Answer no 1

1. The Intension and Extension of Terms

Terms: A term is any word or arrangements of words that may serve as the subject of a
statement. Terms consists of proper names, common names and descriptive phrases.
Example: Minilik, dog, the first university of Ethiopia, those who are poor, etc
Intentional meaning: consists of qualities or attributes that the term connotes.
(Connotation)
Terms consists of proper names, common names and descriptive phrases.
The cognitive meaning of terms comprises two kinds. These are:-
 Intentional meaning
 Extensional Meaning
A. Intentional meaning: consists of qualities or attributes that the term connotes.
(Connotation). It implies sense or intention.
Example: The connotation of the term cat consists of the attributes of being furry or
having four legs, of moving in certain way, of emitting certain sounds, and so on.
B. Extensional Meaning: consists of members of the class that the term denotes. (Denotation)
Example: The denotation of the term cat consists of the cats themselves - all the cats in
the universe.
N.B. The meaning of connotation and denotation in logic is different from their use in
grammar.
Empty Extension is a form of extensional meaning (denotation) when the term (class)
has no members. This might happen for entities that have perished (disappeared) with
the passage of time. Example: Unicorn, elf, dinosaur, current king of Ethiopia etc
Intension determines extension means connotation serves as the criterion for deciding
what extension consists of.

1|Page
Definitions and their Purposes

Philosophers have conflicting views on the purpose of definition. Example:

Plato- to explicate the meaning of certain eternal essence or forms Modern logicians: to
explicate the meaning of words.

Definition, for modern logicians, is a group of words that assign meaning for some word or
group of words. Definition consists of two parts:

1. Definiendum : the word or group of words that is supposed to be defined.

2. Definiens : the word or group of words that does the defining. Definiens is not the
meaning of the definiendum, but a symbol.

Other Philosophers: argue that since definition result in clarification of language, they
provide a means for the discovery of deeper philosophical truths.

Pragmatic Approach: tries to explicate the purpose of definitions by discussing the

various kinds of definitions.

1. Stipulative Definitions: It assigns meaning for the first time. It involves coining a

new word or giving a new meaning for an old word.

Example: “Tigon” means an animal which is hybrid from male tiger and female lion.

2. Lexical Definitions: It is used to report the meaning that a word already has in a
language. They are dictionary definitions They may be true or false They have a purpose of
eliminating ambiguity. Example: ”Fiduciary” means a having to do with a confidence or trust; a
person who holds something in trust. An Ambiguous word: when the word can be interpreted
as having two or more clearly distinct meanings in a given context. Example: sound, right,
bank,race, light

3. Précising Definitions:- It gives precise definition of a word for specific situation/

discipline. It is a definition which aims at reducing the vagueness of a word.

2|Page
A Vague word: when there are borderline cases such that it is impossibele to tell whether the

word applies to them or not. Example: love, happiness, peace rich, fresh, poor, normal,

blind, member, contract, equality, teacher, force, criminal, moment of death etc. Example:
”Blind” means, for federal income tax purposes, either the inability to see better than 20/200 in
the better eye with glasses or having a field of vision Unlike Stipulative definition, a great deal

of care must be taken in assigning meaning in Précising definition.

4. Theoretical Definitions: It provides a theoretical picture or characterization of the

entity or entities denoted by definiendum. Example: scientific words such as: light, force,
mass, acceleration and philosophical words: good, mind God, change, idea, cause.

5. Persuasive Definitions: The purpose of this definition is to engender (create) a

favorable or unfavorable attitude toward what is denoted by the definiendum. It involves

emotionally charged or value laden meaning to a word. Example: “Capitalism means” the
economic system in which humanity is scarified to the wanton quest for money, and mutual
understanding and respect are replaced by alienation, greed and selfishness.

Definitional Techniques

A. An Extensional (Denotative) Definition: It is the one that assigns a meaning to

a term by indicating the members of the class that the definiendum denotes. They are chiefly
used for producing lexical and stipulative definitions.

Three kinds of definition:-

1. Demonstrative (ostensive):- By pointing to one or all of the members of that class

Example: “Board” means this or this and this and this (as you point it)

2. Enumerative Definitions:- It assigns a meaning to a term by partially or completely naming

the members of the class the term denotes. Example: “Actor” means a person such as Fikadu
Teklemariam, Mulualem, Serawit, or Tilahun

3|Page
3. Definition by subclass :- It assigns a meaning to a term by partially or completely naming
subclasses of the class denoted by the term. Example: “Philosophy” means metaphysics,
epistemology, logic, ethics, or aesthetics.

B. Intentional (connotative) Definitions : It is one that assigns meaning to a word

by indicating the qualities or attributes that the word connotes.

Four kinds of Definition:-

1. Synonymous definition It is one which the definiens is a single word that connotes the same
attributes as the definirndum. Example: “Physician” means doctor

2. Etymological Definition It assigns a meaning to a word by disclosing the word’s ancestry in

both in its own language and other language. Example: Logic, Philosophy, Orthodox, ሥነምግባር
“Orthodox” is originated from two Greek term ortho-straight or correct and doxa-belief or
opinion.

3. Operational definition It assigns a meaning to a word by specifying certain experimental

procedures that determine whether or not the word applies to a certain thing. Example: A
solution is acid if and only if litmus paper turns red when dipped in to it.

4. Definition by Genus and Difference It is assigning a meaning to a term by identifying a genus

term and one or more difference. Example: Ice means frozen water (Species) (Difference)
(Genus)

Answer no 2

Conditional statements :-

The reason is the antecedent and the consequent show a causal connection; not inferential
relationship.

Example:-

If Alemu studies hard, (antecedent)

he will pass the exam. (consequence)

A single conditional statement is not an argument. A conditional statement may serve as either
the premise or the conclusion (or both) of an argument.

4|Page
A conditional statement is an "if ... then ... " statement. Every conditional statement is made up
of two component statements. The component statement immediately following the "if" is
called antecedent, and the one following the "then" is called the consequent. conditional
statement is not arguments, because they fail to meet the criteria given earlier. In an
argument, at least one statement must claim to present evidence.

Answer no 3

Some typical conclusion indicators are - Therefore , accordingly , entails that, wherefore , we
may conclude, hence, thus , it must be that, it follows that, consequently , for this reason,
implies that, we may infer, so as a result. Whenever a statement follows one of these
indicators, it can usually be identified as the conclusion. By process of elimination the other
statements in the argument are the premises.

Example:-

Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve the pain. Consequently , Torture is not a
reliable method of interrogation.

Some premise indicators:

Since, as indicated by, because, for, in that, may be inferred from, as, given that, seeing that, for
the reason that, in as much as, owing to etc.

The premises indicator "for" goes with both "Wilderness provides essential habitat for wildlife,
including endangered species," and "it is a natural retreat from the stress of daily life." These
are the premise.

Example :

All Japan Cell phones are original apparatuses.

Therefore, it is false that no Japan Cell phones are original apparatuses.

Answer no 4

Non inferential passages :- are unproblematic passages that lack a claim that anything is being
proved. Such passages contain statements that could be premises or conclusions (or both), but

5|Page
what is missing is a claim that any potential premise supports a conclusion or that any potential
conclusion is supported by premises. passages of this sort include warnings, piece of advice,
statements of belief or opinion , loosely associated statements, and reports. A warning is a form
is expression that is intended to put someone on guard against a dangerous or detrimental
situation.

Example:-

Watch out that you don't slip on the ice.

Whatever you do, never confide personal secrets to Blabbermouth Bob.

If no evidence is given to prove that such statement are true, then there is no argument.

Answer no 5

1. Deductive Argument

In deductive arguments the conclusion is claimed to follow necessarily or absolutely from the
premises. A deductive argument is an argument in which if the premises are assumed to be
true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false.

Example:

All Ethiopians love unity.

ILS students are Ethiopians.

Therefore, ILS students love unity.

2. Inductive Argument

In these arguments the conclusion is claimed to follow only probably from the premises. It is an
argument in which if the premises are assumed to be true, then based on that assumption it is
improbable that the conclusion is false.

Example:

The vast majority if AU students are from Tigray region.

Engineering students are AU students.

6|Page
Therefore, Engineering students are from Tigray region.

Answer no 6

Orders of Intension and Extension

1. Increasing Intension: when each term in the series (except the first) connotes more
attributes (become more specific) than the one preceding it.

Example: Living things, animals, insects, bee

2. Decreasing Intension: when each term in the series (except the first) connotes less
attributes (become more general) than the one preceding it.

Example: bee, insects, animals, Living things

3. Increasing extension: when each term in the series (except the first) denotes a class having
more members than the one preceding it.

Example: bee, insects, animals, Living things

4. Decreasing Extension: when each term in the series (except the first) denotes a class having
fewer members than the one preceding it.

Example: Living things, animals, insects, bee

7|Page