Practical-Research-2-Module (Part 2)
Practical-Research-2-Module (Part 2)
OBJECTIVES
The students are expected to:
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▪ Dichotomous questions. A question with only two choices such as
“Yes/No” or “Like/Dislike”.
▪ Open-ended questions. A question that normally answers the question
“why”.
▪ Closed questions. It is also called multiple-choice questions. It consists
of three or more choices.
Example: What is the highest education of your mother?
___ elementary ___ high school ___ college
▪ Rank- order Scale questions. A type of question that ask for ranking the
given choices or items. Example: What do you like most about your
school? Example: Rank the following base on their importance in work as
SHS student. (3= highest and 1=lowest)
__ doing homeroom activities __ going to library __ using compute
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▪ Predictive validity. The instrument that has correlation with Revise the questionnaire
future criterion. (e.g. score of high efficacy test related to
preforming task should predict the likelihood of completing task) After identifying some problem in your questionnaire, revise the questionnaire
• Construct Validity. Defines how well a test measures what it claims to based on the feedback of the participants during pilot testing. However, do not
measure. It is used to know whether the operational definition of a forget that the questionnaire should match the research objective.
construct align to the true theoretical meaning of a concept. There are Sources:
three types of construct validity:
Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research 2: Quantitative. (pp. 112-114). Cubao, Quezon
▪ Homogeneity. This means that the instrument measures one City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
construct only.
Faltado, R.E., Bombita, M.B., & Boholano, H.B. (2017) Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research for SHS)
▪ Convergence. The instrument measures construct similar to
(pp.79-82). Cubao, Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
other instrument.
▪ Theory evidence. This is when behavior is similar to theoretical
propositions of the construct measured in the instrument.
Reliability refers to how accurate and precise the measuring instrument. It yields
for consistent responses over repeated measurements. In order to have a reliable
Lesson 4 Data Collection Procedure
instrument, you need to have questions that yields consistent scores when asked
repeatedly. OBJECTIVES
Here are ways to assess the reliability of an instrument: The students are expected to:
1. discuss data collection and different methods of collecting
• Stability or Test-retest reliability. This is the simplest type of reliability data
where in the same questionnaire is administered twice and correlation 2. summarize the advantage and disadvantage of each data
between two set of score is computed. collection methods using square matrix
• Split-half method. Also called equivalent or parallel forms. This is done 3. apply the concept of data collection to a real life situation
by administering two different set of questionnaire but with same topic
and correlation between two set of score is computed.
• Internal consistency. This is when the instrument measures a specific LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!
concept. It is estimate based on a single form of test administered on a
single occasion. Data collection refers to the process of gathering
information. In quantitative research, data collection method relies on random
Pilot testing of the questionnaire sampling and data collection instruments that fit various experiences into
predetermined responses categories that produce results that are easy to
Once you have done assessing the validity and reliability of instrument, the next summarize, compare and generalize.
step to take is to pilot test the questionnaire before distributing it to the target
respondents of the study. Pilot testing is like pre-testing the instrument. You may Sources of data
find 10-15 people to answer the questionnaire. In this process, participants could
• Primary sources. Are known as raw data which can be collected from
put remarks on some questions. This could help you to enhance your questions.
original source like experimental test results, questionnaire survey, and
observation.
• Secondary sources. Data that has already been collected by someone
else such as books, reports, journals, magazines, and others.
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There are various methods in collecting data that will be discussed in this lesson, - Little time given to the
along with its advantage and disadvantage. respondents
- Bias information may be
1. Interview
more
This method of collecting data involves presentation of verbal reply from
the respondents. This is done by asking questions to the respondents verbally.
• Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing. A form of personal interview
This method assumes that the participant’s point of view is more meaningful and
where in the interviewer bring along laptop and directly enter the
their perspectives affect the success of the project.
information or response of the participant to the database.
Here are the types of interviews that could be used by the researchers: Advantages: Disadvantages:
- Save researchers in bringing - Expensive to set up
• Structured Interviews. The researcher asks a standard set of questions hundreds of questionnaires - Required the
and nothing more. The researcher follows a specific format with the - Save time in processing data interviewer to have
same line of questioning. This is to ensure that each interview is laptop
delivered in the same format and same order to every respondent. It
usually performs by well-experienced researchers.
Advantages: Disadvantage: 2. Questionnaire
- The information at greater - Time Its main purpose is to extract data from the respondents. It serves a standard
consuming and depth guide of the researchers in asking information from the respondents.
expensive There are normally four sections in a questionnaire namely:
- Chance to clarify questions to the 1. Respondents identification data. It includes the profile of the
respondents respondents.
2. Introduction. It may include the researcher’s request for help, and
• Face-to-face interviews. This is the most frequently used in quantitative purpose of study.
research method and it can be done anywhere where. 3. Instruction. The respondent’s direction on how to move through the
Advantages: Disadvantages: and questionnaire.
- Establish rapport - Time large 4. Information. The series of questions and statements that seek response.
between consuming
researcher and participants expensive
Here are the types of questionnaire that could be used by the researchers
- Chance to clarify - Impractical
ambiguous questions to the when samples • Paper-pencil questionnaire. This method is commonly used by the
respondents involved researchers. It can be sent to large number of respondents and save
researcher’s time and money.
Advantage: Disadvantage:
- Respondents are truthful to - Some of the respondents do
• Telephone Interviews. It is used when the researchers have no time to
their response because not return the questionnaire
meet the respondents personally. However, the response rate of the their responses are
respondents is not as high as the face-to-face interview. anonymous
Advantage: Disadvantages:
- Less time consuming and - Biased to those
less expensive with
telephone only
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• Web-page questionnaire. It is an internet based research where in the • Criterion-referenced test. Determine whether or not the subjects have
respondents will receive an email which contain an address that would attained mastery of skills.
take them to a secure web-site to fill in the questionnaire. • Proficiency test. Provides an assessment against level of skills
attainment, but includes standards for performance at varying levels of
Advantage: Disadvantages: proficiency.
- Much quicker than pencilpaper - Exclusion of people who do Source: Faltado, R.E., Bombita, M.B., & Boholano, H.B. (2017) Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research for
SHS) (pp.82-87). Cubao, Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
method not have computer
- Not sure of the accuracy of
respondent’s responses
3. Observations
Observation can make use of recording sheet and checklist which is the
standardized way of collecting data. Field notes are least standardized way of
collecting observation data.
4. Tests
This method provides a way to assess subject’s knowledge and capacity to apply
knowledge to new situations. There are various forms of test depending on the
needs of the researchers in their study.
• Describe data sets; The following are the levels of measurement scales:
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• Nominal Scale. It is used for labeling variables. It also called
categorical variables. The number assigned to the variables have no
quantitative values.
Example: If you want to categorize respondents based on
gender, you could use 1 for male and 2 for female.
• Ordinal Scale. It assigned order on items on the characteristics being
measured. Numerical value or quantity has no value except its ability to
establish ranking among set of data. However, the difference in order
between the rank are not specified.
Example: order in honor roll (first honor, second honor, third
honor)
• Interval Scale. It has equal units of measurement, thereby, making it
possible to interpret the order of scale scores and the distance between
them. However, interval scale does not have a “true zero”. Variables
can be added and subtracted, but cannot multiplied and divided.
• Ratio Scale. It is considered as the highest level of measurement. It
has characteristics of an interval scale but it has a “zero point”. All
descriptive and inferential statistics can be applied on ration scales.
Variables can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
Source: Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research 2: Quantitative. (pp. 119-121).
Cubao, Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
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1.2 Median. The median is the middle value of a given set of measurements,
provided that the values are arranged in increasing or decreasing order. It is
also the most appropriate measure of central tendency for ordinal data.
Lesson 5.2 Descriptive Data Analysis
For Ungrouped Data
OBJECTIVES The median may be calculated from ungrouped data by doing the
following steps:
The students are expected to:
1. Arrange the items or scores from lowest to highest.
1. discuss descriptive data analysis and its purpose in
research 2. Count to the middle value. If there are two middle numbers, average
the two.
2. summarize the concept of descriptive data analysis using
Venn diagram
3. analyze problem involving descriptive data analysis For Grouped data
If the data are grouped into classes, the median will fall into one of the
classes and the ( )th value.
LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS! 2 n−𝐹𝑐
Formula: median ( )=L+i (2 )
Descriptive data analysis provides simple summaries 𝑓𝑚
about the sample and the measures. Different statistical measures are used to Where: L = exact lower limit of the class containing the median class
analyze data and draw conclusions under descriptive data analysis (Trochim,
i = interval size n = total
For the present study, the following statistical measures of descriptive number of items/observation
analysis were used to compute further statistical testing:
Fc = cumulative frequency in the class preceding the median class
fm = frequency of the median class
1. Measures of Central Tendency.
Formulas:
Ungrouped Data X = ∑ 𝒙 → mean = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 2. Measures of Dispersion
𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Dispersion in statistics is a way of describing how spread out a set of data is. It is
Grouped Data X = ∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒎 → mean = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒙 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 important for describing the spread of the data, or its variation around a central
𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 value. It is also called measure of variability.
The measures to be considered are the range, average or mean deviation,
Weighted Mean X = ∑ 𝒇𝒙 → mean=𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
standard deviation and the variance.
𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
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2.1. The Range. The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest
values in a set of data. However, it only gives us knowledge of the spread of data
but it does not tell us about the disperse of values from central tendency.
2.2. Average (Mean) Deviation. The mean absolute deviation of a dataset is the
average distance between each data point and the mean. It gives us an idea
about the variability in a dataset. Absolute value is used to disregard the positive
or negative value of data.
x is each value
x is the mean
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Inferential data analysis is used to determine if there is a
relationship between an intervention and an outcome as well as the
strength of that relationship. Inferential Statistics refers to statistical
measures and techniques that allow us to use samples to make inference
and generalizations about the population from which the samples were
drawn. Below are the common statistical measures to measure significant
differences and relationships between variables:
• Between Means.
1. discuss inferential data analysis and its use in research √ 𝑠1 2 𝑛1 + 𝑠2 2 𝑛2 df = smaller of n1 - 1 and n2 – 1
2. summarize the concept of inferential data analysis using Case 3: 𝛿1 = 𝛿2unknown or n1 < 30 and n2 < 30
dialogue cloud
t = (𝑥1− 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1− 𝜇2)
3. analyze problem involving descriptive data analysis
√ 𝑠𝑝 2 𝑛1 + 𝑠𝑝 2 𝑛2 where: 𝑠𝑝 2 = (𝑛1−1) 𝑠1 2+ (𝑛2−1) 𝑠2 2
LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!
𝑛1+ 𝑛2−2
2. Test of Relationship
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𝜌 Hypothesis testing is a process in statistics by testing an assumption
regarding a population parameter. The methodology used depends on the nature
2 of data used and reason for analysis (Majaski, 2019). The goal of hypothesis
𝑁 (𝑁 −1)
testing is whether to reject or accept the hypothesis that the researcher
formulated in the study. It is used when data needs inferential analysis.
• Chi-Square Test for Independence. It is used when data expressed in
terms of frequencies or percentage (nominal variables).
Population and Sample
x2 = • Parameter a measure based on a population (population mean and
𝐸
denoted by 𝜇)
• Statistics a measure based on a sample (sample mean and denoted by
• Product – Moment Coefficient of Correlation or Pearson r. This is used x)
when data are expressed in terms of scores such as weights and heights
or score in test (ratio and interval variables). Inferential statistics requires that sample be drawn by random sampling
o Case 1. When deviation from the mean are used. r = because bias sampling have a tendency to give wrong inferences. Testing
statistical significance is very important to determine if the inference is valid.
o Case 2. When raw score from original
observation are used. Statistical Significance
• Statistical Significance refers to the relationship of variables caused by
r= 𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−(∑𝑥)(∑𝑦)
something.
• Significance means probably true (not due to chance).
• T-test to test the significance of Pearson r. This is used to determine if • Level of significance means that there is a chance that finding is true.
the value of computed Pearson r is significant. • Statistical hypothesis testing is used to determine whether the result of a
data set is statistically significant.
𝑛 −2
√ 1− 𝑟 2
t=r
Hypothesis
Source: Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research 2: Quantitative. (pp. 131-134). Cubao, • Hypothesis is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true and has to be
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
tested for its truth or falsity.
• Inferential statistics could be a test for relationship or test for difference.
• Hypothesis has two types namely: null hypothesis; and alternative
5.4 Hypothesis Testing hypothesis.
• Null hypothesis is the one that is always tested by researcher. It always
OBJECTIVES indicates the there is no significant relationship or difference between
The students are expected to: the group means.
1. discuss hypothesis testing • Alternative hypothesis indicates that there is a true relationship or
2. summarize the concept of hypothesis testing using the difference between the group means.
dialogue box • Results will show that: 1. There is a meaningful relationship or
3. analyze problem involving hypothesis difference between two groups, thus reject the null hypothesis
2. The difference or relationship between the two group is not large
enough to conclude that the groups are different or correlated thus
you fail to reject null hypothesis.
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• Did you conduct surveys by phone, mail, online or in person, and It discussed the research design appropriately use in quantitative research. It is important
how long did participants have to respond? to remember that the research problem determines the research design. The two major
research design in quantitative research are the: (1) descriptive research design which is
• What was the sample size and response rate? used to describe characteristics of the phenomenon; and (2) experimental research design
which is used to examine the cause and effect relationship of the variables. Descriptive
You might include the survey questionnaire in the appendix part so research can be correlational study, normative survey, evaluative study, assessment/
the reader can see how was the data collected. evaluation study, and comparative study, while the experimental research can be
pretest/post-test controlled group, single pretest/post-test controlled group, or Solomon four
Experiments. Give full details of the tools, techniques and procedures
group.
you used to conduct the experiment. It is especially important to give
enough detail for another researcher to reproduce your results. This unit likewise discussed the concept of sample size determination and sampling
procedure. Sample is the individual that represent the entire population. The researcher
needs to select sample size accurately and systematically. A good sample should be
3. Describe your method of analysis. Discussed the process of accurate and precise. One way of having accurate sample size is with the use of Slovin’s
formula. In selecting samples, there are two techniques that the researchers can used
analyzing data. However, avoid discussing any of the result of the
namely probability and nonprobability sampling techniques. Probability sampling techniques
study. In quantitative research, analysis of data is based on numbers. It give every member of the population equal chances of selection, while nonprobability
might include the software you used to analyze the data (e.g. SPSS) sampling have no specific chance for a member of the population to be part of the sample.
and the statistical methods you used (e.g. regression analysis). 4. The methods of probability sampling discussed in this unit are simple random sampling,
Evaluate and justify your methodological choices. Justification is stratified random sampling, systematic random sampling, cluster sampling, and multi-stage
sampling. The nonprobability sampling techniques discussed here were convenience
more needed if your approach used is not based on standard
sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and quota sampling.
knowledge. Discuss why the methods were suitable for your objectives,
and show that this approach might contribute to the body of knowledge. This unit also discussed the concept of designing an instrument and establishing validity
and reliability. There are different types of questions that a researcher can used in
Take note of the following (Faltado, Bombita, & Boholano, 2017): constructing an instrument. These are the dichotomous questions, open-ended questions,
close-ended questions, rating scale questions, and raking scale questions. It is important
• Design. Explain if your study is within or between group design. Include that the researcher ensure the validity and reliability of a research instrument. Validity refers
the variables included and approach you used in the study. to a degree to which the instrument measures what it intends to measure. The four types of
validity discussed here were face validity, content validity, construct validity, and criterion
• Participants. Describe the participants in your study including their total
validity. On the other hand, reliability refers to accurateness and preciseness the measuring
number and the process of selecting them. instrument. Some of the way of assessing reliability are test-retest, split-half method, and
• Procedures. Properly explained your procedure. It includes the internal consistency. It also discussed some data collection methods such as doing and
procedure you have done before, during and after gathering data. interview, distributing survey questionnaire, making an observation, and administering test.
• Always write your methods in past tense.
Also, this unit discussed the four measurement scale types which are used to classify or
• Provide enough details when doing experimental research. It is for the quantify data. These are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. It is important that the
other researchers to replicate your work. researcher know the type of measurement scale he have on his study so that he can select
• Used proper APA format. appropriate statistical test for the data he have. Data analysis has two strategies, the
• Take a rough draft of your work with your research teacher for additional descriptive data analysis and inferential data analysis. Lastly, this unit introduced the
assistance. guidelines in writing quantitative research methodology.
• Always proofread your paper.
SUMMARY
This unit discussed understanding data and ways on systematically collect it. It
focused on the methodology that the researchers can employ to their research study.
UNIT 5
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Finding Answers Lesson 1 Collects Data Using Appropriate
Instrument
through OBJECTIVES
The students are expected to:
B. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!
The learner is able to gather and analyze data with intellectual honesty,
using suitable techniques
Using research instrument play a crucial role in collecting data,
according to Yaya (2014) that it is significant for every researcher to know what
C. LEARNING COMPETENCIES kind of data should be collected and what method should be used. Methods that
researchers use in collecting desired data is called measurement instrument.
The learner:
Quantitative data gathering strategies
a. collects data using appropriate instruments
b. presents and interprets data in tabular and graphical form
c. uses statistical techniques to analyze data—study of
differences and relationships limited for bivariate analysis
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Questionnaires Questionnaires often make use of checklist
and rating scales. It is usually sent by mail,
- Paper- email or personally given to the
pencilquestionnaires respondents.
Open ended
such as the use of Survey monkey.
Allows the respondents to answer any way.
Interview Interview can be use at any stage of
evaluation process. Two types on
- Web based interviews are used in evaluation
A new and
research: inevitably
structured growing methodology
interviews, in which
questionnaires is the use of internet based research. The
a carefully worded questionnaire is Type of Research Data Collection Instrument
respondents will answer online questions
administered, and in depth interviews, in
1 Applied Questionnaire, Interview and
which the interviewer does not follow a
Observation.
rigid form. Interview will supplement the
data gathered through questionnaires. 2 Survey Questionnaire, Focus Group, Interview
and Observation.
Personal interview are done when
people usually respond when asked by a
person but their answer may be 3 Case Study Questionnaire, Interview, focus group
influenced by the interviewer. discussion and Observation.
Source: Practical Research 2 (2016) by Faltado, Bombita, Boholano and Pogoy Langos, S., (2014), Athens as an international tourism destination: An empirical
investigation to the city’s imagery and the role of local DMO’s. Chapter 3-
methodology: Data collection method and research tools. Published in
file:///C:/Users/Admin/Downloads/RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY_Datacol
lectionmethodandResearchtools.pdf
Athens as an international tourism destination: An empirical ➢ Table number and title- these are placed above the table. The title is
investigation to the city’s imagery and the role of local DMO’s usually written right after the table number.
➢ Caption subhead- this refers to columns and rows
➢ Body- It contains all the data under each subhead
➢ Source- it indicates if the data is secondary and it should be
acknowledged.
Lesson 2 Presents and Interprets Data in Sample of Data Table with Textual Analysis:
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Graphical Methods of Presenting
Data A good graph should include the
following:
1. A graph or chart portrays the visual presentation of data using
symbols such as lines, dots, bars or slices.
2. It depicts the trend of a certain set of measurements or shows
comparison between two or more sets of data or quantities.
3. A good graph or chart shows that the x and y axis has a heading and
units are included.
4. The figure number of the title are usually placed below the figure.
It is not hard to draw a histogram or a line graph by hand, as you
5. The known value is plotted on the x-axis and the measured value is may remember from school, but spreadsheets will draw one quickly and
plotted on the y-axis. This description of a good chart excludes pie easily once you have input the data into a table, saving you any trouble.
charts. They will even walk
you through the process. You can also display grouped data in a pie chart,
An example is shown below, which uses three sets of data, grouped by four such as this one.
categories. This might, for example, be men, women, and ‘no gender
specified’, grouped by
age categories 20–29,
30–
39, 40–49 and 50–59.
Pie charts are best used when you are interested in the relative size of each
group, and what proportion of the total fits into each category, as they illustrate
very clearly which groups are bigger.
Source: https://www.skillsyouneed.com/num/simple -statistical-analysis.html
An alternative to a histogram is a line chart, which plots each data point and
BASIC RULES FOR THE PREPARATION OF TABLES AND GRAPHS
joins them up with a line. The same data as in the bar chart are displayed in a
line graph below. Ideally, every table should:
• Be self-explanatory;
• Present values with the same number of decimal places in all its cells
(standardization);
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• Include a title informing what is being described and where, as well as What is Bivariate Data?
the number of observations (N) and when data were collected;
• Have a structure formed by three horizontal lines, defining table When you conduct a study that looks at a single variable, that study
heading and the end of the table at its lower border; involves univariate data. For example, you might study a group of college
students to find out their average SAT scores or you might study a group of
• Not have vertical lines at its lateral borders;
diabetic patients to find their weights. Bivariate data is when you are
• Provide additional information in table footer, when needed; • Be studying two variables. For example, if you are studying a group of college
inserted into a document only after being mentioned in the text; and students to find out their average SAT score and their age, you have two
• Be numbered by Arabic numerals. pieces of the puzzle to find (SAT score and age). Or if you want to find out the
weights and heights of college students, then you also have bivariate data.
Similarly, to tables, graphs should: Bivariate data could also be two sets of items that are dependent on each
other.
• Include, below the figure, a title providing all relevant information;
• Be referred to as figures in the text; When one measurement is made on each observation, univariate analysis is
applied. If more than one measurement is made on each observation,
• Identify figure axes by the variables under analysis;
multivariate analysis is applied.
• Quote the source which provided the data, if required; • Demonstrate
the scale being used; and
1. The most important graphical summary of bivariate data is the
• Be self-explanatory. scatterplot. This is simply a plot of the points (Xi,Yi) in the plane. The
following figures show scatterplots of June maximum temperatures
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4008059
against January maximum temperatures, and of January maximum
temperatures against latitude.
The most common means of doing this is the correlation coefficient (sometimes Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.
called Pearson’s correlation coefficient): 3. Simple Linear Regression Analysis
1. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r)
Linear regression is the simplest and commonly used statistical measure
The correlation coefficient, also commonly known as Pearson correlation, is a for prediction studies. It is concerned with finding an equation that uses the
statistical measure of the dependence or association of two numbers. When known values of one or more variables, called the independent or predictor
two sets of numbers move in the same direction at the same time, they are said variables, to estimate the unknown value of quantitative variable called the
to have a positive correlation. When one series of numbers moves up as the dependent criterion. It is a prediction when a variable (Y) is dependent on a
other moves down, they are said to have a negative correlation. This will result second variable (X) based on the regression equation of a given set of data.
in a negative correlation coefficient.
Formula:
https://www.myaccountingcourse.com/financialratios/correlation-coefficient
Y = α + bX where: α = is called Y-intercept of the line (the value of Y when
Formula:
X is equal to zero)
where: r = coefficient of
correlation b = is the slope of the line called the regression (the rate
4. Chi-Square (X2)
2. The spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient (Spearmen Rho)
The most used method of comparing proportions. It is particularly useful in
The statistics being used based on ranks or position is the Spearman tests evaluating a relationship between nominal or ordinal data. Typical
Rank Correlation Coefficient represented here by rs. It is a measure of situations or settings are cases where persons, events, or objects are grouped
relationship between two variables by ranking the items or individuals under in two or more nominal categories such as “Yes-No” responses, “Favor-
study according to their position. It represents the extent to which the same Against-Undecided” or class “A,B,C, or D”.
individuals or events occupy the same relative position on two variables.
Formula:
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This test is used when we have a random sample and we want to test
if it is significantly different from a population mean or we compared a
single sample mean (X) to a known or hypothesized population mean
(µ). This test can be used only if the background assumptions are
satisfied such as sample observations should be random and the
population standard deviation is not known.
fe = expected number of cases Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.
One-Sample T-test
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Independent Sample T-test: Equal Variance Assumed