tubes were properly cleaned. If you are doing a lab for
school, you may be using disposable test tubes that don’t need to be cleaned.
If you are using cuvettes or reusable test tubes, make sure they are properly
cleaned before use. Rinse each cuvette thoroughly with deionized water.
Take care with cuvettes as they can be quite expensive, particularly if they
are made from glass or quartz. Quartz cuvettes are designed for use in UV-
visible spectrophotometry.
When handling the cuvette, avoid touching the sides the light will pass
through (generally, the clear sides of the container). If you accidently touch
these sides, wipe the cuvette down with a kimwipe (which are formulated to
prevent scratching the glass).

3. We Load the proper volume of the sample into the cuvette. Some cuvettes
have a maximum volume of 1 milliliter (mL) while test tubes may have a
maximum volume of 5 mL. As long as the laser producing the light is passing
through the liquid and not an empty part of the container, we will get an
accurate reading.
If you are using a pipette to load your samples, use a new tip for each sample
to prevent cross-contamination.

4. We Prepared a control solution. Known as a blank, the control solution has

only the chemical solvent in which the solute to be analyzed is dissolved in.
For example, if you had salt dissolved in water, your blank would be just
water. If you dye the water red, the blank must also contain red water. The
blank is the same volume as the solution to be analyzed and kept in the same
kind of container.

5. We Wiped the outside of the cuvette. Before placing the cuvette into the
spectrophotometer you want to make sure it is as clean as possible to avoid
interference from dirt or dust particles. Using a lint free cloth, remove any
water droplets or dust that may be on the outside of the cuvette.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES. SAMPLE GIVEN: KMNO4
1. We Calibrated the machine with the blank (water). The blank was placed into
the cuvette holder and shut the lid. On the spectrophotometer, we Set our
blank to 0 using the adjustment knobs.
When you remove the blank, the calibration will still be in place. When
measuring the rest of your samples, the absorbance from the blank will
automatically be subtracted out.
Be sure to use a single blank per session so that each sample is calibrated to
the same blank. For instance, if you blank the spectrophotometer, then
analyze only some of samples and blank it again, the remaining samples
would be inaccurate. You would need to start over.

2. The absorbance of the experimental sample (KMNO4) was measured. We

Removed the blank and place the experimental sample into the machine.
Slide the cuvette into the designated groove and ensure it stands upright.
Wait until the digital numbers stop changing. Record the values of %
transmittance and/or absorbance.
The absorbance is also known as the optical density (OD).
The more light that is transmitted, the less light the sample absorbs.
Generally, you want to record the absorbance values which will usually be
given as a decimal, for example, 0.43.
If you get an outlying result (such as 0.900 when the rest are around 0.400),
dilute the sample and measure the absorbance again.
We Repeated the reading for each individual sample at least 3 times and
average them together. This ensures a more accurate readout.

3. Scan the wavelength using the graph on screen.

EXPERIMENTAL RECORDS
Wavelenght : 974nm
Absorbance: 0.725armstrong
Diluted readings
Wavelenght : 974nm
Absorbance: 0.711armstrong
SPECTROPHOTOMETER IMAGES

3.6 DENSITY MEASUREMENT

Density Bottle was used to carry out this experiment. It comes with a
capillary tube which acts as a stopper. The unit of density is g/cm3. It
comes in sizes ranging from 10cm. SENSITIVE BALANCE was needed to
carry out the experiment.

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN
1. The weighing balance was ensured to be stable and placed properly
on the bench
2. Environment was ensured to be free from breeze
3. Resting and shaking of the bench was avoided.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
 A weight of the empty density bottle was taken first
 The weight of the density bottle was filled with the sample
 The weight of density bottle and sample was then taken
 Substraction of the weight of the density bottle with sample and
empty bottle gives the weight of the sample
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON DENSITY
WATER SAMPLE
Weight of density bottle = 16.6g
Density = mass/volume
Weight of bottle + WATER = 48.73g
Weight of water = 48.73 – 16.6 = 25ml
Density = 32.08/25 = 1.29g/cm3

OIL SAMPLE
Weight BOTTLE + OIL = 45.27, 45.70, 45.69 = 45.70
Weight of oil = 45.70 – 16.65 = 29.05g
Density = 29.05/25 = 1.16 g/cm3

TABULATION OF RESULT
SN SAMPLE DENSITY
1 Water 1.29
2 Oil 1.16

3.7 REFRACTOMETRY

Refractometer was used to measure the amount of light absorbed in the

sample given. This analyses involves the application of Snell’s law.
Refractometer is used to measure the amount of light refracted in a
sample. Some are viscous and some are non-viscous. A little drop of
sample is enough to carry out the experiment.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF REFRACTIVE INDEX OF SAMPLES

SAMPLE 1ST READING 2ND READING 3RD READING AVERAGE

WATER 1.33170 1.33170 1.33180 1.33173
GLUCOSE 1.33738 1.33736 1.33737 1.33737
OIL 1.50070 1.50062 1.41470 1.47201

BRIX ANALYSES
 SN SAMPLES % OF SUGAR
1 LACASERA 10.09
2 GLUCOSE 3.51

CHAPTER 4
RESULT OF DISCUSSION
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
We have investigated the concentration, temperature and wavelength dependent
refractive index of sugar solution and an empirical expression established for the
concentration and temperature coefficients of the solutions. By this method the
contents of sugar in soft drink beverages determined and the results are quite
similar with the previously reported literatures. These findings can help to improve
the fundamental understanding of binary mixtures and significant for the
determinations of the concentration. The techniques are also simple, fast and
inexpensive.

CHAPTER 6
REFERRENCES
Refractive Index Measurements, A.F. Rawle, in Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry (Third
Edition), 2017

Huang YX, Chinese Journal of Medical Physics, 11: 21−26 (1994).

Subedi DP, Panta GP (2006) Electrical characterization of aluminum (Al) thin films
measured by using four- point probe method. Kathmandu University Journal of
Science, Engineering and Technology 8:31-36.
Singh VK, Jaswal BBS, Kumar V, Prakash R, Rai P (2013) Application of He-Ne Laser
to Study of the Variation of Refractive Index of Liquid Solutions with the
Concentration. J Integrated Sci Tech 1: 13-18.
Tan CY, Huang YX (2015) Dependence of Refractive Index on Concentration and
Temperature in Electrolyte Solution, Polar Solution, Nonpolar Solution, and Protein
Solution. J Chem Eng 60: 2827-2833.

APPENDIX