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Frontiers of Architectural Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Research Article

Studies on sustainable features of vernacular

architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and
evaluation
Anh Tuan Nguyen a,*, Nguyen Song Ha Truong a,
David Rockwood b, Anh Dung Tran Le c

a
Faculty of Architecture, the University of Danang - University of Science and Technology, Da Nang,
Viet Nam
b
School of Architecture, University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA
c
Laboratoire des Technologies Innovantes (LTI), Université de Picardie Jules Verne, France

Received 14 January 2019; received in revised form 2 July 2019; accepted 23 July 2019

KEYWORDS Abstract Due to the increasing pressure brought by recent global environmental problems,
Vernacular building designers are embracing regionalism and the knowledge of traditional structures,
architecture; arguing that these structures are energy efficient and highly sustainable. We observe clear ev-
Traditional idence of the increasing interest in vernacular architecture among the research community.
architecture; This study therefore aims to clarify the contents and issues raised in the studies on vernacular
Sustainable feature; architecture and the knowledge and recommendations that can be derived from them. A data-
Research method; base of the research is established by collecting many studies from primary sources. Obtained
Building design data is carefully refined and categorized into a table where synthesized information is intro-
duced. The results of this study show an uneven geographic and climatic distribution of the
studies; the trend in selecting research objectives and research objects; the choice of research
methods with a clear shift towards quantitative research methods, and the generic findings
from the database of the research. These results can support diverse inquiries about vernac-
ular architecture across the world and be used as a resource or an orientation to support
numerous subsequent studies.
ª 2019 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on
behalf of KeAi. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.T. Nguyen), [email protected] (D. Rockwood), [email protected] (A.D. Tran
Le).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
2095-2635/ª 2019 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
2 A.T. Nguyen et al.

1. Justification of the research question addition, the underlying aim of this paper is to document
the origins, scope, techniques, contents, results, and quick
During thousands of years, the inhabitants of each region of accessibility of studies on sustainable features of vernac-
the world have evolved bioclimatic methodologies and ular architecture worldwide.
systems for mitigating the effects of adverse weather This study found that a diversity of terms is used to
conditions of the local climate. Solutions for each region reference vernacular/traditional architecture, including:
are directly reflected in the forms of clothing worn, the historical, traditional, ancient, vernacular, folk architec-
diurnal-nocturnal work patterns, and the construction of ture (dwellings, buildings, settlements, and urban fabrics).
buildings and the activities undertaken within them (Al- This study therefore addresses, but is not restricted to, the
Hinai et al., 1993). The origin of bioclimatic design in ar- main theme on vernacular architecture because there is a
chitecture can be traced back to the design principles large body of research which covers both vernacular ar-
applied in most vernacular or traditional buildings around chitecture and vernacular settlements and urban fabrics as
the world. Vernacular/traditional architecture (for well as occupants’ lifestyles.
simplicity, hereafter we use the term “vernacular archi-
tecture”) evolved over time, reflecting environmental, 2. Research methodology
cultural, technological, and historical context of a specific
location on which it was built (Nguyen and Reiter, 2017). This study employed the archival research method. This
Thus, vernacular architecture is believed to be well involves the investigation of primary sources held in an
adapted to local climate and nature, thus embodying a archive, a special collections library, or other repository.
comprehensive wisdom (see Fig. 1). The archival research method is one of the common
Conveying this wisdom from our ancestors to present, methods applied to architecture studies as carefully
and from present to the future generations would exhibit a described in section 3.4.1. We collected studies on sus-
deep respect for nature, environment, and traditional tainable features of vernacular architecture from two pri-
culture. There is an increased recent interest in the mary databases: Scopus and SpringerLink. These are the
research community on the sustainable features of resources where the authors were granted the access right.
vernacular architecture. This is a result of the need to Other studies were also obtained from open sources such as
respond to climate change, environmental pollution, and Google Scholar, or by contacting authors directly. To reduce
the desire to decrease energy consumption. the possibility of omitting key information, different key-
Fig. 2 presents the increased trend of international words were repeatedly applied in the searches in these
studies on vernacular architecture (127 studies indexed by databases in August 2018. The intension was not to attempt
SciVerse Scopus of Elsevier and Google scholar that the to collect all relevant research as this is not possible.
authors could obtain) within the last three decades. It was However, the attempt was made to collect highly cited or
observed that the annual number of studies has shown a easily seen (by scientific search platforms) studies, forming
sharply increased trend since the year 2007. This indicates a fairly large set of samples with a good representation of
a greater interest on sustainable features of vernacular contributions relevant to the research area. This large set
architecture and their potential applications among the was filtered out to eliminate inappropriate and/or dupli-
building research community. cated studies. We found that some authors published two
The present study aims to analyze and clarify the (even three) papers in both a conference and a journal, but
achievements of the collected studies on vernacular ar- the content of these papers was similar or even homoge-
chitecture and the lessons derived from them. Challenges neous. In such a case, we only selected the journal paper.
and potential trends of this research area will also be dis- Some review papers on vernacular architecture were also
cussed. The findings of this study are expected to provide excluded as they do not focus on any specific region,
potential research orientations and useful information on climate or specific local structure.
materials and methods for other similar studies. In

Fig. 1 The ecological beauty of traditional beehive huts of Zulu people, South Africa (left) and a vernacular settlement of Cơ-Tu
ethnic group, Vietnam (right).

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
Sustainable features of vernacular architecture 3

Fig. 2 Evolution of the number of publications on sustainable features in vernacular architecture over time (data collected until
August 2018).

Finally, a total of 127 studies were collected, including derived from an improved system of Beck et al. (2018) on
papers, theses, books, and articles in recognized confer- the basis of the Köppen e Geiger climate classification
ence proceedings, forming thereby a relatively large sam- system (Koppen, 1936). The purpose of this analysis is to
ple of studies. For each study, we collected the most help researchers detect geographic and climate gaps in the
important information, including: author names and title of research on vernacular architecture, contributing to the
the study, year of publication, sites of the study, related orientation of future research.
geographic and climatic regions, types of investigated Fig. 4 shows a significant amount of research on
buildings, research objectives, description of research vernacular architecture in Asia and Europe while in the
methods, research method classification, and key findings remaining continents, there are considerably fewer scien-
of the study. Obtained data were refined and categorized tific publications on the topic. Fig. 5 details the evolution of
into a table (see Supplementary data) where synthesized publications in Asia, Europe and other regions. In our
information was analyzed, and crucial findings of this study database, the first study on vernacular architecture was
were derived. The whole process can be divided into 3 found in Yemen in 1986 (Al-Motawakel et al., 1986). Five
phases as described in Fig. 3. years later, vernacular architecture was nearly forgotten as
we have not found any study through this period. Until
3. Results of the analysis, synthesis and 1996, studies were only found in the Middle East and East
Asia. In Asia and Europe, the high number of studies in the
evaluation
last 10 years indicates that there was a great interest in
vernacular architecture in the research community. This
3.1. Geographic and climatic distribution of the increased interest may serve to reinforce the preservation
studies on vernacular architecture of cultural and natural values of the vernacular human
heritage.
In this study we investigate the distribution of the studies in Fig. 6 shows a map with the geographic distribution and
the collected set of samples on the continents, geographic density across the world of the 127 studies investigated. For
regions, and climate zones. The climatic regions are ease of displaying this information, each study on

Fig. 3 The diagram explains the workflow and the research methods employed in the study.

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
4 A.T. Nguyen et al.

Fig. 4 Distribution of the studies by continents.

Fig. 5 Number of studies on vernacular architecture over time in key regions of the world.

vernacular architecture was represented by a red dot in the while studies for cold climates are quite meager. The
map. Nowadays, China and Iran have emerged as research three most studied climatic zones typically have a hot
centers on vernacular architecture, followed by Malaysia, weather period (year-round or in summer). This result
Turkey and India. This map also shows that many large indicates that indigenous architecture in cold climates
areas of the world still lack research on vernacular archi- (e.g. Csb, Cwb, Cfb, Dfb, Dfc) should be further studied and
tecture. Specifically, these regions are: Russia, Central published. We assume that the hot climate seems to pose
Asia, a large part of Africa, Australia and the whole of most many challenges to the role of architecture in regulating
of North and South America. These gaps do not reflect the the indoor microclimate, such as the need to provide
fact that these regions are rich in vernacular architectural proper shading and ventilation, and so it receives greater
heritage (Wikipedia contributors, 2018; Natural Homes, attention than the cold climate.
2018). It is plausible that the capacity of scientific
research in these regions is not responsible for these gaps. 3.2. The research objectives of studies on
Therefore, we expect that one result of the present study is vernacular architecture
to promote research in these regions, thereby contributing
knowledge to the scope and differentiation of world The major research objectives of the collected studies
vernacular architecture. were examined and categorized as shown in the
Fig. 7 details the number of publications of top 10 Supplementary data. Table 1 lists the research objectives
countries derived from Fig. 6. The top five all come from found and their corresponding percentage in order from
in Asia while the remaining countries locate around the highest to lowest. Overlapping between some research
Mediterranean Sea. The positions around the Tropic of objectives may occur due to the inconsistent interpreta-
Cancer and the equator is a hint of a common charac- tion and understanding between the scholars and the
teristic that the climate of these countries have a warm/ authors of this study. Since a study can have more than
hot season each year. This raises a concern about whether one objective, we have counted 152 objectives from 127
there exists a correlation between the climate types and studies that we have collected. These objectives are
the number of studies on vernacular architecture. categorized and classified into 15 major categories (see
Climate is an important factor shaping the architectural Table 1) which were established by examining all 152
patterns in each geographic area. We are interested in the objectives and grouping similar ones into the most
climatic factors in the collected studies (listed in Fig. 8). appropriate category. By doing this, none of the objec-
It can be seen that architecture in hot, warm and humid tives was omitted and each category will have at least one
climates was intensively investigated in many studies, objective belonging to it.

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
Sustainable features of vernacular architecture 5

Fig. 6 World map showing a raw estimation of the distribution of the studies on vernacular architecture e until August 2018 (For
the high-resolution image, please refer to the web version of this article).

intellectual values embedded within this type of heritage

are also attractive, accounting for nearly 20% of the total
research objectives. Other research objectives do not
receive too much attention.
The objective of the conservation of vernacular archi-
tecture is not set out as a primary aim in most of the
studies. However, many studies did emphasize the impor-
tance of preserving and promoting the values embodied in
vernacular architecture (Nguyen et al., 2011; Kamarudin,
2015; Barbero-Barrera et al., 2014). Such preservation is
principally linked to the architectural, historical, and cul-
tural values that vernacular architecture, along with its
“ecosystem”, represents.
This investigation found that most studies (nearly 86%
of 127 studies) only focused on a unique research objec-
tive. However, some authors tried to resolve two objec-
tives at the same time (Bekleyen et al., 1998; Martı́n
et al., 2010; Prasetyo et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2017;
Fig. 7 Top ten countries in the number of publications on
Heidari et al., 2017). Particularly, even more than 2
vernacular architecture.
research objectives were found in a few studies, for
example: Yildiz and Manio glu (2015) and Karabag and
Fellahi (2017). Research objectives determine the
From Table 1, the majority of the research (approx. 60%) scope, depth and the overall direction of a study and are
defines objectives with a clear differentiation, indicating linked directly to the research findings; however, some
that studies on vernacular architecture mostly focus on authors (Alp, 1991; Jingxia, 1996; Ozay, 2005) have not
passive/bioclimatic/environmental/ecological design prin- clarified their research objectives. Consequently, the re-
ciples/measures/features, and on assessing the environ- sults of these studies did not satisfy any specific goal or
mental conditions inside the buildings. This result clearly there is no clear direction for their research. This kind of
shows a strong polarization of the goal of the studies, omission should be avoided.
showing the top concern for the issue of sustainable design The concept "local context" - including the climate - is a
and for ensuring indoor conditions of vernacular buildings in decisive factor in creating architectural spaces, along with
the modern age. In addition, the cultural, social and the influence of cultural aspects. Through this study, we

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
6 A.T. Nguyen et al.

Fig. 8 Distribution of the studies by climate types - according to the modified Köppen climate classification system (Beck et al.,
2018).

found that most of the research objectives are to under- 3.4. Research methods applied to vernacular
stand how vernacular architecture manages the relation- architecture studies
ship with the local climate, regardless of the type of
climate which, for example may be hot and dry in the de- 3.4.1. Classification of research methods in the selected
serts, or cold and icy near the poles. However, we do not studies
have enough data to assess the relationship between Research methodology is defined as the specific procedures
research objectives and climate types, and this opens up a or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze
new research opportunity. information about a topic. It is crucial because of its great
influence on the overall validity and reliability of a study.
3.3. Research objects in the selected studies Generally, a research method can be categorized into two
principle classes: qualitative or quantitative methods,
The research objects of the 127 studies were identified however some methods may lie somewhere between these
and listed as shown in the Supplementary data. By cate- two extremes, being considered as intermediate methods.
gorizing this list, we observed that in most of the cases In architecture, some scholars have carefully studied,
the authors focused only on one research object. In 98/ identified, and categorized the research methods applied
127 studies (or 77.8%) vernacular/traditional houses to architectural research. In the book entitled, “Architec-
(homes, dwellings, residential buildings) were the major tural research methods”, Groat and Wang (2013) compre-
focus of the scholars. In addition, 27 studies focused on hensively investigated and stated that there exist 7
generic vernacular buildings. Four others (Dhote et al., dominant methods in architectural research (see Table 2).
2012; Philokyprou et al., 2013; Dayaratne, 2018; Mahgoub (2014) modified and expanded the work of Groat
Kashani, 2013) investigate the urban fabric or the struc- and Wang by suggesting two other methods, namely
ture of vernacular settlements. The remaining one “theoretical research” and “action research”. Another
(Scatigno et al., 2016) studied the microclimate in an important update is on the relationship between design and
ancient mithraeum. research. In particular, it explores “research by design”,
Vernacular architecture encompasses diverse manmade that is, generating new knowledge using design as a
structures, including private homes, public buildings, reli- method, as do a number of publications (Handa, 2017);
gious structures, and forms and structures of urban settle- among them are “Design Innovation for the Built Environ-
ments. The overwhelming proportion of housing studies ment: Research by Design and the Renovation of Practice”
shows that housing is the most popular and easily accessible edited by Hensel (2013), and “Design Research in Archi-
vernacular focus, and one that can be found anywhere in tecture: An Overview”, edited by Fraser (2013). These
the world. However, it can be seen that there are still many works offer an emerging perspective that research by
types of buildings which attract only a few studies, opening design has become a way to engage in the generation of
thereby new future research opportunities. Through this new knowledge.
investigation, we suggest that public and religious build- The research methods in the above-mentioned studies
ings, and the urban form and space of vernacular heritages are summarized and briefly described in Table 2. As shown
should obtain stronger attention from the architectural in the Supplementary data, this study verified the research
research community. methods used in each publication, described and

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
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Sustainable features of vernacular architecture 7

Table 1 Share of the research objectives of the studies on vernacular architecture.

Categories of the research objectives Count (times) Share (%)
1 To investigate passive/bioclimatic/environmental/ecological design 52 34.2%
principles/measures/features to achieve a comfortable living
environment, eco-friendly and energy-efficient architecture;
2 To evaluate indoor environmental conditions (occupants’ comfort, 37 24.3%
temperature, humidity, wind, light .);
3 To investigate social e cultural values of vernacular architecture; 15 9.9%
4 To study ancient wisdom/knowledge embedded in vernacular architecture 14 9.2%
that can be applied to contemporary buildings;
5 To study architectural styles and/or forms of vernacular architecture; 7 4.6%
6 To evaluate and/or detect conservation problems of vernacular 4 2.6%
architecture;
7 To evaluate and/or compare performance of vernacular/traditional 4 2.6%
buildings in different climates or with contemporary counterparts;
8 To draw attention to the conservation of vernacular architecture; 3 2.0%
9 To study the use and reuse of building materials and measures regarding 3 2.0%
waste reduction;
10 To establish an archive of architectural documents on vernacular 3 2.0%
architecture;
11 To study building physical phenomenon in ancient buildings; 3 2.0%
12 To study the perceptions and expectations of occupants in the buildings; 2 1.3%
13 To study architectural changes over time occurring in vernacular 2 1.3%
architecture;
14 To learn about vernacular construction techniques; 2 1.3%
15 To test the implementation of modern systems (e.g. HVAC systems) in 1 0.7%
vernacular/traditional buildings;
Total 152 100.00%

categorized it, and finally the obtained data was analyzed the sample (127 studies) into two smaller ones which are
(see Fig. 9 and Fig. 10). large enough to conduct the analysis (35 vs 92 studies). The
Fig. 9 reveals the use frequency of the research methods year 2000 sounds more reasonable, but it was not selected
mentioned in Table 2, showing a clear stratification among because there were only 9 studies in the period 1986e2000.
the methods. The most used methods are experimental In each period, the share of the research methods was
research, simulation research (quantitative methods), presented using a pie chart. Fig. 10 shows and compares the
interpretative research, and qualitative research (qualita- share of the research methods in these two periods. The
tive methods). Some studies employed case study methods, share of each method was sorted from the smallest to the
combined methods, and survey research methods (inter- largest. The comparison indicates that there has been a
mediate methods). The remaining methods were found in considerable increase in use rate of quantitative methods
this investigation to be much less used. It can be seen that since 2010 (e.g., experimental and simulation research).
the use frequency of both qualitative methods and quan- This corresponds to a significant reduction in the popularity
titative methods were rather similar, indicating their equal of qualitative methods (e.g., interpretative or qualitative
importance in these studies. research). The share of simulation research has sharply
We investigated the number of methods employed in increased, from 6.7% to 14.4% whereas experimental and
each of the 127 studies. The investigation returned a sur- quasi-experimental research has slightly increased (less
prising result that many studies (54/127 studies, or 42.5%) than 1%) during the same period, indicating that scholars
combined two, or more than two research methods. tend to choose simulations as their quantitative research
Exceptionally, Gabril (2014) employed up to four methods tools.
to study vernacular architecture in Libya. We also observed Table 3 compares the use percentage of the categories
that most authors tend to combine a qualitative method of research methods in the two periods 1986e2010 and
with a quantitative one with an aim of strengthening the 2011 to present. The categories “qualitative e intermedi-
validity and reliability of the research results. ate - quantitative methods, others” have already been
introduced in Table 2. Their percentages were calculated
3.4.2. Trends in selecting the research methods over by using the data in Fig. 10. Table 3 shows that there was a
time shift from qualitative research methods (low reliability)
Within our survey sample, we divided the studies into two towards quantitative research methods (with higher reli-
groups based on their publication year, corresponding to ability). The use rate of qualitative methods decreased by
two periods: from 1986 to 2010 and from 2011 to present. 16.6% in the period 2011 to present while an increased use
The year 2010 was used as a split point because it divides rate of the quantitative methods of 8.4% was observed in

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
8 A.T. Nguyen et al.

Table 2 A summary of research methods applied to studies in architecture.

Type Mahgoub Groat and Wang (2013) Hensel Description or examples -revised and expanded from
(2014) (2013) þ Fraser Mahgoub (2014).
(2013)
Qualitative Theoretical Design optimization algorithms, mathematical theories.
methods research
Interpretative Historical research Examining past events to draw conclusions and make
research predictions about the future, e.g., theories of
architectural history.
Logical argumentation The science that is used to explain or represent a
consistent argument about a particular topic.
Qualitative Qualitative research Participant (or field) observation.
research
Intermediate Survey Correlational research Encompassing any measurement procedures that
methods research involve asking questions of respondents and analyzing
obtained information.
Action Research by Demonstration projects, advocacy planning.
research design
Case studies and A particular instance of something used or analyzed in
combined strategies order to illustrate a thesis or principle.
Quantitative Experimental Experimental and A scientific process used to actively influence something
methods research quasi-experimental to observe the consequences, i.e. material testing.
research
Simulation Simulation research A model, or an imitation of the operation of a real-
research world process or system, i.e. gaming simulation,
computer simulation.
Other Hybrid methods, ICT (e.g., information and
methods communication technology) method, archival research
method).

Fig. 9 Use frequency of the research methods applied to studies on vernacular architecture.

the same period. The significant progress of digital exper- scientific research. The average number of citations of an
imental facilities, computer simulation programs, and the article in the field engineering and technology in the period
increasing quality requirements of scientific publishers may 1990e2010 was estimated at around 13, as given by Marx
be the main cause of this shift. We also observed a similar and Bornmann (2015). Among 127 studies in the sample,
increased trend of the number of building optimization through an exhaustive search from Google Scholar, we
studies using simulation programs in recent years (Nguyen found 63 studies having 13 or more citations. These 63
et al., 2014). studies create a new sample of highly cited articles on
We continued to question the relationship between the vernacular architecture. Fig. 11 shows the share of research
research topics and the research methods and how they methods which were used in these 63 studies. The share
influence the quality of the studies. First, we supposed that continues to show the higher use rate of the quantitative
the citation metric is a good measure of quality of a research methods (see Fig. 12).

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
Sustainable features of vernacular architecture 9

Fig. 10 Share of the research methods and its changes over time (Note: The research methods were used 45 times in 35 studies of
the period 1986e2010. Similarly, these were used 139 times in 92 studies of the period 2011 to present).

Table 3 Share of the research methods by categories. that the experimental and quasi-experimental research is
From 1986 to From 2011 to the most persuasive method in studying vernacular
2010 present architecture.
Another interesting finding is that there is a clear
Qualitative methods 53.3% 36.7% relationship between research methods and research
Intermediate 13.3% 20.1% objectives. All the research objectives of 11/13 studies
methods using the experimental method (in the top 20 highly
Quantitative 33.3% 41.7% cited articles) were to accurately evaluate the indoor
methods environmental conditions and thermal comfort. It was
Others 0% 1.4% also observed that the research objectives of this kind
were often further reinforced by simulation results,
which help to evaluate the research topic more
comprehensively.

3.5. Important lessons derived from the findings of

these studies

It is worthy of note that the findings from these studies

covered a wide range of issues and their concluding remarks
were not homogeneous. Vernacular architecture across the
world offers a diverse panorama of human response to the
natural environment, reflecting natural, cultural and social
context of the varied sites; from the cold climate of Tibet
(Zhang et al., 2017b) to the hot arid climate of Yazd
(Keshtkaran, 2011), from hot humid South East Asia
(Kamarudin, 2015), to cold and dry Scandinavia (Almssad
and Almusaed, 2015). Therefore, it is not possible to draw
a general conclusion for these studies. However, we
observed some common themes in the conclusions from the
many studies as reported below.
Fig. 11 Share of the research methods in the top 63 highly
cited articles on vernacular architecture.
- Qualitative findings:
þ Most studies cited in this paper favorably appreciate
Taking a closer look, it was found that robust quanti- the environmental sustainability of vernacular archi-
tative methods, such as experiment or simulation, tend to tecture through its evolution of construction techniques,
help studies to be more appreciated, indicated by the use of resources, passive building operation, and
high citation rates. Among 10 top highly cited articles, ecological lifestyle of building occupants. Vernacular
experimental and quasi-experimental research was found architecture provides a healthy shelter for many gen-
7 times. Similarly, 13 studies in the top 20 highly cited erations of people, but it still guarantees the principles
articles used this method. Only 5/20 articles of the top 20 of sustainable development. This fact has become more
used the interpretative method. These findings indicate and more important in promoting a sustainable future of

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
10 A.T. Nguyen et al.

Fig. 12 A visual dialogue between traditional design elements and contemporary architecture. The Termitary house in Vietnam
(left) inherits the spirit of the vernacular porous adobe brick wall; and new Qatar University (right) “breathes” in the way that
traditional buildings in the region operated with windcatchers

the built environment, as stressed by (Tomovska and provide comfortable/acceptable and stable indoor
Radivojevic, 2017; Keskin and Erbay, 2016). environmental conditions during most of its life span
þ Many scholars have affirmed the social, cultural, and (Singh et al., 2010; Priya et al., 2012; Samuel et al.,
heritage values of vernacular architecture that are 2017; Dili et al., 2010) and has lower energy con-
important and need to be protected and preserved in sumption compared with modern houses (Cantin et al.,
order to maintain the diversity of the culture of each 2010).
region/country and the whole of humankind (Ghaffarian  A few studies indicated that the indoor microclimate
and Dahlan, 2012; Bekleyen et al., 1998). of vernacular buildings are not always thermally
þ Vernacular architecture in some regions has special comfortable, especially in extreme weather (e.g. very
architectural styles and/or expression of artistic values hot summer or cold winter) (Prasetyo et al., 2014;
(Ghaffarian and Dahlan, 2012; Osasona, 2007), or is Nguyen et al., 2011; Nguyen, 2013; Gou et al., 2015;
generated under stringent design rules (Chiou and Huang et al., 2017a,b; Ooka, 2002); some others
Krishnamurti, 1995). Many contemporary designs are stated that the indoor microclimate was damp, and
inspired by vernacular/traditional forms in which social, relative humidity was higher than outdoors due to the
cultural, spatial, physical, technological, and aesthetic low temperature and high humidity ratio which may
factors are combined into one complex entity. Some cause visible mold (Huang et al., 2017a; Zhang et al.,
examples were described by Rashid and Ara (2015). 2017a; Karyono et al., 2012) cites several conserva-
þ Many design solutions and building characteristics of tion problems, e.g. biological growth and visible
vernacular architecture are considered, evaluated and efflorescence salts (Scatigno et al., 2016). It is sug-
recommended for contemporary development in order gested that the use of hygroscopic materials is a pas-
to enhance environmental sustainability of the current sive way to moderate indoor humidity levels. The
built environment (Dayaratne, 2018; Hatamipour and material that adsorbs and desorbs water vapor can be
Abedi, 2008; Soflaei et al., 2017; Foruzanmehr, 2015). used to moderate the amplitude of indoor relative
- Quantitative findings: humidity and therefore to participate in the
þ On the indoor conditions: improvement of the hygrothermal performance and
 Through survey and analysis, thermal comfort prefer- indoor air quality (Shea et al., 2012; Tran-Le et al.,
ences of building occupants (Zhang et al., 2018; Singh 2018).
et al., 2010) and comfort equations (Gabril, 2014) þ On the comparison of thermal performance of the
were derived from the studies. vernacular houses: The results given by Martı́n et al.
 As mentioned in the previous section, a large number (2010) show better indoor conditions in the traditional
of studies put effort to explain the indoor environ- houses than the modern houses thanks to the effect of
mental conditions of vernacular architecture. Through high thermal inertia. Similar findings were obtained in
quantitative research methods, many of the studies the study in Oman (Majid et al., 2012). In terms of hu-
have proved that vernacular architecture was able to midity, Huang et al. (2017a) found that average relative

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
Sustainable features of vernacular architecture 11

humidity in the investigated vernacular dwelling (over dwellings and a natural and resource conscious solution for
83%) was higher than that (around 75%) in the modern housing needs for different areas of the earth. In order to
dwelling. Fan and Chen (2016) also found that cave progress sustainable architecture and buildings in the
dwellings have a better thermal environment, compared future, designers must first have knowledge of the past and
with other housing types. use these strategies as a well-balanced approach to achieve
þ On the phenomenon of heat transfer in ancient optimal environmental efficiency. We expect that there will
buildings: Al-Motawakel et al. (1986) used a mathemat- be more and more studies to realize the benefit of the
ical heat transfer model to study the performance of application of vernacular wisdom into modern architectural
wall types and proposed the most suitable one for the design.
local climate. Shi et al. (2012) proposed to use foam Through this study, we also found that the following
concrete to fill in cavity walls to increase thermal trends in the research on vernacular architecture need to
resistance by 24%. Scatigno et al. (2016) carefully be strengthened:
investigated the indoor environment of a particular
Mithraeum in Rome, identifying the critical areas where - To promote studies in the regions that still lack infor-
the building components are mostly at risk. mation, e.g., in Africa, South America, Russia, Central
Asia, and Australia.
Actually, there are many other results discovered in the - To provide a stronger theoretical and practical basis for
studies, however these results were not representative or effectively preserving the values of vernacular heritage
have not been confirmed by similar findings, so we do not and protecting the ancient building stock.
mention them in this section. - To investigate the perception and expectation of occu-
pants living in existing vernacular architecture.
3.6. Challenges and trends in the studies on - To study whether modern systems can be implemented
vernacular architecture in old vernacular buildings, thereby meeting present
living standards without changing their original/tradi-
Most researchers agree that vernacular architecture is a tional forms and/or features.
proven model of sustainable architecture, regarding both
environmental, economic and social aspects. However, the Vernacular architecture, such as the igloos of the Inuit
contemporary building industry shows that buildings people, or Tuareg tents - the folk structures evolved over
designed and constructed by modern technology are still thousands of years - allow people to survive easily in the
the overwhelming norm. Vernacular architecture is most severe climate conditions on earth. They are ex-
increasingly damaged and gradually lost. Many regions have amples showing that vernacular architecture is the prod-
introduced tighter building standards and zoning regula- uct of building cultures - a complex system of people,
tions (e.g., fire safety, building life expectancy, energy relationships, beliefs, aesthetic styles, construction
codes), which make vernacular techniques difficult or techniques, and habits in which design and buildings are
impossible to apply. combined. Therefore, it is essential to encourage new
The benefits of vernacular architecture have been approaches to vernacular architecture that go beyond the
recognized throughout most of the long human history, but perspective of architects alone, to promote the emer-
have narrowed in the modern period; however, they are gence of an improved built environment. For example,
now returning and influencing sustainable building design. Christopher Alexander and his partners (1977) attempted
Despite some challenges, the adaptation of models ob- to identify adaptive characteristics of traditional archi-
tained from vernacular architecture have gained in interest tecture that were applied across cultures. This novel idea
among some contemporary designers. There have been a simply comes from the observation that most of the
lot of efforts to realize this idea, as seen in Fig. 11. Many wonderful places of the world were not made by archi-
studies in this paper have shown that it is not possible to tects, but by the local people.
use vernacular architectural models in a stereotyped
manner in modern society. However, anything learned from 4. Summary and conclusion
indigenous architecture is very valuable, providing an
important link between people and the environment. It Vernacular architecture e a highly flexible and reasonable
helps identify the unique characteristics of people, places, way to address human needs - seems to be largely forgotten
cultures, and climates. It forces us to think how to establish in contemporary architecture. Nevertheless, due to the
a community of pure survival and to minimize our need. increasing pressure of recent global environmental prob-
Vernacular architecture was created to operate lems, this trend has shifted logically in another way. Ar-
completely passively. However, a few studies have shown chitects are embracing regionalism and the tradition
that in some cases vernacular architecture was not able to evidenced in the ancient structures, arguing that these
provide a comfortable environment under extreme weather structures have been proven to be energy efficient and
(Prasetyo et al., 2014; Nguyen et al., 2011; Nguyen, 2013; highly sustainable. In the era of rapid technological devel-
Gou et al., 2015; Huang et al., 2017b; Ooka, 2002). This opment and massive construction, there is still much to
raises the question of how to mitigate the remaining learn from the cumulative knowledge embedded in tradi-
discomfort in the vernacular structures, and to satisfy tional structures. The low-tech methods used in vernacular
contemporary human thermal comfort standards. Vernac- architecture can be used to create buildings and environ-
ular structures show a climate-friendly approach to local ments well-suited to local climate and culture. This is in

Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
 + MODEL
12 A.T. Nguyen et al.

contrast to the design of many modern buildings that do not Conflict of interest
take local conditions into account.
The rapidly increasing number of vernacular architec- None declared.
ture studies in the last three decades has demonstrated a
great interest by the building research community on this
issue, and this is a trend that is likely to continue in the Acknowledgement
coming years. This increased trend was clearly observed
in Asia and Europe. Motivations of this movement may
The authors thank the University of Science and Technology
include the advances in computational modeling, and the
e The University of Da Nang (Project code: T2019-02-32) for
need to respond to more stringent design requirements of
the financial support. We would also like to thank to the
sustainable buildings, including green building rating
anonymous reviewers who provided many constructive
systems.
comments and suggestions.
This paper examines a set of samples of 127 studies
on vernacular architecture from which evaluations, as-
sessments and orientations have been drawn. The re- Appendix A. Supplementary data
sults show an uneven geographic and climatic
distribution of the studies. China, Iran, Malaysia, Turkey Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
and India have emerged as research center of vernac- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006.
ular architecture while Russia, Central Asia, Africa,
America, and Australia still lack studies. It was observed
that the number of studies on vernacular architecture in References
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world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006
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Please cite this article as: Nguyen, A.T et al., Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the
world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006