United States Office of Water EPA 832-F-99-065

Environmental Protection Washington, D.C. September 1999

Agency

Wastewater
Technology Fact Sheet
Fine Bubble Aeration
DESCRIPTION blowers. Although these diffusers required little
maintenance, oxygen transfer was inadequate to
In wastewater treatment processes, aeration meet process needs, and power requirements were
introduces air into a liquid, providing an aerobic excessive.
environment for microbial degradation of organic
matter. The purpose of aeration is two-fold: 1) to In an attempt to reduce power costs and increase
supply the required oxygen to the metabolizing treatment plant efficiency, the plant was retrofitted
microorganisms and 2) to provide mixing so that the with a combination of coarse bubble and fine bubble
microorganisms come into intimate contact with the ceramic diffusers in 1985. One of the two treatment
dissolved and suspended organic matter. cells was retrofitted with fine bubble ceramic
diffusion, and the second retained its coarse bubble
The two most common aeration systems are diffusion system. This reduced power requirements
subsurface and mechanical. In a subsurface system, by eliminating the need for one blower.
air is introduced by diffusers or other devices
submerged in the wastewater. A mechanical system After start-up, it was noticed that the mixed liquor
agitates the wastewater by various means (e.g., dissolved oxygen (DO) levels were not as high in
propellers, blades, or brushes) to introduce air from the fine bubble cell as in the coarse bubble cell, due
the atmosphere. to uneven air distribution between cells. To correct
this, a positive displacement blower was added to
Fine pore diffusion is a subsurface form of aeration the fine bubble cell. To reduce fouling of the
in which air is introduced in the form of very small ceramic diffusers, an in-place gas-cleaning system
bubbles. Since the energy crisis in the early 1970s, was installed to inject anhydrous hydrochloric acid
there has been increased interest in fine pore into the air stream while the system was in
diffusion of air as a competitive system due to its operation.
high oxygen transfer efficiency (OTE). Smaller
bubbles result in more bubble surface area per unit In 1990, the plant switched to fine bubble membrane
volume and greater OTE. diffusers, which were interchangeable with the
ceramic diffusers. The ceramic and membrane
APPLICABILITY efficiencies were comparable, so few adjustments in
air rate were needed. The SWTP was awarded the
Saukville Wastewater Treatment Plant, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Award of
Saukville, Wisconsin Excellence in 1991 based on overall energy savings
and optimized operations and maintenance
The Saukville Wastewater Treatment Plant (SWTP) practices.
uses fine bubble aeration to increase treatment
efficiency and oxygen transfer, as well as reduce
power costs. Initially, the plant used stainless-steel
coarse bubble diffusers requiring two centrifugal
Renton Wastewater Treatment Plant, Renton, power consumption by approximately 28%, and
Washington resulted in a significant improvement in effluent
quality with respect to nitrification.
The Renton Wastewater Treatment Plant serves the
urban and suburban areas east, south, and north of ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Lake Washington, just east of Seattle. Rising power
costs created a need for modification of its coarse Some advantages and disadvantages of various fine
bubble aeration system. pore diffusers are listed below:

Perforated membrane fine bubble diffusers were Advantages

selected for an in-plant study in 1982. These
diffusers were placed in the first two passes of one • Exhibit high OTEs.
aeration tank, while the other tanks retained their
coarse bubble units. DO was compared in the two • Exhibit high aeration efficiencies (mass
systems, and it was determined that the perforated oxygen transferred per unit power per unit
membrane diffusers required 30 to 40% less air than time).
coarse bubble diffusers to maintain a comparable
mixed liquor DO. Total energy consumption • Can satisfy high oxygen demands.
decreased from 390 to 355 kW/1,000 m3 after
installation of the fine bubble diffusers. • Are easily adaptable to existing basins for
plant upgrades.
Ridgewood Wastewater Treatment Plant,
Ridgewood, New Jersey • Result in lower volatile organic compound
emissions than nonporous diffusers or
The Ridgewood Wastewater Treatment Plant mechanical aeration devices.
(RWTP) was retrofitted from coarse bubble
diffusion to a fine pore diffusion aeration system in Disadvantages
1983. Fine pore aeration would allow the use of
one blower and maintain the same oxygen utilization • Fine pore diffusers are susceptible to
rate as provided by the coarse bubble system. chemical or biological fouling, which may
Oxygen transfer studies were performed on the fine impair transfer efficiency and generate high
pore ceramic dome diffusers in order to compare head loss. As a result, they require routine
results with the coarse bubble diffusers. cleaning. (Although not totally without cost,
cleaning does not need to be expensive or
The results showed that the coarse bubble diffuser troublesome.)
had an average standard oxygen transfer efficiency
(SOTE) under field conditions of 4.8% with an • Fine pore diffusers may be susceptible to
average alpha (α) of 0.55. In contrast, with two chemical attack (especially perforated
tanks in operation, the fine pore system had an membranes). Therefore, care must be
average SOTE under field conditions of about 9.5% exercised in the proper selection of materials
and an average α of 0.4 during normal daytime for a given wastewater.
high-load operation. Alpha is defined as the ratio of
KLa (volumetric mass transfer coefficient) of a clean • Because of the high efficiencies of fine pore
diffuser in process water to the KLa of the same diffusers at low airflow rates, airflow
diffuser in clean water. distribution is critical to their performance
and selection of proper airflow control
Two methods of cleaning were used at the RWTP: orifices is important.
anhydrous hydrochloric acid brushing and water
hosing. Installation of the fine pore aeration system • Because of the high efficiencies of fine pore
achieved the oxygen utilization desired, reduced diffusers, required airflow in an aeration
 basin (normally at the effluent end)
may be dictated by mixing - not
oxygen transfer. Types of fine pore diffusers

• Aeration basin design must incorporate a Fine pore diffusers (discs, tubes, domes, and plates)
means to easily dewater the tank for are usually made from either ceramics, plastics, or
cleaning. In small systems where no flexible perforated membranes. Although many
redundancy of aeration tanks exists, an materials can be used to make fine pore diffusers,
in-situ, nonprocess-interruptive method of only these few are being used due to cost
cleaning must be considered. considerations, specific characteristics, market size,
and other factors.
DESIGN CRITERIA
Ceramic media diffusers have been in use for many
Diffusers years and have essentially become the standard for
comparison since, in the past, they were the primary
In the past, various diffusion devices have been media in the fine pore aeration market. Ceramic,
classified based on their OTE as either fine bubble plastic, and flexible materials are resistant to the
or coarse bubble. Since it is difficult to clearly chemicals used in wastewater treatment. Discussed
demarcate or define between fine and coarse below are common types of fine bubble diffusers.
bubbles, diffused aeration systems have been However, recent advances in technology have
classified based on the physical characteristics of the resulted in modifications to these types, which are
equipment. Diffused aeration systems can be shown in Figure 1.
classified into three categories:

• Porous (fine bubble) diffusers: Fine pore

diffusers are mounted or screwed into the
diffuser header pipe (air manifold) that may
run along the length or width of the tank or
on a short manifold mounted on a movable
pipe (lift pipe). These diffusers come in
various shapes and sizes, such as discs,
tubes, domes, and plates.

• Nonporous (coarse bubble) diffusers: The

common types of nonporous diffusers are
fixed orifices (perforated piping, spargers,
and slotted tubes); valved orifices; and static
tubes. The bubble size of these diffusers is
larger than the porous diffusers, thus
lowering the OTE.

• Other diffusion devices: These include jet

aerators (which discharge a mixture of air
and liquid through a nozzle near the tank
bottom); aspirators (mounted at the basin
surface to supply a mixture of air and
water); and U tubes (where compressed air
is discharged into the down leg of a deep
vertical shaft).
3Disc diffusers thick. They are normally made from ceramic or
membrane materials. Installation involves either
Disc diffusers are relatively flat and range from grouting the plates into recesses in the floor,
approximately 18 to 24 cm in diameter with cementing them into prefabricated holders, or
thicknesses of 13 to 19 mm. Materials for discs clamping them into metal holders. Air plenums run
include ceramics, porous plastics, and perforated under the plates and supply air from headers. Plate
membranes. Therefore, thicknesses vary, as do diffusers have largely been replaced by porous discs,
construction features. Currently, manufacturers domes, and tubes in new installations.
provide plenums or base plates that will accept all
materials. PERFORMANCE

The disc is mounted on a plastic saddle-type base The performance of diffused aeration systems under
plate, and either a center bolt or a peripheral normal operating conditions is directly related to the
clamping ring is used to secure the media and the following parameters:
holder together. More commonly, the disc is
attached to the holder via a screw-on retainer ring. • Fouling.
Disc diffusers are designed to have an airflow range
of 0.25 to 1.5 L/s per diffuser. • Wastewater characteristics.

Tube/flexible sheath diffusers • Process type and flow regime.

A typical tube diffuser is either a rigid ceramic or

plastic hollow cylinder (tube) or a flexible membrane
secured by end plates in the shape of a tube. A tube Orifice
Membrane
diffuser has a media portion up to 200 cm long. Baseplate
The thickness of the diffuser varies, but the outside
diameter is approximately 6.4 to 7.6 cm. The
various components of a tube diffuser are made of Retainer
Ring
stainless steel or durable plastic. Threaded rods are Diffuser Holder
used with ceramic or porous plastic. The rod is
threaded into the feed end of the holder with a
Air Distribution Pipe
hexagonal nut secured on the rod to hold the
assembly in place. Air flows through tube diffusers
in the range of 1 to 5 L/s. a) Membrane Disc Diffuser

Diffuser Bolt Ceramic Dome Diffuser

Washer & Gasket
Dome diffusers Dome Gasket

Diffuser Pipe
Made from ceramics or porous plastics, dome
diffusers are typically circular, 18 cm in diameter,
Pipe Stand
and 3.8 cm high. The media is about 15 mm thick
on the edges and 19 mm on the horizontal or flat
surface. The dome diffuser is mounted on either a
polyvinyl chloride or a steel saddle-type base plate.
The airflow rate for dome diffusers is usually 0.5 L/s b) Dome Diffuser Assembly
with a range of 0.25 to 1 L/s.
Source: SANITAIRE brand products, reprinted with
permission by the Water Pollution Control Corporation,
Plate diffusers Brown Deer, Wisconsin, 1999.

Plate diffusers are flat and rectangular, FIGURE 1 SCHEMATIC OF VARIOUS FINE
approximately 30 cm2 in area, and 2.5 to 3.8 cm BUBBLE DIFFUSERS
• Loading conditions. diffuser are permeability, uniformity, dynamic wet
pressure, and strength.
• Basin geometry.
Effective long-term process control depends on
• Diffuser type, size, shape, density, and appropriate selection and integration of the solids’
airflow rate. retention time, the food-to-microorganisms loading,
and the wastewater flow regime. Short-term,
• Mixed liquor dissolved oxygen (DO) control day-to-day variables at the disposal of the operator
and air supply flexibility. include control of diffuser airflow rate and mixed
liquor DO concentration. It is essential to
• Mechanical integrity of the system. understand how each of these parameters affects
aeration efficiency in order to develop optimum
• Operator expertise. short- and long-term operating procedures.

• The quality of the preventive operation and OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

maintenance (O&M) program.
The main operational objective is to achieve
The wastewater characteristics that establish the acceptable effluent quality while maximizing the
oxygen demand placed on a fine pore aeration aeration efficiency. It is essential that diffusers be
system are the influent flow rate, biochemical kept clean through cost-effective preventive
oxygen demand load, and ammonia-nitrogen maintenance procedures. Preventive maintenance
(NH3-N) load. can virtually eliminate air-side (blower filtration
system) particulate fouling of fixed fine pore
Fouling is generally classified as one of two types: diffusers.
Type I and Type II. Characteristics of Type I
fouling are clogging of the diffuser pores, either by Filtration equipment maintenance entails cleaning
airborne particulates clogging the air side, or metal and changing filter media. Calibration and/or
hydroxides and carbonates clogging the liquid side. zeroing of meters is necessary as part of preventive
Type II is characterized by a biofilm layer forming maintenance because accurate airflow and DO
and growing on the surface of the diffuser. In measurements are a critical part of monitoring
practice, it can be difficult to distinguish between aeration systems.
the two types because they occur together, with one
or the other dominating. Preventive maintenance is needed to keep an
aeration system operating at the required level of
Historically, the rate of fouling was measured by performance and to decrease the need for corrective
monitoring the rise in backpressure. However, this maintenance. In addition, preventive maintenance
proved to be a crude and qualitative method will reduce the number of interruptions in the air
because significant fouling can occur without much supply, thus preventing solids from entering the air
increase in backpressure, but with great reductions distribution system.
in OTE.
The cleaning methods used to restore diffuser
The presence of constituents such as surfactants, efficiency are either process interruptive (aeration
dissolved solids, and suspended solids can affect basin out of service) or process noninterruptive
bubble shape and size and result in diminished (access to basin not needed). Diffusers can be
oxygen transfer capability. In general, ceramic cleaned by removing them from the basin (ex-situ)
domes and discs yield slightly higher clean water or onsite inside the basin (in-situ). Some cleaning
transfer efficiencies than typical porous plastic tubes techniques used are acid washing, alkaline washing,
or flexible sheath tubes in a grid placement. Other gas injection, high-pressure water jetting, and air
key parameters that have an effect on the bumping.
performance characteristics of a fine pore media
When placing an empty aeration basin into service, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
all recommended operational steps for start-up and Wastewater Research Division. Municipal
shutdown should be followed. If a basin is put into Environmental Research Laboratory.
service during cold weather, care must be exercised Cincinnati, Ohio.
to prevent any damage from buoyant forces exerted
by ice trying to float. Aeration basins must not be 3. U.S. EPA, 1995. Technological Assessment
drained during freezing weather unless absolutely of Fine Bubble Aerators.
necessary because ice and frost can cause serious EPA-600/2-82-003.
damage. In the event that an aeration basin should
stand idle for more than 2 weeks, it should be 4. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. 1991. Wastewater
drained and cleaned thoroughly. Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and
Reuse. 3d ed. The McGraw-Hill Companies.
COSTS New York, New York.

The aeration system consumes approximately 50 to 5. U.S. EPA, 1985. Summary Report: Fine
65% of the net power demand for a typical activated Pore (Fine Bubble) Aeration Systems. EPA
sludge wastewater treatment plant. Therefore, the Water Engineering Research Laboratory.
designer is responsible for selecting a system that Cincinnati, Ohio. EPA/625/8-85/010.
will meet the mixing and oxygen requirements for
the process at the lowest cost possible. Once the 6. U. S. EPA, 1989. Design Manual: Fine
requirements for aeration are determined, Pore Aeration Systems. EPA Center for
comparative costs for different types of aeration Environmental Research Information.
systems can be estimated and the final equipment Cincinnati, Ohio. EPA/625/1-89/023.
configuration selected to best match the
requirements of the job.

Construction cost items mainly consist of aeration

basins, air piping and headers as appropriate,
aeration devices and their supports, air cleaning
equipment, blowers, and buildings to house these
items. O&M costs are primarily for power,
cleaning, and replacement.

Operational costs are determined in part by the OTE

of the fine bubble aeration system being used, as
well as the characteristics of the influent
wastewater. Aerator cleaning costs depend on the
aerator type; how easily the aerators can be
removed, cleaned, or replaced; and the plant's O&M
procedures.

REFERENCES

1. Egan-Benck, K.; G. McCarty; and W.

Winkler. 1993. "Choosing Diffusers." Water
Environment and Technology. vol. 5. no. 2.
pp. 54–59.

2. McCarthy, J. 1982. "Technology

Assessment of Fine Bubble Aerators." U.S.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Mike McGee
President
EP Aeration
2615 Meadow Street
San Luis Obispo, CA 93401

Gordon F. Pearson
Vice President
International Ecological Systems & Services, IESS
P.O. Box 21240
B-1 Oak Park Plaza
Hilton Head Isl, SC 29925

Leroy C. Reid, Jr., Ph.D

1273 Annapolis Drive
Anchorage AK 99508-4307

National Small Flows Clearing House at

West Virginia University
P.O. Box 6064
Morgantown, WV 26506

The mention of trade names or commercial products

does not constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.

For more information contact:

Municipal Technology Branch

U.S. EPA
Mail Code 4204
401 M St., S.W.
Washington, D.C., 20460