foods

Article
Microstructural, Textural, Sensory Properties and
Quality of Wheat–Yam Composite Flour Noodles
Kai-Nong Sun 1 , Ai-Mei Liao 2 , Fan Zhang 1 , Kiran Thakur 1 , Jian-Guo Zhang 1 ,
Ji-Hong Huang 2,3 and Zhao-Jun Wei 1,4, *
1 School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China;
[email protected] (K.-N.S.); [email protected] (F.Z.); [email protected] (K.T.);
[email protected] (J.-G.Z.)
2 College of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, 450001, China;
[email protected] (A.-M.L.); [email protected] (J.-H.H.)
3 Henan Cooperation Science and Technology Institute, Zhengzhou, 470001, China
4 Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Functional Compound Seasoning, Anhui Qiangwang seasoning Food
Co., Ltd., Jieshou 236500, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-551-62901539




Received: 19 August 2019; Accepted: 16 October 2019; Published: 21 October 2019


Abstract: Herein, feasibility of supplementing wheat flour with Chinese yam powder (CYP) for
noodle preparation was assessed. After supplementation with CYP, the alterations in chemical, texture,
cooking, rheological, and microstructure attributes of noodles were observed. Due to higher protein
and lower gluten, 20% of CYP promoted the stable network of gluten and starch particles. However,
the excessive addition reduced the flexibility and the chewiness. The adverse changes were observed
at 40% substitution level in texture profile analysis (TPA) and rheological parameters due to disrupted
gluten–protein network which accelerated the exposure of starch particles. The CYP incorporation
up to 20% showed better mouthfeel but further addition lowered the total sensory scores. Scanning
Electronic Microscopy (SEM) analysis confirmed the modifications in noodles microstructure as CYP
addition affected starch granule structure. In general, 30% substitution significantly improved the
textural and rheological properties of noodles, indicating the potential of Chinese yam powder for
industrial application.

Keywords: wheat flour noodles; Chinese yam; texture and rheological properties; microstructure;
protein–gluten network

1. Introduction
Noodles are rich in nutrition, easy to cook, and delicious traditional foods in Asian countries
besides their increasing demand in many Western countries [1]. Traditionally, wheat flour has been
mainly used for noodles preparation. However, several varieties of noodles have been reported which
were prepared by using rice, buckwheat or starches derived from potato, sweet potato, and pulses [2–4].
Increasing economic development and awareness for healthy lifestyle among the consumers, emphasize
noodles which are enriched with natural protein and other functional components derived from plants
sources [5].
In the past years, researchers have been engaged to enrich noodles by fortifying them with various
ingredients. The attempts have been made to use wheat noodles as a resource and then supplement
them by adding broken rice, oat flour, barley flour, sweet potato flour, and buckwheat flour [1,2,6,7].
The recent trend to include vegetable materials to the wheat flour for the preparation of noodles has
resulted in different flavors, colors, and additional nutrients with value added benefits [8].

Foods 2019, 8, 519; doi:10.3390/foods8100519 www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2019, 8, 519 2 of 13

Yam is recognized as a traditional staple food in many tropical regions in the world particularly
in South Asia [9]. Chinese yam, Dioscorea Polystachya (Turczaninow), is one of the important edible
starch plants widely cultivated in China [10] and it is recognized as pharmaceutical food [11] with
general composition (dry-weight basis) of 75–84% starch, 6–8% crude protein, and 1.2–1.8% crude
fiber [12]. Yam tuber is an important nutritional food which contains many functional components
such as dioscin, diosgenin, allantoin, choline, and proteins [12]. Among the popular Yam varieties in
China, Chinese yam is a special variety available in Henan province with more functional components
such as protein and polysaccharides [8].
Previous studies were conducted to evaluate the functional properties of noodles and the effects
of various compounds to improve their final quality [5]. Noodle quality is assessed as a combination
of appearance, texture, and cooking properties [13]. However, the information about the incorporation
of Chinese yam flour for the preparation of wheat flour noodles is limited. The objective of this study
was to investigate the physicochemical properties of noodles and properties of dough when flour
was partly substituted by white yam flour. Our results can offer essential hints for the increasing of
nutritional value of noodles and the development of noodles derived from the mixture of wheat and
yam flours.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Raw Materials

Wheat flour (Golden dragon fish brand, Yihai Kerry, Shanghai, China) and table salt were
purchased from Carrefour supermarket in Hefei city, China. The dried Chinese yam thin piece was
procured from Tanan Local Wholesale Shop (Jiaozuo, China). At the laboratory, Chinese yam powder
(CYP) was ground using Xichu Food Grinder (Jinhua, China), and passed through 100 mesh sieve.

2.2. Physicochemical Characterization of Wheat Flour and CYP

2.2.1. Chemical Composition

The proximate composition (contents of ash, moisture, protein, fat, and gluten) of purchased wheat
flour and CYP were tested by using the standard methods of Association of official analytical chemists
(AOAC) [14]. Ash content was determined according to International association for cereal science
and technology (ICC) [15] and its starch content was determined according to Food and agricuilure
organization of the United Nations (FAO) [16]. All the measurements were performed in triplicates
and the results were expressed as means ± standard deviations.

2.2.2. Starch Gelatinization Properties

The starch gelatinization properties of wheat flour supplemented with different concentrations
(0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by dry weight basis) of CYP were determined by Differential Scanning
Calorimetry (DSC) [17]. Briefly, 3.0–5.0 mg of yam-supplemented wheat flour was placed in aluminum
crucible and distilled water was added (1:2 w/w). The aluminum crucible was stored under refrigerated
conditions (4 ◦ C) for 12 h. The empty crucible was taken as control. Initially, the starting temperature
of the sample was 30 ◦ C. After holding at 30 ◦ C for 1 min, sample was heated to 90 ◦ C at a rate of
10 ◦ C/min [18]. The following thermodynamic parameters were recorded:
Tp: gelatinization temperature peak; To: onset gelatinization temperature; Tc: conclusion
gelatinization temperature; R: gelatinization temperature range. R was calculated following Formula (1).

R = Tc − To (1)
Foods 2019, 8, 519 3 of 13

2.2.3. Farinograph Properties

According to a previous study with few modifications [11], the farinograph properties were
determined using Farinograph-E (Brabender, Duisburg, Germany). For this, 300 g wheat flour was
supplemented with different levels (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by dry weight basis) of CYP and
placed in the mixer. A certain amount of water was added into the mixer and each dough was stirred
in the mixer until the consistency of 500 ± 20 flux unit was achieved. In order to evaluate the quality of
dough, the following farinograph factors were recorded from the farinograph curve: Water absorption,
Dough development time, Dough stability time and Degree of softening. All the measurements were
performed in triplicates and the results were expressed as means ± standard deviations.

2.2.4. Rheological Properties

Rheological evaluation, especially in the linear viscoelastic region, has been used for unraveling
the structure and properties of dough in order to study the functions of dough ingredients [19].
Elasticity and viscosity are among the important parameters of rheological attributes. The resulting
doughs from supplemented wheat flour with different levels of CYP were tested with a steady-shear
rate ranging from 0.01 to 1000−1 at 20 ◦ C and as a function of frequency (0.1 to 10 Hz) using a Discovery
Hybrid Rheometer-3 (TA instruments, New Castle, DE, USA) equipped with a cone-and-plate
geometry (diameter 40 mm, cone angle 2◦ ). All parameters were tested as per the above-mentioned
experimental conditions.

2.3. Noodles Preparation

Based on an earlier study [20], noodles were prepared using yam (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and
40% w/w)-supplemented wheat flours mixed with 50% distilled water, 2% NaCl, and 0.1% NaHCO3 .
To prepare the dough, 100 g of supplemented powder (different yam levels) was mixed with required
amount of water in an automatic noodle machine (Joyoung, Hangzhou, China). The dough was
sheeted to about 2 mm thickness and the resulting fresh noodles were cut into 15 cm.

2.4. Cooking Properties

For this, noodles (15 cm) strips were cooked for 2 min. According to the method of Lu et al. (2009)
with few modifications [21], cooking yield and cooking loss were determined. Briefly, ten noodles were
weighed (W1 ) and put into a beaker with 400 mL of boiled water. After cooking for 2 min, the noodles
were allowed to cool down by placing them in cold water for 30 s followed by drying for 3 min and
weighed (W2 ). The cooking yield of the noodles was calculated using the following Formula (2)

Y (cooking yield) = W2 /W1 (2)

W2 = Weight of cooked noodle after drying; W1 = Weight of raw noodle.

For the cooking loss, the final weight (W3 ) is recorded as the weight of beaker after drying.
The cooking loss of the noodles was calculated using the following Formula (3)

Y (cooking loss) = (W3 − W4 )/W1 (3)

W4 = Weight of beaker; W3 = the weight of beaker after drying; W1 = Weight of raw noodle.

2.5. Tension Properties and Texture Profile Analysis (TPA)

According to the method of Sangpring (2015) [22], three noodles were cut into 6 cm length
and then placed on the metal plate. Samples were tested three times using A/KIE probe at Tension
pattern. The pre-test speed was set up at 2 mm/s, the test speed was 1 mm/s, the post-test speed was
2 mm/s, the stretching distance was 12 mm, the induction force was 5 g, and the trigger point was 10 g.
The tensile curve was obtained at the end of experiment. Two tension parameters were obtained from
Foods 2019, 8, 519 4 of 13

the curve: maximum extensibility distance and extensibility resistance force. Another three samples
were tested three times to 90% of original sample thickness using R/36R probe at TPA pattern and
programming was set the same as mentioned in Tension pattern. Four TPA parameters were obtained
from the force–time curve: hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, and cohesiveness.

2.6. Sensory Properties

For sensory evaluation, five types of noodles samples (100 g) were cut into 15 cm length and
cooked up to their optimal time (the time when white core in the cross section disappeared) in 100 ◦ C
water. The samples were dried for not more than 10 min in tightly covered plastic food containers
before testing. Sample noodles were evaluated by 20 students and staff of the Food Science and
Engineering College, Hefei University of Technology. All the samples were coded in a randomized
order and evaluated by a 9-point hedonic scale (1: dislike extremely, 5: neither like nor dislike, 9:
like extremely). The different sensory attributes included color, appearance, taste, flavor, hardness,
toughness, and overall acceptability.

2.7. Microstructure of Noodles

The raw and cooked samples were cut into 3 cm and frozen at −80 ◦ C. After freeze-drying,
the dried samples were cut into cross-section and placed on a specimen holder for coating with gold
for 90 s. The microstructure of samples was observed by Scanning Electron Microscope (JEOL USA,
Boston, MA, USA), at 22 KV with 250× and 1000× magnification.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

All the measurements were performed in triplicate and the obtained results were expressed as the
mean values ± standard deviation (SD). The results were statistically analyzed using SPSS (SPSS Inc.;
Chicago, IL, USA). For the data analysis, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using
the Origin Lab (Origin Pro 8.0, OriginLab, Northampton, UK) software.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Characterization of Wheat Flour Supplemented with CYP

The chemical compositions of original wheat flour, CYP, and the mixed flour with different
amounts of CYP was presented in Table 1. It can be seen clearly that there was no significant difference
in ash content among different samples which indicated that similar inorganic impurities in wheat
flour and CYP. The content of protein and starch increased with the rising proportion of CYP, whereas
the contents of moisture, fat, and gluten decreased. Initially, protein content in the mixed flour ranged
from 8.55% (wheat) to 12.49% (yam). Likewise, starch content ranged from 68.3% to 72.2%. These
results were consistent with the previous study where protein content ranged from 11.94% to 13.00%
with the lowest yam supplementation (95% wheat flour: 5% three-leaf-yam flour) and the highest yam
supplementation (85% wheat flour: 15% three-leaf-yam flour), respectively. Inclusion of three-leaf-yam
flour increased the protein content in wheat composite [23]. As previously known, yam is a good source
of protein, polysaccharides which can contribute to the support of the protein–gluten network [23].
However, at the same time protein can compete with starch for water. Therefore, absence of gluten in
CYP may weaken the elasticity of dough.
Foods 2019, 8, 519 5 of 13

Table 1. Chemical composition of wheat flour–yam powder mixtures.

Chinese Yam
Powder Moisture Ash Protein Fat Starch Gluten
Concentration (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g)
(%)
0 8.98 ± 0.051 a 0.61 ± 0.057 a 8.55 ± 0.015 a 1.38 ± 0.087 a 68.3 ± 0.32 a 32.07 ± 0.068 a
10 8.88 ± 0.071 b 0.61 ± 0.0057 a 8.97 ± 0.035 b 1.25 ± 0.020 a 68.7 ± 0.11 a 28.72 ± 0.56 b
20 8.27 ± 0.030 c 0.61 ± 0.0003 a 9.56 ± 0.026 c 1.06 ± 0.015 b 69.08 ± 0.065 ab 25.34 ± 0.37 c
30 7.12 ± 0.049 d 0.61 ± 0.0033 a 9.85 ± 0.045 c 1.04 ± 0.026 b 69.51 ± 0.12b c 24.05 ± 0.15 c
40 6.68 ± 0.031 e 0.62 ± 0.0057 a 10.56 ± 0.025 d 0.91 ± 0.014 c 70.12 ± 0.043 c 18.06 ± 0.11 d
100 5.96 ± 0.019 f 0.62 ± 0.0064 a 12.49 ± 0.015 e 0.56 ± 0.0088 d 72.20 ± 0.13 d 0
Data were expressed as means ± standard deviations (n = 3). Values with different letters are significantly different
(p < 0.05).

3.2. Starch Gelatinization Properties

At first, lower gelatinization peak temperature in wheat flour was observed (p < 0.05) as compared
to CYP. From Table 2 and Figure S1, it can be seen that with the addition of CYP, onset gelatinization
temperature gradually increased from 59.42 ◦ C to 72.45 ◦ C, the conclusion gelatinization temperature
gradually increased from 72.24 ◦ C to 82.68 ◦ C, and gelatinization temperature range showed a
downward trend which was consistent with a previous study [17]. Moreover, earlier studies proved
that gelatinization temperature is proportional to change in starch properties (structure of starch and
starch crystallinity) [24]. As reported previously, the gelatinization peak temperature increased in the
presence of protein and starch [25]. Similarly, our results also explained that CYP could influence the
combination and crystallinity of starch. At the same time, more protein content could reduce the water
activity of flour and ultimately caused the gelatinization hardening of the flour.

3.3. Farinograph Properties

From Table 2, it was obvious that the addition of CYP displayed effects on the farinograph
properties of dough. Dough development time is relative to water absorption rate. Our results showed
that the dough development time increased with the increased water absorption rate. The water
absorption of the wheat flours supplemented with CYP increased significantly when CYP content
increased from 0% to 30%. Dough development time of the supplemented wheat flours increased
significantly when CYP content increased from 10% to 30%. Similar changes were observed by Zaidul
et al. (2010) [26] on blending sago with wheat flour, and black rice with wheat flour. This can
be explained by different characterization of wheat flour and CYP. The polar group in protein can
combine with water through hydrogen-bond interaction and physical entrapment which can enhance
the water absorption rate. At the same time, protein and some polysaccharides can help to fill
protein–gluten network which can influence the dough development time, dough stability time, and
degree of softening.
Dough stability time is an important index for wheat flour to represent the gluten properties.
The less time required for dough formation can be related to the decreased gluten content. Our results
showed that the addition of CYP resulted in decreased gluten in blends and weakened the expansion
of gluten network. If gluten protein is removed from the wheat flour, the flour is likely to lose its
stability. Higher concentrations of CYP can weaken the amount of gluten which was the reason
for disintegration of the dough. Almost all the farinograph properties were changed evidently at
40% CYP supplementation. Higher concentration of CYP can cause the dough to fail to support the
starch granule to bond in the protein network and make the dough unstable. The above finding was
supported by the previous study where the addition of fenugreek resulted in a more stable dough due
to formation and stabilization of the gluten network structure [27].
Foods 2019, 8, 519 6 of 13

Table 2. Gelatinization and farinograph properties of wheat flour–yam powder mixtures.

Gelatinization Properties Farinograph Properties

CYP Onset
Conclusion Gelatinization Gelatinization Dough Dough
Concentration Gelatinization Water Degree of
Gelatinization Temperature Temperature Development Stability Time
(%) Temperature Absorption (%) Softening (BU)
Temperature(◦ C) Peak (◦ C) Range (◦ C) Time (min) (min)
(◦ C)
0 59.42 ± 0.22 a 72.24 ± 0.21 a 61.10 ± 0.09 a 12.82 ± 0.05 a 56.2 ± 0.2 a 2.2 ± 0.004 a 4.8 ± 0.01 a 90 ± 0.45 a
10 60.77 ± 0.35 b 71.12 ± 015 b 63.67 ± 0.06 b 10.35 ± 0.04 b 57.0 ± 0.4 b 2.2 ± 0.002 a 3.7 ± 0.007 b 178 ± 0.24 b
20 59.58 ± 0.23 ab 71.29 ± 0.19 a 63.60 ± 0.13 b 11.71 ± 0.04 c 58.1 ± 0.1 c 2.4 ± 0.005 b 3.3 ± 0.005 c 172 ± 0.27 b
30 60.14 ± 0.14 b 72.03 ± 0.22 a 63.84 ± 0.08 b 11.89 ± 0.05 d 58.8 ± 0.2 c 2.9 ± 0.004 c 3.1 ± 0.002 d 162 ± 0.19 c
40 63.46 ± 0.19 c 73.64 ± 0.23 a 67.21 ± 0.04 c 10.18 ± 0.03 e 55.9 ± 0.1 d 2.4 ± 0.01 b 5.6 ± 0.02 e 68 ± 0.34 d
100 72.45 ± 0.18 d 82.68 ± 0.16 c 76.38 ± 0.02 d 10.23 ± 0.06 e
Data were expressed as means ± standard deviations (n = 3). Values with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
stability. Higher concentrations of CYP can weaken the amount of gluten which was the reason for
disintegration of the dough. Almost all the farinograph properties were changed evidently at 40%
CYP supplementation. Higher concentration of CYP can cause the dough to fail to support the starch
granule to bond in the protein network and make the dough unstable. The above finding was
supported
Foods by the previous study where the addition of fenugreek resulted in a more stable dough
2019, 8, 519 7 of 13
due to formation and stabilization of the gluten network structure [27].

3.4.
3.4. Rheological
Rheological Properties
Properties
The
The rheological
rheological properties
properties ofof dough
dough were
were characterized
characterized inin terms
terms ofof viscoelasticity
viscoelasticity and
and viscosity.
viscosity.
Figure
Figure 1A displays the storage moduli (G’) and Figure 1B shows loss moduli (G’’) of samples as
1A displays the storage moduli (G’) and Figure 1B shows loss moduli (G”) of samples as aa
function
function ofof frequency
frequency which
which described
described the
the elasticity
elasticity and
and viscosity
viscosity ofof the
the dough.
dough. Both
Both of
of G’
G’ and
and G”
G’’ of
of
samples increased with the increasing addition of CYP up to 40%. The high
samples increased with the increasing addition of CYP up to 40%. The high protein and protein and polysaccharide
in CYP could promote
polysaccharide in CYP association
could promote of starch molecules
association resulting
of starch in a bridging
molecules effect
resulting in a [24]. However,
bridging effect
further addition can disturb protein–gluten network unable to support the starch
[24]. However, further addition can disturb protein–gluten network unable to support the starch granule which
resulted into reduced
granule which resultedelasticity and viscosity
into reduced ofand
elasticity the viscosity
tested samples.
of the tested samples.

Figure
Figure 1.1. Effects
Effects of
of wheat
wheat flour
flour supplemented
supplemented with with different
different levels
levels of
of Chinese
Chinese yam
yam powder
powder (CYP)
(CYP) onon
rheological properties. Storage moduli (G’) (A) and Loss moduli (G”) (B). The values of
rheological properties. Storage moduli (G’) (A) and Loss moduli (G’’) (B). The values of differentdifferent letters
represent the significantly
letters represent the significantly (p < 0.05)
differentdifferent (p of wheat
< 0.05) offlour
wheatsupplemented with different
flour supplemented levels oflevels
with different CYP
at the same frequencies.
of CYP at the same frequencies.
3.5. Cooking Quality
Foods Cooking loss
2019, 8, x; doi: and
FOR cooking
PEER yield are two important parameters of cooking
REVIEW quality. The cooking
www.mdpi.com/journal/foods
yield was defined as the percentage of noodle weight after cooking to the weight of raw noodles,
hence it represented the ability of the noodles to absorb water from the cooking medium. The cooking
loss represented the particles that diffused out from the noodles into the cooking medium during
cooking [2]. High cooking yield and low cooking loss are essential for noodles. The cooking yield
increased with the increased addition of CYP prior to 30% (Figure 2A). Relatively higher cooking yield
may indicate more starch and protein of CYP. Due to the higher amount and amylose content in CYP,
starch is likely to expand when mixed with water after the enlargement in the protein–gluten network.
However, after the addition of 30% CYP, the cooking yield was decreased which might be due to the
loss of starch grain [28].
cooking [2]. High cooking yield and low cooking loss are essential for noodles. The cooking yield
increased with the increased addition of CYP prior to 30% (Figure 2A). Relatively higher cooking
yield may indicate more starch and protein of CYP. Due to the higher amount and amylose content
in CYP, starch is likely to expand when mixed with water after the enlargement in the protein–gluten
network.
Foods 2019, 8,However,
519 after the addition of 30% CYP, the cooking yield was decreased which might
8 ofbe
13
due to the loss of starch grain [28].

Figure 2. Effects of wheat flour supplemented with different levels of Chinese yam powder on
cooking properties, tension properties, and texture properties. Cooking yield (A), Cooking loss (B),
Extensibility distance (C), Extensibility resistance force (D), Springiness (E), Hardness (F), Adhesiveness
(G), Cohesiveness (H). The values followed by different letters were significantly different (p < 0.05).

In Figure 2B, cooking loss of CYP showed that the noodles prepared with wheat flour supplemented
with CYP had significantly higher cooking loss values as compared to non-supplemented wheat
flour noodles. This might be due to the fact that polymer interaction in protein–gluten network can
encapsulate the starch granules. Nevertheless, competing for water, protein can speed up the loss of
starch [4]. Previous studies also demonstrated that cooking loss could be due to the disruption of the
protein starch matrix through diluted gluten fraction in case of oat flour [29].
Foods 2019, 8, 519 9 of 13

3.6. Tension and Texture Properties

The extensibility distance and extensibility resistance are two measures of tensile curve.
Extensibility distance relates to the extensibility of the noodles and extensibility resistance mainly
refers to palatability and chewiness. The extensibility distance and extensibility resistance have the
same downward trend altogether as shown in Figure 2C,D. It indicated that the addition of CYP can
decrease the elasticity in particular. However, a certain amount of CYP can increase the elasticity of
noodles. At the addition of 30% CYP, better elasticity was achieved and on the other hand, 40% of CYP
supplementation clearly destroyed the tension properties of noodles. This result was confirmed by
comparing with other properties in our study. Better elasticity could be due to the co-action of protein
and polysaccharides and starch gelatinization. At the same time, it can also be supported by texture
profile analysis [30].
Hardness, springiness, adhesiveness, and cohesiveness are the four important parameters used
during texture profile analysis (TPA). The addition of CYP decreased the springiness of wheat flour
noodles which might be due to decreased gluten (Figure 2E). No gluten in CYP weakens the co-action
of starch and protein network. On the other hand, increasing concentration (up to 30%) of CYP could
significantly enhance the springiness from 0.274 to 0.334. In a previous study, addition of 7% fenugreek
can enhance the springiness of wheat flour noodles [20], because the high level of elasticity of wheat
dough is generally conferred by gluten [31]. The increased protein can promote the co-action with
polysaccharides to increase the springiness.
The hardness initially increased from 25,504.35 g to 26,440.21 g after the addition of CYP (up to
30%) (Figure 2F) which may be due to the fact that increased protein can lead to the decreased water
absorption of gluten network. These findings were consistent with the previously reported study of
Sulieman et al. [32]. Polysaccharides can interact with protein or starch, making functional replacement
of gluten network to impart firmness to noodles [31]. After the addition of 40% CYP, the hardness
was decreased.
It can be seen from the Figure 2G, that adhesiveness significantly increased at the addition of 30%
CYP. The rich protein in yam is responsible for the quick hydration and absorption of water which
results into high viscosity [33]. Little significant differences were observed for cohesiveness values of
noodles with addition of CYP (Figure 2H). As cohesiveness is an indication of how the components
hold together, CYP appeared with no obvious effect to the cohesiveness values of noodles.

3.7. Sensory Properties

The CYP-fortified cooked noodles were evaluated for their sensory properties and the results
are presented in Figure 3. The result of sensory evaluation showed that different addition of CYP
affected the sensory attributes of wheat flour noodles. Compared with wheat flour noodles, CYP
exhibited obvious low scores for appearance, color, flavor, and total score. The results showed that
CYP supplementation had negatively affected appearance, color, and flavor due to yam characteristic
flavor and color which is easier to be oxidized.
Up to 20% concentration of CYP, some sensory properties were satisfactory such as hardness,
mouthfeel, and springiness, which was also revealed in TPA and SEM properties. Incorporation of
more than 20% of CYP resulted in low total score and the noodles were not acceptable due to diluted
gluten. Similarly, in an earlier study by Sanju and Kawaljit [20], up to 7% incorporation of fenugreek
flour into wheat flour resulted into a satisfactory score for noodles, but more than 7% addition lowered
the score and the noodles were not acceptable.
Foods 2019, 8, 519 10 of 13
Foods 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

Figure 3. Changes in wheat flour noodles sensory evaluation

Figure 3. evaluation as a function
function of Chinese
Chinese yam
yam powder.
The
The digital
digitalnumber
numberpresent thethe
present final result
final in ten-point
result system.
in ten-point EachEach
system. coordinate axis has
coordinate axisthe same
has the scale.
same
scale.
3.8. Microstructure
Up to
The SEM 20% concentrationofofraw
microstructures CYP, some and
noodles sensory
cookedproperties
noodles were satisfactory
are shown such
in Figure as hardness,
4 explaining the
mouthfeel, and springiness, which was also revealed in TPA and SEM properties.
texture of noodles which can provide the supportive information for the result of cooking properties. Incorporation of
more than
Gluten and20% starchof CYP
playresulted in low total
the important score
role to and the
support thenoodles
proteinwere
networknot acceptable due to diluted
which is responsible for
gluten. Similarly, in an earlier study by Sanju and Ka waljit [20], up to 7% incorporation
the stability [34]. It can be seen from the Figure 4 that, for raw noodles prepared from wheat flour of fenugreek
flour into wheat
supplemented withflour
CYP,resulted into a satisfactory
starch particles score for
were more closely noodles,
bound but proteins,
to gluten more than and7%theaddition
surface
lowered
was the score
relatively smoothandand
the noodles wereholes.
flat without not acceptable.
The addition of yam flour enhanced the binding ability
of starch particles and gluten proteins in the dough. This may be due to the colloidal properties of
3.8. Microstructure
yam flour, which allow starch particles to be more firmly filled in the gluten network [35]. Therefore,
it canThe
make SEM starch and protein more
microstructures of rawclosely bound
noodles andtogether and result
cooked noodles areinshown
a rigidinnoodle
Figuretexture. From
4 explaining
Figure 4, it can be revealed that after boiling and drying, many starch
the texture of noodles which can provide the supportive information for the result of cookingparticles were exposed in the
noodles
properties. Gluten and starch play the important role to support the protein network which an
with irregular shape (mostly oval), different sizes, and distributed in the gluten network in is
uneven
responsibleway.for Flaky noodles with
the stability irregular
[34]. It holesfrom
can be seen and the
loose texture
Figure werefor
4 that, noticed which was
raw noodles consistent
prepared from
with
wheata flour
previous study where
supplemented withexcessive konjac
CYP, starch could were
particles limit starch swelling,
more closely bounddecrease spontaneous
to gluten proteins,
rupture,
and and
the2019,
Foods surface accelerate
was
8, x FOR the fragile
relatively
PEER network structure [31].
REVIEW smooth and flat without holes. The addition of yam flour enhanced 5 of 13the
binding ability of starch particles and gluten proteins in the dough. This may be due to the colloidal
properties of yam flour, which allow starch particles to be more firmly filled in the gluten
network [35]. Therefore, it can make starch and protein more closely bound together and result
in a rigid noodle texture. From Figure 4, it can be revealed that after boiling and drying, many starch
particles were exposed in the noodles with irregular shape (mostly oval), different sizes, and
distributed in the gluten network in an uneven way. Flaky noodles with irregular holes and loose
texture were noticed which was consistent with a previous study where excessive konjac could limit
starch swelling, decrease spontaneous rupture, and accelerate the fragile network structure [31].

Figure
Figure 4. 4.SEM
SEMmicrographs
micrographsof
of wheat
wheat flour
flour noodles
noodles supplemented
supplementedwith
withdifferent
differentlevels of of
levels Chinese
Chinese
yam powder.
yam powder.

5. Conclusions

Our study explored the possibility of preparing noodles with acceptable quality from wheat
flour supplemented with different levels of Chinese yam powder. Rheological, farinograph, and
gelatinization texture properties were evaluated. It can be concluded that the addition of CYP to
Foods 2019, 8, 519 11 of 13

4. Conclusions
Our study explored the possibility of preparing noodles with acceptable quality from wheat
flour supplemented with different levels of Chinese yam powder. Rheological, farinograph, and
gelatinization texture properties were evaluated. It can be concluded that the addition of CYP to
wheat flour can affect the overall properties of dough and noodles. When supplemented, the texture of
noodles as evidenced by several parameters such as water absorption, cooking loss and firmness were
improved. For sensory evaluation, some properties such as hardness, mouthfeel, and springiness were
improved up to 20% incorporation of CYP, which supported the TPA properties. For microstructure,
SEM revealed that addition of CYP could promote the close binding of starch particles to gluten
protein and thereby resulted in relatively smooth surface. The above results encourage further studies
to confirm the beneficial effects in terms of improved nutritional values of the noodles prepared
from wheat flour supplemented with acceptable levels of CYP. They can in fact be advantageous for
consumers seeking alternatives containing natural healthy ingredients in foods. The results of the
current study demonstrate the potential for extending the use of Chinese yam powder in wheat noodle
for industrial application.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/10/519/s1,

Figure S1: Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) traces of the gelatinization parameters of control wheat flour
(W) and yam powder (Y) and wheat flour-yam powder mixtures at 10% to 40%.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.-J.W.; methodology, K.-N.S. and A.-M.L.; validation, F.Z. and J.-G.Z.;
formal analysis, J.-H.H.; investigation, K.-N.S. and A.-M.L.; data curation, K.T. and J.-G.Z.; writing—original
draft preparation, K.-N.S.; writing—review and editing, K.T. and Z.-J.W.; funding acquisition, J.-G.Z.; J.-H.H. and
Z.-J.W.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31850410476), the Major
Projects of Science and Technology in Anhui Province (17030701028, 17030701058, 18030701158, and 18030701161),
and Zhongyuan scholars in Henan Province (192101510004).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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