CHAPTER 14

Acids and Bases

Acids and bases change the color
of compounds called indicators.

Hydrangeas
Properties of Acids SECTION 1

and Bases OBJECTIVES

List five general properties
of aqueous acids and bases.

Name common binary acids

H ow many foods can you think of that are sour? Chances are that and oxyacids, given their
almost all the foods you thought of, like those in Figure 1a, owe their chemical formulas.
sour taste to an acid. Sour milk contains lactic acid. Vinegar, which can
be produced by fermenting juices, contains acetic acid. Phosphoric acid
gives a tart flavor to many carbonated beverages. Most fruits contain List five acids commonly used
in industry and the laboratory,
some kind of acid. Lemons, oranges, grapefruits, and other citrus fruits
and give two properties of
contain citric acid. Apples contain malic acid, and grape juice contains
each.
tartaric acid.
Many substances known as bases are commonly found in household
products, such as those in Figure 1b. Household ammonia is an ammo- Define acid and base accord-
nia-water solution that is useful for all types of general cleaning. Sodium ing to Arrhenius’s theory of
hydroxide, NaOH, known by the common name lye, is present in some ionization.
commercial cleaners. Milk of magnesia is a suspension in water of mag-
nesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, which is not very water-soluble. It is used Explain the differences
as an antacid to relieve discomfort caused by excess hydrochloric acid between strong and weak
in the stomach. Aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3, and sodium hydrogen acids and bases.
carbonate, NaHCO3, are also bases commonly found in antacids.

Benzoic acid, HC7H5O2

Sorbic acid, HC6H7O2
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4 Citric acid, NH3(aq)
H3C6H5O7 NaOH
Carbonic acid, H2CO3
Ascorbic acid, NaHCO3
H2C6H6O6

Al(OH)3

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1 (a) Fruits and fruit juices contain acids such as citric acid
and ascorbic acid. Carbonated beverages contain benzoic acid, phosphoric acid,
and carbonic acid. (b) Many household cleaners contain bases such as ammonia
and sodium hydroxide. Antacids contain bases such as aluminum hydroxide.

ACIDS AND BASES 467

 Acids
Acids were first recognized as a distinct class of compounds because of
the common properties of their aqueous solutions. These properties are
listed below.
1. Aqueous solutions of acids have a sour taste. Taste, however, should
NEVER be used as a test to evaluate any chemical substance. Many
acids, especially in concentrated solutions, are corrosive; that is, they
destroy body tissue and clothing. Many are also poisons.
2. Acids change the color of acid-base indicators. When pH paper is
used as an indicator, the paper turns certain colors in acidic solution.
This reaction is demonstrated in Figure 2.
3. Some acids react with active metals and release hydrogen gas, H2 .
Recall that metals can be ordered in terms of an activity series.
Metals above hydrogen in the series undergo single-displacement
FIGURE 2 A strip of pH paper
reactions with certain acids. Hydrogen gas is formed as a product, as
dipped into vinegar turns red, show-
ing that vinegar is an acid. shown by the reaction of barium with sulfuric acid.
Ba(s) + H2SO4(aq) ⎯→ BaSO4(s) + H2(g)
4. Acids react with bases to produce salts and water. When chemically
equivalent amounts of acids and bases react, the three properties just
described disappear because the acid is “neutralized.” The reaction
products are water and an ionic compound called a salt.
5. Acids conduct electric current. Some acids completely separate into ions
in water and are strong electrolytes. Other acids are weak electrolytes.

Acid Nomenclature
A binary acid is an acid that contains only two different elements: hydro-
gen and one of the more electronegative elements. Many common inor-
ganic acids are binary acids. The hydrogen halides—HF, HCl, HBr, and
HI—are all binary acids.
The procedure used to name binary acids is illustrated by the exam-
ples given in Table 1. In pure form, each compound listed in the table is
a gas. Aqueous solutions of these compounds are known by the acid
names. From the table you can see that naming binary compounds can
be summarized as follows.

TABLE 1 Names of Binary Acids

Formula Acid name Molecule name
HF hydrofluoric acid hydrogen fluoride
HCl hydrochloric acid hydrogen chloride
HBr hydrobromic acid hydrogen bromide
HI hydriodic acid hydrogen iodide
H2S hydrosulfuric acid hydrogen sulfide

468 CHAPTER 14
 H
O FIGURE 3 Structures of (a) phos-
O phoric acid and (b) sulfuric acid
H O P O H H O S O H
O O

(a) H3PO4 (b) H2SO4

Binary Acid Nomenclature

1. The name of a binary acid begins with the prefix hydro-.
2. The root of the name of the second element follows this prefix.
3. The name then ends with the suffix -ic.

An oxyacid is an acid that is a compound of hydrogen, oxygen, and a

third element, usually a nonmetal. Nitric acid, HNO3, is an oxyacid. The
structures of two other oxyacids are shown in Figure 3. Oxyacids are
one class of ternary acids, which are acids that contain three different
elements. Usually, the elements in an oxyacid formula are written as one
or more hydrogen atoms followed by a polyatomic anion. But as you
can see from the structures, the H atoms are bonded to O atoms. The
names of oxyacids follow a pattern, and the names of their anions are
based on the names of the acids. Some common oxyacids and their
anions are given in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Names of Common Oxyacids and Oxyanions

Formula Acid name Anion
CH3COOH acetic acid CH3COO−, acetate
H2CO3 carbonic acid CO2−
3 , carbonate
HClO hypochlorous acid ClO−, hypochlorite
HClO2 chlorous acid ClO−2 , chlorite
HClO3 chloric acid ClO−3 , chlorate
HClO4 perchloric acid ClO−4 , perchlorate
HIO3 iodic acid IO−3 , iodate
HNO2 nitrous acid NO−2 , nitrite
HNO3 nitric acid NO−3 , nitrate
H3PO3 phosphorous acid PO3−
3 , phosphite
H3PO4 phosphoric acid PO3−
4 , phosphate
H2SO3 sulfurous acid SO2−
3 , sulfite
H2SO4 sulfuric acid SO2−
4 , sulfate

ACIDS AND BASES 469

 Some Common Industrial Acids
The properties of acids make them important chemicals both in the lab-
oratory and in industry. Sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid,
hydrochloric acid, and acetic acid are all common industrial acids.

Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid is the most commonly produced industrial chemical in the
world. More than 37 million metric tons of it are made each year in the
United States alone. Sulfuric acid is used in large quantities in petrole-
um refining and metallurgy as well as in the manufacture of fertilizer. It
www.scilinks.org is also essential to a vast number of industrial processes, including the
Topic: Acids production of metals, paper, paint, dyes, detergents, and many chemical
Code: HC60012
raw materials. Sulfuric acid is the acid used in automobile batteries.
Because it attracts water, concentrated sulfuric acid is an effective
dehydrating (water-removing) agent. It can be used to remove water
from gases with which it does not react. Sugar and certain other organic
compounds are also dehydrated by sulfuric acid. Skin contains organic
compounds that are attacked by concentrated sulfuric acid, which can
cause serious burns.

Nitric Acid
Pure nitric acid is a volatile, unstable liquid. Dissolving the acid in water
makes the acid more stable. Solutions of nitric acid are widely used in
industry. Nitric acid also stains proteins yellow. The feather in Figure 4
was stained by nitric acid.The acid has a suffocating odor, stains skin, and
can cause serious burns. It is used in making explosives, many of which
are nitrogen-containing compounds. It is also used to make rubber,

FIGURE 4 Concentrated nitric

acid stains a feather yellow.

470 CHAPTER 14
plastics, dyes, and pharmaceuticals. Initially, nitric acid solutions are col-
orless; however, upon standing, they gradually become yellow because
of slight decomposition to brown nitrogen dioxide gas.

Phosphoric Acid
Phosphorus, along with nitrogen and potassium, is an essential element
for plants and animals. The bulk of phosphoric acid produced each year
is used directly for manufacturing fertilizers and animal feed. Dilute
phosphoric acid has a pleasant but sour taste and is not toxic. It is used
as a flavoring agent in beverages and as a cleaning agent for dairy
equipment. Phosphoric acid is also important in the manufacture of
detergents and ceramics.

Hydrochloric Acid
The stomach produces HCl to aid in digestion. Industrially, hydrochloric
acid is important for “pickling” iron and steel. Pickling is the immersion
of metals in acid solutions to remove surface impurities. This acid is also
used in industry as a general cleaning agent, in food processing, in the
activation of oil wells, in the recovery of magnesium from sea water, and
in the production of other chemicals.
Concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid, commonly referred to as
muriatic acid, can be found in hardware stores. It is used to maintain the
correct acidity in swimming pools and to clean masonry.

Acetic Acid
Pure acetic acid is a clear, colorless, and pungent-smelling liquid known
as glacial acetic acid. This name is derived from the fact that pure acetic
acid has a freezing point of 17°C. It can form crystals in a cold room. The
www.scilinks.org
fermentation of certain plants produces vinegars containing acetic acid. Topic: Bases
White vinegar contains 4% to 8% acetic acid. Code: HC60137
Acetic acid is important industrially in synthesizing chemicals used
in the manufacture of plastics. It is a raw material in the production of
food supplements—for example, lysine, an essential amino acid. Acetic
acid is also used as a fungicide.

Bases
How do bases differ from acids? You can answer this question by com-
paring the following properties of bases with those of acids.
1. Aqueous solutions of bases taste bitter. You may have noticed this fact
if you have ever gotten soap, a basic substance, in your mouth. As
with acids, taste should NEVER be used to test a substance to see if
it is a base. Many bases are caustic; they attack the skin and tissues,
causing severe burns.
2. Bases change the color of acid-base indicators. As Figure 5 shows, an FIGURE 5 pH paper turns blue
indicator will be a different color in a basic solution than it would be in the presence of this solution of
in an acidic solution. sodium hydroxide.

ACIDS AND BASES 471

 Wear safety goggles, gloves and an apron.

Materials
Household Acids and Bases • dishwashing liquid, dishwash-
er detergent, laundry deter-
gent, laundry stain remover,
Question fabric softener, and bleach
Which of the household sub- • mayonnaise, baking powder,
stances are acids, and which baking soda, white vinegar,
are bases? cider vinegar, lemon juice,
soft drinks, mineral water,
and milk
Procedure 4. Add a drop or two of the red
• fresh red cabbage
Record all your results in a data cabbage juice to the solution
table. • hot plate
being tested, and note the
color. The solution will turn • beaker, 500 mL or larger
1. To make an acid-base indica-
• beakers, 50 mL
red if it is acidic and green if
tor, extract juice from red cab-
it is basic. • spatula
bage. First, cut up some red
cabbage and place it in a • tap water
large beaker. Add enough Discussion • tongs
water so that the beaker is
half full. Then, bring the mix-
1. Are the cleaning products
acids, bases, or neither?
ture to a boil. Let it cool, and
then pour off and save the 2. What are acid/base character-
cabbage juice. This solution is istics of foods and beverages?
an acid-base indicator.
3. Did you find consumer warn-
2. Assemble foods, beverages, ing labels on basic or acidic
and cleaning products to be products?
tested.
3. If the substance being tested
is a liquid, pour about 5 mL
into a small beaker. If it is a
solid, place a small amount
into a beaker, and moisten it Red cabbage, which contains an
with about 5 mL of water. anthocyanin pigment, can be made
into an acid-base indicator.

3. Dilute aqueous solutions of bases feel slippery. You encounter this

property of aqueous bases whenever you wash with soap.
4. Bases react with acids to produce salts and water. The properties of a
base disappear with the addition of an equivalent amount of an acid.
www.scilinks.org It could also be said that “neutralization” of the base occurs when
Topic: Household Acids and these two substances react to produce a salt and water.
Bases 5. Bases conduct electric current. Like acids, bases form ions in aqueous
Code: HC60762
solutions and are thus electrolytes.

472 CHAPTER 14
 Arrhenius Acids and Bases
Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist who lived from 1859 to 1927,
understood that aqueous solutions of acids and bases conducted electric
current. Arrhenius therefore theorized that acids and bases must pro-
duce ions in solution. An Arrhenius acid is a chemical compound that
increases the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+, in aqueous solution. In
other words, an acid will ionize in solution, increasing the number of
hydrogen ions present. An Arrhenius base is a substance that increases
the concentration of hydroxide ions, OH −, in aqueous solution. Some
bases are ionic hydroxides. These bases dissociate in solution to release
hydroxide ions into the solution. Other bases are substances that react
with water to remove a hydrogen ion, leaving hydroxide ions in
the solution.

Aqueous Solutions of Acids

The acids described by Arrhenius are molecular compounds with ioniz-
able hydrogen atoms. Their water solutions are known as aqueous acids.
All aqueous acids are electrolytes.
Because acid molecules are sufficiently polar, water molecules
attract one or more of their hydrogen ions. Negatively charged anions
are left behind. As explained in Chapter 13, the hydrogen ion in aque-
ous solution is best represented as H3O+, the hydronium ion. The ion-
ization of an HNO3 molecule is shown by the following equation.
Figure 6 also shows how the hydronium ion forms when nitric acid
reacts with water.

HNO3(l) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + NO−3 (aq)

Similarly, ionization of a hydrogen chloride molecule in hydrochloric

acid can be represented in the following way.

HCl(g) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + Cl −(aq)

–
+

+ +

HNO3 H2O H3O+ NO3–

Nitric acid Water Hydronium ion Nitrate ion

FIGURE 6 Arrhenius’s observations form the basis of a definition of

acids. Arrhenius acids, such as the nitric acid shown here, produce hydroni-
um ions in aqueous solution.

ACIDS AND BASES 473

 TABLE 3 Common Aqueous Acids
Strong acids Weak acids
HI + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + I − HSO−4 + H2O ⎯→ H O+ + SO2−
←⎯ 3 4
HClO4 + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + ClO−4 H3PO4 + H2O ⎯→ +
←⎯ H O + H PO
−
3 2 4
HBr + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + Br− HF + H2O ⎯→ H O+ + F −
←⎯ 3
HCl + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + Cl − ⎯→
CH3COOH + H2O ←⎯ H3O+ + CH3COO−
H2SO4 + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + HSO−4 H CO + H O ⎯→ H O+ + HCO−
←⎯
2 3 2 3 3
HClO3 + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + ClO−3 H2S + H2O ⎯→ H O+ + HS−
←⎯ 3
HCN + H2O ⎯→ +
←⎯ H3O + CN
−

HCO−3 + H2O ⎯→ H O+ + CO2−

←⎯ 3 3

Strength of Acids
A strong acid is one that ionizes completely in aqueous solution.A strong
acid is a strong electrolyte. Perchloric acid, HClO4, hydrochloric acid,
HCl, and nitric acid, HNO3, are examples of strong acids. In water,
100% of the acid molecules are ionized. The strength of an acid depends
on the polarity of the bond between hydrogen and the element to which
it is bonded and the ease with which that bond can be broken. Acid
strength increases with increasing polarity and decreasing bond energy.
An acid that releases few hydrogen ions in aqueous solution is a weak
acid. The aqueous solution of a weak acid contains hydronium ions,
anions, and dissolved acid molecules. Hydrocyanic acid is an example of
a weak acid. In aqueous solution, both the ionization of HCN and the
reverse reaction occur simultaneously. In a 1 M solution of HCN there
will be only two H+ ions and two CN − ions out of 100,000 molecules.
The other 99,998 molecules remain as HCN.

⎯→ H O+(aq) + CN −(aq)
HCN(aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ 3

Common aqueous acids are listed in Table 3. Each strong acid ionizes
completely in aqueous solution to give up one hydrogen ion per mol-
ecule. Notice that the number of hydrogen atoms in the formula does not
indicate acid strength. Molecules with multiple hydrogen atoms may not
readily give up each hydrogen. The fact that phosphoric acid has three
hydrogen atoms per molecule does not mean that it is a strong acid.
None of these ionize completely in solution, so phosphoric acid is weak.
Organic acids, which contain the acidic carboxyl group —COOH, are
generally weak acids. For example, acetic acid, CH3COOH, ionizes
slightly in water to give hydronium ions and acetate ions, CH3COO−.

⎯→ H O+(aq) + CH COO−(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ 3 3

A molecule of acetic acid contains four hydrogen atoms. However, only

one of the hydrogen atoms is ionizable. The hydrogen atom in the

474 CHAPTER 14
carboxyl group in acetic acid is the one that is “acidic” and forms the H O

I I
J
hydronium ion. This acidic hydrogen can be seen in the structural dia- HICICIOIH
gram in Figure 7. H acidic hydrogen

Aqueous Solutions of Bases FIGURE 7 Acetic acid contains

Most bases are ionic compounds containing metal cations and the four hydrogen atoms, but only one
hydroxide anion, OH −. Because these bases are ionic, they dissociate of them is “acidic” and forms the
hydronium ion in solution.
when dissolved in water. When a base completely dissociates in water to
yield aqueous OH − ions, the solution is referred to as strongly basic.
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is a common laboratory base. It is water-sol-
uble and dissociates as shown by the equation below.
HO
NaOH(s) ⎯⎯→
2
Na+(aq) + OH −(aq)

You will remember from Chapter 5 that Group 1 elements are the alkali
metals. This group gets its name from the fact that the hydroxides of Li,
Na, K, Rb, and Cs all form alkaline (basic) solutions.
Not all bases are ionic compounds. A base commonly used in house-
hold cleaners is ammonia, NH3, which is molecular. Ammonia is a base
because it produces hydroxide ions when it reacts with water molecules,
as shown in the equation below.

⎯→ NH + (aq) + OH −(aq)
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ 4

Chemistry in Action
Strength of Bases
As with acids, the strength of a base also depends on the extent to which Go to go.hrw.com for a full-length
article on drain cleaners.
the base dissociates, or adds hydroxide ions to the solution. For exam-
ple, potassium hydroxide, KOH, is a strong base because it completely Keyword: HC6ACDX
dissociates into its ions in dilute aqueous solutions.
HO
KOH(s) ⎯⎯→
2
K+(aq) + OH −(aq)

Strong bases are strong electrolytes, just as strong acids are strong elec-
trolytes. Table 4 lists some strong bases.

TABLE 4 Common Aqueous Bases

Strong bases Weak bases
Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ Ca2+ + 2OH− ⎯→ NH+ + OH−
NH + H O ←⎯
3 2 4
Sr(OH)2 ⎯→ Sr2+ + 2OH− ⎯→ C H NH+ + OH−
C6H5NH2 + H2O ←⎯ 6 5 3
Ba(OH)2 ⎯→ Ba2+ + 2OH−
NaOH ⎯→ Na+ + OH−
KOH ⎯→ K+ + OH−
RbOH ⎯→ Rb+ + OH−
CsOH ⎯→ Cs+ + OH−

ACIDS AND BASES 475

 Chloride ion,
Cl−

Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)

Chloride ion, Cl−

Sodium ion,
Na+

Cu(OH)2(s)

Copper(ΙΙ) ion,
Cu2+
Cu2+(aq)
Water molecule,
+ 2OH−(aq) ⎯→ Cu(OH)2(s)
H2O
FIGURE 8 The hydroxides of
most d-block metals are nearly insol-
uble in water, as is shown by the Bases that are not very soluble do not produce a large number of
gelatinous precipitate, copper(II) hydroxide ions when added to water. Some metal hydroxides, such as
hydroxide, Cu(OH)2, in the beaker Cu(OH)2, are not very soluble in water, as seen in Figure 8. They
on the right. cannot produce strongly alkaline solutions. The alkalinity of aqueous
solutions depends on the concentration of OH− ions in solution. It is unre-
lated to the number of hydroxide ions in the undissolved compound.
Now consider ammonia, which is highly soluble but is a weak elec-
trolyte. The concentration of OH− ions in an ammonia solution is rela-
tively low. Ammonia is therefore a weak base. Many organic compounds
that contain nitrogen atoms are also weak bases. For example, codeine,
C18H21NO3, a pain reliever and common cough suppressant found in
prescription cough medicine, is a weak base.

SECTION REVIEW 4. a. Why are strong acids also strong electrolytes?

1. a. What are five general properties of aqueous b. Is every strong electrolyte also a strong acid?
acids?
Critical Thinking
b. Name some common substances that have
one or more of these properties. 5. RELATING IDEAS A classmate states, “All com-
pounds containing H atoms are acids, and all com-
2. Name the following acids: a. HBrO b. HBrO3. pounds containing OH groups are bases.” Do you
3. a. What are five general properties of aqueous agree? Give examples.
bases?
b. Name some common substances that have
one or more of these properties.

476 CHAPTER 14
 Acid Water—A Hidden Menace

Many people are unaware of the pH awhile first could be adding copper 2. In the morning, let your water tap
of the tap water in their home until and lead ions to their tea or coffee. run for about half a minute
they are confronted with such phe- Lead poisoning is of particular before you fill your kettle or drink
nomena as a blue ring materializing concern in young children. The the water. If the water is acidic,
around a porcelain sink drain, a absorption rate of lead in the intesti- the first flush of water will have
water heater suddenly giving out, or nal tract of a child is much higher the highest concentration of lead
tropical fish that keep dying. Each of than in that of an adult, and lead and copper ions.
these events could be due to acidic poisoning can permanently impair a 3. Install an alkali-injection pump, a
water. Acidic water can also cause child’s rapidly growing nervous sys- low-cost, low-maintenance solu-
the amount of lead in the water tem. The good news is that lead poi- tion that can save your plumbing
to rise. soning and other effects of acidic and lessen the risk of lead poi-
The possibility of lead poisoning water in the home can be easily pre- soning from your own water sup-
from home water supplies is a con- vented by following these tips: ply. The pump injects a small
cern. Many older homes still have 1. Monitor the pH of your water on amount of an alkali (usually
lead pipes in their plumbing, while a regular basis, especially if you potassium carbonate or
most modern homes use copper pip- have well water. This can easily sodium carbonate) into your
ing. Copper pipe joints, however, are be done with pH test kits (see water-pressure tank each time
often sealed with lead-containing photograph) that are sold in your well’s pump starts. This
solder. Highly acidic water can leach hardware or pet stores—many effectively neutralizes the acidity
out both the lead from the solder tropical fish are intolerant of of your water.
joints and copper from the pipes water with a pH that is either too
themselves, which turns the sink high (basic) or too low (acidic). Questions
drain blue. In addition, people who The pH of municipal water sup- 1. What is the source of lead conta-
are in the habit of filling their tea plies is already regulated, but mination in water in the home?
kettles and coffee pots in the morn- regularly checking your water’s
2. Does the use of copper water
ing without letting the tap run pH yourself is a good idea.
pipes ensure that your household
water is free from lead?
3. Why does lead poisoning affect
children more severely than it
affects adults?

The pH of your home’s

water supply can be easily www.scilinks.org
monitored using a test Topic: Acid Water
kit, such as the one Code: HC60011
shown here.

ACIDS AND BASES 477

 SECTION 2
Acid-Base Theories
OBJECTIVES
Define and recognize
Brønsted-Lowry acids F or most uses, scientists found the Arrhenius definition of acids and
and bases. bases to be adequate. However, as scientists further investigated acid-
base behavior, they found that some substances acted as acids or bases
Define a Lewis acid and a when they were not in a water solution. Because the Arrhenius defini-
Lewis base. tion requires that the substances be aqueous, the definitions of acids
and bases had to be revised.

Name compounds that are

acids under the Lewis defini-
tion but are not acids under
Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
the Brønsted-Lowry definition.
In 1923, the Danish chemist J. N. Brønsted and the English chemist
T. M. Lowry independently expanded the Arrhenius acid definition. A
Brønsted-Lowry acid is a molecule or ion that is a proton donor. Because
H+ is a proton, all acids as defined by Arrhenius donate protons to water
and are Brønsted-Lowry acids as well. Substances other than molecules,
such as certain ions, can also donate protons. Such substances are not
Arrhenius acids but are included in the category of Brønsted-Lowry acids.
Hydrogen chloride acts as a Brønsted-Lowry acid when it reacts with
ammonia. The HCl transfers protons to NH3 much as it does in water.
HCl + NH3 ⎯→ NH+4 + Cl −
A proton is transferred from the hydrogen chloride molecule, HCl, to
the ammonia molecule, NH3. The ammonium ion, NH+4 , is formed.
Electron-dot formulas show the similarity of this reaction to the reac-
tion of HCl with water.
+
H Cl + H O ⎯→ H O H + Cl −

H H
+
H
H Cl + H N H ⎯→ H N H + Cl −

H H

In both reactions, hydrogen chloride is a Brønsted-Lowry acid.

Water can also act as a Brønsted-Lowry acid. Consider, for example,
the following reaction, in which the water molecule donates a proton to
the ammonia molecule.
⎯→ NH +(aq) + OH−(aq)
H2O(l) + NH3(aq) ←⎯ 4
+
H −
⎯→
H O + H N H →⎯ H N H + O
H H H H

478 CHAPTER 14
 FIGURE 9 Hydrogen chloride gas
escapes from a hydrochloric acid
solution and combines with ammo-
nia gas that has escaped from an
aqueous ammonia solution. The
resulting cloud is solid ammonium
chloride that is dispersed in air.

A Brønsted-Lowry base is a molecule or ion that is a proton acceptor.

In the reaction between hydrochloric acid and ammonia, ammonia
accepts a proton from the hydrochloric acid. It is a Brønsted-Lowry
base. The Arrhenius hydroxide bases, such as NaOH, are not, strictly
speaking, Brønsted-Lowry bases. Instead, it is the OH − ion produced in
solution that is the Brønsted-Lowry base. It is the species that can
accept a proton.
In a Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reaction, protons are transferred from
one reactant (the acid) to another (the base). Figure 9 shows the reaction
between the Brønsted-Lowry acid HCl and the Brønsted-Lowry base
NH3.

Monoprotic and Polyprotic Acids

An acid that can donate only one proton (hydrogen ion) per molecule is
known as a monoprotic acid. Perchloric acid, HClO4, hydrochloric acid,
HCl, and nitric acid, HNO3, are all monoprotic. The following equation
shows how a molecule of the monoprotic acid HCl donates a proton to
a water molecule. The HCl ionizes to form H3O+ ions and Cl − ions. The
Cl − has no hydrogens to lose, so HCl has only one ionization step.

HCl(g) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + Cl −(aq)

A polyprotic acid is an acid that can donate more than one proton per
molecule. Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, and phosphoric acid, H3PO4, are exam-
ples of polyprotic acids. The ionization of a polyprotic acid occurs in
stages. The acid loses its hydrogen ions one at a time. Sulfuric acid

ACIDS AND BASES 479

 ionizes in two stages. In its first ionization, sulfuric acid is a strong acid.
It is completely converted to hydrogen sulfate ions, HSO−4 .

H2SO4(l) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + HSO−4 (aq)

The hydrogen sulfate ion is itself a weak acid. It establishes the follow-
ing equilibrium in solution.

⎯→ H O+(aq) + SO2−(aq)
HSO−4 (aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ 3 4

All stages of ionization of a polyprotic acid occur in the same

solution. Sulfuric acid solutions therefore contain H3O+, HSO−4 , and
SO2−
4 ions. Note that in sulfuric acid solutions, there are many more
hydrogen sulfate and hydronium ions than there are sulfate ions.
Sulfuric acid is the type of polyprotic acid that can donate two pro-
tons per molecule, and it is therefore known as a diprotic acid. Ioniza-
tions of a monoprotic acid and a diprotic acid are shown in Figure 10.
Phosphoric acid is the type of polyprotic acid known as a triprotic
FIGURE 10 Hydrochloric acid, acid—an acid able to donate three protons per molecule. The equations
HCl, is a strong monoprotic acid. for these reactions are shown below.
A dilute HCl solution contains
hydronium ions and chloride ions. ⎯→ H O+(aq) + H PO−(aq)
H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is a strong 3 2 4
diprotic acid. A dilute H2SO4 solu-
⎯→ H O+(aq) + HPO2−(aq)
H PO−(aq) + H O(l) ←⎯
2 4 2 3 4
⎯→ +
4 (aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ H3O (aq) + PO4 (aq)
HPO2−
tion contains hydrogen sulfate ions 3−
from the first ionization, sulfate
ions from the second ionization,
and hydronium ions from both
ionizations.

Hydronium
ion, H3O+
Water Hydronium
molecule, ion, H3O+
H2O

Hydrogen Sulfate
sulfate ion, ion, SO42−
Chloride ion, Cl− HSO4−

HCl + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + Cl− H2SO4 + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + HSO4−

⎯→ H O+ + SO2−
HSO4− + H2O ←⎯ 3 4

480 CHAPTER 14
A solution of phosphoric acid contains H3O+, H3PO4, H2PO−4 , HPO2− 4 ,
and PO3− 4 . As with most polyprotic acids, the concentration of ions
formed in the first ionization is the greatest. There are lesser concentra-
tions of the respective ions from each succeeding ionization. Phospho-
ric acid is a weak acid in each step of its ionization.

Lewis Acids and Bases

The Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions describe most acids and
bases. Both definitions assume that the acid contains or produces
hydrogen ions. A third acid classification, based on bonding and struc-
ture, includes, as acids, substances that do not contain hydrogen at all.
This definition of acids was introduced in 1923 by G. N. Lewis, the
American chemist whose name was given to electron-dot structures.
Lewis’s definition emphasizes the role of electron pairs in acid-base
reactions. A Lewis acid is an atom, ion, or molecule that accepts an
electron pair to form a covalent bond.
The Lewis definition is the broadest of the three acid definitions you
have read about so far. It applies to any species that can accept an elec-
tron pair to form a covalent bond with another species. A bare proton
(hydrogen ion) is a Lewis acid in reactions in which it forms a covalent
bond, as shown below.

H+(aq) + :NH3(aq) ⎯→ [HINH3]+(aq) or [NH4]+(aq)

The formula for a Lewis acid need not include hydrogen. Even a sil-
ver ion can be a Lewis acid, accepting electron pairs from ammonia to
form covalent bonds.

Ag+(aq) + 2:NH3(aq) ⎯→ [H3NIAgINH3]+(aq) or [Ag(NH3)2] +

Any compound in which the central atom has three valence electrons
and forms three covalent bonds can react as a Lewis acid. It does so by
accepting a pair of electrons to form a fourth covalent bond, complet-
ing an electron octet. Boron trifluoride, for example, is an excellent
Lewis acid. It forms a fourth covalent bond with many molecules and
ions. Its reaction with a fluoride ion is shown below.

−
F F
F B + F − ⎯→ F B F
F F
BF3(aq) + F −(aq) ⎯→ BF −4 (aq)

ACIDS AND BASES 481

 TABLE 5 Acid-Base Definitions
Type Acid Base
Arrhenius H+ or H3O+ producer OH− producer
Brønsted-Lowry proton (H+) donor proton (H+) acceptor
Lewis electron-pair acceptor electron-pair donor

The Lewis definition of acids can apply to species in any phase. For
example, boron trifluoride is a Lewis acid in the gas-phase combination
with ammonia.

F H F H
F B + N H ⎯→ F B N H
F H F H

A Lewis base is an atom, ion, or molecule that donates an electron pair

to form a covalent bond. An anion is a Lewis base in a reaction in which
it forms a covalent bond by donating an electron pair. In the example of
boron trifluoride reacting with the fluoride anion, F− donates an elec-
tron pair to boron trifluoride. F− acts as a Lewis base.

−
BF3(aq) + F (aq) ⎯→ BF −4 (aq)

A Lewis acid-base reaction is the formation of one or more covalent

bonds between an electron-pair donor and an electron-pair acceptor.
Note that although the three acid-base definitions differ, many com-
pounds may be categorized as acids or bases according to all three
descriptions. For example, ammonia is an Arrhenius base because OH −
ions are created when ammonia is in solution, it is a Brønsted-Lowry base
because it accepts a proton in an acid-base reaction, and it is a Lewis base
in all reactions in which it donates its lone pair to form a covalent bond.
A comparison of the three acid-base definitions is given in Table 5.

SECTION REVIEW Critical Thinking

1. Label each reactant in the reaction below as a 3. ANALYZING INFORMATION For the following three
proton donor or a proton acceptor and as acidic or reactions, identify the reactants that are Arrhenius
basic. bases, Brønsted-Lowry bases, and/or Lewis bases.
H CO + H O ←⎯⎯→ HCO − + H O+ State which type(s) of bases each reactant is.
2 3 2 3 3
Explain your answers.
2. For the reaction below, label each reactant as an
electron pair acceptor or electron pair donor and a. NaOH(s) ⎯→ Na+(aq ) + OH −(aq )
as a Lewis acid or a Lewis base. b. HF(aq) + H2O(l) ⎯→ F−(aq ) + H3O+(aq )
AlCl3 + Cl− ⎯→ AlCl−4 c. H +(aq ) + NH3(aq ) ⎯→ NH +4 (aq )

482 CHAPTER 14
Acid-Base Reactions SECTION 3

OBJECTIVES
Describe a conjugate acid, a
I n the previous sections, you learned about three acid-base theories: conjugate base, and an
Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis. The Brønsted-Lowry theory is amphoteric compound.
especially useful for describing acid-base reactions that take place in
aqueous solutions. This section will use the Brønsted-Lowry description Explain the process of
to explore reactions between acids and bases. neutralization.

Define acid rain, give exam-

ples of compounds that can
cause acid rain, and describe
Conjugate Acids and Bases effects of acid rain.

The Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases provide a basis for

studying proton-transfer reactions. Suppose that a Brønsted-Lowry acid
gives up a proton; the remaining ion or molecule can re-accept that pro-
ton and can act as a base. Such a base is known as a conjugate base.
Thus, the species that remains after a Brønsted-Lowry acid has given up
a proton is the conjugate base of that acid. For example, the fluoride ion
is the conjugate base of hydrofluoric acid.

⎯→ F −(aq) + H O+(aq)
HF(aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ 3
acid conjugate base

In this reaction, the water molecule is a Brønsted-Lowry base. It

accepts a proton from HF to form H3O+, which is an acid. The hydro-
nium ion is the conjugate acid of water. The species that is formed
when a Brønsted-Lowry base gains a proton is the conjugate acid of
that base.

⎯→ F −(aq) + H O+(aq)
HF(aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ 3
base conjugate acid

In general, Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reactions are equilibrium sys-

tems meaning that both the forward and reverse reactions occur. They
involve two acid-base pairs, known as conjugate acid-base pairs.

⎯→ F −(aq) + H O+(aq)
HF(aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ 3
acid1 base2 base1 acid2

The subscripts designate the two conjugate acid-base pairs: (1) HF and
F − and (2) H3O+ and H2O. In every conjugate acid-base pair, the acid
has one more proton than its conjugate base.

ACIDS AND BASES 483

 Strength of Conjugate Acids and Bases
The extent of the reaction between a Brønsted-Lowry acid and base
depends on the relative strengths of the acids and bases involved.
Consider the following example. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. It gives
up protons readily. Therefore, the Cl − ion has little tendency to attract and
retain a proton. Consequently, the Cl − ion is an extremely weak base.

HCl(g) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + Cl −(aq)

stronger stronger weaker weaker
acid base acid base

This observation leads to an important conclusion: the stronger an acid

is, the weaker its conjugate base; the stronger a base is, the weaker its con-
“It’s a Bitter Pill” jugate acid.
Have you ever wondered about the ori- This concept allows strengths of different acids and bases to be com-
gin of the saying, “It’s a bitter pill to pared to predict the outcome of a reaction. As an example, consider the
swallow”? This saying is used to reaction of perchloric acid, HClO4, and water.
describe a situation that is difficult to
accept. Many medications contain bases, HClO4(aq) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + ClO−4 (aq)
and a bitter taste is a property of bases.
stronger acid stronger base weaker acid weaker base
So, many medications actually have a
bitter taste. If you look at the chemical
formulas of the components of medica- The hydronium ion is too weak an acid to compete successfully with
tions, you will see that they often con- perchloric acid in donating a proton; HClO4 is the stronger acid. In this
tain nitrogen. One such component is reaction, the perchlorate ion, ClO−4 , and H2O are both bases. Because
caffeine, which acts as a stimulant on HClO4 is a very strong acid, ClO−4 is an extremely weak base. Therefore,
the central nervous and respiratory sys- H2O competes more strongly than ClO−4 to acquire a proton. The reac-
tems. Its molecular formula is
tion proceeds such that the stronger acid reacts with the stronger base
C8H10O2N4. Like ammonia, caffeine has
basic properties because it has a nitro- to produce the weaker acid and base.
gen that can accept a proton. Now consider a comparable reaction between water and acetic acid.

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ H3O+(aq) + CH3COO−(aq)

weaker acid weaker base stronger acid stronger base

The H3O+ ion concentration in this solution is much lower than it was in
the HClO4 solution because acetic acid is a weak acid. The CH3COOH
molecule does not compete successfully with the H3O+ ion in donating
protons to a base. The acetate ion, CH3COO−, is a stronger base than
H2O. Therefore, the H2O molecule does not compete successfully with
the CH3COO− ion in accepting a proton. The H3O+ ion is the stronger
acid, and the CH3COO− ion is the stronger base. Thus, the reverse reac-
tion (to the left) is more favorable.
Note that in the reactions for both perchloric acid and acetic acid, the
favored direction is toward the weaker acid and the weaker base. This
observation leads to a second important general conclusion: proton-
transfer reactions favor the production of the weaker acid and the weaker
base. For an acid-base reaction to form products completely, the reac-
tants must be much stronger as acids and bases than the products.
By comparing many different acids and bases, a table of relative
strengths, such as Table 6, can be assembled. Note that a very strong
acid, such as HClO4, has a very weak conjugate base, ClO−4 . The

484 CHAPTER 14
 TABLE 6 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
Conjugate acid Formula Conjugate base Formula
hydriodic acid* HI iodide ion I−
perchloric acid* HClO4 perchlorate ion ClO −4
hydrobromic acid* HBr bromide ion Br−
hydrochloric acid* HCl chloride ion Cl−
sulfuric acid* H2SO4 hydrogen sulfate ion HSO −4
ClO−3

Increasing base strength

chloric acid* HClO3 chlorate ion
nitric acid* HNO3 nitrate ion NO−3
hydronium ion H3O+ water H2O
chlorous acid HClO2 chlorite ion ClO−2
hydrogen sulfate ion HSO −4 sulfate ion SO2−
4
phosphoric acid H3PO4 dihydrogen phosphate ion H2PO −4
hydrofluoric acid HF fluoride ion F−
Increasing acid strength

acetic acid CH3COOH acetate ion CH3COO−

carbonic acid H2CO3 hydrogen carbonate ion HCO −3
hydrosulfuric acid H2S hydrosulfide ion HS−
dihydrogen phosphate ion H2PO−4 hydrogen phosphate ion HPO 2−
4
hypochlorous acid HClO hypochlorite ion ClO−
ammonium ion NH +4 ammonia NH3
hydrogen carbonate ion HCO −3 carbonate ion CO2−
3
hydrogen phosphate ion HPO2−
4 phosphate ion PO3−
4
water H2O hydroxide ion OH−
ammonia NH3 amide ion† NH−2
hydrogen H2 hydride ion† H−

* Strong acids
† Strong bases
strongest base listed in the table, the hydride ion, H −, has the weakest
conjugate acid, H2. In aqueous solutions, all of the strong acids are
100% ionized, forming hydronium ions along with their anion. The acids
below hydronium ion in Table 6 do not ionize 100% in water. Water is
a very weak acid, but it will react as an acid if a very strong base, such
as hydride ion, is present. Such a reaction is illustrated in Figure 11.

Amphoteric Compounds
You have probably noticed that water can be either an acid or a base.
Any species that can react as either an acid or a base is described as
amphoteric. For example, consider the first ionization of sulfuric acid, in
which water acts as a base.

ACIDS AND BASES 485

 FIGURE 11 Calcium hydride,
CaH2, reacts vigorously with water
to produce hydrogen gas.

CaH2(s) + 2H2O(l) ⎯→ Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2H2(g)

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + HSO−4 (aq)

acid1 base2 acid2 base1

However, water acts as an acid in the following reaction.

⎯→ NH +(aq) + OH −(aq)
NH3(g) + H2O(l) ←⎯ 4
base1 acid2 acid1 base2

Thus, water can act as either an acid or a base and is amphoteric.

FIGURE 12 Each oxyacid of chlo- Such a substance acts as either an acid or a base depending on the
rine contains one chlorine atom and strength of the acid or base with which it is reacting. For example, if
one hydrogen atom. They differ in
water reacts with a compound that is a stronger acid than water, water
the number of oxygen atoms they
acts as a base. If water reacts with a molecule that is a weaker acid than
contain. The effect of the changing
OIH bond polarity can be seen in water, water will act as an acid and the other molecule will act as a base.
the increasing acid strength from
hypochlorous acid to perchloric acid.

O
H O Cl H O Cl O H O Cl O H O Cl O
O O

Hypochlorous acid Chlorous acid Chloric acid Perchloric acid

Acidity increases

486 CHAPTER 14
–OH in a Molecule
Molecular compounds containing IOH groups can be acidic or ampho-
teric. The covalently bonded IOH group in an acid is referred to as a
hydroxyl group. For the compound to be acidic, a water molecule must
be able to attract a hydrogen atom from a hydroxyl group. This occurs
more easily when the OIH bond is very polar. Any feature of a mole-
cule that increases the polarity of the OIH bond increases the acidity
of a molecular compound. The small, more-electronegative atoms of
nonmetals at the upper right in the periodic table form compounds with
acidic hydroxyl groups. All oxyacids are molecular electrolytes that con-
tain one or more of these OIH bonds. Such compounds include chloric
and perchloric acids.
Figure 12 shows the electron-dot formulas of the four oxyacids of
chlorine. Notice that all of the oxygen atoms are bonded to the chlorine
atom. Each hydrogen atom is bonded to an oxygen atom. Aqueous solu-
tions of these molecules are acids because the OIH bonds are broken
as the hydrogen is pulled away by water molecules.
The behavior of a compound is affected by the number of oxygen
atoms bonded to the atom connected to the IOH group. The larger the
number of such oxygen atoms is, the more acidic the compound is. The
electronegative oxygen atoms draw electron density away from the H O
OIH bond and make it more polar. For example, chromium forms H C C
three different compounds containing IOH groups, as shown below. H O H

basic amphoteric acidic (a) CH3COOH

Acetic acid
Cr(OH)2 Cr(OH)3 H2CrO4
chromium(II) chromium(III) chromic acid
hydroxide hydroxide

Notice that as the number of oxygen atoms increases, so does the acid-
ity of the compound.
Consider also the compounds shown in Figure 13. In acetic acid, but
not in ethanol, a second oxygen atom is bonded to the carbon atom
connected to the IOH group. That explains why acetic acid is acidic HH
but ethanol is not, even though the same elements form each H C COH
compound. HH

(b) C2H5OH
Ethanol

Neutralization Reactions FIGURE 13 (a) Acetic acid is

acidic. The second oxygen atom on
There are many common examples of acidic compounds reacting with the carbon draws electron density
away from the IOH group, making
basic compounds, each neutralizing the other. Sodium bicarbonate,
the OIH bond more polar.
NaHCO3, and tartaric acid, H2C4H4O6, are two components in baking
(b) Ethanol is essentially neutral.
powder. When water is added, the two compounds produce carbon It has no second oxygen atom, so the
dioxide. The escaping carbon dioxide causes foods, such as biscuits, to O—H bond is less polar than in
rise. Another example is an antacid soothing an overly acidic stomach acetic acid, and is a much weaker
by neutralizing the stomach acid. acid.

ACIDS AND BASES 487

 Strong Acid-Strong Base Neutralization
An acid-base reaction occurs in aqueous solution between hydro-
chloric acid, a strong acid that completely ionizes to produce H3O+,
and sodium hydroxide, a strong base that completely dissociates to pro-
duce OH −. The formula equation for this reaction is written as follows.

www.scilinks.org HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⎯→ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Topic: Salts
Code: HC61347
In an aqueous solution containing 1 mol of sodium hydroxide, NaOH
dissociates as represented by the following equation.

NaOH(aq) ⎯→ Na+(aq) + OH −(aq)

A solution containing 1 mol of hydrochloric acid ionizes as represented

by the following equation.

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + Cl −(aq)

If the two solutions are mixed, as in Figure 14, a reaction occurs

between the aqueous H3O+ and OH − ions. Notice that sodium chloride,
FIGURE 14 When aqueous NaCl, and water are produced. The overall ionic equation is shown
hydrochloric acid, HCl, reacts with below.
aqueous sodium hydroxide, NaOH,
the reaction produces aqueous so- H3O+(aq) + Cl −(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH −(aq) ⎯→
dium chloride, NaCl. Ions that are Na+(aq) + Cl −(aq) + 2H2O(l)
present in each solution are repre-
sented by the models.

Hydronium Chloride ions, Cl− Sodium Hydroxide

ions, H3O+ ions, Na+ ions, OH−

Water
molecule,
H2O

water

evaporation
+

488 CHAPTER 14
 Because they appear on both sides of the overall ionic equation, Na+
and Cl − are spectator ions. The only participants in the reaction are the
hydronium ion and the hydroxide ion, as shown in the following net
ionic equation.

H3O+(aq) + OH −(aq) ⎯→ 2H2O(l)

There are equal numbers of H3O+ and OH− ions in this reaction, and
they are fully converted to water. In aqueous solutions, neutralization is
the reaction of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions to form water
molecules.
Notice that water is not the only product of a neutralization. A salt is
also produced. A salt is an ionic compound composed of a cation from
a base and an anion from an acid.

Acid Rain
Many industrial processes produce gases such as NO, NO2, CO2, SO2,
and SO3. These compounds can dissolve in atmospheric water to pro-
duce acidic solutions that fall to the ground in the form of rain or snow.
For example, sulfur from the burning of oil and coal forms sulfur diox-
ide, SO2. The SO2 is then converted to SO3, sulfur trioxide, which reacts
with water in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid, as shown below.

SO3(g) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H2SO4(aq)

Rainwater is normally slightly acidic, but sometimes rain is very acidic

and is called acid rain. Figure 15 shows a forest that was damaged by
severe acid rain. Acid rain can erode statues and affect ecosystems, such
as water environments and forests. In the 1970s, scientists found that
acid rain was causing the fish populations in some lakes and streams to
decline. When fish are completely eliminated from lakes and streams
because of acid rain, the biodiversity of the ecosystem decreases.
Because of amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1990, a limit was set on FIGURE 15 Acid precipitation
the amount of SO2 that power plants are permitted to emit. This limit causes extensive environmental
has decreased but not eliminated acid rain in the United States. damage.

SECTION REVIEW a. Refer to Table 6 to compare the strengths of

1. Complete and balance the equations for the the two acids in the equation. Do the same for
following acid-base reactions: the two bases.
a. H2CO3 + Sr(OH)2 ⎯→ b. Determine which direction—forward or
reverse—is favored in the reaction.
b. HCIO4 + NaOH ⎯→
c. HBr + Ba(OH)2 ⎯→ Critical Thinking
d. NaHCO3 + H2SO4 ⎯→ 3. INFERRING RELATIONSHIPS Explain how the pres-
ence of several oxygen atoms in a compound con-
2. Consider the equation for acetic acid plus water. taining an −OH group can make the compound
CH3COOH + H2O ⎯→ CH3COO– + H3O+ acidic.

ACIDS AND BASES 489

 CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
Properties of Acids and Bases
Vocabulary • Acids have a sour taste and react with active metals. Acids
binary acid change the colors of acid-base indicators, react with bases to
oxyacid produce salts and water, and conduct electricity in aqueous
Arrhenius acid solutions.
Arrhenius base • Bases have a bitter taste, feel slippery to the skin in dilute
strong acid aqueous solutions, change the colors of acid-base indicators,
weak acid react with acids to produce salts and water, and conduct elec-
tricity in aqueous solution.
• An Arrhenius acid contains hydrogen and ionizes in aqueous
solution to form hydrogen ions. An Arrhenius base produces
hydroxide ions in aqueous solution.
• The strength of an Arrhenius acid or base is determined by the
extent to which the acid or base ionizes or dissociates in aque-
ous solutions.

Acid-Base Theories
Vocabulary • A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor. A Brønsted-Lowry
Brønsted-Lowry acid triprotic acid base is a proton acceptor.
Brønsted-Lowry base Lewis acid • A Lewis acid is an electron-pair acceptor. A Lewis base is an
Brønsted-Lowry acid- Lewis base electron-pair donor.
base reaction Lewis acid-base • Acids are described as monoprotic, diprotic, or triprotic
monoprotic acid reaction depending on whether they can donate one, two, or three pro-
polyprotic acid tons per molecule, respectively, in aqueous solutions. Polyprotic
diprotic acid acids include both diprotic and triprotic acids.

Acid-Base Reactions
Vocabulary • In every Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reaction, there are two
conjugate base conjugate acid-base pairs.
conjugate acid • A strong acid has a weak conjugate base; a strong base has a
amphoteric weak conjugate acid.
neutralization • Proton-transfer reactions favor the production of the weaker
salt acid and weaker base.
• The acidic or basic behavior of a molecule containing IOH
groups depends on the electronegativity of other atoms in the
molecule and on the number of oxygen atoms bonded to the
atom that is connected to the IOH group.
• A neutralization reaction produces water and an ionic com-
pound called a salt.
• Acid rain can create severe ecological problems.

490 CHAPTER 14
 CHAPTER REVIEW

Properties of Acids and Bases Acid-Base Theories

SECTION 1 REVIEW SECTION 2 REVIEW
1. Compare the general properties of acids with 12. Distinguish between a monoprotic, a diprotic,
the general properties of bases. and a triprotic acid. Give an example of each.
2. a. Distinguish between binary acids and oxy- 13. Which of the three acid definitions is the
acids in terms of their component elements broadest? Explain.
and the systems used in naming them.
b. Give three examples of each type of acid. PRACTICE PROBLEMS
3. Identify and describe the characteristic proper-
14. a. Write the balanced equations that describe
ties of five common acids used in industry. Give
the two-step ionization of sulfuric acid in a
some examples of the typical uses of each.
dilute aqueous solution.
4. Although HCl(aq) exhibits properties of an
b. How do the degrees of ionization in the two
Arrhenius acid, pure HCl gas and HCl dissolved
steps compare?
in a nonpolar solvent exhibit none of the prop-
15. Dilute HCl(aq) and KOH(aq) are mixed in
erties of an Arrhenius acid. Explain why.
chemically equivalent quantities. Write the
5. a. What distinguishes strong acids from weak
following:
acids?
a. formula equation for the reaction
b. Give two examples each of strong acids and
b. overall ionic equation
weak acids.
c. net ionic equation
6. H3PO4, which contains three hydrogen atoms
16. Repeat item 15, but mix H3PO4(aq) and
per molecule, is a weak acid, whereas HCl,
NaOH(aq).
which contains only one hydrogen atom per
17. Write the formula equation and net ionic equa-
molecule, is a strong acid. Explain why.
tion for each of the following reactions:
7. a. What determines the strength of an
a. Zn(s) + HCl(aq) ⎯→
Arrhenius base?
b. Al(s) + H2SO4(aq) ⎯→
b. Give one example each of an aqueous solu-
18. Write the formula equation and net ionic equa-
tion of a strong base and an aqueous solution
tion for the reaction between Ca(s) and HCl(aq).
of a weak base.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS Acid-Base Reactions

8. Name each of the following binary acids:
SECTION 3 REVIEW
a. HCl
b. H2S 19. Define and give an equation to illustrate each
9. Name each of the following oxyacids: of the following substances:
a. HNO3 c. HClO3 a. a conjugate base
b. H2SO3 d. HNO2 b. a conjugate acid
10. Write formulas for the following binary acids: 20. a. What is the relationship between the
a. hydrofluoric acid strength of an acid and the strength of its
b. hydriodic acid conjugate base?
11. Write formulas for the following oxyacids: b. What is the relationship between the
a. perbromic acid strength of a base and the strength of its con-
b. chlorous acid jugate acid?
c. phosphoric acid
d. hypochlorous acid

ACIDS AND BASES 491

 CHAPTER REVIEW

21. a. What trend is there in the favored direction a. CO2(g) + H2O(l ) ⎯→

of proton-transfer reactions? b. SO3(g) + H2O(l ) ⎯→
b. What determines the extent to which a c. N2O5(g) + H2O(l ) ⎯→
proton-transfer reaction occurs? 29. Write the formula equation, the overall ionic
22. a. What is meant by the term amphoteric? equation, and the net ionic equation for a neu-
b. Give an example of a substance or ion that tralization reaction that would form each of the
has amphoteric characteristics. following salts.
23. For each reaction listed, identify the proton a. RbClO4 c. CaCl2
donor or acid and the proton acceptor or base. b. BaSO4 d. K2SO4
Label each conjugate acid-base pair. 30. Zinc reacts with 100.0 mL of 6.00 M cold, aque-
a. CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ ⎯→ ous sulfuric acid through single replacement.
H3O (aq) + CH3COO−(aq)
+ a. How many grams of zinc sulfate can be
−
b. HCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) ←⎯ ⎯→ produced?
H2CO3(aq) + OH −(aq) b. How many liters of hydrogen gas could be
c. HNO3 + SO4 ⎯→ HSO−4 + NO−3
2− released at STP?
24. Using the information given in Table 6, deter- 31. A 211 g sample of barium carbonate, BaCO3,
mine the following relative to HF, H2S, HNO3, reacts with a solution of nitric acid to give bar-
and CH3COOH: ium nitrate, carbon dioxide and water. If the acid
a. strongest acid is present in excess, what mass and volume of
b. weakest acid dry carbon dioxide gas at STP will be produced?
c. strongest conjugate base among the four 32. A seashell that is composed largely of calcium
conjugate bases produced by the acids listed carbonate reacts with a solution of HCl. As a
d. weakest conjugate base among the four result, 1500 mL of dry CO2 gas at STP is pro-
conjugate bases produced by the acids listed duced. The other products are CaCl2 and H2O.
25. Explain why the conjugate base of a strong acid a. How many grams of CaCO3 are consumed in
is a weak base and the conjugate acid of a the reaction?
strong base is a weak acid. b. What volume of 2.00 M HCl solution is used
in this reaction?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 33. Acid precipitation is the term generally used to
describe rain or snow that is more acidic than it
26. Complete the following neutralization reactions.
normally is. One cause of acid precipitation is
Balance each reaction, and then write the over-
the formation of sulfuric and nitric acids from
all ionic and net ionic equation for each.
various sulfur and nitrogen oxides produced in
a. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⎯→
volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and thunder-
b. HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) ⎯→
storms. In a typical volcanic eruption, for exam-
c. Ca(OH)2(aq) + HNO3(aq) ⎯→
ple, 3.50 × 108 kg SO2 may be produced. If this
d. Mg(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) ⎯→
amount of SO2 were converted to H2SO4
27. Write the formula equation, the overall ionic
according to the two-step process given below,
equation, and the net ionic equation for the
how many kilograms of H2SO4 would be pro-
neutralization reaction involving aqueous solu-
duced from such an eruption?
tions of H3PO4 and Mg(OH)2. Assume that the 1
solutions are sufficiently dilute so that no pre- SO2 + ⎯ O2 ⎯→ SO3
2
cipitates form.
SO3 + H2O ⎯→ H2SO4
28. Write the balanced chemical equation for each
of the following reactions between water and
the non-metallic oxide to form an acid.

492 CHAPTER 14
 CHAPTER REVIEW

MIXED REVIEW 40. a. Look at Table 7A in the Elements Handbook.

What periodic trends regarding the acid-base
34. Suppose that dilute HNO3(aq) and LiOH(aq) character of oxides do you notice?
are mixed in chemically equivalent quantities. b. How is the nature of the product affected
Write the following for the resulting reaction: by the concentrations of the reactants?
a. formula equation
b. overall ionic equation
c. net ionic equation RESEARCH & WRITING
35. Write the balanced chemical equation for the
reaction between hydrochloric acid and magne- 41. Explain how sulfuric acid production serves as a
sium metal. measure of a country’s economy. Write a report
36. Write equations for the three-step ionization of on your findings.
phosphoric acid, H3PO4. Compare the degree of 42. Performance Conduct library research to find
ionization for the three steps. out about the buffering of solutions. Include
37. Name or give the molecular formula for each of information on why solutions are buffered and
the following acids: what kinds of materials used as buffers. Write a
a. HF f. hydrobromic acid brief report on your findings.
b. acetic acid g. HClO 43. Obtain some pH paper from your teacher.
c. phosphorous acid h. H2CO3 Determine whether the soil around your house
d. HClO4 i. sulfuric acid is acidic or basic. Find one type of plant that
e. H3PO4 would grow well in the type of soil around your
home and one that would not grow well.

CRITICAL THINKING
38. Analyzing Conclusions In the 18th century, ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Antoine Lavoisier experimented with oxides, 44. Antacids are designed to neutralize excess
such as CO2 and SO2. He observed that they hydrochloric acid secreted by the stomach dur-
formed acidic solutions. His observations led him ing digestion. Carbonates, bicarbonates, and
to infer that to exhibit acidic behavior, a sub- hydroxides are the active ingredients in the
stance must contain oxygen. However, today that most widely used antacids. These ingredients act
inference is known to be incorrect. Provide evi- to drive the neutralization reactions. Examine
dence to refute Lavoisier’s conclusion. the labels of several common antacids, and
identify the active ingredients.
45. Design an experiment that compares three
USING THE HANDBOOK brands of antacids in terms of the speed of
symptom relief and amount of acid neutralized.
39. Group 16 of the Elements Handbook contains
a section covering the acid-base chemistry of
oxides. Review this material, and answer the
following questions:
a. What types of compounds form acidic oxides?
b. What is an acid anhydride?
c. What are three examples of compounds that
are classified as acid anhydrides?
d. What types of compounds form basic oxides?
Why are they basic oxides?

ACIDS AND BASES 493

 Math Tutor WRITING EQUATIONS FOR IONIC REACTIONS
Many chemical reactions that occur in water solutions are reactions involving ions.
Soluble ionic compounds dissociate into ions when they dissolve, and some molecular
compounds, including acids, ionize when they dissolve. An ionic equation represents
the species actually present more accurately than an equation that uses full formulas.

Problem-Solving S
• All dissolved substances in ionic reactions are dissociated into ions. Therefore,
soluble ionic compounds are shown as the separated ions in the full ionic equa-
tion. Strong acids and bases are also shown as the separated ions in the full ionic
equation because they are 100% ionized.
• Ions that do not take part in the reaction are called spectator ions. In other words,
spectator ions stay in solution and will be labeled “(aq)” on both sides of the equa-
tion. Eliminating spectator ions reduces the “clutter” of the full ionic equation and
produces a net ionic equation that shows only the species that actually react.

SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2
Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of Write full and net ionic equations for the reaction
aqueous ammonium sulfate and aqueous barium that occurs when hydrochloric acid solution is com-
nitrate to produce a precipitate of barium sulfate. bined with silver nitrate solution.
The balanced formula equation is Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, so it is com-
(NH4)2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) ⎯→ pletely ionized in solution. Silver nitrate is a solu-
2NH4NO3(aq) + BaSO4(s) ble ionic compound, so its ions are separated in
Rewrite the equation in full ionic form; solution. Although most chlorides are soluble, sil-
because ammonium sulfate and barium nitrate ver chloride is not, so silver chloride will precipi-
are soluble, they are written as separated ions: tate. The balanced formula equation is
2NH+4(aq) + SO2− −
4 (aq) + Ba (aq) + 2NO3(aq) ⎯→
2+
HCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) ⎯→
+ −
2NH4 (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) + BaSO4(s) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)
Eliminating spectator ions, NH4+ and NO3−, The full ionic equation is
yields the net ionic equation: H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO−3 (aq) ⎯→
H3O+(aq) + NO−3 (aq) + AgCl(s)
4 (aq) + Ba (aq) ⎯→ BaSO4(s)
SO2− 2+
Eliminate spectator ions to obtain the net ionic
equation:
Cl−(aq) + Ag+(aq) ⎯→ AgCl(s)

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Aqueous copper(II) sulfate reacts with aqueous 2. Write full and net ionic equations for the reac-
sodium sulfide to produce a black precipitate of tion that occurs when a solution of cadmium
copper(II) sulfide. Write the formula equation, chloride, CdCl2, is mixed with a solution of sodi-
the full ionic equation, and the net ionic equa- um carbonate, Na2CO3. Cadmium carbonate is
tion for this reaction. insoluble.

494 CHAPTER 14
 Standardized Test Prep
Answer the following items on a separate piece of paper. 8. Identify the salt that forms when a solution of
MULTIPLE CHOICE
H2SO4 is titrated with a solution of Ca(OH)2.
A. calcium sulfate
1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of B. calcium hydroxide
an acid?
C. calcium oxide
A. An acid changes the color of an indicator.
D. calcium phosphate
B. An acid has a bitter taste.
C. An acid ionizes in water. 9. Which of the following statements is true for
D. An acid produces hydronium ions in water. the reaction below?
HF(aq) + HPO2− ⎯→ − −
4 (aq) ←⎯ F (aq) + H2PO4 (aq)
2. When an acid reacts with an active metal, A. HF is the base.
A. the hydronium ion concentration increases. B. HPO2− 4 is the acid.
B. the metal forms anions. C. F − is the conjugate base.
C. hydrogen gas is produced. D. H2PO−4 is the conjugate base.
D. carbon dioxide gas is produced.
SHORT ANSWER
3. Which of the following is a Brønsted-Lowry
base? 10. How does a strong acid differ from a weak
A. an electron pair donor
acid? Give one example of each.
11. Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in the fol-
B. an electron pair acceptor
lowing reaction:
C. a proton donor HClO2(aq) + NH3(aq) ←⎯ ⎯→ ClO−(aq) + NH+(aq)
2 4
D. a proton acceptor
EXTENDED RESPONSE
4. Which acid is the most commonly produced
industrial chemical? 12. Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, has three hydrogen
A. hydrochloric acid atoms and is classified as a triprotic acid. Acetic
B. acetic acid
acid, CH3COOH, has four hydrogen atoms and
is classified as a monoprotic acid. Explain the
C. nitric acid
difference, and justify your explanation by
D. sulfuric acid drawing the Lewis structure for both acids.
5. Which of the following is a conjugate pair? 13. Write the full equation, ionic equation, and net
A. H+ and OH− ionic equation for the neutralization reaction
B. NH−2 and NH+4 between ammonia and sulfuric acid. Identify the
C. HCl and Cl− spectator ion(s).
D. H2SO4 and SO2− 4
6. What is the formula for acetic acid?
A. CH3COOH
B. HNO3
C. HClO4
D. HCN
7. Which of the following species is the conjugate
acid of another species in the list?
A. PO3−
4
B. H3PO4
C. H2O
D. H2PO4− Double check (with a calculator,
if permitted) all mathematical computations involved
in answering a question.

ACIDS AND BASES 495

 CHAPTER LAB ? INQUIRY
L A B
MICRO
L A B

Is It an Acid or a Base?
OBJECTIVES BACKGROUND
• Design an experiment to solve a chemical When scientists uncover a problem that they need to
problem. solve, they think carefully about the problem and then
use their knowledge and experience to develop a plan
• Relate observations of chemical properties
to identify unknowns. for solving it. In this experiment, you will be given a
set of eight colorless solutions. Four of them are acidic
• Infer a conclusion from experimental data. solutions (dilute hydrochloric acid), and four are basic
• Apply acid-base concepts. solutions (dilute sodium hydroxide). The concentra-
tions of both the acidic and the basic solutions are
MATERIALS 0.1 M, 0.2 M, 0.4 M, and 0.8 M. Phenolphthalein has
been added to the acidic solutions.
• 24-well microplate or 24 small test tubes
First, write a procedure to determine which solu-
• labeled pipets containing solutions tions are acidic and which are basic. Then, carry out
numbered 1–8 your procedure. Next, develop and carry out proce-
• toothpicks dure that allows you to list the acidic and basic solu-
tions in order from lowest to highest concentration.
For other supplies, check with your teacher. As you plan your procedures, consider the proper-
ties of acids and bases that are discussed in Chapter
14. Predict what will happen to a solution of each
type and concentration when you do each test. Then,
compare your predictions with what actually hap-
pens. You will have limited amounts of the unknown
solutions to work with, so use them carefully. Ask
your teacher what additional supplies (if any) will be
available to you.

SAFETY

For review of safety, please see Safety in the

Chemistry Laboratory in the front of your book.

PREPARATION
1. Make two data tables in your lab notebook. For
Data Table 1, make two columns, one labeled
“Acids” and the other labeled “Bases.”

496 CHAPTER 14
 2. In your lab notebook, write your procedure for
determining the concentrations of the solutions.
Ask your teacher to approve your plan, and
request any additional supplies that you will need.
3. Carry out your procedure for determining the
concentrations of the solutions. Record all
observations in your lab notebook, and record
your results in the second data table.

CLEANUP AND DISPOSAL

4. Clean all equipment and your lab
station. Return equipment to its proper
place. Dispose of chemicals and solu-
tions in the containers designated by your
teacher. Do not pour any chemicals down
the drain or in the trash unless your teacher
FIGURE A After adding phenolphthalein indicator, you can more
directs you to do so. Wash your hands
easily determine which solution is acidic and which solution thoroughly before you leave the lab and
is basic. after all work is finished.

CONCLUSIONS
You will record the numbers of the unknown
solutions in the proper column as you identify 1. Analyzing Conclusions: List the numbers of the
them. solutions and their concentrations.
For Data Table 2, make three columns, with 2. Analyzing Conclusions: Describe the test results
the headings “Concentration,” “HCl,” and that led you to identify some solutions as acids
“NaOH.” Record the concentration of each solu- and others as bases. Explain how you deter-
tion as you test it, and then record the concentra- mined the concentrations of the unknown
tions of HCl and NaOH present in the solution. solutions.
2. In your lab notebook, write the steps that you will
use to determine which solutions are acids and EXTENSIONS
which solutions are bases. Figure A shows one test 1. Evaluating Methods: Compare your results with
that you can use to make this determination. those of another lab group. Do you think that
your teacher gave both groups the same set of
3. Ask your teacher to approve your plan and to
solutions? (For example, is your solution 1 the
give you any additional supplies that you will
same as the other group’s solution 1?) Explain
need.
your reasoning.
PROCEDURE 2. Applying Conclusions: Imagine that you are
1. Carry out your plan for determining which helping clean out the school’s chemical store-
solutions are acids and which are bases. As you room. You find a spill of a clear liquid coming
perform your tests, avoid letting the tips of the from a large, unlabeled reagent bottle. What
storage pipets come into contact with other tests would you do to quickly determine
chemicals. Squeeze drops out of the pipets onto if the substance is acidic or basic?
the 24-well plate, and then use these drops for
your tests. Record all observations in your lab
notebook, and then record your results in your
first data table.
ACIDS AND BASES 497
 CHAPTER 15

Acid-Base Titration
and pH
Many of the foods we eat, such as tomatoes, are acidic.

Heirloom Tomatoes
Aqueous Solutions SECTION 1

and the Concept of pH OBJECTIVES

Describe the self-ionization
of water.

Define pH, and give the pH

of a neutral solution at 25°C.
Hydronium Ions and Hydroxide Ions
You have already seen that acids and bases form hydronium ions and Explain and use the pH scale.
hydroxide ions, respectively, in aqueous solutions. However, these ions
formed from the solute are not the only such ions present in an aque- Given [H3O+] or [OH−], find pH.
ous solution. Hydronium ions and hydroxide ions are also provided by
the solvent, water.
Given pH, find [H3O+] or [OH−].
Self-Ionization of Water
Careful electrical conductivity experiments have shown that pure water
is an extremely weak electrolyte. Water undergoes self-ionization, as
shown in the model in Figure 1. In the self-ionization of water, two water
molecules produce a hydronium ion and a hydroxide ion by transfer of a
proton. The following equilibrium takes place.

⎯→ H O+(aq) + OH −(aq)
H2O(l) + H2O(l) ←⎯ 3

Conductivity measurements show that concentrations of H3O+ and www.scilinks.org

OH − in pure water are each only 1.0 × 10−7 mol/L of water at 25°C. Topic: pH
There is a standard notation to represent concentration in moles per Code: HC61129
liter. The formula of the particular ion or molecule is enclosed in brack-
ets, [ ]. For example, the symbol [H3O+] means “hydronium ion concen-
tration in moles per liter,” or “molar hydronium ion concentration.” In FIGURE 1 Water undergoes self-
water at 25°C, [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10−7 M and [OH −] = 1.0 × 10−7 M. ionization to a slight extent. A pro-
The mathematical product of [H3O+] and [OH −] remains constant in ton is transferred from one water
molecule to another. A hydronium
water and dilute aqueous solutions at constant temperature. This
ion, H3O+, and a hydroxide ion,
OH−, are produced.

+ –

+ +

H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH–

ACID-BASE TITRATION AND pH 499

 TABLE 1 Kw at Selected constant mathematical product is called the ionization constant of water,
Temperatures Kw, and is expressed by the following equation.

Temperature Kw = [H3O+][OH −]
(°C) Kw
For example, in water and dilute aqueous solutions at 25°C, the follow-
0 1.2 × 10−15 ing relationship is valid.
10 3.0 × 10−15
Kw = [H3O+][OH −] = (1.0 × 10−7 )(1.0 × 10−7 ) = 1.0 × 10−14
25 1.0 × 10−14
The ionization of water increases as temperature increases.
50 5.3 × 10−14
Therefore, the ion product, Kw , also increases as temperature increases,
as shown in Table 1. However, at any given temperature Kw is always a
constant value. The value 1.0 × 10−14 is assumed to be constant within
the ordinary range of room temperatures. In this chapter, you can
assume that these conditions are present unless otherwise stated.

Neutral, Acidic, and Basic Solutions

Because the hydronium ion and hydroxide ion concentrations are the
same in pure water, it is neutral. In fact, any solution in which [H3O+] =
[OH −] is neutral. Recall from Chapter 14 that acids increase the con-
centration of H3O+ in aqueous solutions, as shown in Figure 2a.
Solutions in which the [H3O+] is greater than the [OH −] are acidic.
Bases increase the concentration of OH − in aqueous solutions, as shown
in Figure 2b. In basic solutions, the [OH −] is greater than the [H3O+].
As stated earlier, the [H3O+] and the [OH −] of a neutral solution at
25°C both equal 1.0 × 10−7 M. Therefore, if the [H3O+] is increased to
greater than 1.0 × 10−7 M, the solution becomes acidic. A solution contain-
ing 1.0 × 10−5 mol H3O+ ion/L at 25°C is acidic because 1.0 × 10−5 is greater
than 1.0 × 10−7. If the [OH −] is increased to greater than 1.0 × 10−7 M, the
solution becomes basic. A solution containing 1.0 × 10−4 mol OH − ions/L
at 25°C is basic because 1.0 × 10−4 is greater than 1.0 × 10−7.

FIGURE 2 (a) Addition of

dry ice, carbon dioxide, to water
increases the [H3O+], which is shown
by the color change of the indicator
bromthymol blue to yellow. The
white mist is formed by condensation
of water vapor because the dry ice is
cold. (b) Addition of sodium perox-
ide to water increases the [OH −],
which is shown by the color change
of the indicator phenolphthalein
to pink. (a) (b)

500 CHAPTER 15
Calculating [H3O+] and [OH–] TABLE 2 Common Strong
Recall that strong acids and bases are considered completely ionized or Acids and Bases
dissociated in weak aqueous solutions. A review of strong acids and
bases is given in Table 2. Because NaOH is a strong base, 1 mol of it will Strong Strong
Acids Bases
yield 1 mol of OH − in an aqueous solution.
HO
HCl LiOH
NaOH(s) ⎯⎯→
2
Na+(aq) + OH −(aq)
HBr NaOH
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
HI KOH
Therefore, a 1.0 × 10−2 M NaOH solution has an [OH −] of 1.0 × 10−2 M, HClO4 RbOH
as shown by the following.
HClO3 CsOH

1.0 × 10−2 mol NaOH 1 mol OH − 1.0 × 10−2 mol OH − HNO3 Ca(OH)2
× = H2SO4 Sr(OH)2
1 L solution 1 mol NaOH 1 L solution
Ba(OH)2
= 1.0 × 10−2 M OH −

Notice that the [OH −] is greater than 1.0 × 10−7 M. This solution is basic.
Because the Kw of an aqueous solution is a relatively constant
1.0 × 10−14 at ordinary room temperatures, the concentration of either
ion can be determined if the concentration of the other ion is known.
The [H3O+] of this solution is calculated as follows.

Kw = [H3O+][OH −] = 1.0 × 10−14

1.0 × 10−14 1.0 × 10−14
[H3O+] = = = 1.0 × 10−12 M
[OH −] 1.0 × 10−2

The [OH −], 1.0 × 10−2 M, is greater than the [H3O+], 1.0 × 10−12 M, as is
true for all basic solutions.
Now consider a 2.0 × 10−4 M HCl solution. Because HCl is a strong
acid, the [H3O+] is 2.0 × 10−4 M, as shown by the following.

HCl(g) + H2O(l) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
2.0 × 10−4 mol HCl 1 mol H3O+ 2.0 × 10−4 mol H3O+
× =
1 L solution 1 mol HCl 1 L solution
= 2.0 × 10−4 M H3O+

Notice that the [H3O+] is greater than 1.0 × 10−7 M. This solution is
acidic. The [OH −] of this solution is calculated as follows.

Kw = [H3O+][OH −] = 1.0 × 10−14

1.0 × 10−14 1.0 × 10−14
[OH −] = = = 5.0 × 10−10 M
[H3O+] 2.0 × 10−4

The [H3O+] is greater than the [OH −] for all acidic solutions.
You may have realized that in order for Kw to remain constant, an
increase in either the [H3O+] or the [OH −] in an aqueous solution caus-
es a decrease in the concentration of the other ion. Sample Problem A
also shows calculation of the [H3O+] and [OH −] of an acidic solution.

ACID-BASE TITRATION AND pH 501

 SAMPLE PROBLEM A
A 1.0  10–4 M solution of HNO3 has been prepared for a laboratory experiment.
a. Calculate the [H3O+] of this solution. b. Calculate the [OH–].

SOLUTION
1 ANALYZE Given: Concentration of the solution = 1.0 × 10−4 M HNO3
Unknown: a. [H3O+] b. [OH −]

2 PLAN HNO3 is a strong acid, which means that it is essentially 100% ionized in dilute solutions.
One molecule of acid produces one hydronium ion. The concentration of the hydronium
ions thus equals the concentration of the acid. Because the ion product, [H3O+] [OH −], is
a constant, [OH −] can easily be determined by using the value for [H3O+].
a. HNO3(l ) + H2O(l ) ⎯→ H3O+(aq) + NO−3(aq) (assuming 100% ionization)
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
mol HNO3
molarity of HNO3 =
1 L solution
mol HNO3 1 mol H3O+ mol H3O+
× = = molarity of H3O+
L solution 1 mol HNO3 L solution
b. [H3O+] [OH −] = 1.0 × 10−14
1.0 × 10−14
[OH −] =
[H3O+]

1.0 × 10−4 mol HNO3 1 mol H3O+ 1.0 × 10−4 mol H3O+
3 COMPUTE a. × = = 1.0 × 10−4 M H3O+
1 L solution 1 mol HNO3 1 L solution
1.0 × 10−14 1.0 × 10−14
b. [OH −] = = = 1.0 × 10−10 M
[H3O+] 1.0 × 10−4
4 EVALUATE Because the [H3O+], 1.0 × 10−4, is greater than 1.0 × 10−7, the [OH −] must be less than
1.0 × 10−7. The answers are correctly expressed to two significant digits.

PRACTICE Answers in Appendix E

1. Determine the hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations in a

solution that is 1 × 10−4 M HCl.
2. Determine the hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations in a
solution that is 1.0 × 10−3 M HNO3.
3. Determine the hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations in a Go to go.hrw.com for
solution that is 3.0 × 10−2 M NaOH. more practice problems
that ask you to calculate
4. Determine the hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations in a concentration of
solution that is 1.0 × 10−4 M Ca(OH)2. hydronium and
hydroxide ions.
Keyword: HC6ABTX

502 CHAPTER 15
 pH
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

100 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−8 10−9 10−10 10−11 10−12 10−13 10−14
[H3O]+

Increasing acidity NEUTRAL Increasing basicity

pH<7 pH>7

FIGURE 3 As the concentration

of hydronium ions increases,
The pH Scale the solution becomes more acidic
and the pH decreases. As the
Expressing acidity or basicity in terms of the concentration of H3O+ or concentration of hydronium ions
OH − can be cumbersome because the values tend to be very small. A decreases, the solution becomes
more convenient quantity, called pH, also indicates the hydronium ion more basic and the pH increases.
concentration of a solution. The letters pH stand for the French words
pouvoir hydrogène, meaning “hydrogen power.” The pH of a solution is
defined as the negative of the common logarithm of the hydronium ion
concentration, [H3O+]. The pH is expressed by the following equation.

pH = −log [H3O+]

The common logarithm of a number is the power to which 10 must

be raised to equal the number. A neutral solution at 25°C has a [H3O+]
of 1 × 10−7 M. The logarithm of 1 × 10−7 is −7.0. The pH is determined as
follows.

pH = −log [H3O+] = −log (1 × 10−7) = −(−7.0) = 7.0

The relationship between pH and [H3O+] is shown on the scale in

Figure 3.
Likewise, the pOH of a solution is defined as the negative of the com-
mon logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration, [OH −].

pOH = −log[OH −]

A neutral solution at 25°C has a [OH −] of 1 × 10−7 M. Therefore, the

pOH is 7.0.
Remember that the values of [H3O+] and [OH −] are related by Kw.
The negative logarithm of Kw at 25°C, 1 × 10−14, is 14.0. You may have
noticed that the sum of the pH and the pOH of a neutral solution at
25°C is also equal to 14.0. The following relationship is true at 25°C.

pH + pOH = 14.0

At 25°C the range of pH values of aqueous solutions generally falls

between 0 and 14, as shown in Table 3.

ACID-BASE TITRATION AND pH 503

 TABLE 3 Approximate pH Range of Some Common Materials (at 25°C)
Material pH Material pH
Gastric juice 1.0–3.0 Bread 5.0–6.0
Lemons 1.8–2.4 Rainwater 5.5–5.8
Vinegar 2.4–3.4 Potatoes 5.6–6.0
Soft drinks 2.0–4.0 Milk 6.3–6.6
Apples 2.9–3.3 Saliva 6.5–7.5
Grapefruit 2.9–3.4 Pure water 7.0
Oranges 3.0–4.0 Blood 7.3–7.5
Cherries 3.2–4.7 Eggs 7.6–8.0
Tomatoes 4.0–4.4 Sea water 8.0–8.5
Bananas 4.5–5.7 Milk of magnesia 10.5

Suppose the [H3O+] in a solution is greater than the [OH −], as is true
for acidic solutions. For example, the pH of an acidic solution at 25°C
with a [H3O+] of 1 × 10−6 M is 6.0.
pH = −log [H3O+] = −log (1 × 10−6) = −(−6.0) = 6.0
The pH of this solution is less than 7. This is the case for all acidic solu-
tions at 25°C. The following calculation shows that the pOH is greater
than 7.0, as is true for all acidic solutions at 25°C.
pOH = 14.0 − pH = 14.0 − 6.0 = 8.0
Similar calculations show that the pH of a basic solution at 25°C is
more than 7.0 and the pOH is less than 7.0. These and other relation-
ships are listed in Table 4. Remember that as the temperature changes,
the exact values will change because the value of Kw changes. However,
the relationship pH + pOH = pKw will remain the same.

TABLE 4 [H3O+], [OH –], pH, and pOH of Solutions

Solution General condition At 25°C
Neutral [H3O+]= [OH −] [H3O+] = [OH −] = 1 × 10−7 M
pH = pOH pH = pOH = 7.0
Acidic [H3O+] > [OH −] [H3O+] > 1 × 10−7 M
pH < pOH [OH −] < 1 × 10−7 M
pH < 7.0
pOH > 7.0
Basic [H3O+] < [OH −] [H3O+] < 1 × 10−7 M
pH > pOH [OH −] > 1 × 10−7 M
www.scilinks.org pH > 7.0
Topic: Acid Rain
pOH < 7.0
Code: HC60008

504 CHAPTER 15
 Calculations Involving pH
If either the [H3O+] or pH of a solution is known, the other can be
calculated. Significant figures involving pH must be handled carefully.
Because pH represents a logarithm, the number to the left of the decimal
only locates the decimal point. It is not included when counting
significant figures. So there must be as many significant figures to the
right of the decimal as there are in the number whose logarithm was
found. For example, a [H3O+] value of 1 × 10−7 has one significant figure.
Therefore, the pH, or −log, of this value must have one digit to the right of
the decimal. Thus, pH = 7.0 has the correct number of significant figures.

Calculating pH from [H3O+]

You have already seen the simplest pH problems. In these problems, the
[H3O+] of the solution is an integral power of 10, such as 1 M or 0.01 M.
The pH of this type of solution is the exponent of the hydronium ion
concentration with the sign changed. For example, the pH of a solution
in which [H3O+] is 1 × 10−5 M is 5.0.

SAMPLE PROBLEM B For more help, go to the Math Tutor at the end of this chapter.
What is the pH of a 1.0  10–3 M NaOH solution?

SOLUTION
1 ANALYZE Given: Identity and concentration of solution = 1.0 × 10−3 M NaOH
Unknown: pH of solution

2 PLAN concentration of base ⎯→ concentration of OH − ⎯→ concentration of H3O+ ⎯→ pH

NaOH is completely dissociated when it is dissolved in water. A 1.0 × 10−3 M NaOH solution
therefore produces a [OH −] equal to 1.0 × 10−3 M. The ion product of [H3O+] and [OH −] is
a constant, 1.0 × 10−14. By substitution, the [H3O+] can be determined. The pH can then be
calculated.

3 COMPUTE [H3O+] [OH −] = 1.0 × 10−14

1.0 × 10−14 1.0 × 10−14
[H3O+] = = = 1.0 × 10−11 M
[OH −] 1.0 × 10−3
pH = −log [H3O+] = −log (1.0 × 10−11) = 11.00

4 EVALUATE The answer correctly indicates that NaOH forms a solution with pH > 7, which is basic.

PRACTICE Answers in Appendix E

1. Determine the pH of the following solutions:

a. 1 × 10−3 M HCl Go to go.hrw.com for
b. 1.0 × 10−5 M HNO3 more practice problems
c. 1 × 10−4 M NaOH that ask you to calculate
d. 1.0 × 10−2 M KOH pH.
Keyword: HC6ABTX

ACID-BASE TITRATION AND pH 505

 Using a Calculator to Calculate pH from [H3O+]
Most problems involve hydronium ion concentrations that are not
equal to integral powers of 10. These problems require a calculator.
Most scientific calculators have a “log” key. Consult the instructions for
your particular calculator.
An estimate of pH can be used to check your calculations. For exam-
ple, suppose the [H3O+] of a solution is 3.4 × 10−5 M. Because 3.4 × 10−5
lies between 1 × 10−4 and 1 × 10−5, the pH of the solution must be
between 4 and 5. Sample Problem C continues the actual calculation of
the pH value for a solution with [H3O+] = 3.4 × 10−5 M.

SAMPLE PROBLEM C For more help, go to the Math Tutor at the end of this chapter.
What is the pH of a solution if the [H3O+] is 3.4  10–5 M?

SOLUTION
1 ANALYZE Given: [H3O+] = 3.4 × 10−5 M
Unknown: pH of solution

2 PLAN [H3O+] ⎯→ pH

The only difference between this problem and previous pH problems is that you will
determine the logarithm of 3.4 × 10−5 using your calculator. You can convert numbers
to logarithms on most calculators by using the “log” key.
3 COMPUTE
pH = −log [H3O+]
= −log (3.4 × 10−5)
= 4.47
On most calculators, this problem is entered in the following steps.

3.4„5–l–

4 EVALUATE The pH of a 1 × 10−5 M H3O+ solution is 5.0. A solution that has a greater concentration of
hydronium ions will be more acidic and will have a pH less than 5. Because the concentra-
tion has two significant figures, the pH will have two figures following the decimal point.

PRACTICE Answers in Appendix E

1. What is the pH of a solution if the [H3O+] is 6.7 × 10−4 M?

2. What is the pH of a solution with a hydronium ion concentration
of 2.5 × 10−2 M?
Go to go.hrw.com for
3. Determine the pH of a 2.5 × 10−6 M HNO3 solution.
more practice problems
4. Determine the pH of a 2.0 × 10−2 M Sr(OH)2 solution. that ask you to calculate
pH.
Keyword: HC6ABTX

506 CHAPTER 15
Calculating [H3O+] and [OH–] from pH
You have now learned to calculate the pH of a solution, given its
[H3O+]. Suppose that you are given the pH of a solution instead. How
can you determine its hydronium ion concentration?
You already know the following equation.

pH = −log [H3O+]

Remember that the base of common logarithms is 10. Therefore, the

antilog of a common logarithm is 10 raised to that number.

log [H3O+] = −pH

[H3O+] = antilog (−pH)
[H3O+] = 10−pH

The simplest cases are those in which pH values are integers. The
exponent of 10 that gives the [H3O+] is the negative of the pH. For an
aqueous solution that has a pH of 2, for example, the [H3O+] is equal to
1 × 10−2 M. Likewise, when the pH is 0, the [H3O+] is 1 M because
100 = 1. Sample Problem D shows how to convert a pH value that is a
positive integer. Sample Problem E shows how to use a calculator to
convert a pH that is not an integral number.

SAMPLE PROBLEM D For more help, go to the Math Tutor at the end of this chapter.
Determine the hydronium ion concentration of an aqueous solution that has a pH of 4.0.

SOLUTION
1 ANALYZE Given: pH = 4.0
Unknown: [H3O+]

2 PLAN pH ⎯→ [H3O+]

This problem requires that you rearrange the pH equation and solve for the [H3O+]. Because
4.0 has one digit to the right of the decimal, the answer must have one significant figure.

pH = −log [H3O+]
log [H3O+] = −pH
[H3O+] = antilog (−pH)
[H3O+] = 1 × 10−pH

3 COMPUTE [H3O+] = 1 × 10−pH

[H3O+] = 1 × 10−4 M

4 EVALUATE A solution with a pH of 4.0 is acidic. The answer, 1 × 10−4 M, is greater than 1.0 × 10−7 M,
which is correct for an acidic solution.

ACID-BASE TITRATION AND pH 507

 SAMPLE PROBLEM E For more help, go to the Math Tutor at the end of this chapter.
The pH of a solution is measured and determined to be 7.52.
a. What is the hydronium ion concentration? c. Is the solution acidic or basic?
b. What is the hydroxide ion concentration?

SOLUTION
1 ANALYZE Given: pH of the solution = 7.52
Unknown: a. [H3O+] b. [OH −] c. Is the solution acidic or basic?

2 PLAN pH ⎯→ [H3O+] ⎯→ [OH −]

This problem is very similar to previous pH problems. You will need to substitute values into
the pH = −log [H3O+] equation and use a calculator. Once the [H3O+] is determined, the
ion-product constant [H3O+] [OH −] = 1.0 × 10−14 may be used to calculate [OH −].

3 COMPUTE a. pH = −log [H3O+]

log [H3O+] = −pH
[H3O+] = antilog (−pH) = antilog (−7.52) = 1.0 × 10−7.52 = 3.0 × 10−8 M H3O+

On most calculators, this is entered in one of the following two ways.

7 . 5 2 – @ ˛ or 7 . 5 2 – @ l

b. [H3O+] [OH −] = 1.0 × 10−14

1.0 × 10−14
[OH −] =
[H3O+]

1.0 × 10−14
= = 3.3 × 10−7 M OH −
3.0 × 10−8
c. A pH of 7.52 is slightly greater than a pH of 7. This means that the solution is slightly basic.

4 EVALUATE Because the solution is slightly basic, a hydroxide ion concentration slightly larger than
10−7 M is predicted. A hydronium ion concentration slightly less than 10−7 M is also pre-
dicted. The answers agree with these predictions.

PRACTICE Answers in Appendix E

1. The pH of a solution is determined to be 5.0. What is the

hydronium ion concentration of this solution?
2. The pH of a solution is determined to be 12.0. What is the
hydronium ion concentration of this solution?
3. The pH of an aqueous solution is measured as 1.50. Calculate the Go to go.hrw.com for
more practice problems
[H3O+] and the [OH −].
that ask you to calculate
4. The pH of an aqueous solution is 3.67. Determine [H3O+]. hydronium ion
concentration.
Keyword: HC6ABTX

508 CHAPTER 15
 TABLE 5 Relationship of [H3O +] to [OH –] and pH (at 25°C)
Solution [H3O+] [OH–] pH
1.0 × 10−2 M KOH 1.0 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−2 12.00
1.0 × 10−2 M NH3 2.4 × 10−11 4.2 × 10−4 10.63
Pure H2O 1.0 × 10−7 1.0 × 10−7 7.00
1.0 × 10−3 M HCl 1.0 × 10−3 1.0 × 10−11 3.00
1.0 × 10−1 M CH3COOH 1.3 × 10−3 7.5 × 10−12 2.87

pH Calculations and the Strength

of Acids and Bases
So far, we have discussed the pH of solutions that contain only strong
acids or strong bases. We must also consider weak acids and weak bases. C ROSS -D ISCIPLINARY
Table 5 lists the [H3O+], the [OH−], and the pH for several solutions. Go to go.hrw.com for a full-length
article on how buffers maintain the
KOH, the solute in the first solution listed, is a soluble ionic com-
acid-base balance in blood.
pound and a strong base. The molarity of a KOH solution directly
indicates the [OH−], and the [H3O+] can be calculated. Once the Keyword: HC6ABTX
[H3O+] is known, the pH can be calculated as in Sample Problem
C. If the pH of this solution is measured experimentally, it will be the
same as this calculated value. Methods for experimentally determin-
ing the pH of solutions will be presented in Section 2. Hydrochloric
acid, HCl, is a strong acid, and similar calculations can be made for
solutions that contain HCl.
Solutions of weak acids, such as acetic acid, CH3COOH, present a
different problem. The [H3O+] cannot be calculated directly from the
molar concentration because not all of the acetic acid molecules are
ionized. The same problem occurs for weak bases such as ammonia,
NH3. The pH of these solutions must be measured experimentally. The
[H3O+] and [OH−] can then be calculated from the measured pH values.

SECTION REVIEW 5. A Ca(OH)2 solution has a pH of 8.0. Determine the

1. What is the concentration of hydronium and following for the solution:
hydroxide ions in pure water at 25°C? a. [H3O+] b. [OH−] c. [Ca(OH)2]
2. Why does the pH scale generally range from 0 to Critical Thinking
14 in aqueous solutions?
6. PREDICTING OUTCOMES Arrange the following
3. Why does a pH of 7 represent a neutral solution at solutions in order from lowest to highest pH: 0.10
25°C? M HCl, 0.10 M H2SO4, and 0.10 M HF.
4. A solution contains 4.5 × 10−3 M HCl. Determine
the following for the solution:
a. [H3O+] b. [OH−] c. pH

ACID-BASE TITRATION AND pH 509

 Liming Streams

In 1987, Dr. Ken Simmons year. The population of all the trout At the same time, the concentration
tested some rainbow trout in dropped significantly. In 1989, of aluminum ion, which is toxic to
the waters of north-central Dr. Simmons and other researchers trout, in the limed area decreased,
Massachusetts’ Whetstone Brook. instituted an experiment to decrease while it increased in untreated parts
He placed the trout in cages in the the acidity of the stream. They creat- of the brook.
brook so that their behavior and sur- ed a system to continuously add cal- The success of the project was
vival could be monitored. Three days cium carbonate, or limestone, in most convincingly demonstrated by
later, they were dead. Acid rain had measured amounts to part of the the stream’s residents. The popula-
lowered the pH level of the water to brook. The limestone, which was tion of brook trout increased; the
a point at which the trout simply ground into a powder, immediately mortality rate of brown trout
could not survive. reacted with the acid, which raised decreased, and for the first time in
Acid rain begins with the fossil the pH level of the water. years, fish actually began to move
fuels that we burn to power our cars The experiment lasted three years into the stream from its source, the
and factories. Those fuels release and managed to raise the average Millers River. In 1991, Dr. Simmons
combustion products that contain sul- pH level of the stream from 5.97 to again tested rainbow trout in the
fur and nitrogen that combine with 6.54, which met the scientists’ goal. waters of the Whetstone. This time,
the water vapor in the they all survived.
atmosphere and turn “We clearly don’t view it as a
the vapor acidic. The solution,” says Dr. Simmons. “It’s a
pH level of normal band-aid approach, but we need
rainwater is about 5.5, data to make intelligent manage-
but levels as low as 4.3 ment decisions as to how useful or
have been recorded. harmful liming could be. And I think
Acid rain lowers the that is the key thing this study has
brook’s pH level, shown. It has provided us with infor-
which significantly mation that we can use.”
affects most of the
organisms living in the
Questions
brook. Some fish, such
1. Describe two possible benefits
as the rainbow trout,
of adding measured amounts of
simply die. Other
CaCO 3, a base, to an acidified
species, such as Whet-
stream.
stone’s brown trout,
will not spawn in 2. What elements are responsible
acidic waters. for acid rain? How do they get
In 1987, brown into rainwater?
trout did not spawn in
Whetstone Brook. The
pH level of the brook Biologists studied trout to determine the effectiveness
averaged 5.97 that of liming Whetstone Brook to raise the pH.

510 CHAPTER 15