Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement: (8604)

Assignment # 1

(Units: 1-5)

Level B.ED (1.5 years) Autumn 2020

Submitted by : Amna Rafique

QUESTION # 01

Discuss the term “Research”. Explain the need, scope and concept of scientific research in education
with examples.

Educational research is considered to be a ‘prominent key’ which is essential to the opening of new
doors in education. Educational research must be squarely aimed at finding solutions to unsolved
problems, at creating ways and at devising new media to meet certain functional needs which have
never been met before, at finding better process and content than those currently in vogue. It cannot be
simply 'library research'; it must be research and development, tied to action.

Concept of Research in Education:

According to J.W. Best (1992) research is an “intellectual activity which brings to light new knowledge or
corrects previous error-and misconceptions and adds in an orderly way to the existing corpus of
knowledge.”
The term 'research and scientific method' are often used synonymously and 'research is considered to
be more formal' systematic intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. There are
seven elements of scientific process namely: -

 Purposeful Observation;
 Analysis – Synthesis;
 Selective Recall;
 Hypothesis;
 Verification by Inference and Experimentation;
  Reasoning by: (a) Method of Agreement, (b) Method of Disagreement, (c) Method of
Concomitant Variation, (d) Method of Residues, and (e) Joint Method of Agreement and
Disagreement;
 Judgment.

It might be helpful to highlight some of the accepted connotations of research. These includes:

I. Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools,
instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than
would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem than would be possible facts,
analyses these critically, and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves original
work instead of mere exercise of personal opinion. It evolves from a genuine desire to know
rather than a desire to prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only 'what' but
'how much', and measurement is therefore, a central feature of it.
II. Research 'per se' constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a method of
critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating hypothesis or
suggested solution; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
III. The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method, interpreted in its broader
sense, to the solution of educational problems; conversely, any systematic study designed to
promote the development of education as a science can be considered educational research.
Best (1992) thinks, “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process
of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of
investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of
result or conclusions.”
IV. Moreover, research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks
questions which have not been asked, it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite
procedure, is not a mere theorizing, rather it is an attempt to elicit facts and to face them once
they have assembled.
V. Research is also called a kind of human behaviour. However, one general definition of research
would be that which refers to the 'activity' of collecting information in an orderly and
systematic fashion. Research is literally speaking a kind of human behaviour, and 'activity' in
which people engage. In education, teachers, administrators, scholars, or others engage in
educational research when they systematically assemble information about schools, school
children, the social matrix in which a school system is determined, the characteristics of the
learner or the interaction between the school and pupils.
VI. Educational research is normally considered as scientific research. The educational research is
meant here 4ie whole of the efforts carried out by public or private bodies in order to improve
educational methods and educational activity in general whether involving scientific research
and a. high level or more modest experiments concerning the school system and educational
methods.
Need of Research

The following points will justify the need for educational research.

1. Rapid Expansion and Democratization of Education. Need for research in education to improve
educational policies and practices is being realized increasingly. Research in education has
assumed greater urgency because of the very rapid expansion and democratization of education
throughout the world during the last decade.
2. Technological Changes. The rapid technological changes have brought an increase in
educational problems and both laymen and educators have felt that they can no longer depend
upon trial and error. No amount of experience gathered and no amount of wisdom collected in
the form of casual observations, traditions or recommendations of groups or individuals can
ever promise rapid progress and improvement as is needed all over the world. Therefore,
educationists are constantly searching for effective methods of instruction, more satisfactory
techniques of evaluation, richer learning materials, more efficient system of administration and
better human relations. Just as the sociologists, the anthropologists, and economists are
carrying on research, so is the case with the educationists.
3. New Demands on Education. With educational research it may not be possible to develop new
curricula, new teaching methods and new teaching materials to meet the new demands placed
on the educational systems .of the world. Robert M.W. Travers in 'An Introduction to
Educational Research' has. stated that educational research forms an indispensable basis for any
“national organization of education, especially as regards curricula, syllabuses and methods as
well as for financing education, for its planning, and for the building of schools.”
4. Interdisciplinary Approach to Education. Education is a growing science and its foundations are
to be explored for a study of the subject as an interdisciplinary approach. It is, therefore, almost
imperative to study education in its proper perspectives. Philosophy is the cornerstone of the
foundation of education and psychology provides the bricks and mortar for laying the
foundation of education on a scientific basis. Educational research is thus an indispensable
development for its growth. Thus we can hardly afford to think of education in isolation to-day.
5. Knowledge Explosion and the Need for Educational Research. World has witnessed an
unprecedented explosion of knowledge. Since education depends on a corpus of knowledge, the
need for research arises to study the changes in various disciplines and to make necessary
adjustments in educational philosophy, programme and policies. The means, methods and
machinery of education need change in the light of a progressive social milieu, and changing
economic, political and social set-up.
6. Education and Productivity. Education and productivity are positively correlated and education
needs planning according to manpower needs which in its turn is based on research.
7. Scarce Resources and Optimum Development. It is through research only that we come to know
how best to utilize the available resources for achieving best results.
8. Spirit of Research is Needed Everywhere. A spirit of enquiry adds to competence and scholarship
in the researcher.
 9. Research is needed to keep out of fixed track. Research enables an individual in changing his
conservative outlook. It keeps us out of fixed track by making us mentally alive.
Scope of Research in Education
The importance of educational research in national development is now being increasingly
realized all over the world. This is apparent from the educational progress in developing
countries, particularly from the fact that education had become more and more effective,
dynamic and purposeful in countries where research has flourished. It is on the bases of
research that the function of education has been broadened. Educational research has a great
bearing on the role of education in introducing social and economic charges.
Applicability of the Scientific Method:
The scientific method is a tool that investigators use to solve diverse types of problems. A
worker engaged in pure research uses this method to ferret out new knowledge about the
mysteries of the universe. A worker engaged in applied research uses it to develop a new
product that will improve some existing condition. As J. R. Angell, a former president of Yale
University, pointed out, “The objects of research in pure science and the motives inspiring the
work may be appreciably different from those encountered in the field of applied science. But
the technique of the procedure in the two cases may be all but indistinguishable” (4:27). The
scientific method provides a key to advances in both pure and applied research.

QUESTION # 02

Discuss different research paradigms. Highlight various necessary qualities of a researcher.

Educational Research has a critical role of play in guiding educational planning. Adequate educational
planning depends for its success on a systematic knowledge of the social resources and liabilities of the
people and their culture, of their similarities and differences of the organizations and operative controls
of their needs and problems etc. Any effort at educational planning is bound to fail if it is based on
fictitious assumptions of planners as to what the consumers of planning need. What their problems are,
what they want remedied and what kind of system they want as an emergent product of planning.
Educational planning or for that matter any planning requires a store of reliable, factual knowledge on
which basis the difficulties in its implementation can be anticipated and guarded against. Such a
foundation of systematically gathered knowledge affords a basis for evaluating the net gains of planning
for the educational system in question. Educational research is of immense help in securing such
knowledge.- It is obvious that educational research has direct implications for social and economic
welfare. By virtue of the deeper understanding of the causal nexus underlying social and economic
'maladies' educational research provides a secure basis for effective remedial measure. Educational
researchers analyse the problem in the total context and as such are in a better position to suggest
suitable remedies.

Question such as what are the tangible indices or referents of modernization of education can very
effectively be solved through educational research. Pakistan is a welfare State which has to provide
services for the benefit of the weaker and vulnerable section of the population. Such social welfare
services including education, in order' to be beneficial and fruitful, have to be based on reliable
information about people whose welfare is being contemplated. The foregoing discussion should make
it abundantly clear that educational research has to play an important role in not only the educational
reconstruction but also social and economical re-construction in Pakistan. To the question “of what use
is educational research?” We may reply “of what use is a new-born child?” in the manner of Benjamin
Franklin when asked about the utility of his findings about the relationship between thunder-clouds and
electricity.

 Basic Research This type of research is also regarded as fundamental/pure research. It builds up
broad generalizations, principles and theories of education. It results in the discovery of useful
concepts such as those of motivation, reinforcement, concept formation etc. It is not concerned
with day to day problems.
The basic research has the following characteristics.
1. It aims at developing educational theories and principles that will be applicable to a broad
population.
2. It requires expert training.
3. It makes use of a wide range of methods to locate the research problem.
4. Highly specific hypothesis are developed.
5. It involves careful attention so that error is reduced to the minimum.
6. It calls for a complex analysis of data
7. The generalizations usually remain confined to books and research reports.
 Applied Research This type of research is also called functional research. Education like
Medicine is an applied science. Walter R. Borg (1987,P.11) has stated, “The primary function of
research in education as in medicine--is to find improvements for education or medicine both to
be understood as fields of human actions, not as fields of knowledge.” Applied research does
not aims at solving the practical problems which are faced by the teachers, educational
planners, administrators, curriculum specialists etc. Applied research deals with problems of
practical value. Applied research is less rigorous than the basic research. Applied research
involves both the classroom teacher and the research specialist. The comparison of applied
versus basic research is discussed as under:
It is argued that in a country having limited resources, research should be given a practical
orientation. Researches that do not shave apparent relevance to the solution of practical
problems are considered an unnecessary luxury. The contrary point of view asserts that in the
absence of sound analytical concepts there are obvious limitations to the extent to which
applied research is possible. Not only will the lack of conceptual refinement improvise analysis
and limit methodological sophistication, it will also result in a constricted perception of cause
and effect relationships.
 Historical Research The use of historical sources and techniques in the field of educational
research is known as historical research method. Historical research justifies itself when used to
find out the solutions of the present day problems on the basis of the experiences of the past.
However, the value of historical research in education is given as under:
1. It inspires respect for sound scholarship and reverence for great teachers.
2. The history of education enables the educational worker to dete fads and frills.
 3. The history of education enables the educational worker to vie present educational problems
in the light of their origin and growth.
4. Past educational experiences my serve as a basis for tentative generalizations in analyzing
current educational issues and problem
Historical research has certain characteristics which are given below:
1. It is based on reports of observations which cannot be repeated.
2. It is liable to be subjective.
3. In history, rational process of analysis and inference is verbalized.
4. Science predicts the future course of events, and history uses preserve evidence to retrodict
the past.
 Descriptive Research This type of research is also called normative, survey research. It concerns
itself with the present phenomena in terms of conditions, practices, beliefs, process,
relationships or trends is variously termed as descriptive survey - status, normative or trend
study or survey.
Descriptive research has the following characteristics.
1. It is concerned not with the characteristics, of individuals but with characteristics of the
whole population or a sample thereof.
2. It collects data from a relatively large number of subjects
3. It provides information useful to the solution of local problems.
4. Its scope is very vast.
5. Surveys may be qualitative of quantitative.
6. Descriptions may be' either verbal or expressed in mathematical terms.
In solving a problem one has to evaluate the present conditions and then seek information
concerning 'what we may want' and 'how to reach there’. Normative-a survey research may
involve one of more of these elements in different situations.

This type of research helps in locating existing problems, in securing historical perspective
through a series of cross-sectional pictures' of similar conditions at different timed, in
suggesting the course of future developments, in developing many tools, in contributing to
the advancement of knowledge and in providing the background ideas and data from-which
many more studies may be conducted.
 Experimental Research J.W. Best (1992, P.110) describes experimental research as the
description and analysis of what will be or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions.
According to carter V. Good, and Douglas E. Scates (1954, P.809) "Experimentation is the name
given to the type of educational research in which the investigator controls the educative
factors to which a child or group of children is subjected during the period of inquiry, and
observes the resulting achievements."
Experimentation in education is not a perfectly precise method. There are many variables in
education which are extremely difficult or even impossible to control. The basic condition of
other things being equal' is difficult for fulfillment in educational research. All experiments in
education are ultimately experiments with children who for ethical reasons must not be
 subjected to conditions that may harm them. There are boundaries of a moral character for
experimentation which must not be infringed.

There are many areas in which experimental studies in education can approximate strictly
empirical research. For example, the teaching of spelling through different methods, difference
between the effect of the authoritarian and the democratic set up in education are problems
which have been handled in a scientific way through the experimental approach.
The following .are the major steps in experimental research.
1. Planning the experiment.
2. Conducting the experiment.
3. Reporting the results.

QUESTION # 03

What are internal and external threats to validity when an experimental research is conducted study
the effects of audio visual aids in teaching the science?

According to Travers, “Experimentation may occur within the laboratory or outside it Laboratory studies
usually require relatively small numbers of subjects and the careful control of many factors that cannot
be controlled in other situations. When experimentation requires equipment or complex apparatus, it
may be necessary to work within the laboratory. Of course, the laboratory itself introduces variables,
which it may be desirable to control but which cannot be controlled easily. For instance, human subjects
who are introduced into a laboratory except to behave in a certain way, or at least feel that the situation
calls for certain kinds of responses.”

Walter R. Borg. Thinks “The experiment is the ultimate form of research design, providing the most
rigorous test of hypothesis that is available to the scientist”.

According to John W. Best, “Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be, or
what will occur, under carefully controlled situation.”

Georg. G. Mouly describes this method as, “Experimentation can be considered a “technique of
deliberately staging a situation designed to force nature to provide a 'yes' or 'no' answer to Specific
hypothesis concerning the phenomenon under discussion. “The same writer thinks that an experiment
'must be self-contained’ and this in turn, calls for the satisfaction of three basic interrelated conditions:

 Control.
 Randomization,
 Replication.

An experiment cannot be interpreted accurately unless these conditions are fulfilled.

Main Features of the Experimental Method:

 1. Experimentation involves an attempt to control all essential factors except a single variable,
which is manipulated with a view to determine and measure the effects of its operation.
2. It has been applied with considerable success in the classroom by controlling significant factors
within certain limits.
3. In educational research, the basic condition of other things being equal’ is difficult for
fulfillment. In education we deal with those subjects i.e., human beings who are complex.
4. The control group and experimental group are never as identical as they ought to be for an
exact experiment.
5. Experimental studies in education though never strictly empirical can yet approximate strictly
empirical research in many areas.
6. All experiments in education are ultimately experiments with children. It is, therefore, very
important from ethical point of view that they are not subjected to conditions that may harm
them.

In most experimental researches carried outside the laboratory a number of extraneous variables tend
to confound the result in such a way that, it is difficult to evaluate their influence on the result. When
such extraneous variables are affecting the results it becomes difficult to conclude that changes
observed in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable. The extraneous variables in
effect introduce rival hypotheses which could account for the observed changes not attributable to the
experimental variable under consideration. Although these extraneous variables cannot be completely
eliminated a researcher should be able to identify and anticipate them, and take possible measures to
minimize their influence through appropriate research design and careful execution. In order that the
conclusions arrived at through an experimental research are accepted as true, the experiment must
have internal and external validity.

 Internal Validity Internal validity is the basic minimum limit necessary to make the results of
the experiment interpretable. Internal validity questions whether the experimental treatment
really makes a difference in the dependent variable. An adequate answer to this question
requires adequate internal validity. Before it can be answered, the researcher must be
confident that extraneous variables have not produced an effect that is being mistaken as an
affect of the experimental treatment. According to Best, an experiment has internal validity to
the extent that the factors that have been manipulated (independent variables) actually have a
genuine effect on the observed consequences (dependent variables) in the experiment setting.

 External Validity The value of an experimental research lies in its ability to provide a basis for
generalizing from a sample to the total population. The conclusion of a research study that
spaced drill improved spelling more quickly among ten students of class IV in Pir Sohawa than
regular drilling has very little practical value unless the research enables us to generalize to all
primary school children.

External validity concerns the power of the experiment to generalize variable relationship Lu a
wider population of interest and to non - experimental settings. Achieving external validity is
 difficult but sound experimental design, appropriate statistical analysis and many replications
with varied population samples in a variety of settings may minimize the problem. (Best: 153)

Experimental validity is an ideal to aspire to, for it is unlikely that it can ever be completely
achieved. Internal validity is very difficult. to achieve in the non laboratory setting of the
behavioral experiment where there are so many extraneous variables to attempt to control.
When experimental controls are tightened to achieve internal validity, the more artificial, less
realistic situation may prevail, reducing the external validity or generalizability of the
experiment. Some comparison is inevitable so that a reasonable balance may be established
between control and generalizability between internal and external validity.

In order to gain maximum experimental validity, some efforts are made in improving the experimental
designs, which are rarely, if ever, prefect. According to William Wersma, both internal and external
validity are important, and through experimental design we attempt to embrace adequate validity. Since
enhancing one type of validity may tend to jeopardize the other, we often attempt to secure an
adequate compromise. The compromise is essentially that of attaining sufficient control to make the
result interpretable while maintaining enough realism so that the results will generalize adequately to
the intended situations.

QUESTION # 04

Define experimental research. what are the different experimental design used in the experimental
research?

An experiment is a scientific device for obtaining an answer to the question, "If this is done, under
carefully controlled conditions, what will happen?" An experiment is a situation in which the
relationship between cause and effect is determined. The underlying logic being: If two situations are
alike in every respect and if one element is added to one but not to the other, the resultant difference
may be considered to be the effect of the element added. Similarly, if two situations are alike in every
respect and one element is removed from one situation but not from the other, any observable
difference may be attributed to the element removed.

Major Components of an Experiment In a simple conventional experiment, reference is usually made to

an experimental group and to a control group. The Experimental group is exposed to the influence of
the factor under consideration and the control group is not exposed to it. Observations are then made
to determine what difference appears or what change or modification occurs in the experimental group
as contrasted with the control group. For example, an educational administrator wants to recommend
the purchase of some special type of furniture for primary school students in the schools under his/her
supervision. But before he makes such recommendations, he/she wants to we the superiority of this
special furniture over two traditional type of furniture in these schools. We can very easily conduct an
experiment on random by selected students and dividing them in two unbiased groups and exposing
one group to that special type of furniture and not exposing the other group to the special furniture (i.e.
continue use of the old type of furniture). The effect of the new furniture on the desired aspect i.e. the
physical growth of the students or on the achievement level of the students over a period of time can be
observed. In case there is some difference in the effect, the recommendations can be made by the
educational administrator for the purchase of the new type of furniture.

Now in this case, the group "A" which was exposed to special type of treatment will be named as
experimental group, whereas the other group which was made to sit on the same traditional furniture,
will be named as control group.

 EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY

In most experimental researches carried outside the laboratory a number of extraneous variables tend
to confound the result in such a way that, it is difficult to evaluate their influence on the result. When
such extraneous variables are affecting the results it becomes difficult to conclude that changes
observed in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable. The extraneous variables in
effect introduce rival hypotheses which could account for the observed changes not attributable to the
experimental variable under consideration. Although these extraneous variables cannot be completely
eliminated a researcher should be able to identify and anticipate them, and take possible measures to
minimize their influence through appropriate research design and careful execution. In order that the
conclusions arrived at through an experimental research are accepted as true, the experiment must
have internal and external validity.

 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Experimental design is the blueprint of the procedures that enable the researcher to test
hypotheses by reaching valid conclusions about relationship between independent and
dependent variables. Selection of a particular design i based upon the purposes of the
experiment, the type of variables to be manipulated, and the conditions or limiting factors
under which it is conducted. The design deals with such practical problems as how subjects are
to be manipulated and controlled, the way extraneous variables are to be controlled, how
observations are to made, and the type of statistical analysis to be employed in interpreting
data relationships. There are different designs for conducting experimental research in the area
of educational planning and management all of which cannot be studied in this short unit.
However an attempt has been made to discuss thirteen simpler designs under four major
heads. In describing, the following abbreviations have been used:
T = Treatment
0 = Observation
E = Experimental group
C = Control group
R = Randomly selected

Pre-Experimental Designs

a) Design No. 1 - The simplest design (One-shot case study).

 A large number of research studies in social sciences have used the one- shot case design. In this
design a single individual or group is studied in detail only once and the observations are attributed
to exposure to some prior situation. This design may be represented as

T O
Where T is the 'treatment', 0 is the 'observation' of the outcome, and the direction of time flow is
from left to right; i.e. T precedes 0. The treatment (what the investigator does with the group)
might be a sequence of carefully controlled directions, or exposure to a particular experience, such
as an educational visit, or a reorganization of office routine. The observation might be the scores
the educational managers obtained on some observation following the treatment, or merely an
impression that the treatment has been successful in producing results seen as desirable.
For example a group of headmasters of secondary schools in a province is taken on a study tour of
some well managed educational institutions. Sometimes later an experienced educational manager
visits their educational institutions to observe how well their institutions were being managed. As a
result of what he observes during his visit he feels satisfied that the purpose of arranging the study
tour has been fully met.
It may be pointed out that many researchers do not consider one-shot case design to be an
experimental design at all. They argue that in order to provide useful scientific information at least
two observations should be made which could provide a basis for comparison. If there is any basis
for comparison in this designs it is the observer's general expectation of the outcome of the
treatment. In the case cited in the preceding Para, the experienced educational manager may have
had some preconceived notions of what he would have observed had the study tour not been
arranged and compared with what he actually observed to arrive at this judgment of the efficacy of
the treatment (study tour). Although Design 1 is not to be dismissed as ineffective but it is clearly
defective and open to criticism on the ground that it provides no clear-cut standard of comparison
by which to judge whether the subsequent observation is, in fact, related to the preceding
treatment.
b) Design No.2 - (Pretest-Post test Design). It is on the basis of the criticism on Design No.1 that a pre-
test is added to Design 1. Hence Design 2 will be symbolized as under:

O1 T O2

where O1 is the observation based on the pre-test and O2 is the observation based on post-test.*
In our example about the training of secondary school headmasters, pre-test and post-test might
be similar or parallel tests/measures/devices to assess managerial competence. It means that if we
measure the efficiency of the headmasters before we send them for training (O) and then we use,
the same or similar device to measure the efficiency of the headmasters after the training period is
over (O2) the difference between these two observations (i.e. O1 O2 is most likely to be attributable
to the training component which is an independent variable manipulated by the researcher. In this
way design No. 2 is an effort to do away with the criticism made about design No. 1".
In the case of pure sciences like Physics or chemistry, this Design No.2 is more efficient as
compared to Design No.1, as it manages to exclude extraneous variables and other irrelevant
 sources of variation. For example, in an experiment in Physics, a student can very easily measure
the length of a metal rod before and after heating and can confidently attribute the expansion
he/she observes to the treatment i.e. rise of temperature in this experiment. But in an experiment,
arranged in the field of educational planning and management, we cannot be so sure n inferring
cause and effect relationship even in this design and the location of the treatment between the pre-
test (O1) and post- test (O2) affords no warrant that this treatment alone is responsible for any gain
or difference between the two observations i.e. (d = O2– O1)
It is evident that during the Intervening period between pre-test and post-test, events other than
the treatment will also have occurred and may have caused O1 to increase upto O2. Particularly if
the period between O1 and O2 is long, the change may reflect the maturation and experience of the
headmasters even in the absence of the treatment i.e. training component.

Besides this intervening variable of experience or maturation, another variable may be affecting
the O2 other than training component and that is the act of measuring itself. In this "O1 T 02"
design, we cannot ignore the influence of the pre-test itself on the post-test scores. With most tests
of cognitive skills, the individu.ls taking the same test for a second time, or taking a similar or
parallel test, frequently do better
on the second occasion than they did the first time. If this "practice" effect is present, it may be
mistakenly attributed to the treatment (T) or the effect of (T) may be inflated by the practice effect.

There is another weakness of this "O1 T O2" Design. This weakness may be due to the sampling
mistake with the result that the observed gain may be spurious. Suppose that the group of
headmasters, in our example, consists of those headmasters who have long experience with the
result that they do not show significant difference between O1 and O2. In case a group of newly
promoted headmasters is taken and given the same observation (O1) and then the same treatment
(T), and thereafter are subjected to the similar observation (O2), the difference (d) between O1 and
O2 may not be same as the difference between the O1 and O2 of the first group of headmasters.

c) Design No.3 (Static Group Comparison Design). It is due to this criticism on Design No.2 that we
need to trace out some better experimental design. Design No.3 given below, may provide an
answer to this criticism as it provides two groups for comparison. One group is the experimental
group (E), which is given the treatment and is to be subsequently compared on the basis of
performance on some post-test with the second group, the control group (C), which has not been
exposed to the treatment. There is no pre-test. This design may be symbolized as under:

E = T O1
C = – O2

An example would be the comparison of the results obtained with the one group of headmasters
provided training in the techniques of school management (E group) with the results obtained from
another group of headmasters not exposed to the treatment of training in the techniques of
management i.e. the control group (C).
 This design does provide an external standard of reference against which to measure the effect of
the experimental treatment O1 being the observation of experimental group after treatment
(training) and O2 being the observation of control group. Other things being equal, it can be safely
concluded that any difference observed between O1 and O2 can be attributed to the training
(treatment) provided to the headmasters.

Absence of pretest is a major weakness in this design with the result that information lacks as to
the equivalence of the experimental and control group in the first place. Suppose that in our
example about the training of headmasters, the experimental group comes out with a higher mean
post-test score than the control group. Before attributing the difference to the effect of treatment
(training in this example) the possibility that one group was better initially than the other must be
discounted. It is therefore, necessary to take such measures which equate the two groups initially.
The techniques of randomization as discussed in unit No. 7 "Sampling Designs" can be helpful for
this purpose. However it is suggested that if number of cases is small, the simple processes of
tossing and matching can be used and in case the number of the cases is high, the random tables
may be used.

In brief, the advantage claimed for Design 3 is that the presence of treatment in one group and its
absence in the other makes possible a valid estimate of the treatment affect provided that the groups
were equivalent initially. In the example under discussion, if we use a process of random assignment of
headmasters, the two group are likely to be statistically equivalent and the possibility of error is
controlled.

 Quasi Experimental Designs

These experimental designs provide control of when and to whom the measurement is applied.
Out of a number of Quasi-experimental designs only a few are briefly discussed here.
a) Design - (The Pretest-Posttest Non-equivalent Groups Design). The symbolic representation
of this design is as under:
E = O T O2
C = O3 – O4

Where O1 and O3 are the observations on pretests and O2 and O4 are those of posttests.
Obtaining equivalent groups through randomization for experimental and control groups may
sometimes become difficult because this would involve splitting classes, disturbing class
schedule or assembling scattered subjects at one place. Hence there is need to have a design
which could use pre-assembled subjects for experimental and control groups. The difference
between the mean of the O1 and O2 scores and the difference between the mean of the O3 and
O4 scores are tested for statistical significance. Analysis of co-variance may also be used.
Because this design may be the only feasible one, the comparison is justifiable but the results
should be interpreted with care.
 This Design makes use of intact groups or groups which are formed on the basis of some natural
grouping. Thus experimental and control groups are formed neither by randomly assigning
scores nor by matching.
This Design may be confused with two other experimental designs i.e. Design (The one group,
pretest posttest design) and Design (The-pretestposttest-equiva1ent-control-group-deign with
randomization).

QUESTION # 05

In which type of research problems you will prefer to use correlation studies and when it is
appropriate to use survey studies in education? Explain with examples.

In cases where carrying out experimental research is unethical, correlational research can be used to
determine the relationship between 2 variables. For example when studying humans, carrying out an
experiment can be seen an unsafe or unethical; hence, choosing correlation research would be the best
option.

Descriptions of phenomena are sometimes made by employing correlation technique, which help in
ascertaining the extent to which two variables are related or the extent to which variations in one
factors correspond with variations in another factor. The investigator in these types of studies does not
manipulate the independent variable but he merely makes observations of both the 'independent' as
well as the 'dependent' variable as these occur in natural setting.

For example a researcher studying the relationship between I.Q. and achievement, randomly selects
some group and measures both the I.Q and the achievement through some tests. The two variables in
this type of research maybe closely related, moderately related or completely unrelated. Generally, the
magnitude of the correlation depends upon the extent to which an increase or decrease in one variable
is accompanied by an increase or decrease in the other variable whether in the same direction or
opposite direction. For example, a high positive correlation exists if a high rank in one set is
accompanied by a high rank in the other (high I.Q. High achievement test score) and a low rank in one
set is accompanied by a low rank in the other. A high negative correlation exists of in general a high rank
in one set of scores corresponds with a low rank in the other (high I.Q, low achievement test score). No
or little correlation exists If a high score in one set is just as likely to correspond with a low as with a high
score in the other set Correlations, therefore, range over a scale which extend from a perfect negative
correlation, to no correlation and to perfect positive correlation.*

The correlation technique is a valuable research tool but a coefficient of correlation merely quantifies
the extent to which two variables are related and it does not imply that cause-effect relationship
necessarily exists. The meaning of the relationship is interpreted by logical analysis rather than statistical
computations. This Interpretation has all the limitations to which causal-comparative studies are
subjected. With some ingenuity, correlational method can also be used in studying problems in the field
of planning and management. For example, the relationship between teacher commitment and drop-
out rate, distance of school from home and female participation rate, etc. can be studied with the help
of this method.
 AN EXAMPLE OF SCHOOL SURVEY STUDY CARRIED OUT BY AN EPM STUDENT "UTILISATION OF
EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SHEIKHUPIJRA DISTRICT"*

Problem Problem of the study was to carry out a survey of utilization of existing educational facilities in-
boys Secondary Schools of District Sheikhupura.

Objectives of the Study Main objectives of the study were: 1) collect information about the following: a)
enrolments b) teachers c) building d) equipment e) furniture 2) to determine the level of utilization of
these facilities 3) to make recommendations to reduce the wastage of these facilities 4) to point out
deficiencies of educational facilities.

Methodology A sample of sixteen schools was chosen out of a total of sixty four schools in Sheikhupura
District including Government, nationalized and provincialised schools with due consideration given to
rural urban schools. Proformas were prepared to collect data about 1) enrolment of students 2) No. of
teachers, qualifications etc. 3) School building 4) School library 5) School laboratories for physics,
Chemistry

The study was confined to the Boys Secondary School only.

Findings: The researcher visited all the schools included in the sample and collected data. The data were
analysed and on the basis of the findings of the study the following malt conclusion; were drawn: 1.
There is on average annual increase of sixty two students; 2. On the average two teachers are added to
each school every year; 3. There is more concentration of science teachers in Urban schools; 4. More
teachers have been provided in the rural schools;

The survey studies collect data from a number of cases at a particular period of time. These are not
related with the characteristics of individuals but their main concern is to make generalizations which
are based on the data collected from a number of cases.

Surveys may be broad or narrow in scope. They may encompass several countries or may be confined to
one region, city or so other unit. Survey data may be gathered from every member of a population or
from a carefully selected sample. Data may be collected concerning a large number of related factors or
a few selected items. The scope and depth of the study depends primarily upon the nature of the
problem.

A survey study is essentially a research and is dearly distinguished from a general report. But for this
purpose a survey study should fulfill the following criteria:

a) The research report usually has distinctive form, with definite-attention given to describing the
methodology, the sources, the population, the trait being studied, and other appropriate
methodological or technical details.
b) Presumably original observations are taken.
c) Each step in the work proceeds with meticulous care and with due consideration for the large
plan and purpose of the work. The data are verified and evaluated.
d) The data are resolved, or organized into certain more general terms, and are sometimes related
to a single, overall thesis. Certainly the data will be summarized in some form or other, as
systematically as possible. What is done with the data is a definite part of the contribution of
the study.