JC Excellente Christian Academy Inc.

ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE.LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL. CHRISTIAN VALUES

Blk. 40 Lot 73 Road 1 Minuyan II, CSJDM Bulacan  Estimated internal temperature of the Earth
 Based on the geotherm curve above, it can be
deduced that the mantle is considerably hotter than the
Earth Science crust, and the core is much hotter than the mantle.
WEEK 7  Core-mantle boundary: 3,700°C
 Inner-core – outer-core boundary: 5,000°C±500°C
 Earth’s center: 6,400°C±600°C
Module 3
Lesson 3  How the Earth's internal heat is redistributed
 Simultaneous conduction, convection and radiation
TOPIC: Endogenic Processes (Erosion and Deposition) – Part 1  Convection occurs at the mantle but not between the core and mantle
or even between the asthenosphere and lithosphere (except at sea-
floor spreading zones).The only heat transfer mechanism in these
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY/PRACTICE: transition zones is through conduction.

A. Heat in Earth’s Interior

 The heat generated during the Earth’s formation came from the following
sources: accretion energy, adiabatic compression, core formation energy
and decay of short-lived radio-isotopes.
 Radioactive heat (the heat generated by long-term radioactive decay):
main sources are the four long-lived isotopes (large half- life), namely K40,
Th232, U235 and U238 that continuously produces heat over geologic time.
 Geothermal gradient or geotherm: the temperature increase with depth
into Earth.
How heat is transferred in the Earth’s interior
 Temperature gradient in the crust: ~25°C/km
 Some areas exhibit a much higher gradient as a result of a greater Instruction
concentration of heat at relatively shallow depths. These areas (areas Heat water in the beaker until it boils. Pour coffee or tea into it.
of anomalously high temperature gradient) are exploited for
geothermal energy.
 If temperature was simply a linear function of depth (linear
relationship), we should expect that at depths below 100 km (the
average thickness of the lithosphere), temperature could reach as
much as 2500°C. Partial melting of rocks can occur at this
temperature yet we know that, except for the outer core, the rest of
the Earth is essentially solid. Most of the rocks beneath the surface of
the Earth is solid due to the fact that the geothermal gradient drops
sharply a short distance into the earth and that increasing confining
pressure with depth counteracts the effect of increasing temperature.
 Temperature gradient at the mantle: between 0.5°C/km to 1°C/km.
 B. Magma Formation

 Crust and mantle are almost entirely solid indicating that magma only
forms in special places where pre-existing solid rocks undergo melting.
a. Melting due to decrease in pressure (decompression melting): The
decrease in pressure affecting a hot mantle rock at a constant
temperature permits melting forming magma. This process of hot
mantle rock rising to shallower depths in the Earth occurs in mantle
plumes, beneath rifts and beneath mid-ocean ridges.
b. Melting as a result of the addition of volatiles—compounds that have
low boiling points (flux melting): When volatiles mix with hot, dry rock, Schematic diagram showing different zones where melting occurs
the volatile decreases the rock’s melting point and they help break the
chemical bonds in the rock to allow melting. EVALUATION:
c. Melting resulting from heat transfer from rising magma (heat transfer
melting): A rising magma from the mantle brings heat with it and 1. What are the two categories of the source of Earth’s internal heat? Give
transfer heat to their surrounding rocks at shallower depths which may examples.
melt. 2. How is the Earth's internal heat redistributed?
3. Differentiate decompression melting and flux melting.
 Places where magma can form: 4. Describe how magma is formed.
5. Cite three tectonic settings where magma is formed.
 Mid-oceanic ridges: the rising magma in mantle convection cell
6. Cite an example of a tectonic setting where two melting processes occur
brings heat to the surface, transferring heat to the overlying rocks.
simultaneously to generate magma.
The transfer of heat due to convection is accompanied by a decrease
7. Are there any significance or relations of magmatic formation and their
in pressure or "decompression" associated with the spreading of the
eventual rise to the shallower depths to our daily lives?
lithospheric plates. These two work in tandem promoting the partial
melting of rocks along the spreading center.
 Mantle plumes (hot spots): Similar to mid-oceanic ridges, the
transfer of heat and decompression result to magma generation. The
source of heat for mantle plumes is much deeper.
TOPIC: Endogenic Processes (Erosion and Deposition) – Part 2
 Subduction zones: Oceanic crustal rocks are formed along
spreading centers, typically beneath several kilometers of seawater. INSTRUCTION /DELIVERY/PRACTICE:
The presence of water during generation results to the formation of
hydrous minerals. As the oceanic slab is down-thrusted along A. Why And How Magma Rises Up
subduction zones, the change in temperature and pressure conditions
brings about mineral instability (e.g. hydrous minerals) and the  Density contrast: magma is less dense than the surrounding country
release of water to the surrounding hot rocks. rock. Magma rises faster when the difference in density between the
magma and the surrounding rock is greater.
The introduction of water effectively lowers the melting temperature of rocks
 At deeper levels, magma passes through mineral grain boundaries
and therefore causes partial melting or magma generation.
and cracks in the surrounding rock. When enough mass and
buoyancy is attained, the overlying surrounding rock is pushed aside
as the magma rises. Depending on surrounding pressure and other
 factors, the magma can be ejected to the Earth’s surface or rise at silica content and volatile content control the viscosity of magma. Use the
shallower levels underneath table below to clarify the effects of different factors on magma viscosity.

 Different factors that affect magma’s viscosity.

Factor Effect to Viscosity
↑ temperature ↓ viscosity

↑ Silica content (SiO2) ↑ viscosity

↑ dissolved water (H2O) ↓ viscosity

 Mafic magma is less viscous than silicic (felsic) magma because it is
hotter and contains less silica. Also, the volatiles in magma decreases
viscosity.
B. The Bowen’s Reaction Series
 Certain minerals are stable at higher melting temperature and crystallize
before those stable at lower temperatures.
 Crystallization in the continuous and discontinuous branches takes place
at the same time.
Two processes as magma rises up: (1) ejected out to the surface through
volcanoes (2) solidifies within the shallower levels.  Continuous branch: contains only plagioclase feldspar, with composition
 At shallower levels, magma may no longer rise because its density is changing from calcium-rich to sodium rich as temperature drops.
almost the same as that of the country rock. The magma starts to  Discontinuous branch describes how ferromagnesian minerals in the
accumulate and slowly solidifies. magma are transformed as temperature changes. The early formed
crystals, olivine in this case, reacts with the remaining melt as the magma
cools down, and recrystallizes into pyroxene. Further cooling will
transform pyroxene into amphibole. If all of the iron and magnesium in the
melt is used up before all of the pyroxene recrystallizes to amphibole,
then the ferromagnesian minerals in the solid rock would be amphibole
and pyroxene and would not contain olivine or biotite.

The magma chamber and rising magma.

 Viscosity: a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Magmas with low

viscosity flow more easily than those with high viscosity. Temperature,
 1. Crystal Fractionation – a chemical process by which the composition of a
liquid, such as magma, changes due to. There are several mechanisms for
crystal fractionation. One that is directly related to the Bowen’s reaction
series is crystal settling.
 Crystal settling - denser minerals crystallize first and settle down
while the lighter minerals crystallize at the latter stages. Bowen’s
reaction series shows that denser minerals such as olivine and Ca-
rich plagioclases form first, leaving the magma more silicic.

2. Partial Melting – as described in Bowen’s reaction series, quartz and

muscovite are basically formed under low temperature conditions, making
them the first ones to melt from the parent rock once exposed in higher
temperature and/or pressure. Partial melting of an ultramafic rock in the
mantle produces a basaltic magma.

Generalized Bowen’s reaction series 3. Magma mixing – this may occur when two different magma rises up, with the
more buoyant mass overtakes the more slowly rising body. Convective flow
 Important concepts derived from the Bowen’s reaction series: then mixes the two magmas, generating a single, intermediate magma.
o A mafic magma will crystallize into pyroxene (with or without olivine) and
calcium-rich plagioclase ̶that is, basalt or gabbro ̶if the early formed 4. Assimilation/contamination of magma by crustal rocks - a reaction that
crystals are not removed from the remaining magma. Similarly, an occurs when the crust is mixed up with the rising magma. As magma rises to
intermediate magma will crystallize into diorite or andesite, if early formed the surface, the surrounding rocks which it comes in contact with may get
minerals are not removed. dissolved (due to the heat) and get mixed with the magma. This scenario
produces change in the chemical composition of the magma unless the
o If minerals are separated from magma, the remaining magma is more
material being added has the same chemical composition as the magma.
silicic than the original magma. For example, if olivine and calcium-rich
plagioclase are removed the residual melt would be richer in silicon and
sodium and poorer in iron and magnesium. EVALUATION:
o When rocks are heated in high temperatures, minerals will melt in reverse
order, going up the series in the Bowen’s reaction series diagram. Quartz 1. Describe how viscosity affects the movement of magma. Compare the
and potassium feldspar would melt first. If the temperature is raised viscosity of basaltic and granitic magmas.
2. True or False: Magmatic differentiation is the process of creating one or more
further, biotite and sodium-rich plagioclase would contribute to the melt.
secondary magmas from single parent magma.
Any minerals higher in the series would remain solid unless the
3. How does magma composition change during crystallization?
temperature is raised further. 4. What are the two branches of the Bowen’s reaction series? Give one mineral
example for each branch.
C. Different processes by which the composition of magma may change 5. What is the Bowen’s reaction series?
Magmatic differentiation is the process of creating one or more secondary 6. Rising magma assimilates crustal rocks but does not result in any change in
magmas from single parent magma. the composition of the resulting magma. In what condition/s can this occur?