Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq

Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)

OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS
1: INTRODUCTION
a. What is Sociology
b. Origin and Development of Sociology
c. Sociology and other social sciences
d. Sociology and common senses/Stereotype
e. Sociological perspective
f. Key terms- Social problem/ sociological issues

A. Structuralism
a. Structural functionalism
b. Social conflict
B. Social Action
a. Symbolic Interactionism
C. Feminism

2: CULTURE
a. What is culture?
b. Elements of culture
c. Culture diversity
d. Relationship between Culture, Crime and Law

3: SOCIALIZATION
a. Socialization and its importance from law perspective
b. Agents of Socialization
c. Socialization through the life course

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4: i. C.H. Cooley
ii. George Herbert mead
iii. Sigmud Freud
iv. Kohelberg

5: SOCIALIZATION & CRIME

6: SOCIAL INTERACTION
i. Social structure
a. Status
b. Status set
c. Achieved & ascribed status
d. Master status
e. Role
f. Role set
g. Role conflict
h. Role strain
i. Role exit

ii. Theories of Social interaction

a. Social construction of reality
b. Ethnomethodology
c. Dramaturgy

iii. Importance of interaction, to whom you interact, frequency of

interaction conforming & deviant behavior

7. GROUPS & ORGANIZATIONS

a. Types of groups
b. Leadership styles
c. Studies of group behavior
d. Formal organization and its types
e. Bureaucracy and its characteristics
f. Groups, gangs, mafias & their implication for society

8. DEVIANCE
a. Deviance, Crime and Social control
b. Types of Crime
c. Criminal Justice system of Pakistan
d. Factors behind deviancy & its implication on society
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9. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
a. Systems of Stratification
b. Dimensions of Stratification
c. Social Mobility: Brief explanation
d. Poverty
e. Stratification, Deviancy & Crime

10. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

(Definition, types, functions, transitions, future of)
a. Family
b. Education
c. Religion
d. Economy and Work
e. Politics and Government
f. Health and Medicine
g. Mass Communication
h. Role of Institutions in developing law abiding society
i. Institutions, deviancy & Crime
j. Implication of dysfunctional institutions on Society

11. SOCIAL CHANGE

(Brief explanation of)
a. Demographic aspects
b. Environmental aspects
c. Collective behavior
d. Social movements
e. Sources of Social change
f. Modernity and Post modernity
g. Change and Crime

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 Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq
Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)

1- INTRODUCTION:

a. WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY:
Definitions:

 It is the science of society (Ward and Graham Sumner)

 It is the science of institutions (Durkheim)
 It is the science of studying human relationship (Simmel)
 It is the study of social action (Weber)
 It is the systematic study of human society (John J. Macionis)

 The word “sociology” is derived from the Latin word “socius” (companion) and the Greek
word “logos” (speech or reason), which together mean “reasoned speech about companionship”.
 It is basically the scientific study of social relations. Where we study human and their relation to other
institutions from different perspectives in different societies and time period.
 It studies patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture of everyday life as well.
 People influence their society and society influences the members.
 A key insight of sociology is that the simple fact of being in a group changes your behavior. The group
is a phenomenon that is more than the sum of its parts. Why do we feel and act differently in different
types of social situations? Why might people of a single group exhibit different behaviors in the same
situation? Why might people acting similarly not feel connected to others exhibiting the same behavior?
These are some of the many questions sociologists ask as they study people and societies.
 Sociologists study all aspects and levels of society. A society is a group of people whose members
interact, reside in a definable area, and share a culture.
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 b. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY:
 Today’s sociology has gone through many steps and procedures to be where it is now.
 It was originated as a special discipline in 1836 by “August Comte”.
 It was originally founded by Allama Ibn-e-Khaldun (1332-1406 A.D). He was a Muslim historian of
Tunis. The name he gave to this new science was “Ilmul-Imran”-Study of people.
 There are numerous Muslim and European thinkers who worked in the field of sociology and studied it
i.e. Al-Raazi, Al-Farabi, Ibn-e-Sina, Imam Ghazali, Shah Wali Ullah Dehlvi, Aristotle, Socrates, Plato,
Thomas Hobbes, Kant etc.
 What happens around us and in our social life falls in the area of sociology because it understands and
explains issues from various aspects and perspectives.
 Humans spend their entire life in different groups which in result impact and change their behaviors.
This in result makes the social behavior complex.
 To study as these aspects is the basic aim of Sociology.
 The reason for the origin and development of sociology was to describe a new way of looking at society.
 Thinkers of that time were more interested in imagining the ideal society than in studying society as it
really was. They all cared about how society could be improved, but their major objective was to
understand how society actually operates.
 Comte saw sociology as the product of a three-stage historical development;
o Theological stage- from the beginning of human history to the end of the European Middle
Ages- people took a religious view that society expressed God’s will.
o Metaphysical stage- of history in which people saw society as a natural rather than a
supernatural system.
o Scientific stage - Comte’s contribution came in applying the scientific approach—first used to
study the physical world—to the study of society
 Comte’s approach is called Positivism, “a way of understanding based on science”.
 Comte believed that society operates according to its own laws, much as the physical
world operates according to gravity and other laws of nature.

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL CHANGE:

 Major objective / concern were to understand how society actually operates.
 Changes took place in Europe (18th-19th century).
o Discipline of sociology was born in England, France, and Germany
 Three kinds of change were especially important in the development of sociology:
o The rise of a factory-based industrial economy
o Explosive growth of cities
o New ideas about democracy and political rights

 A New Industrial Economy

 Most people plowed fields near their homes or worked in small-scale manufacturing.

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 With the passage of time inventors used new sources of energy to operate large machines in mills and
factories.
 Instead of laboring at home or in small groups, workers became part of a large and anonymous labor
force, under the control of strangers who owned the factories.
 This change in the system of production took people out of their homes, weakening the traditions that
had guided community life for centuries.

 The Growth Of Cities

 Land was occupied and started to use for different purposes.
 .Without land, countless farmers had little choice but to head to the cities in search of work in the new
factories.
 As cities grew larger, these urban migrants faced many social problems, including pollution, crime, and
homelessness.

 Political Change
 Europeans in the Middle Ages viewed society as an expression of God’s Will.
 As cities grew, tradition came under attack
 Shift in focus from a moral obligation to God and king to the pursuit of self-interest.
 In the new political climate, philosophers spoke of personal liberty and individual rights.
 Every person has “certain unalienable rights,” including “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”

 A New Awareness of Society

 Huge factories, exploding cities, a new spirit of individualism—these changes combined to make people
more aware of their surroundings.
 The new discipline of sociology was born in England, France, and Germany—precisely where the
changes were greatest.

c. SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES:

 Sociology and Law:

 Role of law:
o Means of social control
o Controlling a balanced social system
o To control social conflicts, tensions, properties
o Role to promote development activities
o To help smooth social change
o Legislation to sustain social structure
o Legal code conformity with social values
o Law to lay emphasize on humanistic values
o Sociology’s main concern is to maintain social solidarity

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The law is important because it acts as a guideline as to what is accepted in society. Without it there would be
conflicts between social groups and communities. It also plays an important indirect role in regard to social
change by shaping a direct impact on society.

 Sociology and Criminology:

 Sociology covers the areas of criminology where causes of crime and methods of their removal or
solution are studied.
 Criminology on the other hand is a subject that studies about criminal behavior present in the society in
detail. Covers all the corners of crime starting from nature, magnitude, causes, consequences,
management and prevention.
 Crimes are often directly proportional to the prevailing events in the society. Majority of the crimes that
occur are due to the societal norms and its influence.
 Criminology is the scientific study of causes, consequences and control of criminal behavior both on
individual and social level.

 Sociology And Economics:

 Study of economics would be incomplete without understanding of human society.
 Economics deals with the economic activities of man.
 Economics is the study of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
 It is concerned with material welfare of the human beings.
 It studies economic process of the society.
 Economic change is due to social change.
 The society, its structure, organization, institution, strength etc are bound to effect economics activities
of its people.

 Sociology and Business:

 Business leader keeps in mind about different factors and tries to develop and improve their business by
analyzing their society.
 Business requires an understanding of people i.e. large populations in particular.
 Sociology provides the educational background needed for managers to understand their employees and
customers.
 Business leaders that understand sociology are able to anticipate customer needs and respond to
employee problems in ways others cannot
 Studying sociology helps to develop your analytical thinking and capabilities.
 Sociologists analyze qualitative and quantitative data to determine the effects of phenomena on a
population
 Handling Employees background in sociology gives business leaders and human resource managers
an advantage when dealing with employees in the workplace.
o Sociologists study the cultural and social aspects that shape an individual. With this background,
those in business can avoid alienating employees or hurting company loyalty.
 Public Relations Sociology is fundamental to the public relations department of any major company.

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 o Certain actions by the company will affect its customers based on their cultural and economic
backgrounds. For example, if your company conducts business in another part of the world, your
PR person must know the history of that area to modify the message and image of the company.

 Sociology and Social Psychology:

 It is a branch of general psychology. It is concerned with studying the social behavior of individuals in
their social situations, i.e. the scope and social system, in which the individual lives, and the extent of
his influence on thinking, behavior, feelings, and patterns of interaction with all external factors.

d. SOCIOLOGY AND COMMON SENSES/STEREOTYPE:

 The sociological perspective helps us assess the truth of common sense.
o We take many things for granted, but that does not make them true.
o E.g. beautiful is intelligent. But is this really true?
o Common sense does not always accurately predict reality
o A sociological approach whether such common beliefs are actually true
o By systematically testing common sense beliefs against facts, sociologists can sort out which
popular beliefs hold true and which do not.
o To accomplish this, sociologists use a variety of social science research designs and methods.
o We question and look for validation.

e. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:
 Perspective on human behavior and its connection to the society.
i. SEEING THE GENERAL IN THE PARTICULAR
o Sociologists look for general patterns in the behavior of particular people.
o e.g. Marriage- General pattern
o Spouse selection in different social classes- Particular people.
o Within all this debate power of society  guides our feelings, thoughts and actions.
o Different factors are involved in our decision making (age, gender, social class etc)
ii. SEEING THE STRANGE IN THE FAMILIAR
o Society shapes what we think and what we do.
o e.g. job, degree, selection of college/university, marriage etc.
o Society tell us which traits are best suited besides our preferences.
iii. SEEING SOCIETY IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES
o Society shapes our personal choices e.g. marriage, number of kids, education etc.
iv. SOCIOLOGY AND PERSONAL GROWTH
o We become more: active, aware and critical.

 HOW SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE BENEFITS US?

i. The sociological perspective helps us see the opportunities and constraints in our lives
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 a. So we can pursue our goals more effectively
ii. The sociological perspective empowers us to be active participants in our society.
a. We may support society as it is, or we may set out with others to change it.
iii. The sociological perspective helps us live in a diverse world
a. To critically think about weakness and strengths of all ways of life, including one’s own.

f. KEY TERMS- SOCIAL PROBLEM/ SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES

Social Problem: Social problems are abnormalities in social relationship which manifest themselves
when people live in groups, which are considered dangerous and intolerable and which must be
eliminated to safeguard the society.
 It is disliked by majority of people.
 A social issue or problem is an issue that has been recognized by society as a problem that is
preventing society from functioning at an optimal level. It is important to understand that not all things
that occur in society are raised to the level of social problems. Four factors have been outlined that
seem to characterize a social issue or problem. These include:

o The public must recognize the situation as a problem.

o The situation is against the general values accepted by the society.
o A large segment of the population recognizes the problem as a valid concern.
o The problem can be rectified or alleviated through the joint action of citizens and/or community
resources.

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY:
 A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The job of sociological theory is to
explain social behavior in the real world.
 In building theory, sociologists face two basic questions;
o What issues should we study?
o And how should we connect the facts?
 In the process of answering these questions, sociologists look to one or more theoretical approaches as
“road maps.”
o Basic image of society that guides thinking and research

 Sociologists make use of three major theoretical approaches:

o Structural-functional approach
o Social-conflict approach
o Symbolic-interaction approach

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
 A framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity (mutual support/agreement) and stability (safety/ security)
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  This approach points towards two things;
 Social structure
 Social functions (of structure)

 Social structure- any relatively stable pattern of social behavior.

 Social structures gives our life Shape (families, workplace, community, class rooms etc)
 Social functions- the consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole
 All social structures, from a simple handshake to complex religious rituals, function to keep society
going.

MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS:

1- AUGUSTE COMTE:
 Structural functional approach owes much to Auguste comte BECAUSE,
 He pointed out the need to keep society unified/merge/combine at a time when many traditions were
breaking down.

2- EMILE DURKHEIM:
 Establish the study of sociology in French universities.
 Based his work on this approach.

3- HERBERT SPENCER:
 Compared society to the human body.
 Just as the structural parts of the human body function interdependently to help the entire organism
survive, social structures work together to preserve society.
 This approach leads sociologists to identify various structures of society and investigate their functions.

4- ROBERT K. MERTON:
 Expanded our understanding of the concept of social function
 Pointed out that any social structure probably has many functions, some more obvious than others
 Manifest functions & Latent functions
 Manifest (visible) Functions: (these are the primary goals)
The recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern.
 Consciously and deliberately designed to be beneficial in its effect on society
Example- higher education function is to provide young people with the information and skills they need to
perform jobs after graduation.
 Latent (hidden) Functions: (extra things like peer group etc)
The unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern.
 Another opinion and assumption of Merton;
Not all the effects of social structure are good--> "Social dysfunction" is any social pattern that
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 may disrupt the operation of society.
Example: Globalization of the economy may be good for some companies, but it also can cost workers
their jobs as production moves overseas.
 What is functional for one category of people may well be dysfunctional for other categories of people.

CONCLUSION:

 Main idea of the structural-functional approach= its vision of society as stable and orderly.
 Main goal of the sociologists who use this approach is to figure out “what makes society tick.”
 In the mid-1900s, most sociologists favored the structural-functional approach.
 In recent decades, however, its influence has declined.
CRITICS-By focusing on social stability and unity, critics point out, structural-functionalism ignores
inequalities of social class, race, and gender, which cause tension and conflict. Its focus on stability at the
expense of conflict makes this approach somewhat conservative.

SOCIAL CONFLICT:
- Frame work for building theory that sees society an arena of inequality that generates conflict and
change.
- Highlights inequality and change.
- Sociologists investigate how factors such as social class, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation,
and age are linked to a society’s unequal distribution of money, power, education, and social prestige.

- Conflict analysis rejects the idea that social structure promotes the operation of society as a whole.

- Instead it focuses on how social patterns benefit some people while hurting others.
- Sociologists - look at;
 Ongoing conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people—
 The rich in relation to the poor
 White people in relation to people of color
 Men in relation to women

- People on top try to protect their privileges while the disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves.
- Example: schooling- for rich and poor has a lot to do with social background.

- Social standing (social status) of one generation is passed on to the next.

- Many sociologists use the social-conflict approach;
 To understand society
 Also to bring about societal change that would reduce inequality.

 KARL MARX supported the cause of the workers in what he saw as their battle against factory owners.

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  SOCIAL CONFLICT APPROACH ALSO INCLUDES; GENDER CONFLICT AND RACE
CONFLICT APPROACH

1- GENDER CONFLICT APPROACH:

 A point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men.
 Closely linked to Feminism, support of social equality for women and men.

 Importance of this approach:

1- Making us aware of the many ways in which our way of life places men in positions of power over
women (Home, work place, mass media)
2- Making us aware of the importance of women to the development of sociology.

MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS:
1- Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) is regarded as the first woman sociologist.
- Translated the writings of Auguste Comte from French into English.
- In her own publication: documented about evils of slavery.
- Argued for laws to protect factory workers, defending workers’ right to unionize.
- Particularly concerned about the position of women in society and fought for changes in
education policy so that women could have more options in life than marriage and raising
children.

2- Jane Addams (1860–1935) was a sociological pioneer

- Contribution: Began in 188- helped found Hull House, a Chicago settlement house that provided
assistance to immigrant families.
- Speaking out on issues involving immigration and the pursuit of peace.

2- RACE CONFLICT APPROACH:

A point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic
categories.
- Just as men have power over women, white people have numerous social advantages over people of
color, including, on average, higher incomes, more schooling, better health, and longer life expectancy.

MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS:
- Ida Wells Barnett (1862–1931)- Worked for racial equality.
- William Edward Burghardt Du- studied the black communities across the United States. spoke out
against racial inequality
o Believed that sociologists should not simply learn about society’s problems but also try to solve
them.
o pointing to numerous social problems ranging from educational inequality to a political system
that denied people their right to vote
CRITICISM: Any conflict analysis focuses on inequality; it largely ignores how shared values and
interdependence unify members of a society.
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 - Conflict approaches pursue political goals, they cannot claim scientific objectivity.
- Supporters of social conflict approaches respond that all theoretical approaches have political
consequences.
- Final criticism: Both the structural-functional and the social conflict approaches is that they paint society
in broad strokes—in terms of “family,” “social class,” “race,” and so on.
-

A. SOCIAL ACTION: “Action is social when the actor behaves in such a manner that
his/her action is intended to influence the action of one or more other persons”

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM:
 Structural-functional and social-conflict approach highlights macro-level orientation, a broad focus
on social structures that shape society as a whole
o looks at the bigger picture
 Sociology also uses a microlevel orientation, a close-up focus on social interaction in specific
situations. E.g. how pedestrians respond to homeless people they pass on the street.
o Micro-level sociology tries to show how individuals actually experience society.
 DEFINITION: The symbolic-interaction approach, then, is a framework for building theory that sees
society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals.
 According to this approach society is nothing more than the shared reality People make for
themselves as they interact with one another.
 Human beings live in a world of symbols, attaching meaning to almost everything.
 We create “reality”
 We define our surroundings, decide what we think of others, and shape our own identities.

MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS:
1- Max Weber: emphasized on the need to understand a setting from the point of view of the people in
it.
2- George Herbert Mead: explored our personalities develop as a result of social experience
3- Erving Goffman: Dramaturgical analysis describes how we resemble actors on a stage as we play
our various roles.
4- George Homans and Peter Blau: Social-exchange analysis social interaction is guided by what
each person stands to gain or lose from the interaction.
DRAWBACK:
 This approach risks overlooking the widespread influence of culture, as well as factors such as
class, gender, and race.

B. FEMINISM:
 “Support of social equality for women and men, in opposition to patriarchy and sexism”.
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 The global idea of feminism refers to the belief that men and women deserve equality in all
opportunities, treatment, respect, and social rights.
 In general, feminists are people who try to acknowledge social inequality based on gender and stop it
from continuing.

RADICAL FEMINISM LIBERAL FEMINISM

 Argue that patriarchy (male domination) is  Aims to achieve equal legal, political, and
the main cause for women’s oppression. social rights for women.
 Family and marriage are key practical  Wishes to bring women equality into all
institutions: Men benefits from woman’s public institutions and extend the creation of
unpaid domestic labor and sexual services. knowledge so that women’s issues can no
 Men dominate women through violence and longer be ignored.
threat.  Optimistic about future.
 Patriarchal system must be over turned and  Remove laws that favor men only.
family abolished.  Emphasizes on social policy to open up
professional, better paid and prestigious jobs
to women.

 IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF LAW

 There is a relationship between sociology and law. Basically all laws are meant for the betterment of
society, which is core subject matter of sociology. A good lawyer must try to understand how laws are
impacting the society. Laws also have to be amended in various times according to the changes in
society. So there is an inseparable exist between law and society.

 Law is a form of social control in sociology. Social control is simply a mechanism used by the
government which regulates the activities of all individuals within any society, with law being a perfect
example. The judicial system (courts) and law enforcement agencies, such as the police or even the
military, are also used as forms of social control as they are able to exert punishment upon the populace
if any law is broken. People are therefore coerced by these powers into following the law by the letter
and know the consequences if they do not. This is known as the “rule of law” (more prominent in
political theory than sociology), where it is law that governs a country. Other institutions may also be
used as forms of social control, such as the education system, religion or the media, depending on how
and to the extent which they are used. For instance, all of them have the capability of teaching people a
set of moral principles, which is also a form of social control.

 Sociology is one of those subjects which help in decoding the intention behind the legislation, and how
law really influences the society. If one cannot understand the societal behavioral pattern or reaction, it
would be difficult to understand how people react in a certain manner and perform efficiently as
lawyers.

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 In short, Laws are basically rules which everyone has to follow. If these rules aren't followed or if
someone deviates from these rules, then that person is going against the normal. He or she is going
against the rules of that society or community, so in a way you can say that law shapes human behavior,
the way we act as an individual. It shapes our conception of what acts are accepted in society and what
is not. Sociology deals with society and how individuals within it function in order to sustain society.
Therefore, in order to know how a society functions we need to take into account individual behavior,
one of the factors that affect the behavior of an individual is the law of the land or the rules of society.
For a sociologist to understand a certain society, city, county or a community, it is very necessary to
understand the law of that land or community. Clearly, there are individuals who do break the law and
these cases are cases of ‘deviance’ or acts that are beyond the accept standards of society.

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 Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq
Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

1- CULTURE
a. What is culture?
b. Elements of culture
c. Culture diversity
d. Relationship between Culture, Crime and Law

a. WHAT IS CULTURE?
 “The ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together form a people’s way
of life”.
 People living together in a society actually “grow” their way of life over time.
 It is society’s entire way of life.
 It is both our link to the past and our guide to the future.
 To understand Culture two things are considered: Thoughts and things (Non-material & Material
Culture)
 Nonmaterial culture is the ideas created by members of a society.
 Material culture is the physical things created by members of a society.
 In everyday conversation, people rarely distinguish between the terms “culture” and “society,” but the
terms have slightly different meanings, and the distinction is important to a sociologist.
A society describes a group of people who share a common territory and a culture. By “territory,”
sociologists refer to a definable region—as small as a neighborhood, as large as a country or somewhere
in between. To clarify, a culture represents the beliefs, practices and artifacts of a group, while society
represents the social structures and organization of the people who share those beliefs and practices.
Neither society nor culture could exist without the other.
 Behavior based on learned customs is not a bad thing. Being familiar with unwritten rules helps people
feel secure and “normal.” Most people want to live their daily lives confident that their behaviors will
not be challenged or disrupted.
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  What happens when we encounter different cultures? As we interact with cultures other than our own,
we become more aware of the differences and commonalities between others’ worlds and our own.

CULTURAL UNIVERSALS:

 Often, a comparison of one culture to another will reveal obvious differences. But all cultures share
common elements. Cultural universals are patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies.
E.g. In many Asian cultures, for example, family members from all generations commonly live together
in one household. In these cultures, young adults will continue to live in the extended household family
structure until they marry and join their spouse’s household, or they may remain and raise their nuclear
family within the extended family’s homestead.

b. ELEMENTS OF CULTURE:
 Symbols, Language, Values , Norms
 SYMBOLS:
“Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture”

 Humans transform elements of the world into symbols.

 E.g. whistle, word, colored wall, raised fist= share meaning.
 Societies create new symbols all the time.
 How you create and manipulate symbol that varies according to one’s understanding of it and the
meaning provided.
 One reason People create new symbols i.e. we develop new ways to communicate. E.g. texting/ short
forms like gtg, tc used in text messages.
 Entering an unfamiliar culture also reminds us of the power of symbols.
 If you do not understand the symbols of culture person feels lost, isolated, not sure how to act and
react etc.
 Culture shock is a two-way process;
o Travelers experience culture shock when encountering people whose way of life is different. E.g.
loving dogs in USA and roasting dogs in China
o On the other hand, a traveler may inflict culture shock on local people by acting in ways that
offend them. E.g Asking for meat in an Indian restaurant.
 Symbolic meanings also vary within a single society.
 LANGUAGE:
“System of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another”

 It is a key to the world of culture.

 Humans have created many alphabets to express the hundreds of languages we speak.
 Language not only allows communication but is also the key to Cultural Transmission, the process by
which one generation passes culture to the next..
 Every society has transmitted culture by using speech.
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 Language skills may link us with the past, but they also spark the human imagination to connect
symbols in new ways, creating an almost limitless range of future possibilities.

 VALUES AND BELIEFS:

 Values culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and
beautiful and that serve as broad guidelines for social living.
o People who share a culture use values to make choices about how to live.
o Values are broad principles that support beliefs.
 Beliefs specific ideas that people hold to be true.

 10 VALUES CENTRAL TO LIFE:

1- Equal opportunity
2- Achievement and success
3- Material comfort
4- Activity and work
5- Practicality and efficiency
6- Progress
7- Science
8- Democracy and free enterprise
9- Freedom
10- Racism and group superiority

 NORMS:
“Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members”

 In everyday life, people respond to each other with sanctions, rewards or punishments that
encourage conformity to cultural norms.

 MORES AND FOLKWAYS:

 Basic rules of everyday life.
 Some norms are more important to our lives than others.
 Mores: “Norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance”
 E.g. killing someone
o Distinguish between right and wrong
o If not followed invite a more serious response

 Folkways: “Norms for routine or casual interaction”

o Draw a line between right and rude.
o E.g. man who does not wear a tie to a formal dinner party may raise eyebrows for
violating folkways.
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 c. CULTURE DIVERSITY:
“Diverse or different cultures existing in a country which reflects their background”

 HIGH CULTURE: Cultural patterns that distinguish a society’s elite.

 POPULAR CULTURE: Cultural patterns that is widespread among a society’s population.
 SUBCULTURE: Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society’s population.
 IDEAL CULTURE: Includes the values and norms that a culture claims to have.
 REAL CULTURE: Includes the values and norms that are actually followed by a culture.
 MULTICULTURALISM: Presence of, or support for the presence of, several different cultural or
ethnic groups within a society.
 COUNTERCULTURE: Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society.

d. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURE, CRIME AND LAW:

 As Culture is, broadly, a way of thinking and acting it covers the major aspects of society and human
life in general. How people react and respond to situations define them. Whereas Crime is defined as
the violation of criminal laws enacted by a locality, a state, or the federal government. Law on the other
hand is defined as a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power in a state, commanding what
is right, and prohibiting what is wrong- Blackstone, Commentaries (1847), p.44.
 Every society has certain ways of acting (culture) which is or isn’t acceptable to them and on the basis
of it right and wrong acts are defined which in further steps is legalized or banned by their local
authorities and if someone breaches them they are punishable on legal level.
 The whole purpose of it is to control negative behaviors of people in order to maintain decorum and
peace of their society.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON CULTURE

Music, fashion, technology, and values—all are products of culture. But what do they mean? How do
sociologists perceive and interpret culture based on these material and nonmaterial items? Let’s finish our
analysis of culture by reviewing them in the context of three theoretical perspectives: functionalism, conflict
theory, and symbolic interactionism.

 Functionalists view society as a system in which all parts work—or function—together to create society
as a whole. In this way, societies need culture to exist. Cultural norms function to support the fluid
operation of society, and cultural values guide people in making choices. Talcott Parsons referred to the
function of culture as “latent pattern maintenance” meaning that the cultural practices that reproduce and

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 circulate symbolic meanings and codes serve the function of maintaining social patterns of behavior and
facilitating orderly pattern change. Culture functions to ensure that the “meaning of life” remains stable.

 Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that is most concerned with the face-to-face
interactions between members of society. Interactionists see culture as being created and maintained by
the ways people interact and how individuals interpret each other’s actions. Proponents of this theory
conceptualize human interactions as a continuous process of deriving meaning from both objects in the
environment and the actions of others. This is where the term “symbolic” comes into play. Every object
and action has a symbolic meaning, and language serves as a means for people to represent and
communicate their interpretations of these meanings to others. Those who believe in symbolic
interactionism perceive culture as highly dynamic and fluid, as it is dependent on how meaning is
interpreted and how individuals interact when conveying these meanings.

 Conflict perspective view social structure as inherently unequal, based on power differentials related to
issues like class, gender, race, and age. For a critical sociologist, culture is seen as reinforcing and
perpetuating those inequalities and differences in power. Unlike the functionalists who examine culture
in terms of the general interests it supports, or symbolic interactionists who emphasize how people come
to mutual understandings through cultural practices and interactions, critical sociologists examine how
inequalities and power relationships are maintained by a culture’s value system.

ETHNOCENTRISM:
 Ethnocentrism, as sociologist William Graham Sumner (1906) described the term, involves a belief or
attitude that one’s own culture is better than all others e.g. Someone from a country where dogs are
considered dirty and unhygienic might find it off-putting to see a dog in a French restaurant.
o A high level of appreciation for one’s own culture can be healthy; a shared sense of community
pride, for example, connects people in a society. But ethnocentrism can lead to disdain or dislike
for other cultures, causing misunderstanding and conflict.
 Ethnocentrism can be so strong that when confronted with all the differences of a new culture, one may
experience disorientation and frustration. In sociology, we call this “culture shock”.
o Culture shock may appear because people aren’t always expecting cultural differences.

CULTURAL CHANGE:

 Cultural change is a concept that denotes some internal and external factors leading to change in
the cultural pattern of societies.
 E.g. students previously More importance on developing life’s philosophy NOW more interested in
making money in less time.
 Change in one part of a culture usually sparks changes in others.
 Cultural integration, the close relationships among various elements of a cultural system.
o Cultural integration is a form of cultural exchange in which one group assumes the beliefs,
practices and rituals of another group without sacrificing the characteristics of its own culture.

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 o e.g. today women more into making career than their previous generation late marriages or
high divorce rate.
o
CULTURAL LAG:
 Some elements of culture change faster than others.
 The fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, disrupting a cultural system.
 E.g. in Pakistani society moving into your own apartment at the age of 18.

CAUSES OF CULTURAL CHANGE:

 Cultural changes are set in motion in three ways.
 Invention, the process of creating new cultural elements. E.g telephone, internet, technology etc
(material culture)
o These elements of material culture have had an incredible impact on our way of life.
o The same is true of the minimum wage etc each an important element of nonmaterial culture.
 The process of invention goes on constantly have helped change our way of life.
 Discovery, a second cause of cultural change, involves recognizing and understanding more fully
something already in existence.
o Distant star or the foods of another culture or women’s political leadership skills.
 Diffusion, the spread of cultural traits from one society to another.
o New information technology sends information around the globe in seconds, cultural diffusion
has never been greater than it is today.
 Cultural change shows us that culture is always complex and always changing.

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 Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq
Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

3- SOCIALIZATION
a. SOCIALIZATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE FROM LAW PERSPECTIVE:
 Socialization to refer to the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential
and learn culture.
 It is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society. It describes the
ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to
be aware of societal values. Socialization is not the same as socializing (interacting with others, like
family, friends, and coworkers); to be precise, it is a sociological process that occurs through socializing.
 The term “socialization” refers to a general process, but socialization always takes place in specific
contexts. Socialization is culturally specific: people in different cultures are socialized differently, to
hold different beliefs and values, and to behave in different ways. Sociologists try to understand
socialization, but they do not rank different schemes of socialization as good or bad; they study practices
of socialization to determine why people behave the way that they do.
 It is an activity of mixing socially with others.
 Social experience is also the foundation of personality, a person’s fairly regular patterns of acting,
thinking, and feeling.
 Kimball Young writes, “Socialization will mean the process of inducting the individual into the social
and cultural world; of making him a particular member in society and its various groups and inducting
him to accept the norms and values of that society. Socialization is definitely a matter of learning and
not of biological inheritance.
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 IMPORTANCE:
 It is the process of learning how to become part of a culture.
 One learns the culture’s language, their role in life, and what is expected from them.
 The state is an authoritarian agency. It makes laws for the people and lays down the
modes of conduct expected of them. And it is compulsory for people to obey these laws.
If they fail to adjust their behavior in accordance with the laws of the state, they may be
punished for such failure. Thus the state also molds our behavior.

 Socialization itself connects individuals to society, as socialization operates through

family, schools, and other institutions. The study of socialization attempts to elucidate
how individuals become engaged in culture and how culture and its affiliated institutions
are preserved. Legal socialization is the development of standards, attitudes, and
behaviors regarding the legal system. The legal socialization literature also underscores
how legal contexts influence and are influenced by citizen behaviors

 To examine why individuals choose to obey or disobey the law is one of the crucial
element.

 Factors that affect how these attitudes develop include cognitive developmental variables,
such as legal reasoning, and social learning variables, such as salient features of the
environment. Other factors that need to be considered are resiliency, psychosocial
maturity, individual difference variables, culture, and attitudes.

 One of the reasons for the increasing crime in society is the failure of the socializing
agencies to properly and adequately to socialize the child.

 Legal socialization is the process through which, individuals acquire attitudes and beliefs
about the law, legal authorities, and legal institutions. This occurs through individuals’
interactions, both personal and vicarious, with police, courts, and other legal actor.

 Parents’ attitudes toward legal systems influence children’s views as to what is legally
acceptable.

Why Socialization Matters

Socialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which they live. It illustrates how completely
intertwined human beings and their social worlds are. First, it is through teaching culture to new members that a
society perpetuates itself. If new generations of a society don’t learn its way of life, it ceases to exist. Whatever
is distinctive about a culture must be transmitted to those who join it in order for a society to survive.
Socialization is just as essential to us as individuals. Social interaction provides the means via which we

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gradually become able to see ourselves through the eyes of others, learning who we are and how we fit into the
world around us. In addition, to function successfully in society, we have to learn the basics of both material
land nonmaterial culture, everything from how to dress ourselves to what is suitable attire for a specific
occasion; from when we sleep to what we sleep on; and from what is considered appropriate to eat for dinner to
how to use the stove to prepare it. Most importantly, we have to learn language—whether it is the dominant
language or one common in a subculture, whether it is verbal or through signs—in order to communicate and to
think. As we saw with Danielle, without socialization we literally have no self. We are unable to function
socially.

b. AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION:
Socialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social worlds. How does the process of
socialization occur? How do we learn to use the objects of our society’s material culture? How do we
come to adopt the beliefs, values, and norms that represent its nonmaterial culture? This learning takes
place through interaction with various agents of socialization, like peer groups and families, plus both
formal and informal social institutions.
1- FAMILY:
 Family is the first agent of socialization. Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus members
of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know. For example, they show the child
how to use objects (such as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, bikes); how to relate to others
(some as “family,” others as “friends,” still others as “strangers” or “teachers” or “neighbours”); and
how the world works (what is “real” and what is “imagined”). As you are aware, either from your own
experience as a child or your role in helping to raise one, socialization involves teaching and learning
about an unending array of objects and ideas.
 It is important to keep in mind, however, that families do not socialize children in a vacuum. Many
social factors impact how a family raises its children.
Sociologists recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal factors play an important role in
socialization. For example, poor families usually emphasize obedience and conformity when raising
their children, while wealthy families emphasize judgment and creativity.

 NURTURE IN EARLY CHILDHOOD:

 Newborn depends on other for care up to a certain age limit and this is provided to them by their parents.
 Family responsibility Teach child skills, values, beliefs and make them happy and satisfied in their
life.
 Sometimes responsibilities are thought them directly by parents/family, other times child (ren) also learn
from the surrounding and environment created by their family.
 How children see themselves and their world i.e. weak, strong, happy, unhappy, honest, dangerous
depends on the surrounding provided by their parents/family.

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 2- SCHOOL:
 Students are not only in school to study math, reading, science, and other subjects—the manifest
function of this system. Schools also serve a latent function in society by socializing children into
behaviors like teamwork, following a schedule, and using textbooks.
 Provides environment to children where they interact with people from different background.
 School and classroom rituals, led by teachers serving as role models and leaders, regularly reinforce
what society expects from children. Sociologists describe this aspect of schools as the hidden
curriculum, the informal teaching done by schools.
 This helps them understand things from different viewpoints and important factors like race and social
class.
 Schooling helps them to mix up with people from different background.
 Schools have built a sense of competition into the way grades are awarded and the way teachers evaluate
students. Students learn to evaluate themselves within a hierarchical system as “A,” “B,” “C,” etc.
 When children participate in contests and competitions, they learn that there are winners and losers in
society.
 When children are required to work together on a project, they practice teamwork with other people in
cooperative situations.
 Hidden curriculum prepares children for a life of conformity in the adult world. Children learn how to
deal with bureaucracy, rules, expectations, waiting their turn, and sitting still for hours during the day.
The latent functions of competition, teamwork, classroom discipline, time awareness and dealing with
bureaucracy are features of the hidden curriculum.
 Schools also socialize children by teaching them overtly about patriotism and nationalism.

 GENDER:
 School also plays just as important role in socialization as family.
 Experiment show at school boys engage in more physical activities+ spend more time outdoors
(aggressive)
o Girls More likely to help teachers with various housework tasks. (quieter)

 WHAT CHILDREN LEARN:

 Schooling is not the same for children living in rich and poor communities.
 Children from well-off families have a far better experience in school than those of poor families.
 Apart from school course, they also teaches you different lessons hidden curriculum.

3- THE PEER GROUP

 By the time they enter school, children have joined a peer group,
o “Social group whose members have interests, social position, and age in common”.
 Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when kids on a playground teach younger
children the norms about taking turns or the rules of a game.
 Peer groups have great influence on one another.
 Peer group lets children escape the direct supervision of adults.
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  As children grow into teenagers, this process continues. Peer groups are important to adolescents in a
new way, as they begin to develop an identity separate from their parents and exert independence.
 Within peer group, children learn how to form relationships on their own without anyone’s
control/command.
 Also gets chance to discuss interests that grown-ups may not share with their children.
 Parents express concern about who their children’s friends are.
 Attitudes of young and old may differ because of a “generation gap.”
 Importance of peer groups typically increases during youth;
o When young people begin to break away from their families and think of themselves as
grownups.
o Parental impact on children remains strong.
 Peers may affect short-term interests such as music or films;
o parents have greater influence on long-term goals, e.g. going to college, marriage etc
 Individuals view their own group in positive terms and put down other groups.
 Anticipatory socialization learning that helps a person achieve a desired position.
o People are influenced by peer groups they would like to join.
o You follow their norms and values and try to copy them just to get acceptance from them within
their group.

4- MASS MEDIA
“The means for delivering impersonal (neutral/ unbiased) communications to a vast audience”.
 Media originated from medium which means connecting it with two people or audience.
 Mass media= communication technology spreads—knowledge, information via tv, radio, internet,
film etc—On large scale
 Influence on attitude and behavior.
 Media greatly influences social norms.
 People learn about objects of material culture (like new technology and transportation options), as well
as nonmaterial culture—what is true (beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms).


THE EXTENT OF MASS MEDIA EXPOSURE

 Survey 1 set in each house used for minimum 8 hours
 School-age youngsters typically spend more time.
 Television makes children more lifeless and less likely to use their imagination.
 Children engage more into watching TV consequences their social and mental development is
affected.
TELEVISION AND POLITICS
 Provokes plenty of criticism/disapproval.
 Even in television it is planned who will be doing what and what duties and roles.
TELEVISION AND VIOLENCE
 Television and the other mass media enrich our lives with entertaining and educational programming.
 Showing violence on tv is harmful to our health.
 Study found a strong link between aggressive behavior and the amount of time elementary school
children spend watching television and playing video games.
 The media also increase our exposure to diverse cultures and provoke discussion of current issues.
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  Children learn certain things from peer groups and the mass media that may conflict with what they
learn at home.

c. SOCIALIZATION THROUGH THE LIFE COURSE

 Our society arranges human experience according to age—childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old
age.

1.CHILDHOOD:
 Childhood—roughly the first twelve years of life—as a carefree time for learning and play.
 Definition of Childhood has changed with the passage of time
o Reason biologically immature
o Other aspect CULTURE have more important role in definition of childhood than biology
 Rich countries not everyone has to work
 Childhood can be extended to allow time for young people to learn the skills they will
need in a high-technology workplace
 “Hurried child syndrome” results from changes in family
o High divorce rates
o Both parents in the labor force— child with no adult supervision
o Today’s children are far more grown up, have more exposure as compare to previous generation
o Today’s children, compared to kids fifty years ago, have higher levels of stress and anxiety

2.ADOLESCENCE (teenage year)

 Emerged as a shield between childhood and adulthood.
 Time of social contradictions (conflicts), when people are no longer children but not yet adults.
 Adolescence link with emotional and social confusion/disorder
o Because young people struggle to develop their own identities.
o This is initially linked with biology
o Later it is culturally controlled cultural inconsistency (variation/ conflict)
o E.g. role of mass media status consciousness (awareness)—results 15/16 years old children
have latest gadgets  because society and culture considers it cool.
 Adolescence varies according to social background.
o E.g. most young people from working-class families move directly from high school into the
adult world of work and parenting.
o Wealthier teens have the resources to attend college, graduate school, stretching their adolescent
years into the late twenties and even the thirties.

3. ADULTHOOD
Time when most of life’s accomplishments take place, including pursuing a career and raising or settling
for a family etc.

 Personalities are mostly shaped

 Person’s environment—social, economic, personal life-- such as unemployment, divorce, or serious
illness— may cause significant changes to the self.
 EARLY ADULTHOOD
 Until about age forty—learn to manage day-to-day matters for themselves,
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 o mostly rearranging conflicting priorities between different things like Schooling, job, partner,
children, and parents
 Culture gives major responsibility to women responsibilities child rearing (nurturing, care) +
homework
o Besides these works

 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
 Roughly ages forty to sixty-five
 People sense that their life circumstances are pretty well set.
 Become more aware about;
o Delicacy of health, which the young typically take for granted
o Women who have spent many years raising a family find middle adulthood emotionally tiresome
(irritating).
o Children grow up and require less attention
o Husbands become absorbed in their
o Women who divorce also face serious financial problems
 For everyone, growing older means experiencing physical weakening, a viewpoint our culture
makes especially challenging for women.
o Because;
 Good looks are considered more important for women
 Men can never reach earlier life Career goals OR
 Price of career success has been neglect of family or personal health

4- OLD AGE
 Mid Sixties
 Societies attach different meanings to this stage of life.
 One perspective older members of traditional societies who typically control most of the land and
other wealth.
o traditional societies change slowly
o Older/elder More respectful because of their wisdom (knowledge) about every aspect of life.
 Industrial societies  most younger people work and live apart from their parents
o Become independent of their elders.
o Rapid change “youth orientation” more important and elder people are less important.
 Elderly may seem out of touch with new trends and fashions, and their knowledge and
experience may seem of little value.
 Growing up means  entering new roles and taking on new responsibilities,
o but growing old is the opposite experience—> leaving roles that provided both satisfaction and
social identity.
o E.g. retirement for some period of restful activity
 Others losing valued routines and even complete dullness.
 Like any life transition, retirement demands learning new patterns while at the same time letting
go of habits from the past.

5- DEATH AND DYING:

 Low living standards and limited medical technology meant that death from accident or disease could
come at any stage of life.
 Psychiatrist Elisabeth described death orderly shift involving five different stages when a person
faces death

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1- DENIAL may be because of FEAR Or CULTURE tends to ignore the reality of death
2- ANGER when a person facing death sees it as a UNCULTURED INJUSTICE.
3- NEGOTIATION person imagines the possibility of avoiding death by striking a bargain
with God.
4- RESIGNATION psychological depression
5- ACCEPTANCE no longer paralyzed by fear and anxiety,
 The person whose life is ending sets out to find peace
 Makes the most of whatever time remains.

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 Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq
Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

4- GEORGE HERBERT MEAD:

 GEORGE HERBERT MEAD’S THEORY OF THE SOCIAL SELF

 Developed the theory of social behaviorism
o Explain how social experience develops an individual’s personality.

 THE SELF:
o Significant concept
o Part of an individual’s personality composed of self-awareness and self-image
o Mead sees Self Product of social experience

1. Self is not there at birth; it develops

o part of the body
o Mead rejected  the idea that personality is guided by biological drives

2. Self develops only with social experience

o As the individual interacts with others
o Without interaction body grows, but no self emerges

3. Social experience is the exchange of symbols

o Human beings find meaning in almost every action
o Reason because we attach meaning to things in our everyday life

4. Seeking meaning leads people to imagine other people’s intentions

o We draw conclusions from people’s actions
o E.g. A dog responds to what you do; a human responds to what you have in mind as you do it
5. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the other’s point of view
o Putting yourself in other person’s shoe
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 o All social interaction involves seeing ourselves as others see us—a process that Mead termed
taking the role of the other

 C.H COOLEY: The Looking-Glass Self

o Self-image based on how we think others see us
o As we interact with others, the people around us become a mirror.
o What we think of ourselves then depends on how we think other think of ourselves.

 The I and the Me

 By taking the role of the other, we become self-aware
o Self has two parts;
o One part
 Active side of self “I”
 Subjective side
 Independent of external factors or opinions

o Second part
 Self-works as an objective side “ME”
 The way we imagine other sees us

WE START AN ACTION AND THEN CONTINUATION OF ACTION DEPENDES ON HOW OTHERS

RESPOND TO IT

 DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF

o Key to developing the self  Learning to take the role of the other
o Because of their limited social experience children can do this only through IMITATION
o They mimic (copy) behavior without understanding original intentions, and so at this
point, they have no self.
o As children learn to use language and other symbols, the self emerges in the form of
PLAY
 Supposing roles modeled on significant others, people, such as parents, who
have special importance for socialization.
 Imagine the world from their point of view.
 As children grow, they take more than one roles at a time result social
experience changes person’s life
o Generalized other refer to widespread cultural norms and values we use as references in evaluating
ourselves.
o As life goes on, the self continues to change along with our social experiences.
MEAD CONCLUDED, WE PLAY A KEY ROLE IN OUR OWN SOCIALIZATION.

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 SIGMUND FREUD: Elements of Personality
 Freud gradually turned to the study of personality and mental disorders and eventually developed the
celebrated theory of psychoanalysis.
o He proposed first complete theory of personality.
o A person’s thoughts and behaviors emerge from tension generated by unconscious motives and
unresolved childhood conflicts.
o Psychoanalytic approach: psychoanalysis is both an approach to therapy and a theory of
personality.
 Emphasizes: unconscious motivation- the main causes of behavior lie buried in the
unconscious mind.

 Basic Human Needs:

o Biology plays a major part in human development. He theorized that humans have two basic
needs or drives that are present at birth. First is a need for sexual and emotional bonding, which
he called the “life instinct”. Second, we share an aggressive drive he called the “death instinct”.
These opposing forces, operating at an unconscious level, create deep inner tension.

 Freud’s Model of Personality:

o Freud combined basic needs and the influence of society into a model of personality with three
parts: id, ego, and superego. The id represents the human being’s basic drives, which are
unconscious and demand immediate satisfaction. The id is present at birth, making a newborn a
bundle of demands for attention, touching, and food. But society opposes the self-centered id,
which is why one of the first words a child typically learns is “no.”
o To avoid frustration, a child must learn to approach the world realistically. This is done through
the ego, which is a person’s conscious effort to balance innate pleasure-seeking drives with the
demands of society. The ego arises as we become aware of our distinct existence and face the
fact that we cannot have everything we want.
o In the human personality, the superego is the cultural values and norms internalized by an
individual. The superego operates as our conscience, telling us why we cannot have everything
we want. The superego begins to form as a child becomes aware of parental demands and
matures as the child comes to understand that everyone’s behavior should take account of
cultural norms.

 Personality Development:
o To the id-centered child, the world is a bewildering assortment of physical sensations that bring
either pleasure or pain. As the superego develops, however, the child learns the moral concepts
of right and wrong. Initially, in other words, children can feel good only in a physical way (such
as by being held and cuddled), but after three or four years, they feel good or bad according to
how they judge their behavior against cultural norms (doing “the right thing”).
o The id and superego remain in conflict, but in a well-adjusted person, the ego manages these two
opposing forces. If conflicts are not resolved during childhood, Freud claimed, they may surface
as personality disorders later on.

32
 o Culture, in the form of the superego, represses selfish demands, forcing people to look beyond
their own desires. Often the competing demands of self and society result in a compromise that
Freud called sublimation. Sublimation redirects selfish drives into socially acceptable behavior.
For example, marriage makes the satisfaction of sexual urges socially acceptable, and
competitive sports are an outlet for aggression.

LAWRENCE KOHELBERG: Theory of Moral

Development

 Study moral reasoning, how individuals judge situations as right or wrong.

 Development occurs in stages.
 Pre-conventional Level:
o Young children who experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure.
o To a child, right is what feels good to him/her.
 Conventional Level:
o Teen years.
o At this point, young people lose some of their selfishness as they learn to define right and wrong
in terms of what pleases parents and conforms to cultural norms.
o They also begin to assess intention in reaching moral judgments instead of simply looking at
what people do.
 Post-conventional level:
o People move beyond their society’s norms to consider mental ethical principles.
o They think about liberty, freedom, or justice, perhaps arguing that what is legal still may not be
right.

33
 Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq
Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

5: SOCIALIZATION & CRIME

 Socialization is more than just what we learn when we are at school. It is the effect of our families and
those around us, including the media, our peers.
 The most dominant way of learning these socially acceptable norms and values is through our
communication with others. Primary and secondary socialization plays an important role in mind setting
of an individual from early stage. Behaviorist psychology draws upon the idea that external stimulus, or
the effects of our environment affect the way we behave.
 Socialization is the development of culture within a person, teaching him or her values, norms and roles.
This also creates self-awareness as individuals interact with others, for this reason socialization is a life-
long process. Deviance, by contrast, is an aversion from the common values, and norms of one’s own
culture. Crime on the other hand is when one deviates from a norm that is considered a law, and
enforced by government bodies. All three of these have a large effect on the society they exist in.
 According to social learning theory, whatever we see and observe happening in our surrounding that act
or action becomes so normal for us that we accept and practice it without even giving it a second
thought. Same goes for crime. If violation of laws is been constantly observed and practiced in one’s
surrounding, he/she becomes immune and normal towards that act and that very thought becomes
acceptable for him/her to breach the law and consider it normal.
 A debate that continues to spawn controversy in many scientific disciplines is on the topic of heredity
and the influence genetics has on the overall character of a human being. There are several factors that
impact an individual’s destiny and through various studies, explanations, and theoretical models it
becomes very apparent that one isolatable factor is nearly impossible to distinguish.
 Sociologists linked social-psychological interactions to criminal behavior.
 Social psychology examines the way groups and social structures shape individuals—their perceptions,
beliefs, identities, attitudes, emotions, and behaviors—and how individuals acting together create,

34
 maintain, and change social structures. It is basically the study of human interactions and relationships
that explain such issues as group dynamics and socialization.

 Criminal behavior is learned in the process of interaction and communication with others. And most
importantly the learning takes place within the intimate groups. Techniques of executing crime, its
motives all are learned. These methods could change and modify with the passage of time.
 Once an individual crosses over into the justice system, it is our responsibility as a society to make every
attempt possible to rehabilitate.
 It is widely accepted that the model for the development of human behavior is extremely fluid and
effected by several factors, not just genes or environmental factors alone but in fact an interaction
between the two. There are several important theories that do not advocate the influence of heredity or
environmental factors over one another but in fact display the importance of their interaction in
determining an individual’s behavior. An individual’s genetic disposition is important in that it lays
down a fundamental framework that can be a guide for propensities of certain courses of action. It is a
fact that someone may be born with the disposition for a higher than average intelligence but
environmental factors play a tremendous role in how this trait would be expressed. If an individual were
to grow up in an environment that fostered the pursuit of academic interests, this intellect trait would
have the ability for increased expression rather than if the individual were in an environment that placed
little value on learning. This can in turn relate to criminal behavior and social deviance. Various
developmental and sociological factors play a role in an individual’s inclination towards exhibiting
criminal behavior.
 Social and environmental factors have been shown to influence behavior. Individuals with certain
genetic dispositions may be effected more than those without these traits but in all situations it has been
determined that these factors can be attributed to shaping criminal behavior.
 One of the most important environmental factors during childhood development is that
of socialization or the way a child is ‘taught’ how to act. Children learn to merely obey the rules of their
society. Certain actions are repeated because of directly correlated consequences. A child does not
intuitively know that stealing is wrong; they have to be taught through negative consequences that this
behavior is not acceptable. They then internalize these rules and eventually believe them to be
fundamentally correct. In other words, socialization refers to the developmental period where the ideals
of morality and socially acceptable behavior are instilled in a child. If a child is consistently taught how
to act through both positive and negative reinforcement, the child will begin to exhibit certain
characteristics because they believe them to be inherently correct. If a child is not taught how to properly
act or inconsistently reinforced, clear-cut moral obligations may not be instilled leading to effected
social judgment and a disposition towards criminal behavior.
 An important point to make is that levels of education have been determined to be significant in the
manifestation of criminal behavior. Individuals with learning disabilities have been shown to be more
prone to violent behavior. The major reason for this is given in an interrelated causal pattern of events
with education at the center. School achievement is predictive of pro-social behavior or behaviors
designated as upholding the moral values of a society. This is because academic achievement is
interrelated in our society with several other variables such as financial success, high self-esteem and an
internal locus of control. This particular model may account for reasoning behind the general idea that

35
 individuals with a high IQ generally have fewer tendencies for criminal behavior than individuals with a
low IQ.
 Different theoretical perspectives explain this relationship between crime and socialization in different
aspects.
o Social learning theory: This suggests that people can learn the techniques and attitudes of crime
from close and intimate relationships with criminal peers. Crime in short is a learned behavior.
o Social control theory: Everyone has the potential to become a criminal but that most people are
controlled by their bonds to society. Crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are
weakened and broken.
o Social reaction theory: Labelling theory says that people become criminals when significant
members of society label them as such, and they accept those labels as a personal identity.

36
 Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq
Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

6: SOCIAL INTERACTION
1. Social structure: stable arrangement of institutions in which people act and react in
relation to others
The way a society is organized.

 Status: A social position that a person holds. E.g. president, professor etc.
 Status set: All the statuses a person holds at a given time. E.g. A girl- daughter, sister, student
 Achieved status: A social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and
effort. E.g. Doctor, engineer, president etc.
 Ascribed status: A social position a person receives at birth or takes on involuntarily later in life. E.g.
Girl, boy, Pakistani etc.
 Master status: Status that has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire
life. E.g. a job is a master status reveals about person’s social background, education, and income
 Role: Behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status. E.g. Status student leads –Role
attending classes and completing assignments.
 Role set: Identify a number of roles attached to a single status. E.g. Women- Wife (Status)  Domestic
duties (role set)
 Role conflict: Conflict among the roles connected to two or more statuses. E.g. working mother
(professor + researcher) might quit job because of household responsibilities.
 Role strain: Tension among the roles connected to a single status. E.g. college professor may enjoy
being friendly with students. At the same time, however, the professor must maintain the personal
distance needed to evaluate students fairly
 Role exit: The process by which people disengage from important social role.

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 THEORIES OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
a. Social construction of reality
b. Ethnomethodology
c. Dramaturgy

a. Social construction of reality:

 Social construction of reality is the process by which people creatively shape reality through social
interaction.
 Sociologists generally accept that reality is different for each individual.
 We provide/ give meanings to things; we attach meanings to everything we experience in our everyday
life.
 It is in our socialization process that we learn what to consider real, important, valuable and necessary.
 The term Social Construction of Reality refers to the theory that the way we present ourselves to other
people is shaped partly by our interactions with others, as well as by our life experiences. How we were
raised and what we were raised to believe affect how we present ourselves, how we perceive others, and
how others perceive us. In short, our perceptions of reality are colored by our beliefs and backgrounds.
 How we define everyday situations depends on our respective backgrounds and experiences.
 Many things in your life exist because you have created them e.g. monsters by kids. Things exist
because we let them exist. Because we accept them. (e.g Inception)
 Our reality is also a complicated negotiation. What is real depends on what is socially acceptable. Most
social interactions involve some acceptance of what’s going on.

b. Ethnomethodology:
 The study of the way people make sense of their everyday surroundings.
 How ordinary people make sense of their social world.
 How people speak to each other and interact in everyday conversation and relationships.
 Ethnomethodology studies procedures people carry out in order to create a sense of orderliness within a
particular institution or community.
 It is the analysis of the ways in which we actively, make sense of what others mean by what they say
and do.
 Ethnomethodology’s goal is to document the methods and practices through which society’s members
make sense of their worlds.
 Ethnomethodology is different from traditional sociology because it is not as concerned by the analysis
of society, but rather by the procedures through which social order is produced
 Most of the time, we take social reality for granted.
 Example: asking HOW ARE YOU answer in general, but you might really be wondering how the
person is dealing with a specific physical, mental, spiritual, or financial challenge. However, the person

38
 being asked probably assumes that you are not really interested in details about any of these things, that
you are just “being polite.”
 In short it is a theory that looks at how we make sense of everyday situations. Though we may view a
situation differently from those around us, our backgrounds provide us with some basic assumptions
about everyday life. Ethnomethodology studies what those background assumptions are, how we arrive
at them, and how they influence our perceptions of reality.

c. Dramaturgy/ Dramaturgical Analysis: “The presentation of self”

 Sociologist Erving Goffman developed the concept of Dramaturgy, the idea that life is like a never-
ending play in which people are actors. Goffman believed that when we are born, we are thrust onto a
stage called everyday life, and that our socialization consists of learning how to play our assigned roles
from other people. We enact our roles in the company of others, who are in turn enacting their roles in
interaction with us. He believed that whatever we do, we are playing out some role on the stage of life.
 The study of social interaction in terms of theatrical performance.
 People live their lives much like actors performing on a stage.
 Goffman described each individual’s “performance” as the presentation of self, a person’s efforts to
create specific impressions in the minds of others. This process, sometimes called impression
management, begins with the idea of personal performance.
 As we present ourselves in everyday situations, we reveal information to others both consciously and
unconsciously.
 As individuals in society we all have certain status (statuses) and we perform roles according to it. And
how we perform our role and display yourself in that situation and in the eye of others varies as per need
and environment.

IMPORTANCE OF INTERACTION, TO WHOM YOU INTERACT,

FREQUENCY OF INTERACTION CONFORMING & DEVIANT
BEHAVIOR
 Interaction or communication is the base of any formal or informal relation. How you interact, how
much you interact and share information and knowledge becomes the base of you relationship.
 It is the real foundation of all social processes, structure, social groups and functions.
 By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems within which they seek to
live.
 Symbols are used to communicate the expectations of a given society to those new to it.
 It is found in various forms among human societies;

o Between individual and individual

o Between individual and group

o Between group and group

39
 o Between individuals and culture

 When we interact with our surrounding we observe and adopt certain behaviors, which could possibly
disturb the society, without even realizing. And those observations become the base of our thought
process and actions.

REASONS:

How much you interact, whom you interact with, for how long you interact, has a lot do with one’s behavior.
Few agents and interaction frequency with them defines possible behaviors in return are as following

 Mass media- It is the main force of making public opinion and socializing people. We get guidance
from it in every walk of life. Negative use of it is harmful for youth and especially for teenagers.
Usually, those teens and youth who misuse it are found in drug addiction, immoral and unethical
activities. Teenagers learn new techniques of crime or deviance from movies, dramas and other related
programs.

 Lack of Religious Education and Morality- If morality fails to direct toward normative way of life the
way to delinquent behavior becomes easy. Failure of religious and moral values is the main cause of
deviant behavior and delinquency. Sometimes misinterpretation of religious teaching leads individual to
path of destruction and disturbance which eventually affect their way to behave in society.

 Broken Family and Improper Socialization- Family is the first institution teaching norms of social
life. Parents play important role in this process. Siblings are the second to socialize their members of
family. If both or one of the parents is absent by death or other reason, the child fails to get proper
learning, required affection and 'needs satisfaction' in the family. He becomes disturbed emotionally and
seeks protection in the company of others outside the family. He learns anti-social activities like
smoking, gambling, pick pocketing, abusing, telling lie and deviating others in association of bad
neighborhood. He gets into the habit of Deviance and becomes delinquent. Delinquency enters into his
social life.

40
 Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq
Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

7. GROUPS & ORGANIZATIONS

a. Types of groups
 Social group is two or more people who identify with and interact with one another.

 Primary Group a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships.
 First groups we experience in life.
 People spend a great deal of time together.
 Display a personal orientation.
 Bound to others by emotion and loyalty.
 Members of a primary group view each other as unique and irreplaceable.
 Group members think of themselves as “we.”

 Secondary Group is a large and impersonal (less emotional) social group whose members pursue a
specific goal or activity.
 Relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another.
 Many secondary groups exist for only a short time.
 Secondary groups have a goal orientation  what they can do for each other remain formal and
polite.
 Groups do not think of themselves as “we”.
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  Reference Group: a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and
decisions.

 In-Group: social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty.

 Out-Group: a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition

 Formal Group: Group in which membership is defined.

 Those who fulfil the conditions can become a member of that group.
 You cannot simply leave these groups.
 Enter in these groups is made under written rule. E.g. Youth club, UN members etc.

 Informal Group: Group in which membership is not defined.

 Any person can participate in this group and leave whenever he/she likes to.
 E.g. people in markets etc.

b. Leadership styles
1- Authoritarian leadership focuses on instrumental concerns.
o Takes personal charge of decision making.
o Demands that group members obey orders.
o This leadership style may win little affection from the group.
2- Democratic leadership is more expressive.
o Makes a point of including everyone in the decision-making process.
o Less successful in a crisis situation.
o Democratic leaders generally draw on the ideas of all members to develop creative solutions to
problems.
3- Laissez-faire leadership allows the group to function more or less on its own (means “leave it alone”).
o Least effective in promoting group goals.

c. FORMAL ORGANIZATION AND ITS TYPES

 Previously people lived in small groups (family, friends),
o Time passed group form changed i.e. formal organization.
 Large secondary groups organized to achieve their goals efficiently.
 E.g. business companies, government agencies
 Difference from family and friend impersonality (less or no care for human’s wellbeing) and their
formally planned atmosphere.

TYPES OF FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS:

 Three different types.
1- Utilitarian organizations (useful, effective)

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 2- Normative organizations ( rules of behavior)
3- Coercive organizations (forced, powerful, strong)

1. UTILITARIAN ORGANIZATIONS:

 Who works for income belongs to this organization.

 One that pays people for their efforts.
 People must join one or another such organization to make a living.
 Organizations like these generate profits for their owners and income for their employees.
 To be a part of organization like these is a matter of individual choice.

2. NORMATIVE ORGANIZATIONS:

 People join these not for income but to achieve some goal they think is morally meaningful/
important.
 Another term use for it is voluntary associations (they want to do work like this as per their choice)
 E.g. political, religious organizations, NGO’s
 Mostly high-income, democratic countries

3. COERCIVE ORGANIZATIONS:
 Membership in coercive organizations is involuntary (forced to join)
 Forced to join these organizations as a form of punishment or treatment
 E.g. prison, mental hospitals, rehabilitation centers
 These organizations have physical features as well e.g. locked doors, barred windows and some security
as well.
 They isolate people, whom they label “inmates” (prisoners) or “patients,” for a period of time in order to
deeply change their attitudes and behavior.

d. BUREAUCRACY AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

 Bureaucracy is an organizational model logically designed to perform tasks efficiently
 Body of non-elective government officials OR administrative policy making group
 Bureaucratic officials regularly create and revise policy to increase efficiency (productivity)

CHARACTERISTICS:

1- SPECIALIZATION;
 Bureaucracy assigns people highly specialized jobs as compare to our ancestors

2- HIERARCHY OF POSITIONS;
 Bureaucracies arrange workers in a vertical ranking (from down to Up or Up to down)
43
 Each person is controlled/ managed by someone of higher position in the organization
 With few people at the top and many at the bottom, bureaucratic organizations take the form of a
pyramid

3- RULES AND REGULATIONS:

 Have defined and strict rules and regulation and organizations work according to these

4- TECHNICAL COMPETENCE:
 Officials in these have technical skills and abilities to carry out their duties
 Hire new members according to set standards and then monitor their performance

5- IMPERSONALITY:
 Bureaucracy puts rules ahead of personal wish so that both clients and workers are treated in the same
way

6- FORMAL, WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS:

 Paper work is more important than personal relations.
 It depends on formal, written notes and reports

e. GROUPS, GANGS, MAFIAS & THEIR IMPLICATION

ON SOCIETY
 Gang is defined in one of two ways: either as a gathering of individuals with a specific negative set of
personal attributes or a group of individuals who act in a deviant and/or criminal manner.
 Mafia on the other hand is a group of people of similar interests or backgrounds prominent in a
particular field or enterprise.
 Both gangs and mafia have social structure of their own, with their own norms, values, beliefs and
culture on the basis of which they function.
 Gangs and mafias represent a negative connotation so does their effects on society.
 The emergence of gangs and mafia is linked with various community and individual factors like;
poverty, less attachment with family, high crime in society, marginalization, negative life events etc.
 Because of the activities of mafia and gangs not only individuals in society but also their legal law
system is also affected. It shakes the roots of establishment. Damages societies in both monetary and
non-monetary form.

44
 Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq
Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

8. DEVIANCE
a. Deviance, Crime and Social control
 Deviance is the recognized violation of cultural norms.
 Crime is the violation of criminal laws enacted by a locality, a state, or the federal government.
 Social Control is the attempts by society to regulate people’s thoughts and behavior.
o All societies practice social control, the regulation and enforcement of norms. Social control can
be defined broadly as an organized action intended to change people’s behavior (Innes 2003).
The underlying goal of social control is to maintain social order, an arrangement of practices
and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives.
o One means of enforcing rules are through sanctions. Sanctions can be positive as well as
negative. Positive sanctions are rewards given for conforming to norms. A promotion at work is
a positive sanction for working hard. Negative sanctions are punishments for violating norms.
Being arrested is a punishment for shoplifting. Both types of sanctions play a role in social
control.

b. Types of Crime
1- Crimes against the person, also called violent crimes, are crimes that direct violence or the threat of
violence against others.
 E.g murder and manslaughter
 Aggravated assault (purpose of serious body injury)
 Forcible rape
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  Robbery
2- Crimes against property: also called property crimes
 Crimes that involve theft of property which belongs to others
 Burglary (illegal entry of a building with intent to commit a crime)
 Larceny-theft (the unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away of property from the
possession of another)
 Auto theft
 Arson (any willful or malicious burning or attempt to burn the personal property of another)
3- Victimless crimes: Violations of law in which there are no obvious victims. Also called crimes without
complain.
 E.g illegal drug use, prostitution, and gambling.
 People who commit such crimes are both offenders and victims.
 The term “victimless crime” is misleading
 Public views of victimless crimes vary greatly

 White-collar crime: Crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their
occupations.
o Do not involve violence
o White-collar criminals use their powerful offices
o Causing significant public harm in the process
o E.g. Government officials
 “crime in the suites”
o End up in a civil hearing
 Blue-collar crime: is a term used to describe crimes that are committed primarily by people who are
from a lower social class

 Organized crime: is a business supplying illegal goods or services.

o involves the sale of illegal goods and services
o e.g. drugs, and gambling to willing buyers
 Corporate crime: illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf.
o knowingly selling faulty or dangerous products to deliberately polluting the environment

 Hate crime is a criminal act against a person or a person’s property by an offender motivated by racial
or other bias
o race, religion, ethnicity or ancestry

c. Criminal Justice system of Pakistan

 The criminal justice system is defined as the set of agencies and processes established by governments
to control crime and impose penalties on those who violate laws.
 This system has various components which have to work in harmony and support of each other in order
to provide justice to not only to the victim but to the accused as well.
 Criminal justice system mainly consists of three parts:
(i) Police (law enforcement);
(ii) Courts (adjudication/trial);
(iii) Prisons (corrections/ probation and parole

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 Before 2007, there were only two institutions in Criminal Justice System i.e. Police and Judiciary and
there was no concept of independent Prosecution Department in Pakistan. It was only after 2007 when
all Provinces established independent and specialized Prosecution Departments. Due to its short life and
other reasons, Prosecution is still not independent and fully functional in Pakistan’s Criminal Justice
System.
 The criminal justice system of Pakistan has been inherited from the British. This system aims to reduce
crime, bring more offenders to justice and raise public confidence that the system is fair and will deliver
justice for law-abiding citizens.
 A supreme principle of the criminal justice system is that an accused is punished only after his or her
guilt is proved beyond a shadow of doubt. Similarly, justice demands that in the trial of a civil case, the
dispute must be decided strictly in accordance with the law and on the principles of equity, justice and
fair-play. Such universally recognized and time-tested principles are also in accordance with the
commands of Islam as the Holy Quran orders that Muslims must avoid injustice, oppression and
destruction.

PROBLEMS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM IN PAKISTAN

o The term criminal justice refers to the agencies of government charged with enforcing law,
adjudicating criminals and correcting criminal conduct.
o A criminal justice system is a set of legal and social institutions for enforcing the criminal law in
accordance with a defined set of procedural rules and limitations.
o The main objectives of criminal justice systems are;
 To prevent occurrence of crime
 To punish the criminals
 To rehabilitate the criminals
 To maintain law and order in society
 To deter/discourage the offenders from committing any criminal act in future

o The Criminal Justice System in Pakistan comprises of five components i.e. the police, judiciary,
prisons, prosecution, probation and parole.
o Effective criminal justice system is a prerequisite for uploading the rule of law that underpins
political rights, civil liberties and mechanisms of accountability which in turn guarantees the
right to equality of all individuals before the law.
o The Criminal Justice System in Pakistan is outdated and in dismal condition that it is very easy
for any influential and wealthy person to get himself acquitted after committing any sort of
offence.
o Each step has many slips and shorts at enforcement, judicial process and correction stages.
o The inbuilt inadequacies are rendering the system ineffective.
o

o The criminal justice system in Pakistan is known to be faulty, exploitative and inequitable. These
problems are most certainly some of the main causes behind high crime rates. The civil and
criminal justice system in Pakistan is confronted today with the serious crisis of abnormal delays.
o The major and important deficiencies and weaknesses of the criminal justice system of Pakistan
are accurate reporting of crime to the police, malpractices during litigation, delayed submission
of challans to the courts by public prosecutors, lopsided and long duration of trials where the
47
 accused is considered to be the favorite child of the court, overcrowding of jails due to a large
number of under-trial prisoners, underdeveloped system of parole and probation and capacity
issues. These weaknesses, especially capacity issues, are not restricted to any one segment of the
criminal justice system – all components including law enforcement, judiciary and
corrections/prisons equally fall short.
o

CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM WITH RESPECT TO SOCIOLOGICAL

LENS:
o The criminal justice system is defined as the set of agencies and processes established by governments
to control crime and impose penalties on those who violate laws. This system has various components
which have to work in harmony and support of each other in order to provide justice to not only to the
victim but to the accused as well.
o Criminal justice system reflects a commitment by the society to prevent and control crime while dealing
justly with those accused of violating criminal law.
o It is a system of people, politics and procedures that interacts dynamically with agencies at all levels of
government and with the interests and values of society at large.
o A good and reliable system of criminal justice not only caters to speedy remedy for the victims of crime
but also safeguards and protects the legitimate rights of the accused. The system is based on fairness,
equality, justice and fair-play for all, a system that deals with crime and criminals with the view to
maintain peace and order in the society.
o Criminal justice is the system of practices and institutions of the government directed at upholding
social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal
penalties and rehabilitation efforts.
o Sociologists are implementing new models throughout the justice system as well as redesigning existing
programs. They work in law enforcement, the judicial system, and corrections to develop and improve
programs for use by all of the individuals and agencies affected by the criminal justice processes.
o Other than sociologist, Clinical sociologists practicing within the criminal justice system are unique in
two respects. They have appropriate training in sociological theory and methods, and they are committed
to intervention.
o The main and first concern of sociologists with respect to crime are social aspects of crime: what makes
people commit crimes, what social policies and programs can prevent or minimize criminal activity, and
what forms of punishment are effective in preventing repeat crimes?

d. Factors behind deviancy & its implication on society

 Deviance is basically breaking social manners; social code of conduct, breaking of promise etc. basically
any violation of norm is Deviance.
 The deviation when grows serious it becomes problem for society in general.
 Deviant behavior effects society, its culture, and Law.
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 o DEVIATION AND SOCIETY: by the act of deviation social groups and bonds between
individual break. And as a result society faces disorganization which eventually leads towards
chaos and disturbance in society. And as a consequence social order loses its balance and social
control is paralyzed. And this starts the threads of problem in society.

FACTORS/CAUSES:
 Broken family and improper socialization
 Lack of interest in education
 Lack of religious education and morality
 Lack of basic facilities
 Desire of accumulation of wealth through any means
 Mass media exposure

Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq

Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

9. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
a. Systems of Stratification:
 A system, by which a society ranks categories (group) of people in a hierarchy (order).
 It has four basic principles;
o Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences.
o Social stratification carries over from generation to generation.
o Social stratification is universal but variable.
o Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well.

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SYSTEMS OF STRATIFICATION
 Sociologists distinguish between two types of systems of stratification. Closed and Open System
 Closed systems accommodate little change in social position. They do not allow people to shift levels
and do not permit social relationships between levels.
 Open systems, which are based on achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and
classes. Different systems reflect, emphasize, and foster certain cultural values and shape individual
beliefs.
 Stratification systems include Class systems and Caste systems, as well as Meritocracy.

 Caste systems:
o Caste systems are closed stratification systems in which people can do little or nothing to change
their social standing.
o A caste system is one in which people are born into their social standing and will remain in it
their whole lives. People are assigned occupations regardless of their talents, interests, or
potential. There are virtually no opportunities to improve a person’s social position.
o E.g. in the Hindu caste tradition, people were expected to work in the occupation of their caste
and to enter into marriage according to their caste. Accepting this social standing was considered
a moral duty. Cultural values reinforced the system. Caste systems promote beliefs in fate,
destiny, and the will of a higher power, rather than promoting individual freedom as a value. A
person who lived in a caste society was socialized to accept his or her social standing.
 Class systems:
o A class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement. A class consists of a
set of people who share similar status with regard to factors like wealth, income, education, and
occupation. Unlike caste systems, class systems are open. People are free to gain a different level
of education or employment than their parents. They can also socialize with and marry members
of other classes, which allow people to move from one class to another.
o In a class system, occupation is not fixed at birth. Though family and other societal models help
guide a person toward a career, personal choice plays a role.
 Meritocracy:
o Meritocracy is an ideal system based on the belief that social stratification is the result of
personal effort—or merit—that determines social standing. High levels of effort will lead to a
high social position, and vice versa.
o The concept of meritocracy is an ideal—because a society has never existed where social rank
was based purely on merit. Because of the complex structure of societies, processes like
socialization, and the realities of economic systems, social standing is influenced by multiple
factors—not merit alone.
o Inheritance and pressure to conform to norms, for instance, disrupt the notion of a pure
meritocracy. While a meritocracy has never existed, sociologists see aspects of meritocracies in
modern societies when they study the role of academic and job performance and the systems in
place for evaluating and rewarding achievement in these areas.

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 b. Dimensions of Stratification
 Following are the elements of social stratification which are prevalent in society;
1. Economic resources
2. Occupation
3. Prestige
4. Power
5. Caste
6. Education

c. Social Mobility: Brief explanation

 Social mobility is moving of an individual or group of people from one status to another.
 The act of moving from one social class to another.
 The attributes needed to move up and down the social hierarchy varies as per society. For instance some
society’s value economic growth/ gain while others might prioritize religious status.
 There are five major types of social mobility;
1. Territorial mobility-change of residence from one place to another
2. Vertical mobility- any upward or downward change in absolute or relate rank of any individual
or group.
 Upward mobility- mobility from down to upwards and take place when one is
progressing in income, status, job, education etc.
 Downward mobility- downward movement when there is loss in business, income, fall in
status, job, wealth, property etc.
3. Horizontal mobility- Change in position without change in status. It indicates a change in
position within the range of the same position or status OR a change in position at the same
social level but they remain at their same level within the social hierarchy e.g. manager in one
organization-change in organization= same level position.
4. Inter-generational mobility-social mobility that places between generations OR changes in
status between different generations of the same family e.g. son of a farmer becoming doctor
5. Intra-generational mobility- Changes in the social status of an individual or group of
individuals within the same generation OR a change in social position that occurs during a
person’s lifetime e.g. from research assistant to senior researcher in an organization

d. Poverty:
 Poverty is the inability to maintain minimal standards of food, clothing, shelter and health care.
Reasons:
There are many reasons of poverty but few prominent and globally present ones are given below.
1. Inadequate access to clean water and nutritious food
2. Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs
3. Conflict/warfare
4. Discrimination and social inequality
5. Lack of education
6. Centralization of power and corruption
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7. Imbalanced taxes

e. Stratification, Deviancy & Crime

 Sociologists are interested in why people from some social classes are more likely to commit crimes
than others, and that the types of crime which people from different classes may commit differ
significantly.
 Different sociologists approach class in different ways: traditional Marxists focus on the bourgeoisie and
the proletariat and their separate relationship to the means of production, other sociologists consider
class stratification more in relation to job roles and incomes.
 Social class and class division is often viewed as a critical factor that influences the motivation to
commit criminal activities in society.
 Social class may influence deviant and/or criminal behavior as a response to wanting to maintain status
quo (particularly those in middle to upper class levels), economic hardships (that may occur at various
class levels), the lack of social power, income inequality, or the lack of resources.

Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq

Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

10. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

a. Family
b. Education
c. Religion
d. Economy and Work
e. Politics and Government
f. Health and Medicine

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 g. Mass Communication
h. Role of Institutions in developing law abiding society
i. Institutions, deviancy & Crime
j. Implication of dysfunctional institutions on Society

 FAMILY:
 Affect socialization the most and is very important as compare to rest of the agents.

 NURTURE IN EARLY CHILDHOOD:

o Newborn depends on other for care up to a certain age limit and this is provided to them by their
parents.
o Family responsibility Teach child skills, values, beliefs and make them happy and satisfied in
their life.
o Sometimes responsibilities are thought them directly by parents/family, other times child (ren)
also learn from the surrounding and environment created by their family.
o How children see themselves and their world i.e. weak, strong, happy, unhappy, honest,
dangerous depends on the surrounding provided by their parents/family.

 RACE AND CLASS:

 Parents give Social Identity race shapes child’s personality
 Difficult to understand because different people define race differently
 Social class shapes child’s personality
 Rich or poor this social class position identifies children slowly realizes that their family’s social
position affects how others see them and how they come to see themselves.
 Social class affects 2 important points how much money spend on their children + what parents
expects from them.
 Low income parents wants their children to be obedient
o Limited education so perform routine jobs+ expect their children to perform same job just like
them
o Even punish them if they don’t obey them

 High income parents wants think for themselves + be popular + more successful
o More educated jobs that demand independence + imagination + creativity
o Want their children to follow these things and qualities
o Want their children to achieve more and push them to do so
o Provide them will better and best education along with extracurricular activities

PARENTS ACT IN WAYS THAT ENCOURAGE THEIR CHILDREN TO FOLLOW IN THEIR FOOTSTEPS

 EDUCATION:
 The process whereby the social heritage of a group is passed on from one generation to another as well
as the process whereby the child become socialized.
 Educational institutes shape our attitude and prepare us for behaving in a certain manner in defined
situation.
 It supplies us with the instruments by which we can realize our social goals.
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  It is the reconstruction of experience.

 TYPES OF EDUCATION:
 Formal education- School, college, universities
o Provides environment to children where they interact with people from different background.
o This helps them understand things from different viewpoints and important factors like race and
social class.
o Schooling helps them to mix up with people from different background.

GENDER:
o School also plays just as important role in socialization as family.
o Experiment show at school boys engage in more physical activities+ spend more time outdoors
(aggressive)
o Girls More likely to help teachers with various housework tasks. (quieter)

WHAT CHILDREN LEARN:

o Schooling is not the same for children living in rich and poor communities.
o Children from well-off families have a far better experience in school than those of poor families.
o Apart from school course, they also teaches you different lessons hidden curriculum
o Examples:
o Spelling bees teach children not only how to spell words but also how society divides the
population into “winners” and “losers.”
o Sports help students develop their strength and skills and also teach children important life
lessons in cooperation and competition.
o School is also the first experience with bureaucracy (strict timings and rules)
 Informal education- Family, community, society- where there are no hard and fast rules and
regulations.

FUNCTIONS:
i. Cultural transmission
ii. Social integration
iii. Direction for future occupation selection
iv. Techniques of learning skills
v. Socialization
vi. Rational thinking
vii. Self-awareness
viii. Importance of relations
ix. Character building

 RELIGION:

 “It is a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things that set apart and are forbidden,
which unite people into a moral community”.
 “A social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the sacred”.
 “System of beliefs and practices, which are standardized, formalized and viewed by virtually all
society’s members as necessary and true”.
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 ELEMENTS OF RELIGION:
i. Rituals
ii. Emotions
iii. Belief
iv. Organization
v. Sacred objects
vi. Symbolism
vii. Sect

 Religion is a matter of faith, belief based on conviction rather than on scientific evidence.
 We define most objects, events, or experiences as profane, “outside the temple”, included as an
ordinary element of everyday life.
 Some things sacred, set apart as extraordinary, inspiring awe and reverence. Setting the sacred
apart from the profane is the essence of all religious belief.

 FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION:
i. Removes fear and anxiety
ii. Relation between man and universe
iii. Relation between man and God
iv. Judgement of right and wrong
v. Preservation of values
vi. Religion creates purity and cleanliness
vii. Religion is a socializing institution
viii. Religion creates social solidarity

 WORLD RELIGIONS:
 Islam
 Christianity
 Judaism
 Hinduism
 Buddhism
 Confucianism

 ECONOMY AND WORK

 The economy is the social institution that organizes a society’s production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services.

 ECONOMIC STRUCTURE:
 Property ownership
 Labour force
 Distribution of production
 Economic norms
 Exchange value

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 FUNCTIONS OF ECONOMIC STRUCTURE:
 Social stratification
 Power an authority
 Interdependence of other institutions
 Socialization
 Need satisfaction
 Income generation and employment
 Division of labor and specialization

 SECTORS OF ECONOMY:
 Primary Sector: The part of the economy that draws raw materials from the natural environment.
o The primary sector—agriculture, raising animals, fishing, forestry, and mining—is largest in
low-income nations.
 Secondary sector: The part of the economy that transforms raw materials into manufactured goods.
o It includes operations such as refining petroleum into gasoline and turning metals into tools and
automobiles.
 Tertiary sector: The part of the economy that involves services rather than goods.

 ECONOMIC SYSTEMS:
 Every society’s economic system makes a statement about justice by determining who is entitled to
what. Two general economic models are capitalism and socialism. No nation anywhere in the world has
an economy that is completely one or the other; capitalism and socialism represent two ends of a
continuum along which all real-world economies can be located.

 Capitalism: An economic system in which natural resources and the means of producing goods and
services are privately owned.
o Private ownership of property
o Pursuit of personal profit
o Competition and consumer choice

 Socialism: An economic system in which natural resources and the means of producing goods and
services are collectively owned.
o Collective ownership of property
o Pursuit of collective goals
o Government control of the economy

 Communism: a hypothetical economic and political system in which all members of a society are
socially equal.
o Karl Marx- viewed socialism as one important step on the path toward the ideal of a communist
society that abolishes all class divisions.
o Communist goal has not been achieved in any country.

 Welfare capitalism: An economic and political system that combines a mostly market-based economy
with extensive social welfare programs.
o Under welfare capitalism, the government owns some of the largest industries and services, such
as transportation, the mass media, and health care etc.

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 o Sweden, Italy etc.

 State capitalism: An economic and political system in which companies are privately owned but
cooperate closely with the government.
o Governments work in partnership with large companies, supplying financial assistance and
controlling foreign imports to help their businesses compete in world markets.
o Japan, South Korea, Singapore etc.

 POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

 Politics- Social institution that distributes power, sets a society’s goals, and makes decisions.
 Government- A formal organization that directs the political life of a society.
 Authority- Power that people perceive as legitimate rather than coercive.
 Traditional authority- Power legitimized by respect for long-established cultural pattern.
 Charismatic authority- Power legitimized by extraordinary personal abilities that inspire devotion and
obedience.
 Rational-legal authority (sometimes called bureaucratic authority) as power legitimized by legally
enacted rules and regulations. Rational-legal authority is power legitimized in the operation of lawful
government.
 State: Sovereign political organization of the individuals occupying a definite territory.
o Elements of state:
 An independent political organization
 Number of people living therein
 Fixed geographical area

POLITICS IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE:

There are different political systems working across the globe.
 Monarchy a political system in which a single family rules from generation to generation.
o E.g. royal families
o In the world twenty-six nations have royal families.
o Exercise almost absolute control over their people.
o With industrialization, monarchs gradually pass from the scene in favor of elected officials. All
the European nations with royal families today are constitutional monarchies, meaning that their
monarchs are little more than symbolic heads of state; actual governing is the responsibility of
elected officials, led by a prime minister and guided by a constitution. In these nations, nobility
formally reigns, but elected officials actually rule.

 Democracy-A political system that gives power to the people as a whole.

o A system of representative democracy that puts authority in the hands of leaders chosen by the
people in elections.
o Industrialization an democratic government go together because both require a literate
population.

 Authoritarianism- A political system that denies the people participation in government.

o An authoritarian government is indifferent to people’s needs, offers them no voice in selecting
leaders, and uses force in response to dissent or opposition.

 Totalitarianism- highly centralized political system that extensively regulates people’s lives.
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 o Such governments have a total concentration of power, allowing no organized opposition.
Denying the people the right to assemble and controlling access to information, these
governments create an atmosphere of personal isolation and fear.
o Socialization in totalitarian societies is intensely political with the goal of obedience and
commitment to the system.
SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS:
 To regulate relationship with society.
 Welfare work.
 Defense against foreign danger.
 To create social control.
 Elections.
 Legislations.
 Implementation of law.
 International law.
 Evaluation of other institutions.
FUNCTIONS OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT:
 Institutionalization of norms.
 The decision conflicts.
 The enforcement of norms.
 The defense of society.

 HEALTH AND MEDICINE

 Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being.
Health and Society: Society shapes people’s health in four major ways i.e.
o Cultural patterns define health
o Cultural standards of health change over time
o A society’s technology affects people’s health
o Social inequality affects people’s health.

 Health in low and high income countries varies.

o In a classic vicious circle, poverty breeds disease, which in turn undermines the ability to work.
When medical technology does control infectious disease, the populations of poor nations soar in
comparison to high income countries where facilities of health care & medicine is advance and
affordable to mass population.

 Health and Hazards:

o Cigarette smoking
o Eating disorders
o Obesity
o Sexually transmitted diseases

 Ethical Issue:
o Now that technological advances are giving human beings the power to draw the line separating
life and death, we must decide how and when to do so. In other words, questions about the use of
medical technology have added an ethical dimension to health and illness.

o Do People Have a Right to Die?

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 Today, medical personnel, family members, and patients themselves face the burden of
deciding when a terminally ill person should die.
o What about Mercy Killing?
 Mercy killing is the common term for euthanasia, assisting in the death of a person suffering
from an incurable disease. Euthanasia (from the Greek, meaning “a good death”) poses an
ethical dilemma, being at once an act of kindness and a form of killing.

 MEDICINE the social institution that focuses on fighting disease and improving health.
o Holistic medicine an approach to health care that emphasizes the prevention of illness and takes
into account a person’s entire physical and social environment. There are three foundations of
holistic health care;
 Treat patients as people
 Encourage responsibility, not dependency
 Provide personal treatment

 MASS COMMUNICATION
 Process of dissemination of news and information to one another.
 It includes print (newspaper, books, magazine) and electronic media (radio, television).
 Mass media have an enormous influence on our attitudes and behavior.
 The Extent of Mass Media Exposure- television makes children more passive and less likely to use
their imagination.
o Researchers explain that most television is not itself harmful to children; however, watching
television prevents children from engaging in other activities—especially interacting with other
children and adults—which is vital to social and mental development.
 Television and Violence- a study found a strong link between aggressive behavior and the amount of
time elementary school children spend watching television and playing video games.

SOCIAL EFFECTS OF PRINT MEDIA:

 Transmission of knowledge
 Personality development
 Harmony in making public opinion
 Preservation of culture
 Broaden thinking
 Expansion in trade and business
 Public awareness
 Criticism (positive, negative)

SOCIAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRONIC MEDIA:

 Information
 Commercial program
 Education
 Creating freedom of thought
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  Recreation
 Harmony of public opinion
 Socio-cultural change

 ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS IN DEVELOPING LAW ABIDING

SOCIETY
 Every society has values, culture, tradition, and norms which need to be followed and protected.
Society has its need to be satisfied. This participation of people in various customary ways to satisfy
their various needs develops social institutions.
 Institutions are systems of social relationship for meeting various felt human needs.

ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:

 There are different social institutions who work together for the betterment of society, to bring stability
and harmony in society.
o It is a group of people who are interrelated through social interaction
o This group of people is united under common interest
o This group has material equipment like building and furniture etc
o This group functions according to the customs of life
o This group fulfills some needs of social life

NATURE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:

 Permanent association of people
 Preserves values
 Possess material objects
 Network of social norms
 Uses symbols to distinguish

GENERAL FUNCTION OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:

 Reproduction
 Socialization
 Sense of purpose
 Preservation of social order
 Transmission of culture
 Personality development

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AS AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL:

This control could be done formally or informally. Sometimes distinction between right and wrong is taught by
the institution of family and sometimes it falls in legal territory. If one fails to abide by the rule of right and

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wrong behavior he/she is punished according to the formal or informal act. Following are sources through
which social control can be achieved in society.
 By socialization
 By need satisfaction
 By social sanctions
 By integration

 IMPLICATION OF DYSFUNCTIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON

SOCIETY

 Institutions are the rules for structuring economic, political, and social life. When fulfilling their
promise, institutions create win-win outcomes by stabilizing actors’ expectations and identifying what
actions are permitted, prescribed, and prohibited.
 Over time, even well-functioning institutions can begin to fail or become dysfunctional.
 Any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society.
 Any institution when fails to perform its duties, the system of society disrupts in result.
 Institutional dysfunction has become increasingly common in important social, political, and economics
arenas. Opinion polls show a decline in trust and confidence in major actors and institutions, including
inter-governmental organizations, governments, firms, NGOs, and religious organization.
 For instance, if the institution of Law and government fails to control its citizen, fail to protect the rights
and lives of its citizens, eventually the system of whole society gets disturbed. Crime rate will increase.
Distinction between right and wrong will eventually be eliminated from the minds of citizens. In short
the whole system of society will change, and that too in negative aspect.

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 Lecturer: Nimra Ishtiaq
Subject: Sociology
LL.B. Part 1 (5Years)
Session 2019-2020

11. SOCIAL CHANGE

a. Demographic aspects:
 It is the study of human population.
 Demography (from Greek, meaning “description of people”) is a cousin of sociology that analyzes the
size and composition of a population and studies how and why people move from place to place.
Demographers not only collect statistics but also raise important questions about the effects of
population growth and suggest how it might be controlled.
 Basic demographic aspects are;
o Fertility
o Mortality
o Migration
o Population growth
o Population composition

b. Environmental aspects:
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 Natural forces and factors play an important role in unifying or disintegrating the society.
 A storm, earthquake, flood, drought, disease and similar natural events even today can disrupt the social
system. Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, draughts, famines and other natural disasters always
force changes in the social conditions and life of the affected people.
 On the one hand these factors and forces act as a source of big loss for the victims; on the other hand
these initiate efforts aimed at rapid reconstruction and development.
 The cultural life of the people depends upon the physical environment.
 The climate always affects the socio-economic activities of the people.
 Change can be through the impact of environmental factors such as drought and famine. The degree of
natural disasters between different countries and regions also lead the different social changes between
the countries. The shift from collecting, hunting and fishing to agriculture may have happened because,
in some areas, the human population grew too large to be sustained by existing resources.

c. Collective behavior:
 Activity involving a large number of people, often spontaneous and sometimes controversial.
 Collective behavior normally centers around a phenomena which is essentially temporary in nature.
 Any group behavior that is not mandated or regulated by an institution.
 Unplanned.
 It isn’t regulated by any set of rules or procedures.
 Unpredictable.
 Rumors and misinformation normally run widespread during collective behavior.
 This kind of behavior is triggered by rumors, guided by beliefs, hopes, fears, hatred etc.
 There are four primary forms of collective behavior: the crowd, the mass, the public, and social
movements.
 It takes a fairly large number of people in close proximity to form a crowd. Examples include a group of
people attending a Neil Young concert, attending Canada Day festivities, or joining a worship service.
Turner and Killian (1993) identified four types of crowds. Casual crowds consist of people who are in
the same place at the same time, but who are not really interacting, such as people standing in line at the
post office. Conventional crowds are those who come together for a scheduled event, like a religious
service or rock concert. Expressive crowds are people who join together to express emotion, often at
funerals, weddings, or the like. The final type, acting crowds, focus on a specific goal or action, such as
a protest movement or riot.

d. Social movements:
“It is a collective effort to promote or resist change”.
 Social movements are purposeful, organized groups striving to work toward a common goal. These
groups might be attempting to create change to resist change, or to provide a political voice to those
otherwise disenfranchised. Social movements create social change.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE:
 The functionalist perspective looks at the big picture, focusing on the way that all aspects of society are
integral to the continued health and viability of the whole. A functionalist might focus on why social
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 movements develop, why they continue to exist, and what social purposes they serve. On one hand,
social movements emerge when there is a dysfunction in the relationship between systems.
 The conflict perspective focuses on the creation and reproduction of inequality. Someone applying the
conflict perspective would likely be interested in how social movements are generated through
systematic inequality, and how social change is constant, speedy, and unavoidable. In fact, the conflict
that this perspective sees as inherent in social relations drives social change.
 The symbolic interaction perspective studies the day-to-day interaction of social movements, the
meanings individuals attach to involvement in such movements, and the individual experience of social
change. An interactionist studying social movements might address social movement norms and tactics
as well as individual motivations.
Characteristics:
 Collective action
 Oriented towards social change
 Ideology behind movement
 Organizational framework
 Techniques and results

Types:
 General social movements
 Specific movements
 Expressive movements

e. Sources of Social change:

It is the transformation of culture and social institutions over time.
 Collective behavior and social movements are just two of the forces driving social change, which is the
change in society created through social movements as well as external factors like environmental shifts
or technological innovations. Essentially, any disruptive shift in the status quo, be it intentional or
random, human-caused or natural, can lead to social change.
 Changes to technology, social institutions, population, and the environment, alone or in some
combination, create change

Nature and characteristics:

 Social change is continuous
 Social change is temporal
 Social change is environmental
 Social change results from interaction of a number of factors
 Social change may create chain reaction
 Social change may be planned or unplanned
 Short Vs Long run changes
Causes of social change:
 Invention- produces new objects, ideas, and social patterns.
 Discovery- occurs when people take note of existing elements of the world.
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  Diffusion- creates change as products, people, and information spread from one society to another.

f. Modernity and Post modernity:

 Modernity- social patterns resulting from industrialization.
o Refers to the present in relation to the past.

Characteristics:
 The decline of small, traditional communities.
 The expansion of personal choice.
 Increasing social diversity.
 Orientation toward the future and a growing awareness of time.

 Postmodernity- Social patterns characteristic of postindustrial societies.

Characteristics:
o In important respects, modernity has failed
o The bright light of “progress” is fading
o Science no longer holds the answers
o Cultural debates are intensifying
o Social institutions are changing

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