Lesson 3 Instrument Development

Lesson 3.1 Designing the Instrument

OBJECTIVES
The students are expected to:

1. Discuss instrument and instrumentation

2. state the do’s and don’ts in constructing questions
3. Identify the types of questions use in a survey questionnaire

LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!

▪ Yes / No / Neither
▪ Likert Scale. It is used to measure behavior quantitatively.
One of the important part of research study is the instrument because
the quality of the research findings depends on the quality of research instrument.
In research, instrument is the general term use by the researcher for measuring Here is some example of Likert Scale
device such as surveys, questionnaire, test, and etc. On the other hand,
instrumentation is the action which is the process of developing, testing and using Frequency of Use Agreement Frequency of Occurrence
the instrument. Take note that instrument is the device while instrumentation is Always Strongly Agree Very Frequently
course of action (Prieto, Naval, & Carey, 2017). Often Agree Frequently
Sometimes Undecided Occasionally
Background Rarely Disagree Rarely
Never Strongly Disagree Very Rarely
Do a basic research on the chosen variables or construct of the research
study. Choose a construct that you can use to craft the objective of the • Generate questions based on the objectives of the research study. These are
questionnaire. Construct means the characteristics that you wish to measure or the guidelines in developing questions for your questionnaire:
evaluate (e.g. weight, academic performance, etc.). After identifying the construct, ▪ The questions should be clear, concise and simple. Avoid lengthy and
it is easily to state the purpose or objective of the questionnaire and the research confusing questions
questions as well. There are five types of variables: dependent variables; ▪ Classify question under each statement based on your problem
independent variables; control variables; continuous variables; and discrete statement
variables. ▪ Questions should be consistent within the needs of study
▪ Avoid sensitive and debatable question
Questionnaire Conceptualization ▪ Avoid jargon or unfamiliar words
• Choose response scale where the respondents answer the question in your
study. Example of scales are:  Choose type of questions in developing the statement. It can be:
▪ Yes / No

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 ▪ Dichotomous questions. A question with only two choices such as
“Yes/No” or “Like/Dislike”.
▪ Open-ended questions. A question that normally answers the question
“why”.
▪ Closed questions. It is also called multiple-choice questions. It consists
of three or more choices.
Example: What is the highest education of your mother?
___ elementary ___ high school ___ college
▪ Rank- order Scale questions. A type of question that ask for ranking the
given choices or items. Example: What do you like most about your
school? Example: Rank the following base on their importance in work as
SHS student. (3= highest and 1=lowest)
__ doing homeroom activities __ going to library __ using compute

Establishing the validity of the questionnaire

 Rating Scale questions. It is the Likert scale form. Example:
Validity refers to a degree to which the instrument measures what it intends to
measure. It involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an
instrument.

Here are ways to assess the validity of a set of measurement:

• Face Validity. A subjective type of assessment. This is the simplest and

Lesson 3.2 Establishing Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
easiest type of validity where in the validator skim the surface of the
instrument in order to form an opinion. Moreover, it is often criticized as
OBJECTIVES the weakest form of validity (Stephanie, 2015).
• Content Validity. It refers to the appropriateness of the content of an
The students are expected to: instrument. A type of validity that most often includes expert or people
1. discuss validity and reliability and ways of assessing familiar with the construct being measured. The expert make judgement
validity and reliability of an instrument about the degree to which the items in the questionnaire match the
2. summarize the concept of validity and reliability using objective of the study.
butterfly diagram • Criterion Validity. This type of validity measures how well the
3. write the importance of assessing validity and reliability of relationship between a measure and an outcome. It can be measured in
an instrument three ways:
▪ Convergent validity. Shows instrument is highly correlated with
instruments measuring similar variables. (e.g. geriatric suicide
LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!
correlated to depression)
▪ Divergent validity. Shows the instrument is poorly correlated to
In the previous lesson, you learned how to conceptualized a instruments that measure different variables. (e.g. correlation is
questionnaire. The next step is establishing the validity and reliability of the
low in instrument measuring motivation and instrument
questionnaire or instrument. This lesson discusses the general criteria of good
measuring self-efficacy)
research instrument which are the validity and reliability.

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 ▪ Predictive validity. The instrument that has correlation with Revise the questionnaire
future criterion. (e.g. score of high efficacy test related to
preforming task should predict the likelihood of completing task) After identifying some problem in your questionnaire, revise the questionnaire
• Construct Validity. Defines how well a test measures what it claims to based on the feedback of the participants during pilot testing. However, do not
measure. It is used to know whether the operational definition of a forget that the questionnaire should match the research objective.
construct align to the true theoretical meaning of a concept. There are Sources:
three types of construct validity:
Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research 2: Quantitative. (pp. 112-114). Cubao, Quezon
▪ Homogeneity. This means that the instrument measures one City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
construct only.
Faltado, R.E., Bombita, M.B., & Boholano, H.B. (2017) Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research for SHS)
▪ Convergence. The instrument measures construct similar to
(pp.79-82). Cubao, Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
other instrument.
▪ Theory evidence. This is when behavior is similar to theoretical
propositions of the construct measured in the instrument.

Establishing the reliability of the questionnaire

Reliability refers to how accurate and precise the measuring instrument. It yields
for consistent responses over repeated measurements. In order to have a reliable
Lesson 4 Data Collection Procedure
instrument, you need to have questions that yields consistent scores when asked
repeatedly. OBJECTIVES
Here are ways to assess the reliability of an instrument: The students are expected to:
1. discuss data collection and different methods of collecting
• Stability or Test-retest reliability. This is the simplest type of reliability data
where in the same questionnaire is administered twice and correlation 2. summarize the advantage and disadvantage of each data
between two set of score is computed. collection methods using square matrix
• Split-half method. Also called equivalent or parallel forms. This is done 3. apply the concept of data collection to a real life situation
by administering two different set of questionnaire but with same topic
and correlation between two set of score is computed.
• Internal consistency. This is when the instrument measures a specific LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!
concept. It is estimate based on a single form of test administered on a
single occasion. Data collection refers to the process of gathering
information. In quantitative research, data collection method relies on random
Pilot testing of the questionnaire sampling and data collection instruments that fit various experiences into
predetermined responses categories that produce results that are easy to
Once you have done assessing the validity and reliability of instrument, the next summarize, compare and generalize.
step to take is to pilot test the questionnaire before distributing it to the target
respondents of the study. Pilot testing is like pre-testing the instrument. You may Sources of data
find 10-15 people to answer the questionnaire. In this process, participants could
• Primary sources. Are known as raw data which can be collected from
put remarks on some questions. This could help you to enhance your questions.
original source like experimental test results, questionnaire survey, and
observation.
• Secondary sources. Data that has already been collected by someone
else such as books, reports, journals, magazines, and others.

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There are various methods in collecting data that will be discussed in this lesson, - Little time given to the
along with its advantage and disadvantage. respondents
- Bias information may be
1. Interview
more
This method of collecting data involves presentation of verbal reply from
the respondents. This is done by asking questions to the respondents verbally.
• Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing. A form of personal interview
This method assumes that the participant’s point of view is more meaningful and
where in the interviewer bring along laptop and directly enter the
their perspectives affect the success of the project.
information or response of the participant to the database.
Here are the types of interviews that could be used by the researchers: Advantages: Disadvantages:
- Save researchers in bringing - Expensive to set up
• Structured Interviews. The researcher asks a standard set of questions hundreds of questionnaires - Required the
and nothing more. The researcher follows a specific format with the - Save time in processing data interviewer to have
same line of questioning. This is to ensure that each interview is laptop
delivered in the same format and same order to every respondent. It
usually performs by well-experienced researchers.
Advantages: Disadvantage: 2. Questionnaire
- The information at greater - Time Its main purpose is to extract data from the respondents. It serves a standard
consuming and depth guide of the researchers in asking information from the respondents.
expensive There are normally four sections in a questionnaire namely:
- Chance to clarify questions to the 1. Respondents identification data. It includes the profile of the
respondents respondents.
2. Introduction. It may include the researcher’s request for help, and
• Face-to-face interviews. This is the most frequently used in quantitative purpose of study.
research method and it can be done anywhere where. 3. Instruction. The respondent’s direction on how to move through the
Advantages: Disadvantages: and questionnaire.
- Establish rapport - Time large 4. Information. The series of questions and statements that seek response.
between consuming
researcher and participants expensive
Here are the types of questionnaire that could be used by the researchers
- Chance to clarify - Impractical
ambiguous questions to the when samples • Paper-pencil questionnaire. This method is commonly used by the
respondents involved researchers. It can be sent to large number of respondents and save
researcher’s time and money.
Advantage: Disadvantage:
- Respondents are truthful to - Some of the respondents do
• Telephone Interviews. It is used when the researchers have no time to
their response because not return the questionnaire
meet the respondents personally. However, the response rate of the their responses are
respondents is not as high as the face-to-face interview. anonymous
Advantage: Disadvantages:
- Less time consuming and - Biased to those
less expensive with
telephone only

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 • Web-page questionnaire. It is an internet based research where in the • Criterion-referenced test. Determine whether or not the subjects have
respondents will receive an email which contain an address that would attained mastery of skills.
take them to a secure web-site to fill in the questionnaire. • Proficiency test. Provides an assessment against level of skills
attainment, but includes standards for performance at varying levels of
Advantage: Disadvantages: proficiency.
- Much quicker than pencilpaper - Exclusion of people who do Source: Faltado, R.E., Bombita, M.B., & Boholano, H.B. (2017) Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research for
SHS) (pp.82-87). Cubao, Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
method not have computer
- Not sure of the accuracy of
respondent’s responses

• Self-administered questionnaire. Usually distributed through mail, filled

out and administered by respondents where they return this to the
researchers via email. It can be used to elicit detailed information from
respondents who might not be accessible.

Questionnaires usually make use of checklist and rating scale to help

researchers simplify and quantify respondents’ behaviors and attitude.

3. Observations

This is way of collecting data by watching behavior, events or noting

physical characteristics in natural setting. This method is usually used in in the
situation where the subjects are unwilling or unable to provide the needed data
through survey or interview. Observation can be as follows:
• Overt Observation. An observation where the respondents are aware
that they are being observed.
• Covert Observation. An observation where the respondents are unaware
that they are being observed.
• Direct Observation. The observation occurs during the interaction.
• Indirect Observation. The observation occurs on the result of the
interaction.

Observation can make use of recording sheet and checklist which is the
standardized way of collecting data. Field notes are least standardized way of
collecting observation data.

4. Tests

This method provides a way to assess subject’s knowledge and capacity to apply
knowledge to new situations. There are various forms of test depending on the
needs of the researchers in their study.

• Norm-referenced test. Provides information on how the subject performs

against a normative group.
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 • Determine the degree of relationship of variables;
• Determine the differences between variables; • Predict outcomes; and
• Compare variables.

Lesson 5 Data Analysis using Statistics Data Analysis Strategies

• Exploratory Data Analysis. This is used when it is not clear what to

Lesson 5.1 Quantitative Data Analysis expect from the data. It makes use of numerical and visual
representation such as graphs. Since the research interest is new, it is
OBJECTIVES possible to find some inconsistencies.
The students are expected to: • Descriptive Data Analysis. This is used to describe or summarize data
1. discuss the data analysis strategies and level of in a meaningful way leading to a simple interpretation of data.
measurement scales The commonly used descriptive statistics are those that
2. summarize the concept of quantitative data analysis by analyze distribution of data such as: frequency, percentage, measure
creating a graphic organizer of central tendency (mean, median, mode), and dispersion (range,
3. identify the measurement scales used in different average deviation, standard deviation).
situations
• Inferential Data Analysis. This is used to test hypotheses about a set of
data to reach conclusions and generalizations beyond merely
LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS! describing the data.
The commonly used inferential statistics includes test of
After collecting the data needed for the study, it’s now time to organize significance of difference such as t-test, and ANOVA. Also the test of
then and get ready for the data analysis. A researcher should always ensure that relationship such as Product Moment Coefficient or Correlation or
the data are complete, accurate, and valid and has been organized properly. Pearson r, Spearman rho, regression, and Chi-square test.
Quantitative data analysis is a systematic approach of investigations during
which numerical data are collected and the researchers transform what are Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation
collected into numerical data.
It is important to determine the level of measurement of quantitative data before
Purpose of Data Analysis Plan proceeding with analysis of data.

• Describe data sets; The following are the levels of measurement scales:

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 • Nominal Scale. It is used for labeling variables. It also called
categorical variables. The number assigned to the variables have no
quantitative values.
Example: If you want to categorize respondents based on
gender, you could use 1 for male and 2 for female.
• Ordinal Scale. It assigned order on items on the characteristics being
measured. Numerical value or quantity has no value except its ability to
establish ranking among set of data. However, the difference in order
between the rank are not specified.
Example: order in honor roll (first honor, second honor, third
honor)
• Interval Scale. It has equal units of measurement, thereby, making it
possible to interpret the order of scale scores and the distance between
them. However, interval scale does not have a “true zero”. Variables
can be added and subtracted, but cannot multiplied and divided.
• Ratio Scale. It is considered as the highest level of measurement. It
has characteristics of an interval scale but it has a “zero point”. All
descriptive and inferential statistics can be applied on ration scales.
Variables can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
Source: Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research 2: Quantitative. (pp. 119-121).
Cubao, Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.

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 1.2 Median. The median is the middle value of a given set of measurements,
provided that the values are arranged in increasing or decreasing order. It is
also the most appropriate measure of central tendency for ordinal data.
Lesson 5.2 Descriptive Data Analysis
For Ungrouped Data
OBJECTIVES The median may be calculated from ungrouped data by doing the
following steps:
The students are expected to:
1. Arrange the items or scores from lowest to highest.
1. discuss descriptive data analysis and its purpose in
research 2. Count to the middle value. If there are two middle numbers, average
the two.
2. summarize the concept of descriptive data analysis using
Venn diagram
3. analyze problem involving descriptive data analysis For Grouped data
If the data are grouped into classes, the median will fall into one of the
classes and the ( )th value.
LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS! 2 n−𝐹𝑐
Formula: median ( )=L+i (2 )
Descriptive data analysis provides simple summaries 𝑓𝑚
about the sample and the measures. Different statistical measures are used to Where: L = exact lower limit of the class containing the median class
analyze data and draw conclusions under descriptive data analysis (Trochim,
i = interval size n = total
For the present study, the following statistical measures of descriptive number of items/observation
analysis were used to compute further statistical testing:
Fc = cumulative frequency in the class preceding the median class
fm = frequency of the median class
1. Measures of Central Tendency.

Central tendency is sometimes called ‘measures of location’, ‘central

1.3 Mode. The mode is the most appropriate measure of central tendency when
location’, or just ‘center’. It is a way to describe what’s typical for a set of data.
data are on nominal scale. It is also the quick approximation of average but
There are three major ways to show central tendency: mean, mode and median.
the weakest measure of central tendency.
In cases where there is more than one observation which is the
1.1 Mean. The mean is the average of a set of numbers. It is the most widely highest but with equal frequency, the distribution is bimodal (with 2
used and simplest measure of central tendency. It is frequently used for highest observations) or multimodal with more than two highest
interval or ratio variables. The mean is calculated by getting the summation of observations. In cases where every item has equal number of
all observation divided by the number of observation. observations, there is no mode.

Formulas:
Ungrouped Data X = ∑ 𝒙 → mean = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 2. Measures of Dispersion
𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Dispersion in statistics is a way of describing how spread out a set of data is. It is
Grouped Data X = ∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒎 → mean = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒙 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 important for describing the spread of the data, or its variation around a central
𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 value. It is also called measure of variability.
The measures to be considered are the range, average or mean deviation,
Weighted Mean X = ∑ 𝒇𝒙 → mean=𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
standard deviation and the variance.
𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

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2.1. The Range. The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest
values in a set of data. However, it only gives us knowledge of the spread of data
but it does not tell us about the disperse of values from central tendency.

2.2. Average (Mean) Deviation. The mean absolute deviation of a dataset is the
average distance between each data point and the mean. It gives us an idea
about the variability in a dataset. Absolute value is used to disregard the positive
or negative value of data.

Formula for Ungrouped Data AD = ∑ | 𝑥− 𝑥 |

�
�
where; Σ is Sigma, which means to sum up ;
| | (the vertical bars) mean Absolute Value

x is each value

x is the mean

n is the number of values

2.3. Standard Deviation. The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of spread or

variation of data about the mean. SD computed by calculating the average
distance that the average value is from the mean. It is used to measure the
confidence in statistical conclusion.
∑( 𝑥− 𝑥 )2
√
Formula for Ungrouped Data SD = 𝑛 −1 where; x is
each value
x is the mean

n is the number of values

Source: Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research 2: Quantitative. (pp. 121-130). Cubao,
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.

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 Inferential data analysis is used to determine if there is a
relationship between an intervention and an outcome as well as the
strength of that relationship. Inferential Statistics refers to statistical
measures and techniques that allow us to use samples to make inference
and generalizations about the population from which the samples were
drawn. Below are the common statistical measures to measure significant
differences and relationships between variables:

1.Test of Significance of Difference (T-test)

A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a

significant difference between the means of two groups, which may be
related in certain features (Kenton, 2019).

• Between Means.

For independent samples (when respondents consist two different

groups)

Case 1: 𝛿1 𝛿2unknown or n1 ≥ and n2 30

z = (𝑥1− 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1− 𝜇2) ; Z-TEST

Lesson 5.3 Inferential Data Analysis
√ 𝛿1 2 𝑛1 + 𝛿2 2 𝑛2

OBJECTIVES Case 2: 𝛿1 ≠ 𝛿2unknown or n1 < 30 and n2 < 30

The students are expected to: t = (𝑥1− 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1− 𝜇2)

1. discuss inferential data analysis and its use in research √ 𝑠1 2 𝑛1 + 𝑠2 2 𝑛2 df = smaller of n1 - 1 and n2 – 1
2. summarize the concept of inferential data analysis using Case 3: 𝛿1 = 𝛿2unknown or n1 < 30 and n2 < 30
dialogue cloud
t = (𝑥1− 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1− 𝜇2)
3. analyze problem involving descriptive data analysis
√ 𝑠𝑝 2 𝑛1 + 𝑠𝑝 2 𝑛2 where: 𝑠𝑝 2 = (𝑛1−1) 𝑠1 2+ (𝑛2−1) 𝑠2 2
LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!
𝑛1+ 𝑛2−2

2. Test of Relationship

• Spearman Rank-Order Correlation or Spearman Rho. It is used when

data available are expressed in ranks (ordinal variables).
2

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 𝜌 Hypothesis testing is a process in statistics by testing an assumption
regarding a population parameter. The methodology used depends on the nature
2 of data used and reason for analysis (Majaski, 2019). The goal of hypothesis
𝑁 (𝑁 −1)
testing is whether to reject or accept the hypothesis that the researcher
formulated in the study. It is used when data needs inferential analysis.
• Chi-Square Test for Independence. It is used when data expressed in
terms of frequencies or percentage (nominal variables).
Population and Sample
x2 = • Parameter a measure based on a population (population mean and
𝐸
denoted by 𝜇)
• Statistics a measure based on a sample (sample mean and denoted by
• Product – Moment Coefficient of Correlation or Pearson r. This is used x)
when data are expressed in terms of scores such as weights and heights
or score in test (ratio and interval variables). Inferential statistics requires that sample be drawn by random sampling
o Case 1. When deviation from the mean are used. r = because bias sampling have a tendency to give wrong inferences. Testing
statistical significance is very important to determine if the inference is valid.
o Case 2. When raw score from original
observation are used. Statistical Significance
• Statistical Significance refers to the relationship of variables caused by
r= 𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−(∑𝑥)(∑𝑦)
something.
• Significance means probably true (not due to chance).
• T-test to test the significance of Pearson r. This is used to determine if • Level of significance means that there is a chance that finding is true.
the value of computed Pearson r is significant. • Statistical hypothesis testing is used to determine whether the result of a
data set is statistically significant.
𝑛 −2
√ 1− 𝑟 2
t=r
Hypothesis
Source: Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research 2: Quantitative. (pp. 131-134). Cubao, • Hypothesis is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true and has to be
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
tested for its truth or falsity.
• Inferential statistics could be a test for relationship or test for difference.
• Hypothesis has two types namely: null hypothesis; and alternative
5.4 Hypothesis Testing hypothesis.
• Null hypothesis is the one that is always tested by researcher. It always
OBJECTIVES indicates the there is no significant relationship or difference between
The students are expected to: the group means.
1. discuss hypothesis testing • Alternative hypothesis indicates that there is a true relationship or
2. summarize the concept of hypothesis testing using the difference between the group means.
dialogue box • Results will show that: 1. There is a meaningful relationship or
3. analyze problem involving hypothesis difference between two groups, thus reject the null hypothesis
2. The difference or relationship between the two group is not large
enough to conclude that the groups are different or correlated thus
you fail to reject null hypothesis.

LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!

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Type I and Type II Errors
• Type I error is committed when researcher rejected null hypothesis
when in fact it is true.
• Type II error is committed when the data produce a results that fail to
reject the null hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is false and
need to be rejected.
Lesson 6 Guidelines in Writing Methodology
Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics
• Parametric test is used for interval and ratio scales of measurement. It OBJECTIVES
requires that the samples are drawn from normally distributed The students are expected to:
population and the selection of each case should be independent of the
1. discuss the guidelines in writing methodology
other. Population should have equal variances.
2. summarize the information in methodology chapter using
• Nonparametric test does not specify normally distributed population and
graphic organizer
similarity of variance. It is used for nominal and ordinal data.
3. write research methodology

Steps in hypothesis testing

LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!
1. State the hypothesis. Null hypothesis (H 0)
X=Y
Part of the research paper is discussing the methods you used in
Alternative hypothesis (Ha) X>Y/ X<Y 2.
accomplishing your study. It discusses the type of research you used, your
Choose the statistical test and perform the calculation.
process of collecting and analyzing the data, the materials you used, and your
A researcher must determine the measurement scale, the type
rationale for doing those methods.
of variable, the type of data gathered, and the number of
groups.
Here are the guidelines in writing quantitative research methodology
3. State the level of significance for the statistical test.
(McCombes, 2019):
Alpha (∝) is a symbol used to denoted significance. The level
most frequently use are .05, .01 and .001
4. Compute the calculated value. 1. Explain your methodological approach. Begin with discussing the
Used appropriate formula (lesson 5) for the significance test. research problem you are investigating, and the kind of data you need
5. Determine the critical value that the test statistics must attain to be to answer it. In experimental research, it requires a carefully designed
significant. study that can be replicated by other researchers.
Look for critical value in appropriate table for the distribution.
Critical value defines the region of rejection from acceptance of
null hypothesis. Example of distribution using =.05
2. Describe your methods of data collection. Give full details of the
tools, procedures and materials used to gather data, and the standard
Rejection region used to select participants or sources for study.
6. Make a decision.
If the calculated value is greater than critical value, reject the
Surveys. Describe where, when and how the survey was conducted.
null hypothesis. If critical value is larger, you failed to reject the
The following question might be helpful:
null hypothesis.
Source: Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research 2: Quantitative. (pp. 135-138). Cubao,
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
• How did you design your instrument (e.g. Likert Scale)?
• How did you find and select participants?

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 • Did you conduct surveys by phone, mail, online or in person, and It discussed the research design appropriately use in quantitative research. It is important
how long did participants have to respond? to remember that the research problem determines the research design. The two major
research design in quantitative research are the: (1) descriptive research design which is
• What was the sample size and response rate? used to describe characteristics of the phenomenon; and (2) experimental research design
which is used to examine the cause and effect relationship of the variables. Descriptive
You might include the survey questionnaire in the appendix part so research can be correlational study, normative survey, evaluative study, assessment/
the reader can see how was the data collected. evaluation study, and comparative study, while the experimental research can be
pretest/post-test controlled group, single pretest/post-test controlled group, or Solomon four
Experiments. Give full details of the tools, techniques and procedures
group.
you used to conduct the experiment. It is especially important to give
enough detail for another researcher to reproduce your results. This unit likewise discussed the concept of sample size determination and sampling
procedure. Sample is the individual that represent the entire population. The researcher
needs to select sample size accurately and systematically. A good sample should be
3. Describe your method of analysis. Discussed the process of accurate and precise. One way of having accurate sample size is with the use of Slovin’s
formula. In selecting samples, there are two techniques that the researchers can used
analyzing data. However, avoid discussing any of the result of the
namely probability and nonprobability sampling techniques. Probability sampling techniques
study. In quantitative research, analysis of data is based on numbers. It give every member of the population equal chances of selection, while nonprobability
might include the software you used to analyze the data (e.g. SPSS) sampling have no specific chance for a member of the population to be part of the sample.
and the statistical methods you used (e.g. regression analysis). 4. The methods of probability sampling discussed in this unit are simple random sampling,
Evaluate and justify your methodological choices. Justification is stratified random sampling, systematic random sampling, cluster sampling, and multi-stage
sampling. The nonprobability sampling techniques discussed here were convenience
more needed if your approach used is not based on standard
sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and quota sampling.
knowledge. Discuss why the methods were suitable for your objectives,
and show that this approach might contribute to the body of knowledge. This unit also discussed the concept of designing an instrument and establishing validity
and reliability. There are different types of questions that a researcher can used in
Take note of the following (Faltado, Bombita, & Boholano, 2017): constructing an instrument. These are the dichotomous questions, open-ended questions,
close-ended questions, rating scale questions, and raking scale questions. It is important
• Design. Explain if your study is within or between group design. Include that the researcher ensure the validity and reliability of a research instrument. Validity refers
the variables included and approach you used in the study. to a degree to which the instrument measures what it intends to measure. The four types of
validity discussed here were face validity, content validity, construct validity, and criterion
• Participants. Describe the participants in your study including their total
validity. On the other hand, reliability refers to accurateness and preciseness the measuring
number and the process of selecting them. instrument. Some of the way of assessing reliability are test-retest, split-half method, and
• Procedures. Properly explained your procedure. It includes the internal consistency. It also discussed some data collection methods such as doing and
procedure you have done before, during and after gathering data. interview, distributing survey questionnaire, making an observation, and administering test.
• Always write your methods in past tense.
Also, this unit discussed the four measurement scale types which are used to classify or
• Provide enough details when doing experimental research. It is for the quantify data. These are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. It is important that the
other researchers to replicate your work. researcher know the type of measurement scale he have on his study so that he can select
• Used proper APA format. appropriate statistical test for the data he have. Data analysis has two strategies, the
• Take a rough draft of your work with your research teacher for additional descriptive data analysis and inferential data analysis. Lastly, this unit introduced the
assistance. guidelines in writing quantitative research methodology.
• Always proofread your paper.

SUMMARY

This unit discussed understanding data and ways on systematically collect it. It
focused on the methodology that the researchers can employ to their research study.
UNIT 5
Page | 13
 Finding Answers Lesson 1 Collects Data Using Appropriate
Instrument
through OBJECTIVES
The students are expected to:

Data Collection 1. Determine the appropriate instrument in different type of

research.
2. Discuss the data collection process based on their
A. CONTENT STANDARDS experience in doing their chosen study.
3. Summarize the type of research and its appropriate
The learner demonstrates understanding of: instrument using diagram.
4. Appreciate the importance of using the correct instrument
a. data collection procedures and skills using varied instrument in collecting data.
b. data processing, organizing, and analysis

B. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!
The learner is able to gather and analyze data with intellectual honesty,
using suitable techniques
Using research instrument play a crucial role in collecting data,
according to Yaya (2014) that it is significant for every researcher to know what
C. LEARNING COMPETENCIES kind of data should be collected and what method should be used. Methods that
researchers use in collecting desired data is called measurement instrument.
The learner:
Quantitative data gathering strategies
a. collects data using appropriate instruments
b. presents and interprets data in tabular and graphical form
c. uses statistical techniques to analyze data—study of
differences and relationships limited for bivariate analysis

Data Collection Description

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 Questionnaires Questionnaires often make use of checklist
and rating scales. It is usually sent by mail,
- Paper- email or personally given to the
pencilquestionnaires respondents.

It can be sent to a large number of people

and saves the researcher time and money.
It could be open ended format or multiple
choice format.

Open ended
such as the use of Survey monkey.
Allows the respondents to answer any way.
Interview Interview can be use at any stage of
evaluation process. Two types on
- Web based interviews are used in evaluation
A new and
research: inevitably
structured growing methodology
interviews, in which
questionnaires is the use of internet based research. The
a carefully worded questionnaire is Type of Research Data Collection Instrument
respondents will answer online questions
administered, and in depth interviews, in
1 Applied Questionnaire, Interview and
which the interviewer does not follow a
Observation.
rigid form. Interview will supplement the
data gathered through questionnaires. 2 Survey Questionnaire, Focus Group, Interview
and Observation.
Personal interview are done when
people usually respond when asked by a
person but their answer may be 3 Case Study Questionnaire, Interview, focus group
influenced by the interviewer. discussion and Observation.

Telephone interviews are less time

consuming and less expensive and the 4 Ethnographic e.g. Observation, questionnaire, focus
researcher has ready access to anyone correlational research group discussion and interview.
on the planet who has a telephone.
5 Historical Observation, focus group discussion
Experiments Attempts to determine a cause and effect and interview.
relationship between two or more
variables.
6 Evaluation Focus group discussion, interview and
Blind Experiment- the test subjects do not observation
know if they are getting the experimental
treatment or the placebo. 7 Pure Science Experiment and observation
Double Blind Experiment- neither the test 8 Action Questionnaire and interview
subject nor the experimenter measuring
the response knows to which group the 9 Longitudinal Questionnaire, observation, focus
test subjects have been assigned group discussion, interview and
(treatment or placebo). experiment in case of pure
Observations Observational techniques are methods science research. Page | 15
by which an individual or individuals
gather first hand data on program, 10 Exploratory Questionnaire, observation and
processes, or behaviors being studied. interview.
 Classification of Research Based on Data Collection Instrument

Source: Japheth Yaya, 18th June, 2014

Read and study the example below:

Source: Practical Research 2 (2016) by Faltado, Bombita, Boholano and Pogoy Langos, S., (2014), Athens as an international tourism destination: An empirical
investigation to the city’s imagery and the role of local DMO’s. Chapter 3-
methodology: Data collection method and research tools. Published in
file:///C:/Users/Admin/Downloads/RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY_Datacol
lectionmethodandResearchtools.pdf

Athens as an international tourism destination: An empirical ➢ Table number and title- these are placed above the table. The title is
investigation to the city’s imagery and the role of local DMO’s usually written right after the table number.
➢ Caption subhead- this refers to columns and rows
➢ Body- It contains all the data under each subhead
➢ Source- it indicates if the data is secondary and it should be
acknowledged.

Lesson 2 Presents and Interprets Data in Sample of Data Table with Textual Analysis:

Tabular and Graphical Form

OBJECTIVES

The students are expected to:

1. Determine the different type of graphs
2. Make tables and graphs out of the given data.
3. Summarize the characteristics of a good data table and
graphs.

LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!

Tabular Presentation of Data

Tables present clear and organized data. A table must be clear and simple but
complete.
A good table should include the following parts:

Page | 16
Graphical Methods of Presenting
Data A good graph should include the
following:
1. A graph or chart portrays the visual presentation of data using
symbols such as lines, dots, bars or slices.
2. It depicts the trend of a certain set of measurements or shows
comparison between two or more sets of data or quantities.
3. A good graph or chart shows that the x and y axis has a heading and
units are included.
4. The figure number of the title are usually placed below the figure.
It is not hard to draw a histogram or a line graph by hand, as you
5. The known value is plotted on the x-axis and the measured value is may remember from school, but spreadsheets will draw one quickly and
plotted on the y-axis. This description of a good chart excludes pie easily once you have input the data into a table, saving you any trouble.
charts. They will even walk
you through the process. You can also display grouped data in a pie chart,
An example is shown below, which uses three sets of data, grouped by four such as this one.
categories. This might, for example, be men, women, and ‘no gender
specified’, grouped by
age categories 20–29,
30–
39, 40–49 and 50–59.

Pie charts are best used when you are interested in the relative size of each
group, and what proportion of the total fits into each category, as they illustrate
very clearly which groups are bigger.
Source: https://www.skillsyouneed.com/num/simple -statistical-analysis.html

An alternative to a histogram is a line chart, which plots each data point and
BASIC RULES FOR THE PREPARATION OF TABLES AND GRAPHS
joins them up with a line. The same data as in the bar chart are displayed in a
line graph below. Ideally, every table should:

• Be self-explanatory;
• Present values with the same number of decimal places in all its cells
(standardization);

Page | 17
 • Include a title informing what is being described and where, as well as What is Bivariate Data?
the number of observations (N) and when data were collected;
• Have a structure formed by three horizontal lines, defining table When you conduct a study that looks at a single variable, that study
heading and the end of the table at its lower border; involves univariate data. For example, you might study a group of college
students to find out their average SAT scores or you might study a group of
• Not have vertical lines at its lateral borders;
diabetic patients to find their weights. Bivariate data is when you are
• Provide additional information in table footer, when needed; • Be studying two variables. For example, if you are studying a group of college
inserted into a document only after being mentioned in the text; and students to find out their average SAT score and their age, you have two
• Be numbered by Arabic numerals. pieces of the puzzle to find (SAT score and age). Or if you want to find out the
weights and heights of college students, then you also have bivariate data.
Similarly, to tables, graphs should: Bivariate data could also be two sets of items that are dependent on each
other.
• Include, below the figure, a title providing all relevant information;
• Be referred to as figures in the text; When one measurement is made on each observation, univariate analysis is
applied. If more than one measurement is made on each observation,
• Identify figure axes by the variables under analysis;
multivariate analysis is applied.
• Quote the source which provided the data, if required; • Demonstrate
the scale being used; and
1. The most important graphical summary of bivariate data is the
• Be self-explanatory. scatterplot. This is simply a plot of the points (Xi,Yi) in the plane. The
following figures show scatterplots of June maximum temperatures
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4008059
against January maximum temperatures, and of January maximum
temperatures against latitude.

Lesson 3 Uses statistical techniques to analyze

data
(Study of
OBJECTIVES differences and relationships
limited for bivariate analysis)
The students are expected to:
1. define and describe statistical techniques to analyze
data. A key feature in a scatterplot is the association, or trend between X and Y .
2. calculate the correlation coefficient of a collected data Higher January temperatures tend to be paired with higher June temperatures,
3. summarize the uses of statistical techniques in analyzing so these two values have a positive association.
data.
4. state the importance of using correct statistical Higher latitudes tend to be paired with lower January temperature decreases,
techniques in analyzing data. so these values have a negative association.

LET’S FEED YOUR MIND. READ THIS!

Page | 18
If higher X values are paired with low or with high Y values equally often, there D = difference between the two ranks of an individual in the variables
is no association.
studied
Suppose we would like to numerically quantify the trend in a bivariate
scatterplot. n = number of individuals

The most common means of doing this is the correlation coefficient (sometimes Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.
called Pearson’s correlation coefficient): 3. Simple Linear Regression Analysis
1. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r)
Linear regression is the simplest and commonly used statistical measure
The correlation coefficient, also commonly known as Pearson correlation, is a for prediction studies. It is concerned with finding an equation that uses the
statistical measure of the dependence or association of two numbers. When known values of one or more variables, called the independent or predictor
two sets of numbers move in the same direction at the same time, they are said variables, to estimate the unknown value of quantitative variable called the
to have a positive correlation. When one series of numbers moves up as the dependent criterion. It is a prediction when a variable (Y) is dependent on a
other moves down, they are said to have a negative correlation. This will result second variable (X) based on the regression equation of a given set of data.
in a negative correlation coefficient.
Formula:
https://www.myaccountingcourse.com/financialratios/correlation-coefficient
Y = α + bX where: α = is called Y-intercept of the line (the value of Y when
Formula:
X is equal to zero)
where: r = coefficient of
correlation b = is the slope of the line called the regression (the rate

of change of Y per unit change in X).

n =number of samples Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.

x = first set of variables

y = second set of variables

4. Chi-Square (X2)
2. The spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient (Spearmen Rho)
The most used method of comparing proportions. It is particularly useful in
The statistics being used based on ranks or position is the Spearman tests evaluating a relationship between nominal or ordinal data. Typical
Rank Correlation Coefficient represented here by rs. It is a measure of situations or settings are cases where persons, events, or objects are grouped
relationship between two variables by ranking the items or individuals under in two or more nominal categories such as “Yes-No” responses, “Favor-
study according to their position. It represents the extent to which the same Against-Undecided” or class “A,B,C, or D”.
individuals or events occupy the same relative position on two variables.

Formula:

where: rs = Spearman rank correlation

Page | 19
 This test is used when we have a random sample and we want to test
if it is significantly different from a population mean or we compared a
single sample mean (X) to a known or hypothesized population mean
(µ). This test can be used only if the background assumptions are
satisfied such as sample observations should be random and the
population standard deviation is not known.

where: fo = observed number of classes

fe = expected number of cases Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.

Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.

6. Independent Sample Z-test : Equal Variance Not Assumed
5. One-Sample Z-test
Similar to the test on single mean, the Z-test is used for testing two means
It is used when we want to know whether the difference between a sample
when the variance is known and T-test if the variance is unknown.
mean and the population mean is large enough to be statistically significant,
that is , if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. This test can be used only if
the background assumptions are satisfied such as the population mean and
standard deviation must be known and the test statistic should follow a normal
distribution.

Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.

Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.

One-Sample T-test

Page | 20
 Independent Sample T-test: Equal Variance Assumed

The independent-measure hypothesis test allows researchers to SUMMARY

evaluate or to compare the mean difference between two populations using the
data from two separate samples. Generally, σ 2 is unknown and is being
This unit contains the discussion on how to collect data
estimated from the data. Hence, the t-test is used. Computed Test Statistic t:
using appropriate instruments; presents and interprets data in
tabular and graphical form; and uses statistical techniques to
analyze data limited to bivariate analysis.

Measurement instrument is necessary in collecting

desired data to answer the inquiries of a study. Questionnaires
most of the time involved the use of paper and pen. However,
with the emerging technology use nowadays, the researchers
can easily communicate to the target respondents through email
questionnaire. Another one is the interview method that usually
use schedule interview or list of questions to be asked to the
respondents. Observation uses observation schedule or
checklist that will be accomplished based on the target factors to
Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.
be observed. After collecting desired data it should be presented
in an organized form through tables and graphs. Tables and
7. One-Way Analysis of Variance graphs should be self-explanatory, it Identify figure axes by the
variables under analysis; quote the source which provided the
It is used to when you want to compare the means of more than two data, if required and demonstrate the scale being used.
groups. This test can be used only if the background assumptions are satisfied
such that it has independent random samples, population are normal and Presenting the desired data in an organized manner
population variance are equal.
involves the process of statistical techniques. Bivariate data is
when you are studying two variables and identify its difference or
relationship. There are several statistical method that a
researcher can use such as Pearsons r, Spearman Rho, Linear
progression, Chi-square, z-test, t-test and ANOVA.

Note: Refer to pp. ___ for computation examples.

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