LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

Parts of Speech Overview

In the English language, words can be considered as the smallest elements that have distinctive
meanings. Based on their use and functions, words are categorized into several types or parts of
speech. This article will offer definitions and examples for the 8 major parts of speech in English
grammar: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, conjunction, preposition, and interjection.

1. Noun
This part of a speech refers to words that are used to name persons, things, animals, places, ideas,
or events. Nouns are the simplest among the 8 parts of speech, which is why they are the first
ones taught to students in primary school.
Examples:

· Tom Hanks is very versatile.

· The italicized noun refers to a name of a person.

 · Dogs can be extremely cute.

· In this example, the italicized word is considered a noun because it names an animal.

· It is my birthday.

· The word “birthday” is a noun which refers to an event.

There are different types of nouns namely:

· Proper– proper nouns always start with a capital letter and refers to specific names of
persons, places, or things.

· Examples: Volkswagen Beetle, Shakey’s Pizza, Game of Thrones

· Common– common nouns are the opposite of proper nouns. These are just generic
names of persons, things, or places.

· Examples: car, pizza parlor, TV series

· Concrete– this kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your five senses.

· Examples: folder, sand, board

· Abstract- unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you can’t perceive
through your five senses.

· Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery

· Count– it refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural form.

· Examples: kitten, video, ball

· Mass– this is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called non-countable
nouns, and they need to have “counters” to quantify them.

· Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter

· Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter

· Collective– refers to a group of persons, animals, or things.

· Example: faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), pride (group of lions)
2. Pronoun
A pronoun is a part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a noun. Some examples of
pronouns are: I, it, he, she, mine, his, hers, we, they, theirs, and ours.
Sample Sentences:
 · Janice is a very stubborn child. She just stared at me and when I told her to stop.

· The largest slice is mine.

· We are number one.

The italicized words in the sentences above are the pronouns in the sentence.
3. Adjective
This part of a speech is used to describe a noun or a pronoun. Adjectives can specify the quality,
the size, and the number of nouns or pronouns.
Sample Sentences:

· The carvings are intricate.

· The italicized word describes the appearance of the noun “carvings.”

· I have two hamsters.

· The italicized word “two,” is an adjective which describes the number of the noun
“hamsters.”

· Wow! That doughnut is huge!

· The italicized word is an adjective which describes the size of the noun “doughnut.”
4. Verb
This is the most important part of a speech, for without a verb, a sentence would not exist.
Simply put, this is a word that shows an action (physical or mental) or state of being of the
subject in a sentence.
Examples of “State of Being Verbs” : am, is, was, are, and were
Sample Sentences:

· As usual, the Stormtroopers missed their shot.

· The italicized word expresses the action of the subject “Stormtroopers.”

· They are always prepared in emergencies.

· The verb “are” refers to the state of being of the pronoun “they,” which is the subject in
the sentence.
5. Adverb
Just like adjectives, adverbs are also used to describe words, but the difference is that adverbs
describe adjectives, verbs, or another adverb.
The different types of adverbs are:

· Adverb of Manner– this refers to how something happens or how an action is done.

· Example: Annie danced gracefully.

· The word “gracefully” tells how Annie danced.

· Adverb of Time- this states “when” something happens or “when” it is done.

· Example: She came yesterday.

· The italicized word tells when she “came.”

· Adverb of Place– this tells something about “where” something happens or ”where”
something is done.

· Example: Of course, I looked everywhere!

· The adverb “everywhere” tells where I “looked.”

· Adverb of Degree– this states the intensity or the degree to which a specific thing
happens or is done.

· Example: The child is very talented.

· The italicized adverb answers the question, “To what degree is the child talented?”
6. Preposition
This part of a speech basically refers to words that specify location or a location in time.
Examples of Prepositions: above, below, throughout, outside, before, near, and since
Sample Sentences:

· Micah is hiding under the bed.

· The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “under the bed,” and tells
where Micah is hiding.

· During the game, the audience never stopped cheering for their team.

· The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “during the game,” and tells
when the audience cheered.
7. Conjunction
The conjunction is a part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses together.
Examples of Conjunctions: and, yet, but, for, nor, or, and so
Sample Sentences:

· This cup of tea is delicious and very soothing.

· Kiyoko has to start all over again because she didn’t follow the professor’s instructions.

· Homer always wanted to join the play, but he didn’t have the guts to audition.
The italicized words in the sentences above are some examples of conjunctions.
8. Interjection
This part of a speech refers to words which express emotions. Since interjections are commonly
used to convey strong emotions, they are usually followed by an exclamation point.
Examples of Interjections:

Sample Sentences:

· Ouch! That must have hurt.

· Hurray, we won!

· Hey! I said enough!

The bold words attached to the main sentences above are some examples of interjections.
Final Thoughts
You must familiarize yourself with the different parts of speech discussed in this article because
they are among the most fundamental concepts that you will encounter throughout your study of
grammar. An in-depth knowledge of this topic will not only make you a better writer, but an
effective communicator as well.

Punctuation
Punctuation is used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. You use punctuation marks to
structure and organise your writing.
You can quickly see why punctuation is important if you try and read this text which has no
punctuation at all:
perhaps you dont always need to use commas periods colons etc to make sentences clear when i
am in a hurry tired cold lazy or angry i sometimes leave out punctuation marks grammar is
stupid i can write without it and dont need it my uncle Harry once said he was not very clever
and i never understood a word he wrote to me i think ill learn some punctuation not too much
enough to write to Uncle Harry he needs some help
Now let's see if punctuating it makes a difference!
Perhaps you don't always need to use commas, periods, colons etc. to make sentences clear.
When I am in a hurry, tired, cold, lazy, or angry I sometimes leave out punctuation marks.
"Grammar is stupid! I can write without it and don't need it," my uncle Harry once said. He was
not very clever, and I never understood a word he wrote to me. I think I'll learn some punctuation
- not too much, enough to write to Uncle Harry. He needs some help!
Use the pages in this punctuation section to learn how to make your English clearer and better
organised.
Punctuation Rules in English

· the period (or full stop in British English)

· the comma

· the exclamation mark

· the colon

· the semicolon

· the quotation mark

· the apostrophe

· the hypen and the dash

· parentheses and brackets

The Period, Full Stop or Point

The period (known as a full stop in British English) is probably the simplest of the punctuation
marks to use. You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to the required length. Generally, you
can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and complete thought that
looks and sounds right to you.
Mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation
Examples

· Rome is the capital of Italy.

· I was born in Australia and now live in Indonesia.

· The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people.

Indicate an abbreviation
Many abbreviations require a period. Dr, Mr, Mrs, and Ms do not take a period in British
English, nor do most abbreviations taken from the first capital letters such as MA, Phd, or CIA.
In American English, some of these do require periods or both usages are correct (with and
without periods). If you require 100% accuracy in your punctuation, refer to a detailed style
guide for the abbreviation usage rules in the variety of English you are using.
Examples

· I will arrive between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m.

· We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4.

Ellipsis
Often you will see a sentence concluding with three dots. This indicates that only part of the
sentence or text has been quoted or that it is being left up to the reader to complete the thought.
Examples

· The Lord's Prayer begins, "Our Father which art in Heaven..."

· He is always late, but you know how I feel about that...

Period after a single word
Sometimes a single word can form the sentence. In this case you place a fullstop after the word
as you would in any other sentence. This is often the case when the subject is understood as in a
greeting or a command.
Examples

· "Goodbye."

· "Stop."
Periods in numbers
Numbers use periods in English to separate the whole number from the decimal. A period used
in a number is also called a "decimal point" and it is read "point" unless it refers to money.
Examples

· $10.43 = ten dollars and 43 cents

· 14.17 = fourteen point one seven

The Comma
There are some general rules which you can apply when using the comma. However, you will
find that in English there are many other ways to use the comma to add to the meaning of a
sentence or to emphasise an item, point, or meaning.
Although we are often taught that commas are used to help us add 'breathing spaces' to sentences
they are, in fact, more accurately used to organise blocks of thought or logical groupings. Most
people use commas to ensure that meaning is clear and, despite grammatical rules, will drop a
comma if their meaning is retained without it.
Separate phrases, words, or clauses in lists
When making a list, commas are the most common way to separate one list item from the next.
The final two items in the list are usually separated by "and" or "or", which should be preceeded
by a comma. Amongst editors this final comma in a list is known as the "Oxford Comma".
A series of independent clauses (sentences)
Examples

· I met Harry, we went for a swim together, and afterwards Harry went home.

· I like your son, I might even love him, but he is not a very good soccer player.
a series of nouns
Examples

· For dinner I had soup, fish, chicken, dessert, and coffee.

· This afternoon I went to Oxford Circus, Picadilly, Hamstead, and Gatwick Airport.
a series of adjectives
A list of adjectives usually requires commas. However, if an adjective is modifying another
adjective you do not separate them with a comma (sentence 3).
Examples

· She was young, beautiful, kind, and intelligent.

· The house we visited was dark, dreary, and run-down.

 · She was wearing a bright red shirt.
a series of verbs
Examples

· Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted.

· The boy leapt, spun, twisted, and dove into the water.
a series of phrases
Examples

· The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its roof, slid along the road, and finally
stopped against a tree.

· The dog leapt into the air, snatched the frisbee in its mouth, landed, and ran off into the
forest.
Enclosing details
Use a comma to enclose non-defining relative clauses and other non-essential details and
comments. The comma is placed on either side of the insertion.
Examples

· China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge population.

· Jason's grandmother, who was born in 1930, lived through the Second World War.

· Cats, unlike dogs, do not respect their masters.

· My friend, Jim, likes to go scuba diving.

Participial phrases
Examples

· Hearing that her father was in hospital, Jane left work immediately.

· Walking to the bus stop that morning, Sam knew it was going to be a special day.
Tag questions
Examples

· She lives in Paris, doesn't she?

· We haven't met, have we?

Interjections
Examples

· Yes, I will stay a little longer, thank you.

· No, he isn't like other boys.

· Wait, I didn't mean to scare you.

A final warning
Putting a comma in the wrong place can lead to a sentence with a completely different meaning,
look at these two sentences:
I detest liars like you; I believe that honesty is the best policy. = I detest you because you are a
liar.
I detest liars, like you; I believe that honesty is the best policy. = You and I both detest liars.

The Exclamation Mark

The exclamation mark is used to express exasperation, astonishment, or surprise, or to emphasise
a comment or short, sharp phrase. In professional or everyday writing, exclamation marks are
used sparingly if at all.
Examples

· Help! Help!

· That's unbelievable!

· Get out!

· Look out!
You can also use exclamation marks to mark a phrase as humourous, ironic or sarcastic.
Examples

· What a lovely day! (when it obviously is not a lovely day)

· That was clever! (when someone has done something stupid)

In very informal writing styles (SMS, chat, Twitter or Facebook, etc.), an exclamation mark is
sometimes combined with a question mark to indicate both surprise and slight uncertainty.
Double and triple exclamation marks are common in very informal writing styles, but are a sign
of being uneducated in less casual correspondance.
Examples of casual writing

· He's getting married!?

 · That's insane!!!

The Question Mark

Use the question mark at the end of all direct questions.
Examples

· What is your name?

· Do you speak Italian?

· You're spanish, aren't you?

Do not use a question mark for reported questions
Examples

· He asked me what my name was.

· She asked if I was Spanish.

· Ask them where they are going.

Long questions still need question marks
Examples

· Isn't it true that global warming is responsible for more and more problems which are
having a disastrous effect on the world's climate and leading to many millions of people
in countries that can least afford it having to contend with more and more hardship?

· Why is it that even though you are unkind to me, ignore me when I ask you for help, and
consistently forget to thank me when I do favors for you, you still claim to want me to be
your friend and appear surprised when I prefer to hang out with other people?
Question marks can sometimes appear within sentences
Examples

· There is cause for concern (isn't there?) that the current world economic balance is so
fragile that it may lead to a global economic downturn.

· "Why is she here?" asked Henry.

The Colon
The colon expands on the sentence that precedes it, often introducing a list that demonstrates or
elaborates whatever was previously stated.
Examples

· There are many reasons for poor written communication: lack of planning, poor
grammar, misuse of punctuation marks, and insufficient vocabulary.

· He collected a strange assortment of items: bird's eggs, stamps, bottle tops, string, and
buttons.

· Peter had an eclectic taste in music: latin, jazz, country and western, pop, blues, and
classical.

· He had just one fault: an enormous ego.

The colon is also used to divide the hour from the minutes in writing a time in English.
Examples

· 4:15 = "four fifteen"

· 6:45 = "six fourty-five"

The Semicolon
The semicolon is somewhere between a full stop and a comma. Semicolons can be used in
English to join phrases and sentences that are thematically linked without having to use a
conjunction (example 1 below). Semicolons can also be used instead of commas to separate the
items in a list when the items themselves already contain commas (example 2 below).
Examples

· I like your brother; he's a good friend.

· Many great leaders, Churchill, leader of Britain during the Second World War;
Alexander, the great Emperor and general; and Napolean, the brilliant French general,
had strong characters, which were useful when their countries were at war but which did
not serve them well in times of peace.

The Semicolon
The semicolon is somewhere between a full stop and a comma. Semicolons can be used in
English to join phrases and sentences that are thematically linked without having to use a
conjunction (example 1 below). Semicolons can also be used instead of commas to separate the
items in a list when the items themselves already contain commas (example 2 below).
Examples

· I like your brother; he's a good friend.

· Many great leaders, Churchill, leader of Britain during the Second World War;
Alexander, the great Emperor and general; and Napolean, the brilliant French general,
had strong characters, which were useful when their countries were at war but which did
not serve them well in times of peace.

Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to cite something someone said exactly. When rephrasing what someone
told you, no quotation marks are needed.
Examples

· "I'm going to the store now," she said.

· Harry told me, "Don't forget your soccer jersey."

· Harry told me not to forget my soccer jersey.

If quoting others within a quote, both single and double quotation marks are used to set the two
separate quotations off from each other.
Example
'I haven't spoken to Peter for months,' Dianne said.'The last time I spoke to him he said, "I'm
going to Bahrain and won't be back for about three years", I've heard nothing since then'.
You may see single or double quotation marks used to mark out idiomatic or unfamiliar
expressions
Examples

· I've always thought that he was very annoying, a bit of a 'pain in the neck.'

· I'm not sure what you mean by "custodial care", but I'm sure you will explain it to me.
Quotation marks both single and double are also used for specific purposes in bibliographic
references or when citing sources in academic writing. There are a number of ways of organising
bibliographies which set out standard formats. Most organisations and academic institutions will
prefer one of these or have their own format published in a 'style guide'.
Example

· "The Migration Flight of the Lesser Tweazle", by Jeremey Adams, The Bird Spotter
 Magazine, July 2009.

The Apostrophe
The apostrophe probably causes more grief than all of the other punctuation marks put together!
The problem nearly always seems to stem from not understanding that the apostrophe has two
very different (and very important) uses in English: possession and contractions.
The apostrophe in contractions
The most common use of apostrophes in English is for contractions, where a noun or pronoun
and a verb combine. Remember that the apostrophe is often replacing a letter that has been
dropped. It is placed where the missing letter would be in that case.
Type Without contractions Contractions
Using is not, has not, had not, did not, would not,
isn't, hasn't, hadn't, didn't, wouldn't, can't
"not" can not
Using she is, there is, he is, it is, Mary is, Jim is, she's, there's, he's, it's, Mary's, Jim's,
"is" Germany is, who is Germany's, who's
Using
I am I'm
"am"
Using
I will, you will, she will, we will, they will I'll, you'll, she'll, we'll, they'll
"will"
Using I would, you would, he would, we would,
I'd, you'd, he'd, we'd, they'd
"would" they would
Using
I have, you have, we have, they have I've, you've, we've, they've
"have"
Using
you are, they are, we are you're, they're, we're
"are"
People, even native English speakers, often mistake its and it's, you're and your, who's and
whose, and they're, their and there. See below for the difference.
Examples

· It's a nice day outside. (contraction)

· The cat is dirty. Its fur is matted. (possession)

· You're not supposed to be here. (contraction)

· This is your book. (possession)

 · Who's at the door? (contraction)

· Whose shoes are these? (possession)

· They're not here yet. (contraction)

· Their car is red. (possession)

· His car is over there. (location)

The possessive apostrophe
In most cases you simply need to add 's to a noun to show possession
Examples

· a ship's captain

· a doctor's patient

· a car's engine

· Ibrahim's coat

· Mirianna's book
Plural nouns that do not end in s also follow this rule:
Examples

· the children's room

· the men's work

· the women's club

Ordinary (or common) nouns that end in s, both singular and plural, show possession simply by
adding an apostrophe after the s.
Examples

· the bus' wheel

· the babies' crying

· the ladies' tennis club

· the teachers' journal

Proper nouns (names of people, cities, countries) that end in s can form the possessive either by
adding the apostrophe + s or simply adding the apostrophe. Today both forms are considered
correct (Jones's or Jones'), and many large organisations now drop the apostrophe completely
(e.g. Barclays Bank, Missing Persons Bureau) when publishing their name.
Examples

· The Hughes' home (or the Hughes's home)

· Mr Jones's shop (or Mr Jones' shop)

· Charles' book (or Charles's book)

Hyphens and Dashes

A hyphen joins two or more words together while a dash separates words into parenthetical
statements. The two are sometimes confused because they look so similar, but their usage is
different. Hyphens are not separated by spaces, while a dash has a space on either side.
Hyphens
Generally, hyphens are used to join two words or parts of words together while avoiding
confusion or ambiguity. Consult your dictionary if you are not sure if a hyphen is required in a
compound word, but remember that current usage may have shifted since your dictionary was
published.
Examples

· run-down

· up-to-date
There are some cases where hyphens preserve written clarity such as where there are letter
collisions, where a prefix is added, or in family relations. Many words that have been hyphenated
in the past have since dropped the hyphen and become a single word (email, nowadays).
Examples

· co-operate

· bell-like

· anti-nuclear

· post-colonial

· great-grandmother

· son-in-law
In some cases though, a hyphen does change the meaning of a sentence.
Example

· I am thinking of re-covering my sofa (= to put a new cover on it)

· I would like to recover my sofa. (= from someone who has borrowed or stolen it)
Hyphens in numbers
Use a hyphen with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.
Examples

· fifty-one

· eighty-nine

· thirty-two

· sixty-five
In written fractions place a hyphen between the numerator and denominator except if there is
already a hyphen in either the numerator or the denominator.
Examples

· two-fifths

· one-third

· three-tenths

· nine-hundredths

· sixty-nine eighty-ninths
Use a hyphen when a number forms part of an adjectival compound
Examples

· France has a 35-hour working week.

· He won the 100-metre sprint.

· Charles Dickens was a great nineteenth-century novelist.

Dashes
Dashes can be used to add parenthetical statements or comments in much the same way as you
would use brackets. In formal writing you should use the bracket rather than the dash as a dash is
considered less formal. Dashes can be used to create emphasis in a sentence.
Examples

· You may think she is a liar - she isn't.

· She might come to the party - you never know.

Brackets and Parentheses

The difference between a 'bracket' and a 'parentheses' can be a bit confusing. Generally,
'parentheses' refers to round brackets ( ) and 'brackets' to square brackets [ ]. However, we are
more and more used to hearing these referred to simply as 'round brackets' or 'square brackets'.
Usually we use square brackets - [ ] - for special purposes such as in technical manuals. Round
brackets - ( ) - are used in a similar way to commas when we want to add further explanation, an
afterthought, or comment that is to do with our main line of thought but distinct from it. Many
grammarians feel that the parentheses can, in fact, be replaced by commas in nearly all cases.
Examples

· The government's education report (April 2005) shows that the level of literacy is rising
in nearly all areas.

· I visited Kathmandu (which was full of tourists) on my way to the Himalayas for a
trekking expedition.

· You can eat almost anything while travelling in Asia if you are careful to observe simple
rules (avoiding unboiled or unbottled water is one of the main rules to be aware of.)

Capitalization Rules
Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters
in lowercase. Experienced writers are stingy with capitals. It is best not to use them if there is
any doubt.
Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a period.
Rule 2. Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.
Examples:
the Golden Gate Bridge
the Grand Canyon
a Russian song
a Shakespearean sonnet
a Freudian slip
With the passage of time, some words originally derived from proper nouns have taken on a life,
and authority, of their own and no longer require capitalization.
Examples:
herculean (from the ancient-Greek hero Hercules)
quixotic (from the hero of the classic novel Don Quixote)
draconian (from ancient-Athenian lawgiver Draco)
The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any group of
people, places, or things. We can speak of a lake in the middle of the country, or we can be more
specific and say Lake Michigan, which distinguishes it from every other lake on earth.
Capitalization Reference List

· Brand names

· Companies

· Days of the week and months of the year

· Governmental matters
Congress (but congressional), the U.S. Constitution (but constitutional), the Electoral
College, Department of Agriculture. Note: Many authorities do not capitalize federal or
state unless it is part of the official title: State Water Resources Control Board, but state
water board; Federal Communications Commission, but federal regulations.

· Historical episodes and eras

the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression

· Holidays

· Institutions
Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music

· Manmade structures
the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic

· Manmade territories
Berlin, Montana, Cook County

· Natural and manmade landmarks

Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam

· Nicknames and epithets

Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of Swat

· Organizations
American Center for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment

· Planets
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, but policies vary on
 capitalizing earth, and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed specifically
as a planet: We learned that Earth travels through space at 66,700 miles per hour.

· Races, nationalities, and tribes

Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African American (Note: white and black in
reference to race are lowercase)

· Religions and names of deities

Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil, satanic.

· Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival

· Streets and roads

Lowercase Reference List
Here is a list of categories not capitalized unless an item contains a proper noun or proper
adjective (or, sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the proper noun or adjective is
capitalized.

· Animals
antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied sapsucker, German shepherd

· Elements
Always lowercase, even when the name is derived from a proper noun: einsteinium,
nobelium, californium

· Foods
Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns and adjectives, or custom-named
recipes: Tabasco sauce, Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin tuna, Mandy's Bluefin
Surprise

· Heavenly bodies besides planets

Never capitalize the moon or the sun.

· Medical conditions
Epstein-Barr syndrome, tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease

· Minerals

· Plants, vegetables, and fruits

poinsettia, Douglas fir, Jerusalem artichoke, organic celery, Golden Delicious apples

· Seasons and seasonal data

spring, summertime, the winter solstice, the autumnal equinox, daylight saving time
Rule 3. A thorny aspect of capitalization: where does it stop? When does the Iraq war become
the Iraq War? Why is the legendary Hope Diamond not the Hope diamond? Everyone writes
New York City, so why does the Associated Press Stylebook recommend New York state? There
aren't always easy formulas or logical explanations. Research with reference books and search
engines is the best strategy.
In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they capitalize any word that
applies to their merchandise. Domino's Pizza or Domino's pizza? Is it Ivory Soap or Ivory soap, a
Hilton Hotel or a Hilton hotel? Most writers don't capitalize common nouns that simply describe
the products (pizza, soap, hotel), but it's not always easy to determine where a brand name ends.
There is Time magazine but also the New York Times Magazine. No one would argue with Coca-
Cola or Pepsi Cola, but a case could be made for Royal Crown cola.
If a trademark starts with a lowercase word or letter (e.g., eBay, iPhone), many authorities advise
capitalizing it to begin a sentence.
Example: EBay opened strong in trading today.
Rule 4. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is followed by a
comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or instead of a name.
Examples:
The president will address Congress.
Chairman of the Board William Bly will preside at the conference.
The chairman of the board, William Bly, will preside.
The senators from Iowa and Ohio are expected to attend.
Also expected to attend are Senators Buzz James and Eddie Twain.
The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a special task force.
Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, and Attorney General Dalloway will
attend.
NOTE
Out of respect, some writers and publishers choose to capitalize the highest ranks in government,
royalty, religion, etc.
Examples:
The President arrived.
The Queen spoke.
The Pope decreed.
Many American writers believe this to be a wrongheaded policy in a country where,
theoretically, all humans are perceived as equal.
Rule 5. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations before full names.
Examples:
director Steven Spielberg
owner Helen Smith
coach Biff Sykes
Sometimes the line between title and occupation gets blurred. One example is general manager:
is it a title or an occupation? Opinions differ. Same with professor: the Associated Press
Stylebook considers professor a job description rather than a title, and recommends using
lowercase even before the full name: professor Robert Ames.
However, titles replacing someone's first name are generally capitalized.
Example: Here comes Professor Ames.
Rule 6a. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address. The more formal the title,
the more likely it is to be capitalized.
Examples:
Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
We're sorry to report, Captain, that we're headed for choppy waters.
That's what you say, mister.
Good afternoon, sweetheart.
Rule 6b. Capitalize relatives' family names (kinship names) when they immediately precede a
personal name, or when they are used alone in place of a personal name.
Examples:
I found out that Mom is here.
You look good, Grandpa.
Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies.
However, these monikers are not capitalized when they are used with possessive nouns or
pronouns, or when they follow the personal name, or when they do not refer to a specific person.
Examples:
My mom is here.
Joe's grandpa looks well.
The James brothers were notorious robbers.
There's not one mother I know who would allow that.
Rule 6c. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.
Examples:
Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.
I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter.
Rule 7. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.
Examples:
We had three relatives visit from the West.
Go west three blocks and then turn left.
We left Florida and drove north.
We live in the Southeast.
We live in the southeast section of town.
Most of the West Coast is rainy this time of year. (referring to the United States)
The west coast of Scotland is rainy this time of year.
Some areas have come to be capitalized for their fame or notoriety:
Examples:
I'm from New York's Upper West Side.
I'm from the South Side of Chicago.
You live in Northern California; he lives in Southern California.
Rule 8. In general, do not capitalize the word the before proper nouns.
Examples:
We visited the Grand Canyon.
They're fans of the Grateful Dead.
In special cases, if the word the is an inseparable part of something's official title, it may be
capitalized.
Example: We visited The Hague.
Rule 9. It is not necessary to capitalize city, town, county, etc., if it comes before the proper
name.
Examples:
the city of New York
New York City
the county of Marin
Marin County
Rule 10a. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.
Example: Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."
Rule 10b. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.
Example: Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win."
Rule 11. For emphasis, writers sometimes capitalize a midsentence independent clause or
question.
Examples:
One of her cardinal rules was, Never betray a friend.
It made me wonder, What is mankind's destiny?
Rule 12. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general academic subjects.
Examples:
I must take history and Algebra 101.
He has a double major in European economics and philosophy.
Rule 13. Capitalize art movements.
Example: I like Surrealism, but I never understood Abstract Expressionism.
Rule 14. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.
Example: Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack.
For more on capitalization after a colon, go to "Colons," Rules 1, 3, and 4.
Rule 15. Do not capitalize "the national anthem."
Rule 16a. Composition titles: which words should be capitalized in titles of books, plays, films,
songs, poems, essays, chapters, etc.? This is a vexing matter, and policies vary. The usual advice
is to capitalize only the "important" words. But this isn't really very helpful. Aren't all words in a
title important?
The following rules for capitalizing composition titles are virtually universal.

· Capitalize the title's first and last word.

· Capitalize all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.

· Capitalize all pronouns (including it).

· Capitalize all verbs, including the verb to be in all forms (is, are, was, has been, etc.).

· Capitalize no, not, and the interjection O (e.g., How Long Must I Wait, O Lord?).

· Do not capitalize an article (a, an, the) unless it is first or last in the title.

· Do not capitalize a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, yet, so) unless it is
first or last in the title.

· Do not capitalize the word to, with or without an infinitive, unless it is first or last in the
title.
Otherwise, styles, methods, and opinions vary; for instance, certain short conjunctions (e.g., as,
if, how, that) are capped by some, lowercased by others.
A major bone of contention is prepositions. The Associated Press Stylebook recommends
capitalizing all prepositions of more than three letters (e.g., with, about, across). Other
authorities advise lowercase until a preposition reaches five or more letters. Still others say not to
capitalize any preposition, even big words like regarding or underneath.
Hyphenated words in a title also present problems. There are no set rules, except to always
capitalize the first element, even if it would not otherwise be capitalized, such as to in My To-go
Order (some would write My To-Go Order). Some writers, editors, and publishers choose not to
capitalize words following hyphens unless they are proper nouns or proper adjectives (Ex-
Marine but Ex-husband). Others capitalize any word that would otherwise be capped in titles
(Prize-Winning, Up-to-Date).
Rule 16b. Many books have subtitles. When including these, put a colon after the work's title
and follow the same rules of composition capitalization for the subtitle.
Example: The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage
Note that A is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle.
Note that A is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle.
Suppose you are reviewing a book whose title on the cover is in capital letters: THE STUFF OF
THOUGHT. Beneath, in smaller capital letters, is the subtitle, LANGUAGE AS A WINDOW
INTO HUMAN NATURE. All sides would agree that the main title should be written, The Stuff of
Thought. But depending on which capitalization policy you choose, the subtitle might be any of
the following:
Language As a Window Into Human Nature
Language as a Window Into Human Nature
Language As a Window into Human Nature
Language as a Window into Human Nature
Any title of more than two words can be a challenge. How would you capitalize a title such as
not yet rich? Since the first and last word in any title are always capitalized, the only question is
whether to cap yet. In this case, yet is an adverb, and adverbs are always capped. So make it Not
Yet Rich.
Now suppose the title is rich yet miserable. This time yet is one of the seven coordinating
conjunctions (the others are and, or, nor, but, for, and so). Since coordinating conjunctions are
not capitalized in titles, the right answer is Rich yet Miserable.
Here are two correctly capitalized titles: Going up the Road and Going Up in a Balloon. In the
first title, up is a preposition, and short prepositions are not capitalized. In the second title, Up is
an adverb and should be capped.
Along the same lines, compare the following three sentences: I Got It off the Internet, Please Put
It Off for Today, and I Hit the Off Switch. In the first example, the preposition off is lowercase.
But the word must be capped in the second example because put off, meaning "to postpone," is a
two-word phrasal verb (a verb of two or more words). One-word verbs, helping verbs, and
phrasal verbs are always capitalized. Off is also capped in the third sentence because the word
functions as an adjective in that title, and adjectives are always capitalized.
Although the seven coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized, you may have noticed there
are many more than seven conjunctions in English. Most of these are called subordinating
conjunctions, because they join a subordinate clause to a main clause. Familiar examples
include as, although, before, since, until, when.
There are three approaches to capping subordinating conjunctions: capitalize them all, lowercase
them all, or capitalize them if they are words of four letters or more. Take your pick.
Capitalizing composition titles is fraught with gray areas. Pick a policy and be consistent.
What Are Modifiers? How to Use Them Correctly
What Are Modifiers?
A working definition for the word “modify” is to change or to alter something. This definition is
the same when considering the purpose of modifiers within a sentence.
A modifier changes, clarifies, qualifies, or limits a particular word in a sentence in order to add
emphasis, explanation, or detail. Modifiers tend to be descriptive words, such as adjectives and
adverbs. Modifier phrases, such as adjective clauses and adverbial phrases, also exist and tend to
describe adjectives and adverbs.
To illustrate the power of modifiers, consider the following simple sentence:
Sarah was a sure fit for junior prom queen.
Now consider the same sentence with multiple modifiers added:
The blonde girl named Sarah, who was a foreign exchange student from England, quickly
climbed the ladder of popularity during her junior year, smiling her way through cheerleading
and an ASB presidency term she inched near the top and was a sure fit as junior prom queen.
The additional details in the sentence, by way of modifiers, engage the reader and hold their
attention.
Like most writing techniques, modifiers can be brilliant when used correctly and effectively. On
the other hand, if a modifier is used incorrectly, the meaning of the sentence can become blurred
or distorted. This is true with dangling modifiers and other problematic modifiers.
Misplaced Modifiers
One of the most common problems is where to place them. Specifically, modifiers can cause
confusion or unintentional humor in a sentence when they are placed too far from the noun they
are modifying. For example, consider the following sentence:
They bought a car for my sister they call Pumpkin.
In this sentence, Pumpkin is the car’s name, not the sister’s, but this isn’t clear. This confusion
and unintentional humor is the result of a misplaced modifier. To correct this error, move the
modifier closer to the noun it modifies:
They bought a car they call Pumpkin for my sister.
Limiting Modifiers Limiting modifiers such as only and always enforce restrictions on the
subject, noun, or pronoun they immediately precede. The following is a list of other common
limiting modifiers:

· Just

· Almost
 · Hardly

· At first

· Simply
If a limiting modifier does not precede the subject or noun, the meaning of an entire sentence can
change. Notice the difference in the following sentences:
Only Jessica wants pizza.
This sentence implies that Jessica is the only person who wants pizza.
Jessica wants pizza only .
On the other hand, the sentence above indicates that Jessica wants pizza and nothing else.
The best way to ensure that a limited modifier is used right in a sentence is to consider the
meaning that is to be conveyed and ensure the subject or noun associated with that meaning is
placed as close as possible to the limited modifier.

Figurative Language
Figurative language refers to the color we use to amplify our writing. It takes an ordinary
statement and dresses it up in an evocative frock. It gently alludes to something without directly
stating it. Figurative language is a way to engage your readers, ushering them through your
writing with a more creative tone.
Although it's often debated how many "types" of figurative language there are, it's safe to say
there are at least five distinct categories. They are: metaphors, similes, personification,
hyperbole, and symbolism.
In this article, we'll highlight the main branches of the tree, or "the big five." In truth, this is only
scratching the surface. There are waves of other literary devices that color our writing, including
alliteration, onomatopoeia, idioms, irony, oxymorons, puns, synecdoche, and more. As a starting
point, let's have some fun with the ones you're most likely to come across in your daily readings.
Understanding the Concept
Any time your writing goes beyond the actual meanings of your words, you're using figurative
language. This allows the reader to gain new insights into your work.
One of the best ways to understand the concept of figurative language is to see it in action. Here
are some examples:

· This coffee shop is an ice box! (Metaphor)

· She's drowning in a sea of grief. (Metaphor)

 · She's happy as a clam. (Simile)

· I move fast like a cheetah on the Serengeti. (Simile)

· The sea lashed out in anger at the ships, unwilling to tolerate another battle.
(Personification)

· The sky misses the sun at night. (Personification)

· I’ve told you a million times to clean your room! (Hyperbole)

· Her head was spinning from all the new information. (Hyperbole)

· She was living her life in chains. (Symbolism - Chains are a symbol of oppression of
entrapment.)

· When she saw the dove soar high above her home, she knew the worst was over.
(Symbolism - Doves are a symbol of peace and hope.)
The Big Five
Let’s dive deeper into "the big five." We’ll consider their place in your writing, and give some
examples to paint a better picture for you.
Metaphor
When you use a metaphor, you make a statement that doesn’t literally make sense. For example,
“Time is a thief.” Time is not actually stealing from you but this conveys the idea that hours or
days sometimes seem to slip by without you noticing.
Metaphors only makes sense when the similarities between the two things being compared are
apparent or readers understand the connection between the two words. Examples include:

· The world is my oyster.

· You're a couch potato.

· Time is money.

· He has a heart of stone.

· America is a melting pot.

· You are my sunshine.

Simile
A simile also compares two things. However, similes use the words “like” or “as.”
Examples include:

· Busy as a bee.
 · Clean as a whistle.

· Brave as a lion.

· The tall girl stood out like a sore thumb.

· It was as easy as shooting fish in a barrel.

· My mouth was as dry as a bone.

· They fought like cats and dogs.

· Watching that movie was like watching grass grow.

Personification
Personification gives human characteristics to inanimate objects, animals, or ideas. This can
really affect the way the reader imagines things. Personification is often used in poetry, fiction,
and children’s rhymes.
Examples include:

· Opportunity knocked at his door.

· The sun greeted me this morning.

· The sky was full of dancing stars.

· The vines wove their delicate fingers together.

· The radio suddenly stopped singing and stared at me.

· The sun played hide and seek with the clouds.

Hyperbole
Hyperbole is an outrageous exaggeration that emphasizes a point. It tends toward the ridiculous
or the funny. Hyperbole adds color and depth to a character.
Examples include:

· You snore louder than a freight train!

· It's a slow burg. I spent a couple of weeks there one day.

· She's so dumb, she thinks Taco Bell is a Mexican phone company.

· I had to walk 15 miles to school in the snow, uphill, in bare feet.

· You could've knocked me over with a feather.

Symbolism
Symbolism occurs when a word has its own meaning but is used to represent something entirely
different.
Examples in everyday life include:

· Using the image of the American flag to represent patriotism and a love for one’s
country.

· Incorporating a red rose in your writing to symbolize love.

· Using an apple pie to represent a traditional American lifestyle.

· Using a chalkboard to represent education.

· Incorporating the color black in your writing as a symbol for evil or death.

· Using an owl to represent wisdom.

Symbolism examples in literature include:
“All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits
and their entrances, and one man in his time plays many parts.” - As You Like It, William
Shakespeare
The “stage” here symbolizes the world and the “players” represent human beings.
“My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I’m well aware,
as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a
source of little visible delight, but necessary.” - Wuthering Heights, Emily Bronte
Bronte uses imagery of the natural world to symbolize the wild nature and deep feelings of her
characters.
Some Fun Sounds
So, that covers "the big five." But, we'd be remiss if we didn't briefly touch upon some literary
sound devices that can hang with the best similes and metaphors.
Alliteration
Alliteration is a sound device. It is the repetition of the first consonant sounds in several words.
Examples include:

· We're up, wide-eyed, and wondering while we wait for others to awaken.

· Betty bought butter but the butter was bitter, so Betty bought better butter to make the
bitter butter better.
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is also a sound device where the words sound like their meaning, or mimic
sounds. They add a level of fun and reality to writing.
Here are some examples:

· The burning wood hissed and crackled.

· Sounds of nature are all around us. Listen for the croak, caw, buzz, whirr, swish, hum,
quack, meow, oink, and tweet.
Figurative Language Engages the Reader
Regardless of the type of word you use, figurative language can make you look at the world
differently; it can heighten your senses, add expression and emphasis, and help you feel like
you're having the same experience as the author. With each brush stroke across the canvas a
painter adds depth to their masterpiece. Figurative language adds the same kind of depth to our
writing.
So, instead of hearing the wind blow against your window tonight, perhaps you'll hear the
whisper of the wind as it calls out for you like a lover in the night (personification and simile,
respectively). That blank page you're looking at is actually a blank canvas. It's up to you to add
texture and depth. Have fun layering your literary devices, but remember not to go overboard
with them!

Phrases and Clauses

There are many different types of phrases and clauses. The first step to identifying the different
types, though, is to understand the difference between a phrase and a clause.
A phrase is a related group of words. The words work together as a "unit," but they do not have
a subject and a verb.
Examples of Phrases and Clauses:
Examples of Phrases
1. the boy on the bus (noun phrase)
2. will be running (verb phrase)
3. in the kitchen (prepositional phrase)
4. very quickly (adverb phrase)
5. Martha and Jan (noun phrase)
A clause is a group of words that does have both a subject and a verb. Some clauses are
independent, meaning that they express a complete thought. An independent clause is the same
as a complete sentence. Some clauses are dependent, meaning that they cannot stand alone.
They do have a subject and a verb, but they do not express a complete thought. Another word for
dependent is subordinate.
Examples of Clauses
1. When I get home (dependent or subordinate clause)
2. The lights are not on. (independent clause)
3. When you wake up (dependent or subordinate clause)
4. Put it on the shelf. (independent clause-understood subject "you)
5. Since it fell on the floor (dependent or subordinate clause)

IDENTIFYING SENTENCE ERRORS

Each consecutive underlined section corresponds with an answer choice. Select the choice that
has an error, or select choice E for no error.
1. A Because of the Internet, B working at jobs C at home D have become much more common. E No
error.
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. E
2. “Pull it out A by B its plug, not by the C cord,” said D dad. E No error.
6. A
7. B
8. C
9. D
10. E
3. Symptoms of this illness A that warrant a doctor visit B includes fever, C vomiting, and diarrhea,
as well as the D loss of appetite. E No error.
 11. A
12. B
13. C
14. D
15. E
4. A Either Lisa or Karen B will always volunteer C their valuable D time to serve on our board. ENo
error.
16. A
17. B
18. C
19. D
20. E
5. The conversation with her A mother had a more profound B affect on her C than D she expected.
E No error.

21. A
22. B
23. C
24. D
25. E
6. The A President and the B Speaker of the House found the C Congressional Republicans’
filibusters to be D all together specious. E No error.
26. A
27. B
28. C
29. D
30. E
7. A Professor Lane, our B Computer Science teacher, was excited when he had the opportunity to
meet C Bill Gates, the D president of Microsoft, Inc.E No error.
31. A
 32. B
33. C
34. D
35. E
8. Do you think A they B will C except our plan D without an argument? E No error.
36. A
37. B
38. C
39. D
40. E
9. “They A had went to the lake B without me C by the time D I got there,” said Jacques. E No error.
41. A
42. B
43. C
44. D
45. E
10. Work A as quick B as you C can but D as carefully as possible when you take the test. E No
error.
46. A
47. B
48. C
49. D
50. E
Answers – Identifying Sentence Errors
1. D: The error is “have become,” which should be “has become.” The plural form of the
auxiliary verb “have” is incorrect because the subject of the independent clause is “working,”
which is singular and thus takes a singular verb—i.e. “working has…” The other underlined
sections are correct.
2. D: “Dad” is a name or proper noun and should be capitalized. “By” is a correct preposition to
use here. “Its” is the correct use of the third-person singular possessive impersonal pronoun. The
punctuation at the end of the quotation is correct.
3. B: “Includes” is incorrect because it is the singular form of the verb, but the subject,
“symptoms,” is plural. The verb should be “include.” The subordinating conjunction “that”
introducing the dependent clause, and its plural verb “warrant,” (A) are both correct. “…
vomiting, and” (C) is punctuated correctly as the last in a series of three or more words. The
singular noun “loss” (D) is correct.
4. C: “Their” is incorrect because it is a plural third-person possessive pronoun, but the use of
“either (A)…or” indicates a singular form. It should be “her.” “Will always volunteer” (B) is a
singular verb phrase and is correct. “Time” (D) is correct regardless of whether it is modified by
a singular (“her”) or plural (“their”) possessive pronoun, e.g. “They both volunteered their
valuable time.”
5. B: The correct noun for this meaning is spelled “effect.” “Affect” when it is a noun means
mood or emotional state, e.g. “The patient presented with a depressed affect.” When it is a verb,
the meaning of “affect” is related to the meaning of the noun “effect;” e.g. “The experience had a
harmful effect on her, but it did not affect her brother the same way.” “…her mother” (A) is
correctly not capitalized as it is a noun, not a name/proper noun (e.g. “Hello, Mother.”) The other
underlined parts are correct.
6. D: This is incorrectly spelled as two words. In this sentence, it should be “altogether,” a one-
word adverb modifying the adjective “specious” and meaning “entirely” or “completely.” “All
together” would be used for a different meaning, e.g. “The family members were all together at
the reunion.” The President (A), Speaker of the House (B), and Republicans’ (C) are all correctly
capitalized as they are titles. The adjective congressional (C) refers to Congress (a proper name
and thus capitalized), but as an adjective it is lower-case unless part of a proper name.
7. E: There is no error in this sentence. Titles and proper names (A) are capitalized. Academic
subjects or departments are lower-case (e.g. department of computer science) unless they are
adjectives (Computer Science teacher) (B) or proper nouns (English, French, etc.) Bill Gates (C)
is a proper noun, i.e. a name, and is always capitalized. “…the president” (D) is correctly lower-
case both because it is used after a name, and because it is a used as a description rather than a
title here.
8. C: The verb is misspelled here. For the correct meaning, it should be “accept,” i.e. to consent
or agree to our plan. “Except” means other than, besides, but, etc. Used as a verb as in this
sentence, it would mean to make an exception of our plan, which is incorrect as it contradicts the
rest of the sentence (without an argument). “They” (A) and “will” (B) are used correctly as
subject pronoun and auxiliary verb. “Without” (D) is correctly used as a preposition.
9. A: The correct form for the past perfect tense of the irregular verb “to go” is “had gone,” not
“had went.” “Went” is only used as the past tense, without the auxiliary “had.” The prepositional
phrase (B) is correct. The two parts of the dependent clause (C and D) “by the time I got there”
are correct.
10. A: The error is “quick,” which is an adjective; here it should be the adverb “quickly” instead,
describing manner (how) to modify the verb “Work.” “…as carefully” (D) is an example of the
correct usage. The other underlined sections are correct.

Sentence Agreement: Introduction

Introduction
Here you learn how to match subjects and verbs, pronouns and antecedents, and maybe even a
few outfits. You find out how agreement works with collective nouns and indefinite pronouns,
too. Agreement is a biggie, because it occurs at least once a sentence.
Anyone Got a Match?
Agreement means that sentence parts match. Subjects must agree with verbs and pronouns must
agree with antecedents. Otherwise, your sentences will sound awkward and jarring, like yellow
teeth with a red tie.
The basic rule of sentence agreement is really quite simple:
A subject must agree with its verb in number. (Number means amount. The number can be
singular—one—or plural—more than one.) Here's how it works.

You Could Look It Up 💡

Agreement means that sentence parts match. Subjects must agree with verbs, and pronouns must
agree with antecedents. Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs.
In grammar, number refers to the two forms of a word: singular (one) or plural (more than one).
Singular Subjects and Verbs
The following guidelines make it easy to match singular subjects and verbs.
1. A singular subject takes a singular verb. For example:

· He who hesitates is probably right.

· The singular subject he agrees with the singular verb is.

· Isaac Asimov was the only author to have a book in every Dewey Decimal System
category.

· The singular subject Isaac Asimov requires the singular verb was.
2. Plural subjects that function as a single unit take a singular verb. For instance:

· Spaghetti and meatballs is my favorite dish.

· The singular subject spaghetti and meatballs agrees with the singular verb is.
 · Ham and eggs was the breakfast of champions in the 1950s.

· The singular subject ham and eggs agrees with the singular verb was.
3. Titles are always singular. It doesn't matter how long the title is, what it names, or whether or
not it sounds plural. As a result, a title always takes a singular verb. Here are two examples:

· Moby Dick was a whale of a tale.

· The singular title Moby Dick agrees with the singular verb was.

· The Valachi Papers is a good read.

· The singular title The Valachi Papers agrees with the singular verb is—even though the
title appears plural, it is singular. That's because all titles are singular.
4. Singular subjects connected by either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also require a singular
verb. That's because the connecting words show that you are choosing only one item.

· Either the witness or the defendant was lying.

· Only one person is lying: the witness or the defendant. Therefore, the subject is singular.
And the singular subject (the witness or the defendant) matches the singular verb (was).
Plural Subjects and Verbs
Matching plural subjects and verbs is a snap with these simple guidelines: Here's the #1 rule:
1. A plural subject takes a plural verb.

· The rejected New Mexico state motto: Lizards make excellent pets.

· The plural subject lizards matches the plural verb make.

· Mosquitoes are attracted to blue more than any other color.

· The plural subject mosquitoes matches the plural verb are.

· Think of the conjunction and as a plus sign. Whether the parts of the subject joined by
and are singular or plural (or both), they all add up to a plural subject and so require a
plural verb.

· Anwar and Hosni going to the movies.

· The plural subject Anwar and Hosni agrees with the plural verb are.

· Teddy Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln were great presidents.

The plural subject Teddy Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln agrees with the plural verb were.
2. If the subject is made up of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by or, nor, not only, or
but also, the verb agrees with the noun closest to the pronoun.

· Neither the contract nor the page proofs are arriving in time to meet the deadline.

· The plural subject proofs agrees with the plural verb are.

· Neither the page proofs nor the contract is arriving in time to meet the deadline.

· The singular subject contract agrees with the singular verb is.
3. Ignore words or phrases that come between the subject and the verb. A phrase or clause that
comes between a subject and its verb does not affect subject-verb agreement.

· The purpose of working out for several hours is to get fit and buff.

· The singular subject purpose matches the singular verb is. Ignore the intervening
prepositional phrase “of working out for several hours.”

· Downward mobility—a quick ride down the social and economic ladders—poses a
serious problem.

· The singular subject downward mobility agrees with the singular verb poses. Ignore the
intervening appositive “a quick ride down the social and economic ladders.”
Seventh-Inning Stretch
Take a second to get these first few rules down pat. Circle the correct verb in each sentence. Feel
free to look back at the rules you just read.
1. A typical Radio City Music Hall Rockette (is/are) between 5 feet and 5 feet 9 inches tall.
2. An apple or a pear (contains/contain) about 75 calories each.
3. The supply of stupid drivers (increase/increases) during holidays.
4. Residents of our country (spend/spends) more than $31 billion a year on fast food.
5. Bill Cosby's cartoon characters (includes/include) Fat Albert and Weird Harold.
6. In winter, camels (is/are) able to go without water for eight weeks.
7. Contrary to popular thinking, camels (does/do) not store water in their humps.
8. The average person (breathes/breathe) 7 quarts of air per minute.
9. Camels also (urinates/urinate) very little, compared to other animals of roughly the same size.
10. Every year the Washington Monument (sink/sinks) an average of 6 inches into the ground.
Answers
1. is 6. are
2. contains 7. do
3. increases 8. breathes
4. spend 9. urinate
5. include 10. sinks

Sentence Completion
Sentence Completion is a common test item in most competitive exams. A sentence contains one
or two blanks (usually), to be filled in using the choices. These questions test your vocabulary
and knowledge of the finer distinctions among words. A good vocabulary can be a great help
here. But you can use many strategies for these questions, even without knowing all the choices.
Strategies
1. Read the Sentence
Use the sentence clues by reading the sentence thoroughly. Two things make a question difficult:
difficult words and sentence structure. If you cannot dissect a sentence to figure out what fits
best, you cannot crack the question though you know the word meanings.
2. Hints
The hints indicate what should go into the blank for the sentence to make sense. Here's a test to
locate the right hint: if you change the hint, the choice in the blank must be changed. You can
often use the hint by putting that word or phrase into the blank itself.
3. Pluses and Minuses
Once you find the word clues, indicate the kind of word you're looking for with a + (positive
meaning) or - (negative) sign. Also, to indicate synonyms or antonyms, you can use these
symbols.
4. Structure Words
Look for words like but, rather, although, however, and, while, but, therefore.
They reveal the sentence organization and the hint-blank relationship. They tell you what kinds
of words to look for, as they change the thought process in the sentence.
5. Visualize
Before you go to the choices, think of the possible words for the blanks. It will save you from
wrong choices. If you know roughly the kind of words needed, the elimination is much easier.
The word you visualize doesn't have to be fancy-a general idea is fine.
This is better than trying out the choices to find out "what sounds good." It is faster and less
prone to errors.
EXAMPLES:
A. Neem has --- qualities and in many clinical trials, doctor have saved countless lives by using
raw Neem leaves on serious wounds.
A. remedial
B. flavouring
C. inferior
D. doubtful
E. notorious
We need a positive word with a "life saving"-like meaning. Choices C, D, and E are negative and
are ruled out. You may be unaware of remedial but you know that "flavouring" doesn't mean
anything like life saving. Therefore, the answer is remedial.
B. The much-hated bill sparked off a wave of public______which could not ________ by the
concessions the British announced.
A. enthusiasm.....dampened
B. clamour.....misled
C. curiosity.....complemented
D. adoration.....channelized
E. discontent.....abated
Much-hated indicates a negative choice for the first blank indicating anger or protest here. The
second one needs harder thinking; even the British concessions did not "lessen" the public anger.
Once you are clear about the word shades needed, find the words similar to the ones you had
visualized.
6. Elimination
Ruling out the wrong choices should be easy now. But remember, both the words have to fit in
the given order for the right answer. If one word is a perfect choice but the other one doesn't
make sense, the answer is wrong. Do not rule out choices if you don't know their meanings and
unless you are sure they do not work. If you have doubts, leave and return after checking the
other choices.
7. Improve Your Vocabulary
Improving your vocabulary and usage can help you do better as the word meanings help you find
the right answer.
8. Working Backwards
The two-blank questions can be easier as you have more opportunities to eliminate wrong
choices. If you can eliminate a choice based on one word, you don't need to know the other
word. Often, working backwards i.e. picking the second blank choice first works better.
These tips will help you to boost your performance and improve your score. Also, you can
attempt more questions in the stipulated time frame.
Thus, you can enhance your preparation for the various competitive exams by following the
given strategies.

Choose the grammatically correct sentence

Read the following sentences and from the given options choose the sentence that expresses
the same idea in a grammatically correct form.
1. I will inform them this.
a) I will inform this them.
b) I will inform them of this.
c) I will inform this to them.
d) I will inform them with this.
2. Our school is built by bricks.
a) Our school is built of bricks.
b) Our school is built from bricks.
c) Our school is built out of bricks.
d) Our school is built with bricks.
3. He walked ten miles by foot.
a) He walked ten miles on foot.
b) He walked ten miles in foot.
c) He walked ten miles with foot.
4. The railway will compensate the loss.
a) The railway will compensate the lose.
b) The railway will compensate us for the loss.
c) The railway will compensate for the lose.
d) The railway will compensate us with the loss.
5. When this was searched it was found.
a) When this was searched about it was found.
b) When this was searched for, it was found.
c) When this searched it was found.
d) When this was searched it found.
Answers:
1. b) I will inform them of this.
2. a) Our school is built of bricks.
3. a) He walked ten miles on foot.
4. b) The railway will compensate us for the loss.
5. b) When this was searched for, it was found.