CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Physical Science

1.1 Nature of Science

Learning Objectives

• Define science.

• State the goal of science.

• Describe how science advances.

Does the word science make you think of high-tech labs and researchers in white coats like the
ones in this picture?

This is often an accurate image of science but not always. If you look up science in a dictionary,
you would find that it comes from a Latin word that means “having knowledge.” However, this
isn’t an adequate definition either.

What is Science?

Science is more about gaining knowledge than it is about simply having knowledge. Science is a
way of learning about the natural world that is based on evidence and logic. In other words,
science is a process, not just a body of facts. Through the process of science, our knowledge of
the world advances.

The Goal of Science

Scientists may focus on very different aspects of the natural world. For example, some scientists
focus on the world of tiny objects, such as atoms and molecules. Other scientists devote their
attention to huge objects, such as the sun and other stars. But all scientists have at least one thing
in common. They want to understand how and why things happen. Achieving this understanding
is the goal of science.

Have you ever experienced the thrill of an exciting fireworks show like the one pictured in the
Figure? Fireworks show how the goal of science leads to discovery. Fireworks were invented at
least 2000 years ago in China, but explaining how and why they work didn’t happen until much
later. It wasn’t until scientists had learned about elements and chemical reactions that they could
explain what caused fireworks to create brilliant bursts of light and deep rumbling booms.
 FIGURE 1.1 Fireworks were invented long before scientists could actually explain how and why they
explode.

How Science Advances

Sometimes learning about science is frustrating because scientific knowledge is always

changing. But that’s also what makes science exciting. Occasionally, science moves forward in
giant steps. More commonly, however, science advances in baby steps.

Giant steps in science may occur if a scientist introduces a major new idea. For example, in
1666, Isaac Newton introduced the idea that gravity is universal. People had long known that
things fall to the ground because they are attracted by Earth. But Newton proposed that
everything in the universe exerts a force of attraction on everything else. This idea is known as
Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

Q: How do you think Newton’s law of universal gravitation might have influenced the
advancement of science?

A: Newton’s law allowed scientists to understand many different phenomena. It explains not
only why things always fall down toward the ground or roll downhill. It also explains the motion
of many other objects. For example, it explains why planets orbit the sun. The idea of universal
gravity even helped scientists discover the planets Neptune and Pluto. The caption and diagram
in the Figure explain how.

Baby steps in science occur as small bits of evidence gradually accumulate. The accumulating
evidence lets scientists refine and expand on earlier ideas. For example, the scientific idea of the
atom was introduced in the early 1800s. But scientists came to understand the structure of the
atom only as evidence accumulated over the next two centuries. Their understanding of atomic
structure continues to expand today.
The advancement of science is sometimes a very bumpy road. New knowledge and ideas aren’t
always accepted at first, and scientists may be mocked for their ideas. The idea that Earth’s
continents drift on the planet’s surface

FIGURE 1.2 In the early 1800s, astronomers noticed a wobble in Uranus’ orbit around the sun. They predicted that
the wobble was caused by the pull of gravity of another, not-yet-discovered planet. Scientists searched the skies for
the “missing” planet. When they discovered Neptune in 1846, they thought they had found their missing planet.
After the astronomers took into account the effects of Neptune’s gravity, they saw that Uranus still had an
unexplained wobble. They predicted that there must be another planet beyond Neptune. That planet, now called
Pluto, was finally discovered in 1930. Of special note, as of 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU)
demoted Pluto from its planet status as it does not meet one of the criteria for planetary standards.

is a good example. This idea was first proposed by a scientist named Alfred Wegener in the
early 1900s. Wegener also proposed that all of the present continents had once formed one
supercontinent, which he named Pangaea. You can see a sketch of Pangaea in Figure. Other
scientists not only rejected Wegener’s ideas, but ridiculed Wegener for even suggesting them. It
wasn’t until the 1950s that enough evidence had accumulated for scientists to realize that
Wegener had been right. Unfortunately, Wegener did not live long enough to see his ideas
accepted.

Q: What types of evidence might support Wegener’s ideas?

A: Several types of evidence support Wegener’s ideas. For example, similar fossils and rock
formations have been found on continents that are now separated by oceans. It is also now
known that Earth’s crust consists of rigid plates that slide over molten rock below them. This
explains how continents can drift. Even the shapes of today’s continents show how they once fit
together, like pieces of a giant jigsaw puzzle.
Summary

• Science is a way of learning about the natural world that is based on evidence and logic.

• The goal of science is to understand how and why things happen.

• Science advances as new evidence accumulates and allows scientists to replace, refine, or
expand on accepted ideas about the natural world.

1.2 Scientific Theory Learning

Objectives

• Define scientific theory.

• Compare "theory" to "scientific theory."

• Describe important theories of physical science.

• Relate the law of parsimony to scientific theories.

The term theory is used differently in science than it is used in everyday language. A scientific
theory is a broad explanation that is widely accepted because it is supported by a great deal of
evidence. Because it is so well supported, a scientific theory has a very good chance of being a
correct explanation for events in nature. Because it is a broad explanation, it can explain many
observations and pieces of evidence. In other words, it can help connect and make sense of many
phenomena in the natural world.

Examples of Theories in Physical Science

A number of theories in science were first proposed many decades or even centuries ago, but
they have withstood the test of time. An example of a physical science theory that has mainly
withstood the test of time is Dalton’s atomic theory. John Dalton was a British chemist who lived
in the late 1700s and early 1800s. Around 1800, he published his atomic theory, which is one of
the most important theories in science. According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all substances
consist of tiny particles called atoms. Furthermore, all the atoms of a given element are identical,
whereas the atoms of different elements are always different. These parts of Dalton’s atomic
theory are still accepted today, although some other details of his theory have since been
disproven.

Dalton based his theory on many pieces of evidence. For example, he studied many substances
called compounds. These are substances that consist of two or more different elements. Dalton
determined that a given compound always consists of the same elements in exactly the same
proportions, no matter how small the sample of the compound. This idea is illustrated for the
compound water in the Figure. Dalton concluded from this evidence that elements must be made
up of tiny particles in order to always combine in the same specific proportions in any given
compound.

Q: Dalton thought that atoms are the smallest particles of matter. Scientists now know that atoms
are composed of even smaller particles. Does this mean that the rest of Dalton’s atomic theory
should be thrown out?

A: The discovery of particles smaller than atoms doesn’t mean that we should scrap the entire
theory. Atoms are still known to be the smallest particles of elements that have the properties of
the elements. Also, it is atoms—not particles of atoms—that combine in fixed proportions in
compounds. Instead of throwing out Dalton’s theory, scientists have refined and expanded on it.

There are many other important physical science theories. Here are three more examples:

• Einstein’s theory of gravity

• Kinetic theory of matter

• Wave-particle theory of light

FIGURE 1.4 Water is a compound that consists of the elements hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). Like other
compounds, the smallest particles of water are called molecules. Each molecule of water (H2O) contains
two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

Keep It Simple

The formation of scientific theories is generally guided by the law of parsimony. The word
parsimony means “thriftiness.” The law of parsimony states that, when choosing between
competing theories, you should select the theory that makes the fewest assumptions. In other
words, the simpler theory is more likely to be correct. For example, you probably know that
Earth and the other planets of our solar system orbit around the sun. But several centuries ago, it
was believed that Earth is at the center of the solar system and the other planets orbit around
Earth. While it is possible to explain the movement of planets according to this theory, the
explanation is unnecessarily complex.

Q: Why do you think parsimony is an important characteristic of scientific theories?

A: The more assumptions that must be made to form a scientific theory, the more chances there
are for the theory to be incorrect. If one assumption is wrong, so is the theory. Conversely, the
theory that makes the fewest assumptions, assuming it is well supported by evidence, is most
likely to be correct.

Summary

• A scientific theory is a broad explanation that is widely accepted because it is supported by a

great deal of evidence.

• Examples of theories in physical science include Dalton’s atomic theory, Einstein’s theory of
gravity, and the kinetic theory of matter.

• The formation of scientific theories is generally guided by the law of parsimony. According to
this law, the simplest of competing theories is most likely to be correct.

1.3 Scientific Law

Learning Objectives

• Define scientific law.

• Compare scientific laws to scientific theories.

• Discuss scientific laws of physical science.

• Describe the place of laws in science.

Did you ever drive a bumper car like the one pictured here? As you drive around the track, other
drivers try to bump into your car and push it out of the way. When another car bumps into yours,
both cars may bounce back from the collision. The harder the two cars collide, the farther back
they bounce.

It’s the Law

It may seem like common sense that bumper cars change their motion when they collide. That’s
because all objects behave this way - it’s the law! A scientific law, called Newton’s third law of
motion, states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Thus, when one
bumper car acts by ramming another, one or both cars react by pushing apart.

Q: What are some other examples of Newton’s third law of motion? What actions are always
followed by reactions?

A: Other examples of actions and reactions include hitting a ball with a bat and the ball bouncing
back; and pushing a swing and the swing moving away

Laws in Science

Newton’s third law of motion is just one of many scientific laws. A scientific law is a statement
describing what always happens under certain conditions. Other examples of laws in physical
science include:

• Newton’s first law of motion

• Newton’s second law of motion

• Newton’s law of universal gravitation

• Law of conservation of mass

• Law of conservation of energy

• Law of conservation of momentum

Laws vs. Theories

Scientific laws state what always happen. This can be very useful. It can let you let you predict
what will happen under certain circumstances. For example, Newton’s third law tells you that the
harder you hit a softball with a bat, the faster and farther the ball will travel away from the bat.
However, scientific laws have a basic limitation. They don’t explain why things happen. “Why”
questions are answered by scientific theories, not scientific laws.

Q: You know that the sun always sets in the west. This could be expressed as a scientific law.
Think of something else that always happens in nature. How could you express it as a scientific
law?

A: Something else that always happens in nature is water flowing downhill rather than uphill.
This could be expressed as the law, “When water flows over a hill, it always flows from a higher
to a lower elevation.”

Summary

• A scientific law is a statement describing what always happens under certain conditions.
Newton’s three laws of motion are examples of laws in physical science.

• A scientific law states what always happens but not why it happens. Scientific theories answer
“why” questions.

1.4 History of Science

Learning Objectives

• Explain what is meant by the "evolution of science."

• Summarize the evolution of science.

• Identify major contributions in the history of science.

Who is this man with the wild white hair? Could he be an aging rock star? He’s not a famous
musician, but he’s just as famous as many celebrities. His name is Albert Einstein, and he’s
arguably the most important scientist of the 20th century. Einstein really shook up science with
his discoveries in the early 1900s. That may sound like a long time ago, but in terms of the
history of science, it’s as though it was only yesterday.

Evolution of Science

People have probably wondered about the natural world for as long as there have been people.
So it’s no surprise that science has roots that go back thousands of years. Some of the earliest
contributions to science were made by Greek philosophers more than two thousand years ago. It
wasn’t until many centuries later, however, that the scientific method and experimentation were
introduced. The dawn of modern science occurred even more recently. It is generally traced back
to the scientific revolution, which took place in Europe starting in the 1500s.

In the Beginning

A Greek philosopher named Thales, who lived around 600 BCE, has been called the “father of
science” for his ideas about the natural world. He proposed that natural events such as lightning
and earthquakes have natural causes. Up until then, people understood such events to be the acts
of gods or other supernatural forces.

Q: Why was Thales’ idea about natural causes such an important contribution to science?

A: Natural causes can be investigated and understood, whereas gods or other supernatural causes
are “above nature” and not suitable for investigation.

Just a few hundred years after Thales, the Greek philosopher Aristotle made a very important
contribution to science. You can see what Aristotle looked like below. Prior to Aristotle, other
philosophers believed that they could find the truth about the natural world by inward reflection
—in other words, just by thinking about it. Aristotle, in contrast, thought that truth about the
natural world could come only from observations of nature and inductive reasoning. He argued
that knowledge of nature must be based on evidence and logic. This idea is called empiricism,
and it is the basis of science today.

FIGURE 1.5 Aristotle introduced the idea of

empiricism around 350 BCE. It is a hallmark of modern science.

Introducing the Scientific Method

In the first 1000 years CE, Europe went through a period called the Dark Ages. Science and
learning in general were all but abandoned. However, in other parts of the world science
flourished. During this period, some of the most important contributions to science were made by
Persian scholars. For example, during the 700s CE, a Persian scientist named Geber introduced
the scientific method and experimentation in chemistry. His ideas and methods were later
adopted by European chemists. Today, Geber is known as the “father of chemistry.”

Modern Western Science Emerges

Starting in the mid-1500s, a scientific revolution occurred in Europe. This was the beginning of
modern Western science. Many scientific advances were made during a period of just a couple of
hundred years. The revolution in science began when Copernicus made the first convincing
arguments that the sun—not Earth—is the center of what we now call the solar system. This was
a drastic shift in thinking about Earth’s place in the cosmos. Around 1600, the Italian scientist
Galileo greatly improved the telescope, which had just been invented, and made many important
discoveries in the field of astronomy. Some of Galileo’s observations provided additional
evidence for Copernicus’ sun-centered solar system.
FIGURE 1.6 The model on the left shows what people believed about the solar system before Copernicus
introduced the model on the right.

Q: Copernicus’ ideas about the solar system were so influential that the scientific revolution is
sometimes called the “Copernican revolution.” Why do you think Copernicus’ ideas led to a
revolution in science?

A: Copernicus’ ideas about the solar system are considered to be the starting point of modern
astronomy.

They changed how all future scientists interpreted observations in astronomy. They also led to a
flurry of new scientific investigation. Other contributions to science that occurred during the
scientific revolution include:

• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

• Newton’s law of universal gravitation

• Newton’s three laws of motion

Einstein Rocks Science

Another major shift in science occurred with the work of Albert Einstein (the “rock star”
scientist pictured in the opening image). In 1916, Einstein published his general theory of
relativity. This theory relates matter and energy. It also explains gravity as a property of space
and time (rather than a property of matter as Newton thought). Einstein’s theory has been
supported by all evidence and observations to date, whereas Newton’s law of gravity does not
apply to all cases. Einstein’s theory is still the accepted explanation for gravity today.

Q: How might Einstein’s theory have influenced the course of science?

A: Einstein’s theory suggested new areas of investigation. Many predictions based on the theory
were later found to be true. For example, black holes in the universe were predicted by Einstein’s
theory and later confirmed by scientific evidence.

Summary

• Science has roots that go back thousands of years to Greek philosophers including Thales and
Aristotle.

• The scientific method was introduced in the 700s by a Persian scientist named Geber.

• Modern science began with the scientific revolution in Europe the 1500s and 1600s. The
scientific revolution was launched by Copernicus’ new ideas about the solar system.

• In the early 1900s, Einstein rocked science with his theory of gravity, which explained the
concept in an entirely new way.

1.5 Ethics in Science

Learning Objectives

• Define ethics.

• Identify ethical rules in science.

• Describe how scientific knowledge might influence everyday ethical decisions.

Believe it or not, the tree bark in this photo contains a revolutionary anti-cancer drug. For almost
a decade after the drug was discovered, the trees, called Pacific yews, were stripped of their bark
so chemists could extract the drug for cancer patients. Stripping the bark harmed the trees. This
situation posed an ethical problem.

What Is Ethics?

Ethics refers to deciding what’s right and what’s wrong. Making ethical decisions involves
weighing right and wrong in order to make the best choice. The ethical problem of the Pacific
yew has both right and wrong aspects. It’s right to save lives with the cancer drug that comes
from the tree bark, but it’s wrong to endanger the tree and risk its extinction.

Q: What do you think is the most ethical decision about the Pacific yew? Should the bark be used
to make the drug and possibly save human lives? Or should this be prohibited in order to protect
the tree from possible extinction?

A: This is tough ethical dilemma, and there is no right or wrong answer. Ethical dilemmas such
as this often spur scientists to come up with new solutions to problems. That’s what happened in
the case of the Pacific yew. Scientists tackled and solved the problem of determining the
chemical structure of the anti-cancer drug so it could be synthesized in labs. This is a win-win
solution to the problem. The synthetic drug is now available to save lives, and the trees are no
longer endangered by being stripped of their bark.

Ethical Rules in Science Ethics is an important consideration in science. Scientific investigations

must be guided by what is right and what is wrong. That’s where ethical rules come in. They
help ensure that science is done safely and that scientific knowledge is reliable. Here are some of
the ethical rules that scientists must follow:

• Scientific research must be reported honestly. It is wrong and misleading to make up or change
research results.

• Scientific researchers must try to see things as they really are. They should avoid being biased
by the results they expect or hope to get.

• Researchers must be careful. They should do whatever they can to avoid errors in their data.

• Researchers must inform coworkers and members of the community about any risks of their
research. They should do the research only if they have the consent of these groups.

• Researchers studying living animals must treat them humanely. They should provide for their
needs and take pains to avoid harming them.

• Researchers studying human subjects must tell their subjects that they have the right to refuse
to participate in the research. Human subjects also must be fully informed about their role in the
research, including any potential risks.

Science and Everyday Ethical Decisions

Sometimes, science can help people make ethical decisions in their own lives. For example,
scientific evidence shows that certain human actions—such as driving cars that burn gasoline—
are contributing to changes in Earth’s climate. This, in turn, is causing more severe weather and
the extinction of many species. A number of ethical decisions might be influenced by this
scientific knowledge.

Q: For example, should people avoid driving cars to work or school because it contributes to
climate change and the serious problems associated with it? What if driving is the only way to
get there? Can you think of an ethical solution?

A: This example shows that ethical decisions may not be all or nothing. For example, rather than
driving alone, people might carpool with others. This would reduce their impact on climate
change. They could also try to reduce their impact in other ways. For example, they might turn
down their thermostat in cold weather so their furnace burns less fuel.

Summary

• Ethics refers to deciding what’s right and what’s wrong.

• Scientific investigations must be guided by ethical rules. The rules help ensure that science is
done safely and that scientific knowledge is reliable.
• Sometimes science can help people make ethical decisions in their own lives, but other factors
usually must be considered as well.