AMBO UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT OF

DEVELOPMENTAL MANAGEMENT

THE ANALYSIS OF GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION

SOCTER THE CASE OF WEST SHOA ZONE GINDEBERET
WOREDA OROMIA, REGIONAL STATE, ETHIOPIA

ARESEARCH SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS, AMBO UNIVERSITY.

A THESIS RESEARCH SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ART
DEVELOPMENTAL MANAGEMENT.

BY:
FAYE DUGUMA
Advisor: Kedida Sonto (PhD)

MAY, 2020
AMBO, ETHIOPIA
 APPROVAL SHEET -I

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “The Analysis Of Gender Equality In Education Sector

The Case Of West Shoa Zone Gindeberet Woreda Oromia, Regional State, Ethiopia” submitted

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master's with specialization in

Management the Graduate Program of the Department/School of Business and Economics

Studies, and has been carried out by Fayera Duguma under my/our supervision. Therefore, I

recommend that the student has fulfilled the requirements and hence hereby can submit

the thesis to the department.

Kedida Sonto (PhD) ------------------------------------ -----------------

Name of advisor Signature Date

 APPROVAL SHEET-II

AMBO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

As thesis research advisors, we hereby certify that we have read this thesis prepared under our
direction, by Fayera Duguma entitled “Analysis of Gender Equality In Education Sector The
Case Of West Shoa Zone Gindeberet Woreda Oromia, Regional State, Ethiopia” and recommend
that it be accepted as fulfilling the thesis requirement.

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Final approval and acceptance of the thesis is contingent upon the submission of the final copy of
the thesis to the Council of Graduate Studies (CGS) through the Departmental of Graduate
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I hereby certify that I have read this thesis prepared under my direction and recommend that it be
accepted as fulfilling the thesis requirement.

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 DEDICATION

I dedicated this thesis to my all family members.

 STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR

I hereby declare that this thesis is my bone fid work and that all sources of materials used for this
thesis have been duly acknowledged. This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for an advanced MA degree at Ambo University and is deposited at the University
Library to be made available to borrowers under the rules of the library. I gravely declare that
this thesis is not submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any academic
degree, diploma, or certificate.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission provided that accurate
acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or
reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the Department of
Economics or the Dean of the School of Graduate Studies, Ambo University, when in his
judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances,
however, permission must be obtained from the author.

Name: Fayera Duguma

Date of Submission: ----------------
Signature: ----------------
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost let me praise and honor my Lord Jesus Christ for the opportunity and capacity
given to me to realize my aspiration.

My particular appreciation and deepest gratitude goes to Kedida Sonto (PhD), my major advisor,
without him, the accomplishment of this research would have been difficult. Besides, his gentle
advisor-ship from the early design of the research to the final write-up of the thesis by adding
valuable, constructive and ever-teaching comments, highly improved the contents of the thesis.

I would like to express my deepest thanks to Adamu Debelo for their support and continuous
moral encouragement.

Though not exhaustively, I would like to make a special mention to all my staff members of our
bureau for their constructive encouragement and materials as well as non-materials support.

I would also thank my beloved wife Asnaku Gedefa for her patience, support and encouragement
when I needed it most. Her presence in my life has given me great joy and has kept my sprit aloft
even during times of mental and physical stress.

Acknowledgment also extends unreservedly to my mother, sisters, and brothers for their all-
round support and moral encouragement.
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CSA Central Statistical Authority

CSA Central Statistical Agency

EEA Ethiopian Economic Association

EP Educational Policy
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

FGD Focus Group Discussion

GE Gender Equality
ICA International Cooperative Alliance

IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institutes

ILO International Labor Organization

m.a.s.l. Meter above sea level

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

UN United Nation

UNDP United Nation Development Program

UNO United Nation Organization

USA United States of America

 LIST OF TABLES

Table’s pages

Table 1: Areas of land use and land cover type in Gindeberet woreda……………...30

Table.2. Sample areas and the number of sampled respondents…….……………....32

Table.3: Description of dependent variable and independent/explanatory variables..49

Table 4: Family structure………………………………………………………….…51

Table5: The link between low educational level, Income and Gender equality……..52

Table 6: policy reaction on gender equality and responsible………………………..59

Table 7: Types of attitudes do households used and ways of policy on education

sector……………………………...............................................................................60

Table 8: total income and Annual average income from education sector as salary...60

Table9: Education Income contribution the interviewed household obtained in 2019 of

woreda………………………………………………………………………………..63

Table.10: Linear regression analysis and the aver all score of factor of education…..65
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

Figure 1: map of the study area …………………………………..…………………….36

Figure 2: Education levels of the interviewed heads households.....................................52

Figure 3: Contribution of Education sector per capital income in the woreda…………..61

 LIST OF APPENDICES

1. Survey Questionnaire……………………………….………………………………..84
2. Annex .2 Multi- collinearity test with VIF………………………………..………….90
ABSTRACT

Analysis of gender equality policy in education sector can benefit from these underutilized
human resources through the participation of education. The importance of gender equality is
highlighted in its prominence in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
which have been commonly accepted as a framework for measuring development progress. The
specific Objective of the study includes:

1. To Assesse gender equality in education sector that promote gender education policy in
Gindeberet woreda ,

2. To evaluate the major factors that affect gender equality in the education sector in the
Gindeberet woreda

3. To examine the positive changes towards gender equality Gindeberet woreda.

Data was analysed by SPSS Version 20 and analyse the collected data and information brief
descriptive analysis results were employed in the results and discussion part of the study. In this
study, the objective of the study was analysed using descriptive analysis results. The descriptive
analysis is made using frequencies, tables and figures, mean, maximum and minimum values
based on the results obtained. For the second objective, it was analyzed by using Multi
regression analysis model. The sample size for collecting data for this research will be
determined using Yamane (1967:886) provides a simplified formula to calculate sample sizes.
𝑛=𝑁/ (1+(𝑒2)). Sum of sample sizes that has been taken from each gender equality for
interviewing will be: - 145+71+64=280 this will be 66.8 % of the woreda.

This chapter is purposely added to make generalized arguments on the gender analysis issue,
main preserving education institutions and its direct or indirect influence on education
performance of genders. Gender analysis is everywhere, though it differs in forms. Measuring
analysis of gender equality in education sector needs a large tax. Forming a quantifiable
measure of the status of women that could be compared across nations is difficult for several
reasons. The result shows that age was significantly and negatively affected gender equality at
10% level. An increase in one year age indicated an decreases in the gender equality by 0.40,
other variables being constant

The researcher’s motivation to focus on this research topic was that the previous research
approaches have not touched the factors of gender equality in education sectors and its problem
from gender perspective; particularly genders educational problems (due to the existing
traditional gender role socialization) have been the missed part of most researches in Ethiopia.
Proper gender equality education and training that increase children’s compromising capability
and gender sensitiveness is the prime means to aware and emancipate children particularly
equality that are the most vulnerable from harmful traditional practices.

Keyword: Gender equality analysis of education sector in the Gindeberet woreda.

 Chapter One

Introduction

1.1. Background of the study

Attention to gender equality remains an important development goal. The importance of gender

equality is highlighted in its prominence in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

(SDGs), which have been commonly accepted as a framework for measuring development

progress. Of the eight goals, four are directly related to gender: achieving universal primary

education, promoting gender equality and the empowerment of women, reducing infant and child

mortality, and improving maternal health. Closing gender gaps—which tend to favor males—has

also been seen to contribute to women’s empowerment. However, the term empowerment refers

to a broad concept that is used differently by various writers, depending on the context or

circumstance (see Kabeer [2015] and Ibrahim & Alkire [2016].

Education is a fundamental human right and is key to individual, social and national

development. It offers the opportunity to realize the attainment of human rights and is an

important vehicle for addressing inequality and marginalization. The Education Sector Gender

Policy is geared towards a human rights based approach, ensuring equal rights to education for

boys and girls, men and women. The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST)

has undertaken the review of the Gender in Education Policy (2016), to incorporate emerging

issues that have implications on gender equity and equality in the Education Sector.
The policy adopts a wide perspective of equality that includes girls and boys, women and men,

rather than a focus on just girls and women. Within the constitutional and legal framework

provisions, the gender policy advocates for more equal participation between women and men,

girls and boys; and acknowledges that gender equality does not mean that women and girls are

the same as men and boys, and vice versa, but that gender should not be used to determine access

to education and educational outcomes. Since independence Ethiopian has been pursuing policies

towards the realization of equal access to education of both boys and girls as demonstrated by

being signatory to International Conventions and Agreements on human rights and gender

equality. The Government has put in place several interventions such as introduction of Low

Cost Boarding Schools and Mobile Schools in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs), Free

Primary Education (FPE) in 2016 and Free Day Secondary Education (FDSE) in 2015, a circular

re- entry for girls who drop out of school as a result of pregnancy, affirmative action in the

allocation of bursaries, admission of girls in universities and appointment of qualified female

education managers at schools and administrative levels as additional efforts to address gender

disparities.

All these interventions have led to greater equality in representation of women and increased

opportunities for boys and girls in schools and colleges. However, despite these interventions,

the Government is still faced with challenges of addressing aspects of gender equality issues in

the Education Sector, hence the need for a clear and comprehensive policy framework to guide

the sector towards the achievement of equality. Through this policy, the Ministry re-affirms its

commitment and determination to address legal and policy concerns in order to reduce gender

equality gaps in the education of girls and women, boys and men (FAO 2016)
Ethiopia has prioritized the advancement of gender equality through the development and

implementation of several national plans and frameworks which include the first National Policy

on Women in 1993 followed by the promulgation of Constitution in 1995 that calls for equal

rights of women, including Affirmative Action to bridge existing gaps. In line with this,

Ethiopia has revised discriminatory legal provisions in the Family Law and Penal Code, showing

a firm political commitment to gender equality and the advancement of women. Among the

strategies applied to translate policies and legal provisions into actions is the setting up of

institutional mechanism for the advancement of women ranging from the national to regional,

extending to the lowest administrative units. Women in Ethiopia account for 50 percent of the

population but do not equally participate in and benefit from development and progress. Despite

the positive policy environment created, and progress for women in Ethiopia, their participation

in key anti-poverty and development programmers and sectors and their role in decision-making

are still minimal. While acknowledging the significant progress in laws, policies, and gender

mainstreaming initiatives, constraints on data collection and access on the real state of women in

Ethiopia remain. Nevertheless, information and sex disaggregated data is needed to inform

policy decisions, resource allocation, and prioritization of actions, by all the stakeholders and

duty-bearers alike, including Government, non-state actors (including civil society organizations)

and development partners who are contributing to Ethiopia’s Growth and Transformation Plan.

Some development partners, including the Swedish International Development Cooperation

Agency (SIDA 2014), the African Development Bank (AFDB 2016) and the Japan International

Cooperation Agency (JICA 2015), have attempted to develop gender profiles and gender

disaggregated data for the country, however, there is still is no comprehensive gender profile in

Ethiopia that uses sex disaggregated data and information by regions and focuses specifically on
gender gaps and women’s empowerment elements in areas responsible for economic growth.

Furthermore, these gender profiles lack sufficient analysis of women’s contribution to the

economy and development in general. In light of the above and in order to bridge the gap of

accessing up-to-date information/data for policy makers, planners, development partners, UN

Women and European Union through the Financing for Gender Equality Programme supported

the Preliminary Gender Profile to assess the situation of women and gender equality in Ethiopia

and to consequently identify key areas of a comprehensive gender profile that will be

disaggregated by regions. This Preliminary Gender Profile aims at providing a preliminary

baseline document for Government ministries and institutions as well as development partners to

indicate elements of the state of gender equality and the empowerment of women in Ethiopia.

Along with this the Preliminary Gender Profile identifies (1) emerging trends especially around

the reduction of poverty, promotion of women’s rights and freedom from violence, and suggests

way forward for (2) strengthening national institutions to respond to gender equality and

empowerment of women.

Ethiopia, the third most populous country in Africa, is characterized by substantial ethnic and

religious diversity, with more than 85 ethnic groups and most major world religions represented,

as well as animist belief systems (Webb, von Braun, and Yohannes 2015). This diversity extends

beyond the people and culture of Ethiopia to their environment, as the agro ecological zones and,

consequently, farming systems vary dramatically around the country. There is also considerable

diversity in gender norms related to property ownership, inheritance, and the division of assets

after divorce, with men favored in the majority of cases (Fafchamps and Quisumbing 2015).

Such gender disparities have important welfare consequences, as evidenced by empirical work

on Ethiopia. Dercon and Krishnan (2010) find that poor women in the southern part of Ethiopia,
where customary laws governing settlement at divorce are biased against women, fare worst

when illness shocks occur. Fafchamps, Kebede, and Quisumbing (2012) find that the relative

nutrition of spouses is associated with correlates of bargaining power, such as cognitive ability,

independent sources of income, and devolution of assets upon divorce, and that several

dimensions of female empowerment benefit the nutrition and education level of children.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

We reside in a world in which education is characterized by extensive gender inequalities. At a

time of extremely expanded access to all levels of education, of high aspirations for political

participation and huge growth of knowledge economies, 62 million children are still out of

school, 57 per cent of whom are girls (FAO2015). Seven-hundred and eighty-one million adults

are illiterate and 60 per cent of these are women (UNESCO 2014). Nearly one billion people,

one-sixth of the world’s population, have little or no education, either because they have never

been to school or have had less than five years of schooling and left before acquiring key areas of

knowledge and many valuable skills. Two-thirds of these people are women and girls

(Unterhalter 2014).

Calculations indicate that at least one in every three girls who completes primary schooling in

Ethiopia cannot read, write, or do arithmetic (Herz and Sperling 2015). There are often concerns

with superiority because of large class sizes, inadequate instructional time, difficulties with the

language of instruction, and the forms of assessment (WHO 2016). Regrettably, there is not a lot

of focus on the gender inequalities embedded in these issues. There is however a growing

number of predominantly small-scale qualitative studies which raise the question of gender

dynamics underlying issues such as which children take most teacher time, which children
succeed in examinations in more prestigious subjects, and how schools engage with issues

concerning sexuality (Raynor 2014 Pattman and Chege 2014; Vavrus 2014; Kakuru 2015).

Some empirical studies show even if the current government policy environment seems

favorable and supportive to analysis of gender equality on education sector participation and

analysis of gender to increase the level of participation and improve their socio-economic and

cultural problems in organizing them separately, women are still doing not operate or compete

with each other separately with the absence of men or there is luck of self-confidence. Women

mainly lack of socio-economic benefits was partly explained their low level of participation in

implementation of gender equality policy in education sector affairs (UN, 2014).

Ethiopia women have not been able to equally benefit from the education sector, because their

participation in the education have not been fully valued. Ethiopia is a country highly

implementation of gender equality in education sector societies in which women are kept at a

subordinate position. The value of self-help, mutual responsibility, equality and equity are held

in common by all sectors. Even though educations have policies of equality and equity

opportunities for both men and women, but their practice is completely different

The purpose of this study is to provide empirically supported information that can show analysis

of gender in equality to a better understanding of the estimation and analysis in education sector

in the woreda and contribution of gender equality for economy or for individual household and

enhance the formation of effective institutional arrangements towards achieving successful

economic contribution. The study is undertaken against the framework of gaps of gender analysis

in education sector contribution of gender that has been limit household economy. The study was

attempted to zoom in on and describe the salient features of the actual analysis gender of the

estimation contribution of implementation economy and the perspective of the local people
involved in the arrangement. It explains the patterns of gender equality use, the place of

education productive in the economic strategy of rural households, the differentiation of

dependence on the family’s and income among households, and the function of forest income in

households risk management strategy and poverty alleviation.

But the roles of participation of women in education sector in the woreda are smaller than that of

the men thus, why this Thesis focuses in the Analysis of Gender Equality In Education Sector in

the Gindeberet woreda. Therefore the researcher were compare the three cities and find out the

factor that hinders the analysis of gender equality in education sector in order to recommend and

providing suggestion for giving feedback to any concerned body. Moreover, the impact of

Gender equality in education sector in Gindeberet district is not yet studied. Therefore, taking

this picture of analysis of gender equality in education sector’s situation into account, this

research was have undertaken to address the following objectives. However, there is no evidence

on how much gender equality in education sector Gindeberet woreda. Thus, this study is

proposed to acquire scientific evidence on gender equality and analysis of education sector.

Therefore, this study was research and analyzes the following issues and problems: What are the

demographic, institutional, and gender factors that affect the level of education participation in

Gindeberet’ analysis of gender equality in education sector? What are the socio-economic

characteristics of women respondents? What are the major factors that affect gender participation

in Gindeberet Analysis of gender equality in education sector? What are the benefits of education

in gender equality?
1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General Objective

The general objective of the study is to examine the Explain Gender Policy in

Education Sector at Gindeberet woreda.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives:

The specific objectives were:

 To Assesse gender equality in education sector that promote gender education

policy in Gindeberet woreda.

 To evaluate the major factors that affect gender equality in the education sector

in the Gindeberet woreda.

 To examine the positive changes towards gender equality Gindeberet woreda.

1.4. Research Questions

 What are the factors that affect the level of gender equality participation in

education sector at Gideberet woreda?

 How we measure gender equality in terms of socio-economic characteristics in

the Gindeberet woreda?

 What is the main awareness of gender equality in terms of education sector in

the woreda?

1.5 Significance of the Study

Gender equality policy in education sector can benefit from these underutilized human

resources through the participation of education. The participation of implementation of

gender equality policy in education sector in all spheres of activity is also important for

the overall economic development of the country in general and for sustainable

development of cooperatives in particular. Therefore from the study policy makers,

Teachers, community and government were benefited.

In addition the outcome of this research was be useful to Gindeberet implementation of

gender equality in education sector societies, office of the woreda children and women

affairs and the woreda education promotion office. It is also believed that the result of

the research were have important implication for the education sector in west shoa zone

at large and education policy promoters who have the responsibility of strengthening

education participation. And also it was been useful as a reference for policy makers,

decision makers, and other researchers as a secondary data for further and detail

research studies on the issue and also paves the way for education and gender equality

to improve their participation in their education policy. It was also useful for the author

to earn his Research thesis in analysis of gender equality in education sector. And also

the information was generated from the research possibly were also be useful to

improve in the planning and analysis useful to Gindeberet implementation of gender

equality in education sector societies, office of the woreda and important implication

for the education.

1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study is delimited to the of Gender Equality in Education Sector participation in a

single woreda. It is limited to Gindebert woreda in west shoa zone, Oromia region state.
This study undertakes on the specified woreda of analysis of gender equality in

education sector societies. The absence of previous primary and secondary data for this

study was a limitation of the study. In this Thesis research, extent of contact with

education sector’s and school environment was used by asking the situation of gender

equality in the education sector. The reasons for selecting Gindeberet are: the

geographical tightness (smallness) of the target region; the easier access to targets; and

the fact that the majority of the region's population reside in urban areas.
 Chapter two

Literature review
2.1. Introduction of Literature review

2. 1.1. Introduction and Definition of terms

The concept of gender is a fairly new term in the development discourse. It emerged during the

1970s as a response to the need to differentiate between responsibilities and activities which are

determined by the biological differences of men and women, and the responsibilities and

activities that are undertaken according to the socially constructed relationships (Hannan, 2012).

The physically determined (sex-related) differences between men and women are unchangeable

while gender is crosscut by differences in class, ethnicity, religion and age and thus possible to

change through various kinds of influences (Momsen, 2014; Ostergaard, 2013). Gender planning

in development cooperation implies a focus on both women and men and the relations between

them, and necessitates an analysis of the forms and links of relations that exists in society

(Ostergaard, 2013). The word “gender” refers to the socio-culturally constructed roles,

characteristics and values associated with men and women. While sex unlike gender,

distinguishes males from females exclusively by biological characteristics and as a result is

natural and unchangeable. Example, women give birth and breast feed, men grow beards females

and males have different sex organs (Wallace, 2011).

Gender refers to the social attributes that are learned or acquired during socialization as a

member of a given community. Because these attributes are learned behaviors they can change

over time and vary across cultures. Gender therefore refers to the socially given attributes, roles,

activities, responsibilities and needs connected to being men (masculine) and women (feminine)
in a given society at a given time, and as a member of a specific community within that society

(ATVET, 2010 All these interventions have led to greater equality in representation of women

and increased opportunities for boys and girls in schools and colleges. However, despite these

interventions, the Government is still faced with challenges of addressing aspects of gender

equality issues in the Education Sector, hence the need for a clear and comprehensive policy

framework to guide the sector towards the achievement of equality. It is based on the increasing

relevance of cosmopolitan, a concept which is introduced in the above Terminology section, in

the twenty-first century. Cosmopolitanism offers a new perspective on multicultural education

and is highly relevant when it comes to the investigation of a “universal humanity, human rights,

and world citizenship” (Roxas et al. 2015). Roxas et al. view the concept of cosmopolitanism in

relation to minority groups and take an intersectional viewpoint on the flexible and fluid

experiences of individuals. The theory critiques the general concept of cosmopolitanism and

calls for a critical approach (Roxas et al. 2015).

The major aim of the CCME theory is to investigate intersections between cosmopolitanism and

multiculturalism and utilize these to achieve social justice in education. Roxas et al. outline five

tenets that represented the core elements of CCME and make up the values of the theory (2015).

The five tenets should be viewed as interconnected but separate that can have distinct as well as

overall theoretical implications (Roxas et al. 2015). Below you can see a model of the five tenets

followed by an in-depth explanation of the theory.

Generally, there is a lack of literature on education and intersectionality in relation to developing

countries. When it comes to researching education in developing countries the major concern is

the implementation of Western project by for example NGOs and governmental development

agencies to address issues such as primary school attainment. Especially in Ethiopia where a
large number of NGOs and governments work within the development sector, educational

programs for young children are very prominent. There are, however, very limited resources

available on the analysis of Ethiopia or developing country’s education policies in general or on

inequalities other than lack of access. Often the programs focus on the distinction between urban

and rural education and point out the lack of access to education of rural populations (Federal

Ministry of Education 2015). Intersectionality can contribute to an understanding of culture.

Cultural understanding is of great relevance when it comes to social conflict often based on

domination of different groups or individuals. Intersectionality here can help to identify multiple

systems of domination and organization of society as a whole (Collins &Chepp 2013).

The intersectionality knowledge project that Collins developed has two major focus points and

aims that Collins pursues in her concept supported by other scholars. These are namely the

visibility and the reshaping of categorical relationships. Firstly, ‘Visibility’ here points to

bringing issues of inequalities and their underlying causes to attention. While intersectionality

has gained some popularity in academia, it is widely unknown in the public sphere.

Intersectionality can help bring marginalized issues to the attention of policy-makers and the

general public through its ability to connect issues and relate problems to categorical concepts

known to most people. By relating issues to each other and pointing out their interconnectedness,

problems can be brought to attention and be addressed adequately (Hancock 2016). Secondly,

the reshaping of categorical relationships follows the aim of bringing the relatedness of social

concepts to attention and challenging the classical way of thinking in categories. Collins argues

that it is not only necessary to challenge conceptions of individual categories as for example race

in order to fight discrimination but that relations of power between systems must be challenged

to achieve international of consciousness and change society.

2.2 Theoretical Literature- Review major and relevant theories

2.2.1. Why is gender an issue in education sector?

Gender inequalities are pervasive across many dimensions of societal life including households,

social, economic and political institutions. The UN recognized that gender inequality resulting

from women’s low status persist in all societies although the extent of the gap varies across

countries, cultures and time. The UN presented the burden of this inequality as follows:

“Women, who comprise half the world's population, do two thirds of the world's work, earn one

tenth of the world's income and own one hundredth of the world's property” (UN, 2014). A

World Bank study on regional patterns of gender inequalities in basic rights and in access to and

control of resources reflect that disparities exist all over the world and no woman in the

developing regions has equal rights with man (World Bank, 2011). Gender inequality is

difference in rights and privileges between women and men reflected in legal statutes, customary

laws and community practices. These differences are reflected in marriage, inheritance, property

ownership and management, in household and community activities and decision-making.

Deprivation of women’s land right through customary practices regarding land inheritance and

property distribution after divorce is challenge in patriarchal societies. Men remain central heirs

and holders of land rights in patrilineal6 communities.

Women’s direct access to land is often limited in traditional societies. Women have indirect

access to land in terms of use rights acquired through kinship relationships and their status as

wives, mothers, sisters or daughters (Davison, 2013). However, these use rights may not grant

enough security for women when family structures break due to various reasons. Breach in
marriage is a serious issue in women’s access to and control over land because; it results in

vulnerable group of women, FHHs as single parents, widows or divorcees.

The gendered face of poverty makes gender an issue in women’s access to and control over land.

The outcome of a study carried out by UNDP in developing countries reflected that poverty has a

gendered face and that women are poorer than men (UNDP, 2010). This UNDP study carried out

on selected countries of Sub-Saharan Africa showed the GDP per capita figures for women were

less than that of men. Comparative figures in 2014 were US$1,142, per woman and US$2,079,

per man (UNDP, 2014).

International human rights instruments related to women’s property ownership and inheritance

revealed that denial of these rights makes women’s land rights a human rights issue. Gap exists

between international human rights provisions and national legal provisions because national

laws of property rights are influenced by customs, attitudes and perceptions (Benschop, 2012).

The interaction of statuary laws and community customs and traditions will determine how

women’s legal rights on land are actually realized in practice. Gap between legal systems and

customary practices is obvious and nature of the gap defines the extent to Patrilineal

communities are communities where lineage goes through male descents (from father to son) in

which socio-economic gender relations are shaped in the patriarchal system and are manifested

in different forms. For example, property is inherited by male heirs and marriage is patri-local. In

patrilineal communities, the bride is moved to the bridegrooms’ residential area.

2.2.2. International policy frameworks and institutions of gender equality.

International law has framed gender equality as part of global concern on human rights and basic

freedoms for social, economic and political rights. These include claims on access to and control
over productive resources like land. Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted in 2013

(UDHR, 1948) and international laws and conventions developed afterwards have a number of

provisions to address gender equality. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) prohibits any distinction, exclusion or restriction on

the basis of gender that harms or nullifies women’s human rights and fundamental freedoms

(UNCEDAW, 2014). It establishes women’s rights on par with those of men to political,

economic and social participation and benefit. Articles 7-8, 10-13 and 16 of CEDAW have

comprehensive coverage and oblige signatory states to achieve these goals.

The Beijing Declaration on its Article 35 states that governments should ensure women’s equal

access to economic resources including land, credit, science and technology, vocational training,

etc. as a means to further the advancement and empowerment of women (UN DES D 2013).

Governments are required to incorporate gender perspective in all policies and programs to bring

about political, economic and social development through women’s empowerment and gender

equality. Women and the economy and women and poverty are critical areas of concern in the

Beijing Platform for Action (UN DES DAW, 2012). These were considered critical areas of

concern because feminization of poverty had become a significant problem in developing

countries. Women’s limited access to productive resources and inequitable decision-making

power was put as major reason for feminization of poverty. Governments are required to re-

formulate macro-economic policies that address gender disparities in economic power sharing to

alleviate poverty and advance economic growth. Gender mainstreaming was considered a major

strategy to be followed by states to alleviate poverty especially among women living in rural

households.
The United Nations Higher Commission on Human Rights passed resolution on women’s equal

ownership access to and control over property and land (UNHCR 2013). International

conventions ratified by governments including international human rights instruments and

women’s equal rights conventions were bases for considering women’s access to and control

over land as human rights issue in the resolution. African Protocol to the African Charter on the

Rights of Women in Africa adopted by the then OAU called upon all African states to eliminate

discrimination against women and to ensure women’s rights as set in international declarations

and conventions (OAU, 2013). It demanded African governments to combat all forms of

discrimination against women through appropriate legislative and institutional measures. The

protocol includes a number of articles on women’s social, economic and political equality and

gives particular emphasis to the rights of widows and divorcees.

UN agencies and international organizations play significant roles in supporting women’s equal

rights on access to and control over land. FAO is the responsible UN agency to lead international

efforts to overcome hunger. FAO draws special attention to rural development and facilitates

debate forums on land policy issues. FAO established ILC that focuses on women’s access to

land and gender relations in land tenure. ILC runs ‘Gender Relations in Tenure Project’ on

women’s rights to land which focuses on key issues regarding women’s access to land (ILC,

2015). Furthermore, the World Bank, USAID, SIDA, Oxfam GB, etc. are taking gender issues as

major concern in land policy formulation in their land and agriculture related development

programs in developing countries.

2.2.3 Gender Roles

A gender role refers those tasks and responsibilities of men and women as determined by a

particular society. The society expects both men and women to perform their roles in the
culturally acceptable manners. For example, the socialization process moulds women into the

role of subservient mother and wife’s preparing food, looking after children fetching water and

firewood as well as to low status productive activities such as trade in the informal sector. While

it is considered appropriate for males to work in income earning or productive activities

(Etsegenet, 2013).

2.2.4. Gender Division of Labor

The labor division between sexes is best explained by gender because task division doesn’t relate

to the sex of individual concerned. Division of labor between the two sexes is socially not

biologically determined. As a social construct it is subject to change, the cross- cultural

variations in the gender division of labor reveal this fact (Meseret, 2012). Most literature

indicates that in the labor division, men are responsible to fulfill the basic household

requirements but in practice, in the rural areas women provide the basic needs of the family.

2.2.5. Gender Issues in Cooperatives

Gender issues is a socio-economic and political arena is relatively new. The discrimination and

marginalization happens all over the world. For example, most jobs which are about to power

and decision making are carried out by men while the one’s which are tiresome, routine and

consume much more time to be women’s responsibility (ILO, 2013)

Although the degree varies, women around the world face many problems due to cultural,

religious and social attitudes. In addition to the social and cultural impacts which are deeply

rooted in the society new challenges are emerging in contrary times such as food insecurity (i.e.

rising food prices), climatic change, migration, an increase fuel prices and economic crises and

turmoil’s widens the existing gender inequality. The combined effect of these challenges will
further reduce their chance of getting decent jobs and ended any job at all (Ethiopian Herald Dec

7, 2014)

Gender inequality has continued to marginalize women and girls and exposed them to harmful

cultural and traditional practices which are determinant to their overall wellbeing and progress.

Violence against women has persisted over the years and now encompassing a wide range of

harmful traditional practices such as early marriage, female genital mutilation, wife inheritance

and wife beating as well as non-traditional forms of violence including human trafficking,

abduction and rape among others(ADB,2004,World Bank 2005) Avoiding discrimination and

promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment is essential to human right, democracy,

good governance, economic growth and poverty reduction. No endeavor is successful without

the equal involvement of both men and women. Development will be realized with full

participation of women who make up half of the population of the country (Kebere, 2013).

The values of self-help, mutual responsibility, equality are related in common by all

cooperatives, despite cooperatives may have policies of equity and equality opportunities for

both women and men. Their practices may differ. True equality may not in reality exist. For

example, although women contribute significantly to the agricultural sector and hence, to the

national economy of nearly all countries in the world, the percentage of women members in

agricultural cooperatives, compared to men is notably lower. Women’s participation is also

practically non-existence in cooperative board management and decision making levels. In order

to correct these imbalances and ensure the sustainability of cooperatives it is necessary that

gender issues are addressed. Below are some specific gender issues of concern to cooperatives

and questions that cooperative leaders can ask themselves. (ICA, 2012,
In order to insure the credibility of cooperatives as democratic people based movements in the

eyes of the public and cooperative members, cooperative values must be respected and adhered

to. Cooperative principles state that cooperatives are democratic organizations but what are

democratic organizations? It is to mean that cooperatives are the place where people exercise

their right without gender discrimination. It is impossible to say that cooperatives are democratic

societies if they do not include women in management and decision making. Having women in

leadership position is of great importance to women in cooperatives. Cooperatives will benefit

from their underutilized human resources by enhancing women’s productive capabilities. (Haile,

2012)

2.3 Empirical Literature- Review related previous works

2.3.1. Assessing Gender Mainstreaming in Ethiopian education and Policies

Gender mainstreaming as a concept introduced in 1985 during the United Nations Third World

Conference on Women in Nairobi, which is now almost over twenty years (SUCDA

Development consultants, 2012). The United Nations defined gender mainstreaming as: The

process of assessing the implications for women of any planned action including legislation,

policies or programs in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women’s as well as

men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring

and evaluation of policies and programs in all political economic and societal spheres so that

women and men benefi t equally, and inequality is not perpetuated (Neimanis, 2012). Gender

mainstreaming is the current international approach to advancing gender equality. In order to

achieve sustainable development, men’s and women’s empowerment and their full participation

on the basis of equality in all spheres of the society are fundamental (MoWA, 2014). In relation
to this, Fetenu and Sosena (2012) argued that the principle of equally integrating men and

women in the development process as participants in planning, policy making and as

beneficiaries has now become widely accepted by governments throughout the world. The issue

of gender equality has become an area of concern in development planning during the last few

decades. The marginalization of women for long from development programs called for changes

in policy perspective from women in development (WID) which aims at engaging women in

development projects to Gender and Development (GAD) which aims at addressing inequalities

in women’s and men’s social roles (March et al, 2013, cited in Ethiopian Society of Population

Studies, 2008). Ethiopia has been part of this global movement in advancing gender equality,

which is cemented by the existence of the country’s constitution, National Policy on Ethiopian

Women, the newly amended Family Law and the government’s ratification of the Convention on

the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). However, making it

instrumental to ensure men’s and women’s access to resources, opportunities and treatment is so

critical.

2.3.2. Assessing Gender Mainstreaming to Ensure Gender Equity and Equality in

Education, Social and Economic Sectors.

Different sources (MoWA, 2013) explained that gender inequality is one of the features of

Ethiopian society. As a result, there is unequal power and economic relation between women and

men. In almost all spheres of life, women are more disadvantaged than men. Addressing gender

mainstreaming in development is, therefore, not only about equality but also about social justice.

An official document released from the Ministry of Women’s Affairs (2015) further stated that

countries will not be able to alleviate problems related to poverty and HIV/AIDS pandemic and

ensure sustainable development without a deliberate attempt to overcome gender inequality.

Gender mainstreaming is the core strategy to eliminate gender inequalities which in return helps

to ensure sustainable development in a given country. In other words, equal rights and

opportunities for women and men are practical preconditions for sustainable development

(MoWA, 2014). Moser (2014) classified two approaches of development i.e WID- women in

development, and GAD- gender and development. The core point of WID is that development

policies and programs had excluded women, entrenching economic inequalities rather than

fostering equal opportunities between women and men. The aim of WID is, hence, to integrate

women in to the existing institutions. GAD aims at filling the short comings of WID, i.e.,

addressing the gender relations between men and women. It aims at reshaping power relations

which has resulted in unequal gender relations which in return created unbalanced development

participation between men and women (CRTD. A, 2015). All social, economic, political

structures and development policies are subject to gender analysis, and it recognized that gender

equity requires transformative change and not merely the integration of women in to existing

economic structures (CIDA, 2012).

Article 25 of The FDRE constitution states (The Right to equality) All persons are equal before

the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this

respect, the law shall guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection without

discrimination on grounds of race, nation, nationality, or other social origin, colors, sex,

language, religion, political or other opinion, property, birth or other status.

Article 35 of the FDRE Constitution (the Right of Women) constitutes nine sub articles and deals

with all sorts of women’s rights, such as, equality of women with men, equality in marriage, the

right to receive affirmative measures, the right to eliminate the influences of harmful customs,

the right to maternity leave with full pay, equal right to participate in national development
issues, equal right to property ownership, equal right to employment and the right to family

planning education. Article 38 of The FDRE Constitution also takes into account women’s right

to vote and to be elected. Similarly, all articles dealing with democratic rights have considerably

emphasized the equality of sexes. The document analysis has also been made on proclamation

176/2013,

In the same vein, sub Article 2 states ‘Provide the necessary follow up and support for the

Regional Government bodies in the course of their preparation of policies, laws, development,

programs, projects and reports by having formulated a mechanism enabling them to mainstream

gender issues and thereby ensure the participation and entitlement of women in such process.”

The remaining duties and responsibilities of The Bureau of Women’s, Children’s and Youth’s

Affairs’ mentioned in the Proclamation are devoted to ensure gender equality. The document

analysis has portrayed that there is adequate legal backing to realize gender mainstreaming and

thereby ensure gender equity and gender equality. Gender and Development approach believes

that the challenges and opportunities of women empowerment and as result gender equality are

examined through the proper implementation of gender mainstreaming. That is, the challenges to

empower women can be resolved through the effective implementation of gender mainstreaming

in organizations. This implies that the need to address women’s empowerment remains pressing

in gender mainstreaming. AusAID (2013) explains why the empowerment of women is

important by addressing the fundamental issues that gender equality is central to economic and

human development. This is due to the fact that in gender mainstreaming, priority outcomes

include the economic status of women, equal participation of women in decision-making in

leadership and improved equitable health and education outcomes. Cognizant of the current trend

in gender mainstreaming, this study attempts to answer the following basic question.
The role of civil society in promoting gender equality Civil Society is a critical arena for gender

equality and has a central role to play in promoting respect for human rights and governance,

including influencing government policies in favor of poor and marginalized men and women.

Recent research carried out by AWID8 assessed current trends in funding to women’s

organizations and noted that, while the impact of the recent financial and economic crisis is

evident in the decreasing level of ODA among donors, direct cuts in ODA for gender equality

are not yet apparent. However, existing levels of ODA for gender equality are inadequate to

reach the commitments made in Beijing and at the Millennium Summit ten years ago. While the

creation and continuation of new mechanisms and special funds like the gender equality fund

managed by UNIFEM have increased resources available for gender equality, their accessibility

and conditions present challenges for many women’s organizations. In particular, the large size

of grants means they are limited to a small number of organizations with the capacity to access

funding. Many of the multi-donor, post-conflict trust funds lack effective mechanisms for

marking and tracking resources dedicated to support gender equality despite the mounting

attention through the Women, Peace and Security agenda.

Gender Equality and the MDGs In preparation for the Higher Level Summit to review progress

on implementing the MDGs, which will take place in September 2013, there has been a growing

recognition of the centrality of addressing gender inequality in order to make progress across all

of the MDGs. The report of the UN Secretary General on Keeping the Promises – a forward

looking review to promote an agreed action agenda to achieve the MDGs by 2015 asserts the

importance of looking at of the MDGs through “a gender lens”.

Conceptual basis of the Gender Equality Policy A key objective of the current policy is to

advance equal rights for women and men. This “rights-based approach” to gender equality is
rooted in the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women

(CEDAW) as well as other international conventions on civil, political, social and economic

rights and those enshrined under International Humanitarian Law.

2.3.4. Practical and strategic gender needs Men and women have different roles and

different needs in society.

Gender needs are central in the promotion of gender equality and attention must therefore be

given to how various efforts in this process effects the possibilities of satisfying those needs in

different ways. The gender needs can be categorized into two types; practical gender needs and

strategic gender needs. Practical gender needs are identified in women’s socially accepted roles

in society and refer to the common needs of women that do not challenge the gender division of

labour or women’s subordinate position relative to men. They are described as being of practical

nature and often refer to insufficiencies in factors concerning basic needs such as housing, access

to water, health care or employment. Practical gender needs are formulated directly by the

women experiencing these conditions and are hence a response to a perceived necessity

identified by women in a specific context. There are however risks in identifying practical needs,

which actually concerns all family members, as women’s needs. This is done both by the women

themselves and by the policy makers of the aid agencies and both are therefore responsible for

preserving and reinforcing the gender division of labour. (Moser, 2013)

Strategic gender needs are the needs that women identify because of their subordinate position in

society and can be described as the crucial interests for challenging the existing order and to

create a more equal and satisfactory organization of society. They vary according to particular

cultural and socio-political context and relate to such things as gender division of labour, power

and control. According to Molineux (in Moser, 2013) it may include abolition of the sexual
division of labour, the institutional forms of discrimination, the establishment of political

equality, and the adoption of adequate measures against male violence and control. (Moser,

2013).

2.3.5. Approaches to women, gender and development several approaches towards gender

in development can be identified in the academic literature on the subject.

Five of them will be examined here; the approaches of equity, antipoverty, efficiency,

empowerment and GAD. The first four are sometimes categorized as being part of the broader

approach called Women in Development, WID which has its counterpart in the Gender and

Development approach, GAD. The major difference between the two is the focus of women as

opposed to gender. It is however worth mentioning that the concepts imbedded within these

approaches sometimes are closely interrelated and overlapping and it should be noted that gender

issues in development are characterized by a multitude of concepts and the terminology is

sometimes described as being confusing (Hannan, 2014 Moser, 2013, Waylen, 2013). The

different approaches presented here have been dominating, and still are, in aid agencies and their

focus on gender issues.

2.3.5.1 The equity approach

The equity approach is described as being the original WID approach and its purpose is to gain

equity for women in the development process. It was introduced during the 1970s within the UN

Womens Decade and developed from the concerns of the fact that economic development

strategies often had a negative effect on womens economic status, suggesting that women

continuously are losing ground to men as development proceeds (Buvinic, 2013). The arguments

underlying this assumption are, first, that the less monetized an economic system is, the more

important is womens productive role. Secondly, conventional measures of economic activity fail
to acknowledge the unpaid work of women and thus underestimate the scope of womens

productive roles. Third, policies designed for the Third World, based on values of the

industrialized world, hinder Third World women from engaging in paid labour. And fourth, as a

consequence women are left behind in the traditional sector which in turn contributes to a

widening gap between the sexes (Buvinic, 2013). In accordance, the approach emphasizes that

women need to be integrated into development more effectively through access to employment

and the market place and economic independence is therefore seen as synonymous with equity

(Moser, 1993). It also points to an acceptance of womens practical need to earn a livelihood.

The assumptions mentioned above results in a solution based on a process of redistribution of

resources and wealth at all levels from men to women, and if necessary, through positive

discrimination of women (Moser, 2012). The approach stresses the need to acknowledge women

as active participants in development and to highlight their important role in society through their

reproductive and productive work, as well as their involvement within community affairs.

Hence, it recognizes the triple role of women and its economic value (Hannan, 2010; Moser,

2012). The equity perspective further emphasizes a top-down approach of state intervention and

legislation in order to secure women’s political and economic autonomy and status. It should

however be noted that also other means to ensure equity are assumed, for instance consultative

and participatory planning (Moser, 2012). In these ways the equity approach meets strategic

gender needs. Critical voices however indicate that the focus on redistribution of power was too

provocative and challenging for mainstream development agencies since it was perceived as

necessitating inappropriate interference with the traditions of partnering countries (Moser, 1993;

Hannan, 2010). Southern voices have moreover criticized the equity approach for being based on

a purely Northern feminist agenda.

2.3.6. The anti-poverty approach

The anti-poverty is the second WID-approach and evolved in the early 1970s as a response to

research revealing that the growth strategies of the modernization theory proved insufficient in

solving poverty and unemployment problems (Moser, 2012). It was discovered that it did not

lead to the trickle down effects expected from increased economic activity on a macro level and

from the WID perspective this was seen as a result from ignoring women in development

planning (Andersen, 2012). As a result, the World Bank shifted its focus on economic growth to

a broader concern with eradication of absolute poverty through provision of both basic and social

needs, and in which women of low-income households, often described as the poorest of the

poor, were identified as a special target group to be assisted (Moser, 2013). This can be linked to

how the focus of this approach is set on women’s crucial role in developing countries in

alleviating poverty on the family level, as a function of their role as the main provider of the

basic needs (Young, 2012). The approach thus recognizes women’s productive role and the

purpose of the approach is to increase women’s productivity since this is seen as required if

balanced economic growth and poverty reduction are to be achieved (Moser, 2013). The

underlying assumption of the approach is that the origins of gender inequalities are associated

not with the systematic subordination of women, but with poverty and underdevelopment, which

in turn can be described as a consequence of their lack of access to private ownership of land and

capital, and to sexual discrimination in the labour market (Moser, 2013). Hence, the approach

focuses on providing better access to productive resources, especially through employment and

income-generating projects and thereby meets practical gender needs.

The anti-poverty approach has been criticized mainly for the various limitations of the actual

income-generating projects that have been created in the anti-poverty spirit. The focus on
provision of basic needs does in theory assume a participatory approach in which women and

gender-aware organizations on the grass-roots level should be included in the planning of

antipoverty projects. In practice the projects have been designed in a top-down manner by

various NGOs resulting in the ignorance of fundamental conditions affecting the outcome of the

projects (Moser, 2013). The projects have further been small-scale, underfinanced and aimed at

increasing production in activities traditionally dominated by women rather than to introduce

women to new areas of work (Hannan, 2010; Moser, 2012). Moreover, the predominant focus on

the productive role of women has often led to a negligence of women’s reproductive functions

and other responsibilities, resulting in an implicit assumption that women targeted for

participation in the projects have free time to spare and thus creating an even heavier burden for

women to carry (Ibid). Problems connected to the focus on low-income women on the household

level, and especially on women-headed households have also been put forward in the criticism.

Hence, the less radical attitude towards gender inequalities of the anti-poverty approach, in

comparison to the equity approach, is criticized for its inability (or its tactics not to) to address

the underlying problems of women’s poverty.

2.3.7. The efficiency approach

According to Moser (2013) the efficiency approach is the third and the most popular and

predominant approach within the WID concept. It emerged as a result of the economic crises of

the world economy, experienced in the beginning of the 2013s. The structural adjustment

programmes (SAP), created by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to help the

situation in Latin America and Africa, led to an increased emphasis on efficiency and

effectiveness in the development process (Hannan, 2010; Moser, 2013). The reallocation of

resources made in order to restore the balance of payments and to increase export and economic
growth, however, often resulted in shifting the costs from the paid economy to the unpaid

economy, for instance by using womens unpaid labour to make up for the resources lost in the

reallocation process (Hannan, 2010; Moser, 2013; Andersen, 2012). Hence, more attention was

drawn to womens roles in the development process. A number of characteristics can be identified

in the efficiency approach: • Womens increased participation in economic activities will make

development more efficient (Elson, 1995; Hannan, 2010; Waylen, 2014; Moser, 2013). This

perspective thus holds the thought that women previously have been an underused asset

(Andersen, 2013). • It has an instrumental approach towards women (Hannan, 2010; Waylen,

2013). Women are seen as a means of achieving development which implies that emphasis is put

on the process of development rather than on women. Hence, increased equality is a positive

consequence rather than a goal in itself. • It is assumed that an increase of women’s participation

in economic activities automatically will lead to increased equity (Hannan, 2010; Andersen,

2013; Moser, 2013). • The approach is aimed at meeting women’s practical gender needs by

relying on all three roles of women and elasticity of women’s time.

Though popular, the efficiency approach has been widely criticized. According to its opponents,

women run the risk of being overexploited and overburdened as the withdrawal of social

services, within the policies of the structural adjustment, results in an increased workload for

women. Thus, the total lack of a participatory approach fails to acknowledge the totality of

women’s roles in society. Subsequently, the top-down approach results in an extending of

women’s unpaid work and further contributes to an undermining of women’s practical gender

needs. This in turn also means a failure in meeting the strategic gender needs (Hannan, 2010;

Moser, 2013). The intensification of women’s workload also diminishes their chances of actually

enjoying the improvements in status that development and increased equity is supposed to bring.
This also leads us on to the next issue of criticism, namely the assumption that a rising level of

female participation equals a markup in equity. In connection to this both Hannan (2010) as well

as Moser (2013) puts forward the structural constraints that are affecting women’s actual

possibilities to participate, such as lack of education and technology.

2.3.8 .The empowerment approach

The empowerment approach emerged during the 1980s and apart from earlier approaches it was

developed mainly from the writings of scholars in the South as they sought their own theoretical

ground for development problems (Marchand&Parpart, 2010). In contrast to the approaches

described above the empowerment approach is sometimes associated to the GAD perspective, to

which it bears an apparent resemblance. It questions previously ruling assumptions of the more

west oriented perspectives; i) that development is beneficial for all people and ii) that all women

want to be integrated into a development process defined by western standards (Hannan, 2011;

Andersen, 2012). In accordance, it acknowledges the vast differences between women in their

experiences of subordination and exploitation, stemming from such factors as race, class,

ethnicity, religion and socio-political and economic history (Hannan, 2010; Waylen, 2014).

The approach acknowledges the importance for women to increase their power, however not in

terms of domination over others but more in terms of how women can increase their right to self-

determination and influence the direction of change by gaining control over different resources

(Moser, 2014). It seeks to empower women by applying a bottom-up perspective rather than a

top-down imposition (Andersen, 2012; Waylen, 2013). It supports the belief that people,

including poor women, are capable of promoting their own development which also cohere with

the thought of empowerment as a process that comes from within (Elson, 2013; Hannan, 2010).

Thus, the approach has a focus on increasing women's control over the choices in their lives. To
improve women's self-reliance and self-confidence is equally important in this context if they are

to challenge their status in society (Andersen, 2011). Political mobilization, consciousness

raising and popular education, alongside income-earning opportunities, are recognized as means

to empower women (Elson, 2013;)The role of development agencies are therefore seen as one of

supporting and advocating womens own initiatives and their participation in the public sphere

and in the main decision-making (Elson, 2013). Momsen (2011) also claims that ways must be

found to reduce women’s work load if they are to have time to seize these opportunities.

Development agencies must thus recognize and address the triple role of women in society. This

also makes it necessary to distinguish the practical and strategic gender needs of women since

the fulfillment of practical gender needs are seen as the basis for reaching strategic gender needs

(Moser, 2013; Andersen, 2012). The description of the empowerment approach as potentially

challenging has meant a limited popularity among development agencies. Moser (2014)

mentions that the avoidance of Western feminism, and the critique towards it, has led to poor

financial funding with the exceptions of a few international NGOs and Northern governments.

2.3.9 The GAD approach

The GAD approach emerged in the mid-1970s as a result of the academic criticism put forward

against the WID perspective by scholars in the UK (Young, 2012). The fundamental difference

between WID and the new approach was that GAD used the concept of gender and gender

relations rather than focusing on women as an isolated group and their roles. It emphasizes

women in relation to men, their different roles in society and how these differences vary

according to ideological, historical, religious, ethnic, and economic prerequisites (Moser, 2012).

Hence, the GAD perspective could be said to be based on the assumption that the situation of

women is a function of multiple power relationships, and while WID promotes opportunities for
women to participate in social and economic structures dominated by men, GAD promotes a

fundamental re-examination of these structures and change traditional relations of power to the

benefit of women, but also of some men (Rathgeber, 2010). Hence, changes are required on all

levels in society and creating support mechanisms for women in their efforts to bring about

change is important. WID is also criticized by GAD for how it treats women as a separate

category and how it makes a clear division between First and Third world women. GAD sees

women's inequality as a global problem following similar patterns in both developing countries

and in so-called developed countries, for instance how women's reproductive work is given little

social and no economic value (Young, 2002). Moreover, GAD proponent’s claims that the

isolation of women is to ignore the real problem which continues to be the subordination relative

to men and that the add-on approach of the WID concepts does not challenge the structures

underlying women’s systematic subordination. The GAD concept takes a more confrontational

stance with its ultimate goal of emancipation and the purpose that women through empowerment

can achieve equality and equity with men in society (Moser, 2012).

GAD has both short-term and long-term goals which can be related to how it focuses not only on

what Rathgeber (2013) calls the condition of women but also on the position of women. The

short-term goals are similar to those of WID and are connected to women’s condition since it

involves such factors as the material state of women in terms of education, access to credit and

health status (Parpart, 2012). These conditions or goals could be linked to practical gender needs.

Long-term goals, connected to women’s position, includes more intangible factors, inherent in

the social system and in the relations of power between men and women, such as ways to

empower women through collective action and to challenge existing gender ideologies within

society (Parpart, 2016). These goals can be compared to strategic gender needs.
GAD has encountered a number of problems over the years. One major problem is the confusion

over the terminology concerned with gender. The term gender is according to Young (2012)

often used as a synonym for woman/women and is therefore stripped off its original meaning and

the actual differences the term has in the discourse. Young also puts forward that by the end of

the 20th century all approaches to development involving a focus on women had been

amalgamated into a GAD approach even though this bears little resemblance with the original

formulation (Young, 2012). Also when it comes to policy making and promotion of gender

planning GAD has faced difficulties. Because of its transformational character and its lack of

concrete policy prescriptions it has had limited popularity among development agencies

(Waylen, 2014). Rathgeber (2012) also argues that development agencies have limited capacity

to influence practice and effect societal changes and highlights the fact that social relations of

gender has a tendency to be viewed as cultural aspects which should not be interfered with on a

inter- state level. WID is described as being easier to promote since it involves more explicit

arguments of efficiency and equity on an instrumental level (Rathgeber, 2012).

2.3.10. Use of approaches in analysis

The descriptions of the approaches above are fairly extensive and not fully manageable in its

existing form for use in an analysis of Sida and LAMP gender policies. I have thus chosen to

compress the approaches into a simple matrix below, underlining and comparing the most

important characteristics of the different perspectives. The categories chosen will however not be

used straight off in the analysis. Emphasis will be put on identifying the view of equality and of

womens role in development, how needs are acknowledged, and whether a bottom-up or a top-

down perspective is promoted. The reasons for choosing these categories can be outlined as

follows.
The view of women’s role in development is necessary to emphasize since it separates the

different approaches in a profound and legible way. It indicates the purpose of incorporating a

gender policy and it distinguishes the underlying attitudes towards the problem of gender

inequality. Considering the fulfilment of different gender needs is necessary since the

identification of needs can be seen as determining the means by which concerns can be satisfied

(Moser, 2013). Different character of the gender needs thus demands different means to reach

them. The acknowledgement of women’s different kinds of needs is therefore significant in order

to know how to satisfy the need or how to facilitate the problems causing the needs. According

to Moser (2012) it is the distinction between strategic and practical gender needs that provides

the gender planning with one of its most important tools. Top-down intervention as supposed to

a bottom-up perspective can be useful to distinguish since that may determine how successful the

confrontation of gender inequalities turns out to be. It has historically been acknowledged that

top-down intervention alone has not been sufficient to remove any of the persistent causes of

inequality within society (Ibid). The struggle to confront the nature of gender inequality and

women’s subordination has been successful only when it has incorporated the bottom-up

movements of women’s organizations. The negligence of bottom-up initiatives also brings other

fundamental problems which can be connected to the much criticized implementation of aid

projects based on western values. It also seems as if projects designed without participation of

local women’s groups or other grass-roots organizations often runs the risk of creating more

problems for women than actually relieving their situation.

2.10. Conceptual Framework of the Study

Conceptual framework is defined as a network or a plane of interlinked concepts that together

provide a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon. In other words, it is a visual that

explains either graphically or in a narrative form, the main things to be studied (key factors,

concepts, variables and the presumed relationships among them) (Miles and Huberman, 2015).

Figure 1: Conceptual framework of the study

Source: Own sketch

 Chapter three

Research Methodology

3.1. Introduction

This chapter presents overview of the research methodology used in this research. The chapter

details the description of the study area and overall research methodologies; Sample size

determination, Sampling procedure, Method of data collection, method of data analysis

employed including a justification for the approach and methods.

3.2. General Description of the Study Area

The National Regional State of Oromia is located between 3024'20'' - 10023'26''North latitude

and 34007'37'' – 42058'51'' East longitudes, extending about eight degrees (80) West to East and

about seven degrees (70) North to South vice versa (Excluding Oromia Zone of Amhara

Regional State). As the result the region has physical boundaries with all Regional States of

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, except Tigray Region. The region has international

boundaries with Sudan (66 Km) on the West and Kenya (521Km) on the South. The total

boundary length of the region is about 5700 Km, of which the largest boundary line (1860 Km)

is with National Regional State of Southern Nation, Nationalities and Peoples Region, followed

by Somali National Regional State (1410 Km). Similarly, the Region shares boundaries with

Amhara National Regional State (706 Km), Benishangul-Gumuz National Regional State (690

Km), Gambella Peoples National Regional State (225 Km) and Afar National Regional State

(164 Km).
BoFED, (2011) the total areas of Oromia National Regional State is about 363,399Km2,

accounting for more than 34.5 percent of total area of the country. The region is administratively

classified into 20 zones and 304 districts (39 towns considered as district). In addition the region

has more than6343 PAs and 482 urban villages as the 2007 final Census report indicates.

According to 2007 Population and Housing Census Result, total population of the region (As of

May 28) was 27,158,471 (Female accounts 13,482,312) Rural population was 23,788,431(female

was 11,817,588), while urban population was 3,370,040 (female, 1,664,724) (BoFED, 2011).

Gindeberet is derived from the Oral traditional which means in Afan Oromo "Dallaa Loonii"

jechuun “lafa seensa fi bahinsaa karaa tokko qofa qabu” It means lands which have one way of

road enter and out from that districts. Gindeberet District is one of the 22 West Shoa Zone

districts which are located 192 Km South West of Addis and 92Km form Ambo to the North.

The district is bounded by Ambo, Elfeta and Midakeny district in the west, Abuna Gindeberet in

the East, Jeldu district in the south of west shoa zone district and Ababo Guduru District of Horo

Guduru Wallaga zone in the West, and Amhara regional state in the Northern direction. Agro-

ecologically District is divided into Dega 43% and Woinadega 57% agro ecologies. The district

has the population of 126,763 out of which 63,915 are male and 62,848 are female (CSA, 2016).

The economic activity of the district is mostly agriculture plus very small percent of trade. The

District has 33 PAs out of which 31 PAs are Rural and the remaining 2 are Urban. Gindeberet

District has total land area of 2417.82squere kilometer out of which 40.8% hectares used for

farming, 36.1% are used for grazing, 2.3% hectares are covered by forest, 9% bush land, 8.8 non

arable land degraded land and 3% swamp and water bodies (Gindeberet district Rural Land

Administration office, 2019)

Map of the study area

Figure 1: map of the study area

Source: Ethio GIS, 2020

According to the population and housing census that was conducted 2014, the population of the

district was 104,595 of whom 52,726 were men and 51,869 were women. The rural population

was 89.4% and the urban population was 10.6%. Estimated population density of 84.5 people per

square kilometer, which is less than the Zone average of 152.8.

This show the majority of the population live in the rural area, depending on crop farming which

is profoundly influenced by environmental factor. Agriculture is the mainstay of the household

economy, intensively practiced by those who have land and livestock. The landless are engaged

in other income generating activities like petty trading and daily laboring. Crop production and

animal husbandry are major activities where agricultural product consumed at home and partly
sold to earn cash to meet other household needs, educate children and contribute to social affairs

(GANRO, 2018). The majority of the inhabitants were Protestant, with 65.96% of the population

reporting they follow this belief, while 27.12% of the population said they practiced Ethiopian

Orthodox Christianity and 7% practiced traditional religions.

3.2.4 Land use and land cover in order to know size

The term “land use” implies the way people allocate land for different purposes (Anon, 2002).

Land use pattern often influenced by population distribution and density as well as climate and

topography. The study area covers a total of 2,417.8 square kilometers (CSA, 2004).

Table 1: Areas of land use and land cover type in Gindeberet woreda

Land use type Hectare Percent

Cultivated land 42,548.9 38.69
Pasture land 15,791 14.36
Forest land 5,388.83 4.90
Shrubs land 3,389 3.08
Potential arable land 8,765 7.97
Residential area 5,315 4.83
Non arable land 6,972 6.34
Others 21,791 19.82
Total 109,960.73 100

Source: Gindeberet Rural Land Management Office (2018)

3.2.5. The important economic activates in the Gindeberet woreda

Agricultural system is part of a highly developed, mixed agriculture in which livestock used as a

source of draft and transportation. Fallowing, uses of plough, crop rotation, terracing, irrigation

and soil fertilization been practiced by the farmers for a year as part of their traditional farming

system. However, most of the cultivated land not properly utilized and the soil is highly
subjected to deterioration. All oil seed crops grown from seeds broadcasted over the prepared

field and ploughed into the soil to facilitate germination and seedling emergence. Crop

production, livestock production and beekeeping are the major sources of income and livelihood

of people in the district. Out of the total cultivated area 38.9% used for annual crop production,

4.9% covered by forest and 56.2% used for other purposes. Farmers often categorize their

cultivated land in to two groups, namely home garden and main field. Home gardens, are located

near the house and are rich in organic matter. The main fields, usually located far from the

homesteads and less fertile used for cereal and grain crop production.

3.2.6. Livestock production in Gindeberet woreda

Gindeberet woreda endowed with 372,570 of livestock, which are 53.4 cattle (oxen, milking

cows and bull), 22.8 Goats and Sheep, 5.5 Equines (horses, donkeys and mule) and 18.3%

Poultry (mostly local chickens but some improved breeds). Cattle are the major animals in the

household herd. It kept providing traction (oxen), manure, milk and meat products and source of

ready cash to meet emergencies (poultry, sheep and goats) and fuel when manure burned.

Prosperity and public esteem also gained by owning land and livestock. Cattle fed in open

grazing, stall-feeding and tethered (small area of open grazing left in front of a house). Natural

pasture (indigenous grasses and tree leaves), crop residues, weeds and tree leaves and grazing

land are sources of feeds (GWAFPO, 2018).

3.3. Justification of the Study District

The population of the district was 130,428 of whom 67,307 were men and 66,121 were women.
From 130,428 total populations 280 samples was taken in the study Area. Among 280 sampled
270 was male and 10 is Female which is 11% and 1% of total population Male and female
respectively.
3.4. Sampling Frame

In Gindeberet worked, there are 31 villages and three towns. For this particular study, out of

total 3 (three) cites or towns are purposively selected namely kachisi, chulute and Jerjera.

Because of the study was be undertaken by comparative study and hence the three towns have

some similar character on education sector each other. Because those three town have education

sector bureau than the other villages

3.4.1. Sampling Technique

Systematic random sampling: - The sampling technique will be used in this research is

systematic random sampling. The respondent will be selected by random sampling by use of the

under stated formula which: requires the sample frame and sample size only, sample interval,

Kth= (sample frame size (N))/ (Sample size (n))

Steps: Choose the first sample randomly and then choose every K th to be included in the sample.

The population in school and educational sector will be included for this study.

3.4.2. Sample Size Determinations Formula

Taking in to consideration time and budget as well as the study also comparative for this

particular study, only three towns, namely kachisi, chulute and Jerjera are purposely selected.

The sample size for collecting data for this research will be determined using Yamane

(1967:886) provides a simplified formula to calculate sample sizes. 𝑛=𝑁/ (1+(𝑒2))

Where, N= population size, e = level of precision

N
n = ----------------
(1+N e2)
Where
N = Total Population of the selected education society
n = Sample size
e = error or confident level
The conventional confident level of 95% is used to ensure a more accurate result from the
sample. Based on this, the error term would equal to 0.05. Using the total women members of
202 and error margin of 0.05, the sample size is calculated as follows.

280
n = ---------------- = 287
1+ 280 (0.05)2

Therefore, Sample size for kachisi is:

145 x 280/287 = 145
And Sample size for chulute is:
71 x 280 /287= 71
64 x 280 /287= 64 Jerjera
Sum of sample sizes that has been taken from each gender equality for interviewing will be: -
145+71+64=280 this will be 66.8 % of the woreda. So that Teachers in the school and population
or community in education sector in the selective towns will be selected for interview.

Table 3.2. Sample areas and the number of sampled respondents

S.N Name of the areas Number of society who participate in Sample size Remark
educational sector determined
Male Female Total
1 kachisi 101 6 107 145 M and F
2 Chulute 89 3 92 71 M and F

3 Jerjera 80 1 81 64 M and F
Total 270 10 280 280

Source: From Woreda Educational promotion office

3.4. Types of Data

Both qualitative and quantitative data on members’ participation villages was gathered as

firsthand information. The specific aspects on which data collections focused include: evaluate

the major factors that affect gender equality in the education sector in the Gindeberet woreda.

 Qualitative: concerned with a quality of information, qualitative methods attempt to gain

an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for actions and establish how

people interpret their experiences and the world around them. Qualitative methods

provide insights into the setting of a problem, generating ideas and/or hypotheses.

 Quantitative: as the name suggests, is concerned with trying to quantify things; it asks

questions such as ‘how long’, ‘how many’ or ‘the degree to which’. Quantitative methods

look to quantify data and generalize results from a sample of the population of interest.

They may look to measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen

sample for example or aggregate results.

3.5. Method of Data collection

The studies used both primary and secondary data to gather the required data for achieving the

stipulated objectives. The method of data collection is listed under.

3.5.1. Primary data sources

In order to collect the primary data, the researcher used open-ended and close-ended questioner

questionnaire, the semi-structured interview schedule, personal observation, and focus group

discussion with properly reviewed checklist.

3.5.2. Secondary Data Sources

Secondary data were gathered to support the information collected from primary sources. These

were collected from school and educational sectors as well as from books, news-papers,

published and unpublished materials, journals, websites, articles, and other researches related to

this study.

3.5.3. Semi-structured Schedules.

Semi-Structured interview schedule was prepared to conduct primary data source from gender

equality education office in the study area. Information pertaining to respondent’s socio-

economic characteristics and individual situations was obtained directly through the interview,

which will conduct at the household level.

3.6. Focus Group Discussion

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was conducted with 3 education office (by dividing them into

three smaller groups consisting 6 group members in each smaller group). From the three groups

one from kachisi, Chulute and one from Jerjera was selected. The participants of the groups are

from the board of directors and teachers. The sampling technique for focus group discussion is

purposively samplingly, because of the experience they have, the knowledge about the gender

equality they have, the capacity of them in educational status, etc.

3.7. Key Informant Interview/Personal Interviews

Key informant participants are 12 in number which are from district promotion agency and

education sector office which are directly related to the society by their position and also

management member of both offices for getting in-depth information about gender equality

situations and issues with respect to education sector.

3.8. Pilot Test

In the study which was undertaken because of the data collection method is undertaken by semi-

structured questionnaire the clarity of data from primary data collection may face the problem.

To solve such problem, the researcher was undertaking the pilot test of semi-structured

questionnaire data collection. After the data is collected the researcher was going to check the

clarity and reliability of the answers of respondents. The pilot test was undertaken on 10% of the

respondents which means from women’s respondents and men’s

3.9. Method of Data Analysis

Data were analyzed entered into by SPSS Version 20 and simple and analyze the collected data
and information brief descriptive analysis results statistics were employed in the results and
discussion part of the study to analyze the data. In this study, the objective of the study was
analyzed using descriptive analysis results. The descriptive analysis is made using frequencies,
tables and figures, mean, maximum and minimum values based on the results obtained. For the
second objective, it was analyzed by using Multi regression analysis model. In this study there
are more than two or three variables therefore we uses multi regression analysis .i.e. Age,
Gender, education level, family size, and etc. are variables for this study. Started by considering
the existence of an unobserved continuous variable, z, which can be thought as ‘propensity
towards’ the event of interest. In the case of participation status, z represents a member’s
participation status. In the logistic regression model, the relationship between z and the
probability of the event of interest is described by this link function.

Or zj= log
…………………………………………………………………...1
Where, πj is the probability of the jth case expediencies the event of interest.

Zj is the value of the unobserved continuous variable for the jth case. The model also assumes
that Z is linearly related to the predictors.

Zj=b0+b1xi1+b2xi2+……...+bpxp…………..
…………………………………………………………2

Where, xp is the jth predictor for the jth case

bp is thejth coefficient

p is the number of predictors

More generally, the response variable in multi regression is usually dichotomous, we will define
such response variable as Y, and denote the even y=1, when the subject has the characteristics of
interest and y=0, when the subject does not have that characteristics of interest. So an alternative
form of the logistic regression equation is the logit transformation of pi given as

Logit/pi/=log ( ) =β0 +β1X11 +β2X12 +…….. βk X1k………….…………….3

The coefficient can be interpreted as the change in the l og odds associated with a one unit
change in the corresponding independent variable or the odd increases multiplicatively by eBt for
every one-unit increase in Xt=1,2…k.

3.10. Concepts and Operational Definition of Variables

3.10.1. Dependent variable

This study focuses specifically on gender equality as dependent variable. Gender equality:

- refers to the act of taking part in the basic education activities which includes: women

involvement in decision making, implementing decisions, shouldering responsibility,

promptness and attending general meeting, leadership, as well as gender involvement in

building in the education sector.

3.10.2. Independent variables

In this study a total of eleven variables, are hypothesized to explain the independent variable

of the study. Independent variables may be (demographic) characteristics, socio-economic

characteristics, situational and personal beliefs. The selections of independent variables

were based on review of literature related to the study and discussion with experts.

Hence, in this study, its operational definition is as follows:

Age: is measured in terms of number of years of age of the respondents. The age of an

individual influences his/her decision-making in socioeconomic issues and involvement.

Normally older people refused new ideas; they want to keep what they knew already. On the

contrary, young and middle aged groups due to long-term plan and ambition they are

expected to undertake risks. Therefore, age has a inverse relationship with education sector.

Family size: is the size of the family of the respondent measured in terms of the number of

members in the family. Higher number of family members leads women to have more

burden of task in the family. Therefore, as family size increases the tendency of women

participation in the education will decrease. In this study, family size was assumed to have

negative relation to education sector.

Educational level: Education refers to the level of formal and non-formal education and

measured in terms of enrolment in primary, junior, secondary schools or above. It is

assumed that education increases members’ ability to search out, process and use

information. As the household/ a member acquired better education he could easily

understand the advantages of gender equality, differentiate education and investor owned
equality. Moreover, he could identify the current and future benefits of doing education

sector. Therefore, education has a positive role in the gender equality in education sector

more actively.

Distance from school to women resident: This factor refers to the time a member may

needs to walk to reach where school services are available. The faraway of the school

service center is located from member’s residence the less likely that a member will have

access to school services he may seek services from other options. As a member nearby the

school, there may be a chance to be a member and involve more in the activities of the

education sector. Therefore, this variable has inverse relationship with gender participation

in sector.

Awareness about Education: This refers to the level of understanding and knowledge of

the respondents about education principles and values, and by - laws. And will be measured

in yes or no question type. As there is high awareness, there is high probability of getting

information and willing to participate. Therefore, is assumed to have a positive relationship

with participation.

Family annual income: Income is operationally defined as income obtained from off-farm

and on-farm activities that are expressed in Birr per year. From the very nature of education

organizations, people who form gender are those people who are economically weak

sections of the society. Ingalsbe; Rhodes and Schrader cited in Kirub, 2015 noted that a

primary motivation for people to form and participate in agricultural education is to increase

their income and to improve their living standards. As people have a relatively better
income they tend to run their own business rather than joining education form of business.

Therefore, gross income is anticipated to have positive relationship with people’s

participation in education.

Training access: For the analysis of gender equality access of training education sector is

low and training is the continuous process in education by which gender see the connection

between their individual interest and group interest, which enable gender to increase their

knowledge and improve their skills about education. Therefore, education training is

expected to be correlated positively and significantly with the levels of participation in

education sector.

Position of women: refers to the specific responsibility given to women in the education sector.

As women have a certain responsibility in the education they have the tendency to participate in

every affair of the activities of the sector. Therefore, position of women has highly affected the

tendency of analysis of education equality.

Marital status: it refers whether the gender member have husband or not. If the women are with

their husband, they may not gain the time to participate in the in school actively. On other hand if

they are single, they may get free time to participate, but they may not gain knowledge for

education sector.

Household composition

The socio-demographic characteristics of households are essentially measures of a household’s

productive capacity which influence households’ choices and preferences over use of different

services (Agrawal & Angelsen, 2015). For example, studies carried out in Gindeberet areas

clearly indicate that there is a strong positive correlation between household size and the
education pattern of the gender-based products of community education sector (Shackleton et al,

2014). Thus, the demand for gender on education and most other education products, for

example, vary directly with household size and might influence preferences to manage education

sector.

Attitudes and perceptions about gender equality in the community

Gibson (2010) argues that perceptions of service sector salience and scarcity are not necessary

for collective process of education sector. However, there was a poor level of participation

gender inequality because community members did not consider education to be scarce to

warrant for gender equality measures. In contrast, recognition of the link between the equality

and gender of these villages to create rules to protect a portion of their education that was in the

relevant sector (Gibson, 2015)

Household size

This variable is a continuous explanatory variable and refers to the total number of family in the

household that can be taken as a proxy for level of gender and they engaged in different

education activities. From this context, large family size is expected to have negative impact on

analysis of gender in education sector. Family is the main source of labor in many rural areas and

availability of family labor contributes to increase the gender in education sector (Mohammed,

2007). The larger the household size of the respondent, the lower was the education of access

(Coulibaly- lingani, 2015).

Education level of Households

It is a continuous variable and is measured in using formal schooling the households and

expected to have positive effect on education sector. Higher level of formal schooling is
associated with high education (Contreras and Godoy, 2015). Higher level of education provides a wider range of employment

opportunity and reduces gender dependency (kamanga et al, 2015; Adhikari et al, 2015; Shylajan and Mythili, 2016).

Table.3: Description of dependent variable and independent/explanatory variables

Variables Description of Variables Category/types Unit of measurement Expected sign

IR Income of the respondent Continuous ETB +

Age Age of household head Continuous Years +/-

H size Family size of household head Continuous Head count -
Educ. l Education level of household Continuous Years of schooling +
Sex Gender of the household head Dummy 1=male 2=female +

F. Exp. Experience of on education Continuous Years of experience +

H E. Employment level Continuous ETB +/-
IFE Income from education Continuous ETB +/-
CPI H level of participation Continuous ETB +/-
MP Motivation level of educ Dummy Rank +
IF Institutional factor Dummy Rank -
+
Source own data (2020)
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1. Introduction

This chapter is deliberately added to make sweeping arguments on the gender equality analysis

essue main preserving education institutions and its direct or indirect influence on education

performance of genders. Gender issue is everywhere, though it differs in forms. Besides, the

gender analysis agents (family, society, religion, mass media, schools, etc.) are also every where.

Hence, it is possible to discuss the issue in general terms. Therefore, this general discussion go

further one step beyond the specific research findings. Of course, vital findings from the case

study research are employed as argumentative instances. Furthermore, the researcher tried the

generalized arguments’ to be supported by other authors’ view, opinions, belief and arguments

(tertiary data). Consequently, the research issues would be analysed and discussed in holistically,

and to forward a critical analysis in generalized manner to the issues that were raised previously

in the case study discussion part of this research. Most importantly, one of the research

questions: the ‘how question’ would get answer in this chapter by the logical analysis and

interpretation and logical generalization based mainly on general facts. That is, how to change

the existing traditional gender role of gender in education sector; how to ‘change’ and adjust the

educational approach in order not to see the intended result of the existing approach.
4.2. Household Characteristics

The empirical study shows average age of the respondents in the woreda was 40 years (Table 3).

The average family size the interviewed households in Gindebeeret woreda was 8, which is

higher than the national average of 5 persons per family. This discrepancy is probably caused by

an inadequate difference of the view of “family” on the one hand and “household” on the other.

Table 4: Family structure

Socio-economic characteristics Average Maximum Minimum

Age (years) of the respondent (household 40 90 24

head)
Family size (no of members) 8.16 17 1
Male household members 4.2 10 1
Female household members 3.9 9 1
Source: Survey data 2020

According to the result of Table 3 above and Figure 2 below, more than half of the sample

households were have a children under 15 years of age which shows high independence ratio that

could be affect rate of education. Out of the 245 children aged 6 to 14 years only 100 (40.8 %)

attended school in the woreda. From 100 (40.8 %) only 12% girls attended in school in the

woreda, which is directly shows high inequality ratio between genders in the Gindeberet woreda.

According to Todaro (2015) concept of “the hidden momentum of population growth,” large

proportion of children and adolescents in a population implies high dependency ratio in the

present and large number of potential parents, which will inevitably put immense pressure on the

economic resources in the future. Therefore the statement shows that household who have a large

family size has a large gender inequality. That leads large gender inequality on education sector.
According to the results of this study Gindeberet woreda needs an attention for balancing gender

in education sector and policy of gender in education should be need.

Meanwhile, on the gender issue it is indicated that restricting inequality in education of the

agreed number of policy in the woreda is one of the votive duties of the gender. In other words,

the community members can’t new awareness policy in the education other than those registered

homesteads during study. The high proportion of young generation in the education and the

prescribed duty of the gender to restrict education will sooner or later create tremendous internal

pressure that risks the sustainability of the gender approach unless something fundamental is

designed.

Table5: The link between low educational level, Income and Gender equality.

Education in gender equality Total

Female male Income
Illiteracy 30 17 45 92
HH head Socio Economic Educated 14 30 50 94
No
Factors 12 38 52 102
employed
Total 56 85 147 288
Source: Survey data, 2020

Figure 3.shows that nearly 4.7% of household members were illiterate and only 11.3 % had more

than educated. So that at the largest household family educated has the highest gender equality.

While more illiterate family has the lowest gender equality in education sector. The study shows

that illiterate HH members highly depend on agricultural output than educational output HH

members (Table4.) As you observed from above table (4) there is a significant variation of

gender equality use across educational status. Generally the empirical study shows more
educated members has large gender equality while vice versa is occur in the study are or

Gindeberet woreda.

Figure 2: Education levels of the interviewed heads households.

4.2.1 Measuring Analysis gender equality in education sector.

In Gindeberet woreda Measuring analysis of gender equality in education sector needs a large

tax. Forming a quantifiable measure of the status of women that could be compared across

nations is difficult for several reasons. Even within the developed world the role of the welfare

state, markets and family differs from country to country. These organizational and cultural

differences alone lead naturally to different labor market participation rates, part-time versus full

time employment, wage versus transfer payments, childcare arrangements etc. Thus comparing a

single economic quantity concerning women across countries may give a misleading picture.

Women’s work more often than men’s is invisible. It is also very difficult to allocate the incomes

and consumptions within families to its individual members. The researchers are left with some

aggregate measures that describe quantities that are relevant to women.

4.2.2. Girls’ education in the woreda

Studies focusing on developing countries have found girls education particularly important for

the welfare of the family and the future development. Many empirical studies conclude that

increased schooling of the mother is associated with larger effects on child’s health, schooling

and adult productivity than increased schooling of the father. (Schulz 2012,). Interestingly, there

is evidence even in the developed world that it is specifically the mother’s education that matters

greatly for the children’s performance later on in live. Korhonen (2014) finds that the duration of
graduate studies in economics, as measured by the time from entering the graduate school to the

doctoral defense, is several years shorter for those students whose mothers belong to the better-

educated half.5 It is curious that mother’s education matters so strongly in his sample consisting

of the students who have already finished their MA and started their doctoral studies, and even

after the general abilities are controlled for. Education of the mothers is found to matter in other

studies as well. It is hard to say what lies behind these findings. Therefore role of girls in the

Gindeberete woreda is not out of the above citation in education sector.

4.2.3. Changing Trends in the Global Education Agenda

The gaps and constraints to education in general and female education in particular, are

embedded in the social and economic structures and norms that obtain in different contexts (Fine

and Rose, 2015). This section examines the policy responses to these constraints that accompany

global funding flows for the education sector. In the following subsection, financial and

management reforms are reviewed, with an analysis of their quality and equity impacts. In the

one after that, the conceptual underpinnings of the global policy discourse are looked at, and the

concepts of .investment, returns. and the assumptions of human capital theory are critically

examined in the light of the empirical data on gender-based exclusion from schooling. So that

empirical study of this research shows to bring gender analysis in education sector needs a global

policy.

4.2.4 Rethinking the Policy Agenda on Gender and Education

As White head and Lockwood (2014) note, female education is clearly the .gender jewel in the

policy crown of many donor agencies, notably the World Bank. Global policy documents
exhorting greater state investment in women’s education have built their case on the argument

that the rates of return to investment in education generally, and in gender education in par-

titular, are high. However, wider questions about the effects of education on gender well-being

and the project of transforming unequal gender relations still provide a basis for the challenge of

conventional wisdom, particularly in terms of the content of policy response to the gender gap in

diverse contexts. While the case for state investment in education builds on the argument that

improving gender access to education can benefit development goals, many feminist scholars

argue that the broader social policy agenda needs to begin by identifying what education can do

for women and the project of gender justice (Heward, 2010 Stromquist, 2011 and 2012; Longwe,

2014). In particular, the framing of the problem of gender exclusion as one of .lack of access has

been sharply criticized as having given rise to policy responses that aim merely to integrate

women into education systems that are fundamentally biased against them in terms of content

and processes. This is an argument that is founded on the more generic critique of the popular

WID .add women and stir approach. Further, as Kabeer (2015) argues, a focus on .access to

different resources tells us little or nothing of the choices that access to the resource in question

enables people to make, particularly in relation to the achievement of their well-being.

The burden of expectations placed on education ranges from improvements in wealth, child

survival and health, among others; and declines in poverty and fertility. Many of these

arguments attribute causal links between education and other outcomes that are hard to

substantiate or verify. According to Whitehead and Lockwood, the World Bank assertions that

education impacts on poverty through enhancing agricultural productivity draw a spurious causal

link between education and income when, in fact, .both education and household income may be

affected by underlying patterns of wealth organized through families (WB 2013).

4.2.5. Socialization and Harmful Traditional Practices on Gender

Traditional practices have been designed, nurtured and passed from generations to generations.

Most of these traditions have been designed and redesigned and exercised to reveal directly the

patriarchy (women) or that practiced to facilitate to the manifestation or to prove ‘men power’

(Alfaro, 2015). Of course, these practises have not been approved naturally by God, man to

exercise upon his natural partner or to the other (his) half-being who is essential for his existence

on earth. But many of these practices as Hirut well expressed, though harmful, they are widely

accepted by the society, even by the victims (women) of these practices. These HTPs have been

also created and nurtured by the society to ensure the sustenance of women’s low status

(Hirut,2014). Of course, in the process of nurturing and passing of the HTPs to the next

generation, women, as Hirut stated well, have a fundamental role to play in the transmission of

culture and social continuity.

Indeed, this cultural-born role is developed by the society as accepted role of women; in addition

to their involvement in childbirth and rearing (Hirut, 2015). As Hirut stated, it is believed that

education could create the desired positive impact of change in that it enables educated people to

discard negative cultural and traditional practices (Hirut, 2015). But, sometimes there is a

situation where the non-educated are become courageous to quest and a person of action to

change what seemed wrong tradition. For instance, from the researcher’s previous continuous

visiting to Gindeberet woreda community/Oromia Region, Western Shoa Zone/ the following

understanding has been developed.

The study implies that the gender equality in education sector is very high. This directly shows

that in gender there is a low awareness about objectives and goals of gender in education sector.
So that the woreda must create policy and awareness about role gender equality in education

sector . That’s way every community members cannot easily understand about the perception of

these gender equality. The result of the study directly shows what mentioned above.

4.2.6. Impacts of Gender Socialization on Gender Inequality and Education Quality

The quality of education becomes the critical question. Since primary education is the bases for

all education level, the issue was one of the puzzles of the researcher and discussed with research

participants. Accordingly, the discussion in this section was about the quality of education in

relation with gender equality. The initial point for this discussion was the high number of

student.

4.2.7. Boys’ Gender Socialization and Education

Since birth, men become potential power executors; bullying and other forms of aggressive

behavior, largely from boys, as ‘part of growing up: testing ones fitness to man-being ’. Gender

socialization of men in dominance position obliges them to take unnecessary risks in order to

prove their capability. The prevalent causes of illness and death in men (accidents and other

violent causes) provide the most telling evidence of their exposure to risk (Alfaro, 2014). Hence,

boys are also victims of the existing gender socialization, and their life is at risk on the way to act

on what the society assigned to perform ‘properly’. So to show once ‘superiority’, they make an

intra-gender argument and try to solve it in aggression. Due to aggressive way of boys’ gender

socialization, in almost all society, lead most of the time men to perform or practice things in

violent ways that make their life at risk; and even to the extreme: Men make war and die there!

Some facts from the reviewed literature asserted, adolescent males have developed ‘culture of

resistance’, which include resistance to schooling.

Unfortunately, our culture and its socialization agents, as Baker well asserted, has become one of

the Non-responsibility and complaint in child nurturing (Baker, 2013). And as some other

researchers also asserted, due to the ‘old-software’ or out-date programme installed up on the

young children mentality (thinking and behaving patterns) that develop early ill-nurtured

children, particularly boy children, that follow for bad or misconduct, and the lack of the ability

to develop strong character in areas critical for their future success; and since it has a back fire

effect on girls’ life also affected. Since girls are often the potential battle field for the misconduct

or wrongly socialized boys to exercise or to practice upon them. When the researcher critically

analyzed gender socialization process in patriarchal society, children are not responsible for their

misconduct or ill-behaved. This is because, they did or behaved what they have been learnt

during their nurturing time from the society. So, why boy-children should be punished by doing

or behaving on the way they have already learnt or nurtured from the society? Since, the society

is harvesting what they have sown (installed on pure child mentality-thinking) rather, the society

have to blame itself for its nurturing system. If possible society should be punished even by

spoiling the current and future life of the children. Of course, sometimes it has been paid latter in

the same coin for the nurturers (parents and society) of that time in different ways and forms. For

instance, if boys and girls have been nurtured well, latter they will be good for their parents,

society and for the nation at large. But, if they have been nurtured unwisely and not educated

properly, then they will be violent, druggist, addicts and in most cases ignorant with no vision.

They will develop a destructive and revenges mentality up on their family, society, the nation,

and even to the world.

Accordingly, the researcher believes that patriarchy that designed the existing socialization

system with double standards is the root cause for good or bad phenomena in individual life and
in social relations. To mention some view, attitude, situations: development or backwardness,

prosperous or poverty, pessimist/corrupted mentality or optimist/positive thinkers, etc. of an

individual or a society in a given locality. Likewise, the unfair gender role socialization is also

one of the outputs of patriarchal system that result inter-gender inequality in education and on

the other socially constructed relations between women and men.

4.2.8. Education Quality and Gender Equality

Teacher participants of all samples schools strongly argued that ‘quantitative promotion’ of

students is not the problem in primary cycle this day. If he/she is alive and able to present bodily

at exam period she/he would be given simply a pass mark or a promotion card would be prepared

for her/him. However, they stressed that the practical problem encountered the primary schools

these day is to bring ‘qualitative promotion’ from grade to grade in the second cycle. In the

discussion about high number of student familiarity in grade eighth and in the quality of

education with teacher participants, in general, most of these participants in all sample schools

underlined that though they often raise the seriousness of the issue in any opportunities, there is

no any inclination to think about the quality of education matter in the Woreda. Rather the

Education Office was busy in the increasing of the educational coverage that the Woreda

education office wants to hear, quest and evaluate schools. As a result the school administration

are also worrying and working on what they are going to be evaluated. Their effort is to increase

the number of students enrolled. Consequently, the school administration, in particular in rural

schools, by assigning villages and responsibilities for the teacher, mobilize them to work even by

going to the individual student parent house. Especially, there is high hurry and worry at the

beginning of the first semester.

In this way of teaching and learning process, students start learning at grade one and they come

up with free promotion up to grade four levels. By simply pushed up promotion, these students

come up to the upper ladder and hardly reach grade eight. Where the actual result of the whole

process of teaching and learning efforts (of administrators, teachers) is manifested here by the

direct fruit of students at this level. The result of students become as they are not learned. This is

the great challenge/problem that the Woreda Education Office did not want to hear, think and

solve it; as they were busy in increasing enrolment rate.

4.3. Policy of education sector in Gender equality

4.3.1 Policy awareness

Table 6: policy reaction on gender equality and responsible

Variables Frequency Percent
Education gap Yes 189 80.7
No 90 19.3
Total 288 100
Responsible for collecting GE Men 130 19.2
Women 95 61.6
Children 63 19.2
Total 288 100
Reason for gender equality Low enrolment 99 60.5
Low retention rate; 124 8.3
Widening gender
gap at higher
education levels; 65 32
Total 288 100
Source: Own survey (2020)

The above result implies that more than 80 percent of the sample households depends explains

there is education gap in terms of policy and responsibility of education. Therefore female than

male students also in secondary schools that shows the gap of gender equality in the study

woreda. The NER percentages in secondary education do not reveal the fact that there are huge

discrepancies between rural and urban areas. What is conspicuous as regards NER for secondary
education in the studied countries is that it is so low for both boys and girls. In Kachisi , for

example, around 100 per cent of all children are enrolled in primary schools but only 31 per cent

of boys and 25 per cent of girls enroll in secondary education. No figures are available for

retention rates in secondary education; however, it is well known that the drop-out rate is high.

Thus, the general education levels among the population remains fairly low, only some in the

Gindeberet woreda.

4.3.2. Types of attitudes do households used and ways of policy on education sector

Table 7: Types of attitudes do households used and ways of policy on education sector

Variables Frequency Percent

Distance ES Far 188 56.32
Near 100 43.68
Total 288 100
Attitudes Highly 161 39.1
Medium 59 37.8
Low 40 15.4
Unknown 28 7.7
Total 288 100.0
Source: Own survey (2020)

The result shows that more than half 56% of interviewed households were Comes From far on

Formal education which really affects gender equality on education sector while around 44% of

them were near to the school. This implies that major Factors that affect education quality and

gender gap or gender equality in education. Therefore in the Gindeberet woreda the same is true

to factorized the gender equality.

4.2.3. Total of Income HH Consumed from ES pear year.

Table 8: total income and Annual average income from education sector as salary

Variables No Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Income from Education Sector 288 10,000 35000 9486.77 4311.89
Other income source of HH 288 600 10000 2720.97 1953.33
Source: Own survey (2020)

The mean annual income from education of HH in the study area is found to be about

9486.77ETB. The maximum income from education sector in the previous year was about 35000

ETB. According to focus group discussions and individuals interviews the income generated

from education sector play great role in fulfilling to cover yearly budget of households in the

study area. But because of gender gap most of HH does not react with this opportunity in

Gindeberet woreda.

Results (table 8) shows that out of 288 respondents, only 56 of them were valid and they respond

that the education sector which they generated income from were salary, food aid and others

such as (carpentry, pottery, civil services). From this the mean total income from education

sector was 35000 ETB and standard deviation is 4311.89 ETB.

Table9: Education Income contribution the interviewed household obtained in 2019 of woreda
Family size of HH Total
greater than
Income distribution of HH less than 5 6-10 11
Income From HHIS in 2019 1oK 1 2 6 9
Salary
10K to <30K 4 4 12 19
30Kto60k 0 1 1 2
>=60K 0 0 0 0
 Total 5 7 21 33
Income From HH IS in 2019 10K 1 2 4 7
Rent
10K to
<30K 1 0 6 7
30K to
4 14 18 36
<60K
= 60K 0 0 0 0
Total 6 16 28 44
Income From HHIS in 2019 10K 16 23 27 66
pension
10K to
0 2 3 5
<30K
30K to 0 1 2 3
<60K
= 60K 0 0 0 0
Source: Own survey (2020)

The study shows the proportion of income generation from education sector in the woreda and

the dependability of the education is too high in the woreda to earn maximum income (Table9).

This means that household who have a large family size is highly depend on other than the

education sector household who has small family size. Obviously households using /obtain

different benefit but the category of rent, pension and income contribution is based on the

household survey. Even if the income from the education sector is high in the interviewed

household steel there is high gap in the gender equality in the Giundeberet woreda.

Generally the result of the study shows household who have a large family size can get low

income from education sector while a household who have small family size can get large

income from education sector this directly lead has an impacts of gender equality in the

woreda .Therefore in the Gindeberet woreda one factors that affect the gender equality is a

family size.

Source: Survey data, 2018

Figure 3: Contribution of Education sector per capital income in the woreda .

Education sector income helps many households from falling under the poverty level. If

Education income is omitted, the occurrence of poverty would rise. Regardless of income level,

ES income is an important source of cash income and contributes substantially to financial

expenses in direct and indirectly. Study shows that households on average earn 22.3% of their

cash income from Education sector in Gindeberet woreda. The main sources of income are

Salary. The result shows that ES products constitute an important part of the household income

portfolio contributing 22% of total per capita income while livestock (34%), crop (30%), and

environmental products (6%). Private business, remittance, transfers, and wage together

constitute only 6% of total per capita income (Figure3). If ES income which usually is not fully

accounted for in the national account estimate is excluded the poverty incidence will rise.

Therefore this gap can directly increase gender equality in the Gindeberet woreda in educational

sector.

According to the UNESCO (2015) Gender Equality exists when “women and men enjoy the

same status and have equal opportunity to realize their human rights and potential to contribute

to political, economic, social and cultural development, and to benefit from the results. Gender

Equality is the equal valuing by society of both the similarities and the differences between

women and men, and the different roles they play” The importance of Gender Equality in society

is defined clearly by the UN Sustainable Development Goal 5(UN, 2016). Gender equality is not

only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and

sustainable world. Providing women and girls with equal access to education, health care, decent

work, and representation in political and economic decision-making processes will fuel

sustainable economies and benefit societies and humanity at large. Considering that women and

girls represent half of the world’s population there is a potential here that cannot be lost. Despite
being a core value in many national constitutions, Gender Equality is still a challenge in many

countries and in many economic activities. This challenge is still critical to all areas of a healthy

society, from reducing poverty to promoting the health, education, protection and the well-being

of girls and boys (UN, 2016).

Gender Equality is also viewed as having proven impacts on many other Sustainable

Development Goals, including economic growth, health, nutrition, agricultural productivity and

reduced inequality (Banham, 2016). In the following chapter the role of education in promoting

Gender Equality will be addressed. Therefore there is gap in gender equality in the Gindeberet

woreda.

4.4.1. Determinants of households’ Gender equality.

In this subsection the determinants of Gender equality from the education sector are presented

and discussed. The econometric result (table 10) shows that among the ten (10) hypothesized

determinants of households income from the forest, six (5) variables were found significant.

These are Age, Household size, Income from livestock, High level of participation and

Institutional factors.

Table.10: Linear regression analysis and the aver all score of factor of education.

Dependent Variable: Forrest income Standardi

zed
Unstandardized Coefficie
Coefficients nts
Predictor B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
(Constant) 1.434 .468 3.061 .003*
Age -.113 .055 -.159 -2.072 .040*
Education level .028 .102 .027 .276 .783
Family size .095 .052 .157 1.832 .069*
 Distance from the school -.092 .204 -.034 -.451 .652
Family income .246 .084 .232 2.922 .004**
Training access on Education -.101 .096 -.080 -1.051 .295
Attitude of community .366 .099 .297 3.705 .000***
Position of women in community -.035 .064 -.042 -.540 .590
Marital status -.139 .079 -.136 -1.765 .080*
Household composition -.058 .088 -.052 -.654 .514

R2 0 .242
Adjusted R2 0 .176
Source: Survey data, 2020,
*, **, *** indicates significance level at 10%, 5% and 1% respectively

Age: The result shows that age was significantly and negatively affected gender equality at 10%

level. An increase in one year age indicated an decreases in the gender equality by 0.40, other

variables being constant. And also Cavendish (2010) contradict this idea, and argued that older

people have difficulty in carrying capacity out education sector tasks and may turn to

experience based education sector activities that demand less physical in gender equality.

Housed size: The result shows that family size was significantly and negatively affected gender

equality at 10% level. An increase in one unit family members indicated an decreases in the

education sector products by 0.69, other variables being constant. This can be because of the fact

that if the family number increases some might in education sector while others family members

might have involved themselves in other alternative activities, which could be alternative sources

of income. From this it can be noted that less participation of family members in the education

which in turn decrease the gender equality. Household size is the main source of labor in many

rural areas and availability of family labor contributes to increase the collection of forest

products (Mohammed, 2015). The result is in line with (Coulibaly- lingani, 2014). The larger the

household size of the respondent, the lower was the gender equality of access to education

sector.
Education level: The study shows that education level of household was significant and

positively affected forest income 10% level. An increase in one grade of household from gender

equality in education sector increases by0.004. Therefore level education and gender equality has

appositive r/ship in education sector.

Household head level of attitudes in education about gender equality was positively significant at

1%and awareness factors negatively and significant affect gender equality by 10%.

Finding so few variables to be significant in the all Variable model raises the question whether

simple significant relations between the dependent and explanatory variables become suppressed

due to correlations between the explanatory variables. To shed some light on this it was analysed

whether significant simple relations do exist between the dependent and independent variables.

The chi-squared test of independence of categorical variables is used to determine whether the

effects of one variable depend on the value of another variable (Sharp, 2013). In this study, it

was used to test if the participation status of each household depended on the household head’s

Age, Household size, Education level, HH level of attitudes and Awareness Factors.
 Chapter Five

Conclusions And Recommendations

5.1. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

In this final chapter, the general summary of findings, conclusions, issues that have policy
Implication and need recommendations are presented.

5.2. Summary of Major Findings

The researcher’s motivation to focus on this research topic was that the previous research

approaches have not touched the factors of gender equality in education sectors and its problem

from gender perspective; particularly genders educational problems (due to the existing

traditional gender role socialization) have been the missed part of most researches in Ethiopia.

The research is designed to be undertaken on analysis of gender equality in education sector at

Gindeberet Woreda level. This is because, from implementation context, gender equality at

Gindeberet woreda level is a stage where children sense of identity, behaviour and attitude is on
the process of development and that would be mostly dominant throughout one’s life. Besides

that, analysis of gender equality schools reflects norms of behaviours which exist in the given

society. In general, gender equality or the complex social relations can become visible when

research is undertaken at the grass root level.

The type of this research is ‘basic research’ that deals mainly with theoretical problems of gender

equality role analysis. Accordingly, the researcher employed the ‘abductee’ research strategy to

address the two intended research objectives of ‘understanding’ the impact of the existing gender

role analysis on gender inequalities in primary education, and changing’ and adjusting the

educational approach; and how to transform the existing traditional gender equality role analysis

in a given locality in order not to see the intended impacts of gender equality in the Gindebeeret

woreda.

The ‘inductive’ strategy also employed to address the ‘prediction’ In order to collect relevant

data that would answer the research questions, a combination of quantitative and qualitative

method were used, mainly the qualitative one. Subsequently, the analysis and interpretation of

collected data resulted to achieve the following main findings. Gender have been constantly

constructed and transmitted from generation to generation by different gender equality analysis

institutions that act simultaneously and mutually reinforcing. Hence, analysis have learnt or

nurtured their personal gender equality behaviour and practices in their locality by different

actors (family, community traditional practices, religion, primary schools) that function in

different forms. Research efforts need to move away from the current polarization between

instrumentalist arguments and arguments that merely reiterate that schooling subordinates

women. Neither approach is useful on its own for the purpose of moving forward. As this paper

has argued, class-based exclusion also needs to be more closely analysed. This entails paying
closer attention to the patterns of education exclusion and inclusion that emerge from changes in

the global economy and the incentives for employment to which it gives rise, without losing

sight of the fundamentally gendered nature of the social and economic order. Second, the

challenge of universalizing education. while developing systems that are sensitive to diverse

local cultures and histories, and the needs of diverse groups within a specific school

community.remains a significant one for the future. This is necessary to ensure that efficiency

gains of decentralization, for example, are not undermined by the exacerbation of inequalities as

the experience in several countries appears to indicate. Finally, lessons from microlevel interven-

tions that move beyond merely addressing economic incentives to girls for their education and

take into account the social and cultural rules and norms that perpetuate discrimination against

girls, need to be more centrally reflected in macro policies for promoting gender equity in

education. At present, the macro-micro divide in education appears to be very wide, particu-larly

at the discursive level. More attempts to bridge the divide are essential.

The education system that is established with the responsibility of cultivating the new generation

with modern way of thinking has been practically working in perpetuating the existing unfair

gender equality relation. The finding showed that the education system and the gender school

environments worked in perpetuating the existing traditional gender role gender equality for the

young school children through education policy and curriculum, and by the inter and intra-

gender social relations between teachers and students in the school environment. Through these

gender equality means, children learnt their gender identities by observing their role model,

studying behaviours and practices in the form of stories, jokes, playing together, music, drama,

art, history, pictures, teachers experiences.

The findings in each sample schools also showed that the schools are really working as gender

equality analysis agent in preparing boys and girls by the existing traditional gender role gender

that make them the usual traditional adult men and women of tomorrow. Consequently, the

primary school children learning and practicing their gender specific socially assigned gender

roles makes difference in boys’ and girls’ gender equality education performances.

Consequently, the researcher argued that in the existing traditional gender equality role in

education process, boys are also affected in their educational performance; and the research

Gindeberet Woreda educational statistical indicators revealed this fact. This is because; gender

equality the sample schools and the Woreda schools’ within a year’s trends in school enrolment

and repetition for girls’ and boys’ showed almost proportional result.

From the existing patriarchal social relations the young boy children learnt to act aggressively in

their social relations that influence their thinking and behaving patterns that lead for misconduct.

The study finding showed that eleven students in Gindeberet Woreda School. Besides, one thing

to be noticed is that, essue of gender equality in the woreda is not supported by community and

government policy at all. Ultimately, the possibility of the future life of these boys to be good

citizens is a rare case that has also societal cost. However, in the gender equality in education

sector process in patriarchal society, boys are not fully responsible for their averred or ill-policy.

This is because; they did or behaved what they have learnt during their nurturing time from the

society. So, first the society has to blame itself for its nurturing or awareness of gender equality

in education sector in the woreda.

The other finding is that the school-cultures (teachers’ inter-gender division of labour in

festivals) signify that the positive role-modeless of female teachers for female students in this
regard was seen only in statistical presence. This is +because; female teachers did not try to

change the existing gender division of labour at least in the school environment. Currently,

increase in matriculation rate, increase in gender equality and repetition rate in the research

Gindereberet Woreda do not mean that in increase in education quality, performance, and gender

equality. The research participants, particularly teachers, asserted that the current trend shifts

from ‘qualitative’ promotion to ‘quantitative promotion’. It is student number-oriented, which

has a direct effect on the education performance of these students in the following schooling

levels too. Commonly used ‘gender parity index’ cannot be an appropriate educational indicator

to examine gender equality in education. Since gender equality is more than student number

representations. This is because, even achieving gender party, by closing the enrolment rate

doesn’t indicate the achievement of gender equality in education sector in the Gindeberet

Woreda. Hence, unless boys and women are able to enjoy and exercise all fundamental rights,

and are free from violence against them, share of domestic roles created, avoiding gender

stereotypes and if the school, community and home environments are gender-friendly, gender

equality in education cannot be achieved. Subsequently, based on these research findings, the

researcher forwards the following conclusions.

5.2. Conclusions

This paper has argued for a shift in the discourse underpinning education policy away from

concerns with efficiency and toward a more context-specific commitment to securing equity. The

challenge of providing education lies more in terms of including excluded groups, which are

often kept out of education through the complex intertwining of caste, class, and ethnicity and
gender identities. While the concern with efficiency should seek to find methods of delivering

cost-free education to these excluded groups, it should be less focused on enabling states to cut

corners on their commitments to universal education as appears to be the case in many coun-tries

struggling to universalize education.at least up to primary level. This may entail funda-mentally

rethinking the question .education for what?., based on a recognition that the way in which the

value of education is constructed through policy can give rise to incentives to exclude diverse

populations. Moving away from instrumentalist arguments for targeting women, girls and other

excluded groups and toward an analysis of the reasons why different groups are excluded, and

identifying how exclusion may be overcome through the expansion of education as well as other

resources are issues that need to be the central plank of social policy efforts in education sector

in the woreda.

Gender roles and relationship keep changing (usually slowly), but they are determined by society

and are experienced through cultural traditions, beliefs and norms. The different roles that

women and men play in their communities and the unequal inter-gender relation generate

different needs and concerns. Hence, from what children have learnt from the existing gender

role gender equality through education sector agents in their early the woreda, rather than

studying well their education and to face hardship and to aspire to be educated, and to have a far

sighted vision. Gindeberet woreda gender equality working daily in keeping their external beauty

is the best example to be mentioned. To accomplish their life dream, girls have to prepare

themselves psychologically, to go even beyond their locality, as their brothers have done, are

doing and would do. Hence, in order tomorrows children to warrant a better world, today’s

children should grow in wisdom, in love and justice; for that outcome, it is really this day’s men

and women strategic duties to be accomplish nowadays!

Nevertheless, the above gender equality agents or educational sector can also play in redressing

the negatively gendered pattern of inter-gender relations in the school, in the family and in the

community as well; if gender awareness training given for these agents in continual basis. Hence,

for real change to come in child gender socialization, every socialization agent that contributes in

reinforcing and perpetuating the existing traditional gender role socialization in a given time and

locality has to be first courageous to start in self-blaming for the existing gender socialization

effect, and start self-examining, and contribute its part.

Even though social relations are in dynamic change, changing the gender role, gender division of

labour, the traditional beliefs and values of the society is a difficult task, particularly in the

traditional society like Ethiopia, where most of the society is illiterate, less communicative, and

resistant for new things. Since gender role equality has been centuries’ lesson learnt that passed

from generation to generation, so it is not likely to change or to stop by revolutionary measures

or through years’ campaigns. Subsequently, since the task is to bring behavioural change:

changing the human mind, then it is step by step transformation from generation to generations

by the continuous works of consequent generations. Likewise, to bring gender equality in

education and in the society at large needs inter-generation task than a one generation duty.

Therefore, it needs employing strategic and holistic approaches that can be enhanced through

education and economic development.

Hence, to speed up the processes of changing the existing traditional gender equality and to

achieve the intended gender equality and social transformation in Ethiopian society in general,

proper education and gender education and training for different socialization agents are

imperatives. This is because ultimate objective of proper education is after all to bring

development or progress in individual and societal attitude, thinking capability, and to generate
knowledgeable and responsible citizen that work for and even live for truth, enlighten justice,

and believe in gender equality, which is one means of achieving social, economic, and political

justices.

Since gender equality is a relation between men and women and to involve both men and women

in the behaviour change is crucial. In other words, to transform the hierarchal nature of gender

relations and in order women’s gender identities to be changed then men’s (the other half)

gender identities should be changed too. Hence, it is arguable that the gender inequality problem

will never be solved until men are brought into the process of solving it. Therefore, to make a

difference in gender relations and on the other hierarchal social relations, and to bring gender

transformations or gender equality, participating men for change is imperative and timely.

On top of that, living in a male dominated society will depend on the male approval of

interventions directed towards enhancing female education. Consequently, since the ball (power

to decide) is mostly in the court of men nowadays, then it is better systematically to employ men

at home, office, religious institutions, etc…Most importantly; the level of success is dependent

on raising the level of male awareness to the problems that women are facing. For instance,

encouraging men to join in ‘Gender Studies’ is one means that induce gender problems are

shameful and really are the men’s problems too, and of development issues at large. In general,

the researcher has reached to conclude that the traditional socialization, which is the product of

patriarchal social system, is the causes for any social, economic and political injustice in the

domestic and public arenas in general. In other words, socialization is the cause for any good or

harmful phenomena in individual life and in social relations. Likewise, the unfair gender role

socialization is also one of the outputs of patriarchal system that result in inter-gender inequality

in education between girls and boys. Hence, since the existing traditional gender role
socialization and its’ borned HTPs practices affect both the present and future genders, they

should get attention of men and women, and changed by the effort of both genders. Very

importantly, to forward the means that bring structural social transformation, and working on

gender equality, education is one of the means for this transformation. Therefore, the education

system first emancipate itself from the existing traditional gender role socialization; and not to be

means in transforming it to the present young generation; and in reinforcing and perpetuating it

for the next generations. Consequently, the primary education stakeholders better to go beyond

the traditional approach that was focused on addressing the supply-side of education. Besides,

the demand parts of education better to get an attention too; and to examine the issues from

gender perspective. Furthermore, in any gender analysis works in education, it is advisable to

employ a holistic approach by examining thoroughly the institutions’ working culture and

practices. Thus, to facilitate the gender mainstreaming process in the education system,

primarily, sector specific ongoing training, (like gender and education), gender awareness

training is crucial.

Hence, if the above forwarded efforts addressed accordingly would enable to ensure the

education sector to achieve its intended goal: nurturing the new generation with modern way of

thinking, a generation that believe in gender equality and that is disobedient to shoulder and

challenging the existing inequality in gender and other unfair economic, political and social

relations. Subsequently, an attempt to bring gender equality in the education system is an

important step in the processes to bring social structural transformation. This is because, in

principle, the roles of education is to provide knowledge, information and skill that increase level

of consciousness that spark ideas to think differently, motivate and equip students and the
educated to challenge the existing inequitable or hierarchal social relations. That is why gender

equality in education system is become a very important outcome by itself; and is also a crucial

means for other social changes assumed to achieve in social, economic and political justice in a

given locality.

In nutshell, though education is an essential means for achieving sustainable human development

in

Ethiopia; the quality of education is the timely question of the society. Gender equality is,

therefore, an important aspect of ‘quality of education’. Besides, gender equality in primary

education cannot be assumed without engendering (gender awareness works) first the gender

socializing agents in the given locality. Consequently, the education policy environment, school

environment, the home, religious, and other societal institutions has to come first gender

friendly. In other words, to mainstream gender in the education system and to bring gender

equality in the primary education in a given locality in the long-run holistic, strategic and multi-

dimensional approaches are imperatives.

5.3. Recommendations and Implication

The following research area specific and general recommendations and policy instruments are

proposed to mainstream gender in education system that enable to narrow the existing gender

equality in education sector.

5.3.1. Research area specific recommendations

Economic development is important for education improvement and vice versa. Consequently,

since the Woreda is one of poorest affected area in the region, alleviating or minimizing the

poverty level of the Woreda, particularly that addresses the poor households is imperative. Since
economic problem of the family is one of the causes that were identified for gender equality

school low participation in the research Woreda that would have a positive effect in increasing

their quantitative and qualitative education performances.

Students’ lack of motivation, misconduct and the dissatisfaction of teachers by their teaching

outcome (students’ poor qualitative performance), the school environment in general has to be

studied thoroughly by educational expertise to find corrective measures, by employing

qualitative research methods, involving all education stakeholders that make visible the invisible

reality behind the common quantitative educational indicators in the research Woreda,

particularly in Gindeberet woreda education sector.

In addition, for long run solution, the school and teachers have to develop mechanisms to correct

the teaching-learning environment by undertaking practical research that can address their

school’s specific problems. Therefore, a need in encouraging teachers to undertake practical

research that can able to address their school’s specific problems and the school implementing

the recommended study report. Besides, awareness creation activities are necessary for the

communities to realize that educating genders are important and reducing their heavy workload

could be beneficial for girls’ good educational achievements; for instance, decreasing the amount

of traditional fests, festivals in rural locality enable girls to have additional time for study.

5.3.2. General Recommendations

Proper gender equality education and training that increase children’s compromising capability

and gender sensitiveness is the prime means to aware and emancipate children particularly

equality that are the most vulnerable from harmful traditional practices.
In the policy environment: To understand the causes of the low quantitative and qualitative

school performance of gender equality undertaking a continuous multi-dimensional gender

analysis study is vital and timely in order to create gender friendly in school environment. In

other words, the ‘Gender Equality or ‘parity’ in Education’ statement to be practical, needs a

continuous gender analysis study, based on in-depth qualitative data collection method and

involving both education stakeholders.

Local Government and NGOs partnership: To narrow the gender equality in education

sector , and to bring equality, there is a need to do much more to change the traditional gender

equality role socialization in the given locality. Hence, strengthening partnership and collective

efforts of the local government, the community, CBOs and NGOs have a major role, to facilitate

and organize gender awareness training for the community, workshops on gender and HTPs.

Furthermore, community awareness creation works on the importance of gender equality

education for the community at grassroots level; and establishment of ‘Functional Adult Women

Literacy Programme, contribute in enhancing the effort for girls’ education. Most importantly,

since the local community and religious leaders have influential role (for good or harmful action

to be taken) in the given community, gender awareness creation is crucial for them accordingly

in education sector in Gindeberet woreda.

In addition, mechanisms of introducing appropriate technology to rural families would decrease

workload so that parents can send their children particularly to schools. Hence, parents should

get gender equality awareness training. Therefore, the Local kebele administration has to

organize continuous gender equality awareness tasks to mothers and fathers in the community to

increase their awareness about how important attending school for their daughters and sons

livelihood in the woreda.

Religious Institutions: Since the principle or the main domains of beliefs are not gender

discriminatory, rather it is the canon of Muslim and Christianity institutions. Hence, it is

preferable the leaders of these religion institutions to be courageous to modify or improve their

canon that fits to the current consciousness level of their respective followers to increases gender

equality in the wotreda.

School Environment: In this institution the researcher proposed teachers and the education

sector administrators first to make free them from practicing and perpetuating harmful cultural

codes and social beliefs. For this purpose, teachers should be gender equality aware and be a

good gender role model for their students in the school environment. Furthermore, primary

school teachers stand to make equality and fairness their lifelong commitment for the formation

of a gender sensitive generation that believes in gender equality. Of course, that comes real

through continuous gender awareness training for teachers and checking one’s individual

commitment to be gender friendly and to become changing agent.

Finally, to see real change in school gender equality role socialization, every socialization agent

that contributes in and perpetuating the existing traditional gender role socialization in a given

locality has to be first courageous to start in self-blaming for its contribution to the effect the

existing traditional gender role socialization on children education and future life; and initiated to

take its share to contribute its part for the solution. Thus, gender equality in primary education

can be achieved only if the education stakeholders work mutually in holistic and strategic

manner on gender matters in a given locality.

Implications: One of the objectives of the research has been that gender equality also

encountered education problems due to the existing traditional gender role socialization. Hence,
the researcher proposes issues that other interested researchers to look into analysis of gender

equality education sector perspective (both girls and boys).Consequently, the researcher

hypotheses the following that need further research to be undertaken by other motivated

researchers.

Findings beyond objective

Since research is always in dynamic process, usually one research, beside its trial to resolve one

research problem; it becomes a cause for some issues to be topic for further research. Hence, the

tentative hypothesis derived a new issue by the researcher that needs to be researched are the

following:

1. Poverty (of family and nation) by itself is also emanated from the wrong gender equality about

work and its inputs, like, time value. That is, the working-culture of a given society determines

its level of development. The society does not offer value for time, and equal value for the

importance of any types of works, individuals or communal traditional knowledge for

development, in associating with the existing unequal social relations. Hence, the researcher

proposes, ‘The impact of gender equality on working-culture on local development’ should be

studied by researchers.

2. The researcher observed one important issue during discussion with parent and student

research participants in rural localities, in the discussion point that dealt with the ‘purpose of

gender equality education sector’ for students themselves and their children respectively; the

common answer is often spinning round to be a ‘doctor, teacher, nurse’, pilot, etc…

Unfortunately, the researcher did not come across any student or parent participant aspire that

‘learning to be a professional farmer.’ Hence, from this fact and from the researcher past

experiences in other similar rural locality, what the researcher realized is that the purpose of
education for rural community and to their children is to ‘escape from being farmer’ or from

‘rural livelihood’; assumed to be backward to be a farmer in profession, and they didn’t aspire to

be a professional farmer after completing the appropriate education levels.

Actually, this assumption of the local community is derived from wrong perception. For

instance, to be farmer in well developed countries, demands expertise in agricultural fields. The

profession is also honorable one and farmers are relatively better living society in dwelling

relatively in no polluted environment and admiring nature. And this is the researcher’s

observation beyond the research’s objective, and interested to initiate other researchers to

examine these issues further more; and to create understanding that the rural communities’

perception on the purpose of education is to be corrected about gender equality sector.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1
QUESTIONARY
 The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect data regarding to study
implementation of gender equality policy in education sector: the case of
west shoa zone Gindeberet woreda Oromia, regional state, Ethiopia.

Specific instructions for field assistants:

 Circle as appropriate of the alternatives provided or write down the response/s of the
respondent/s in the blank space provided.

 Describe what “other” refers to on the space provided.

Kebele of the household: ___________________ Interview start time: _____________

 General background information

1) Location and socio demographic characteristics of the household head.

1.1) Household head’s socio characteristics

Age Gender Marital status: Literacy level:
1) Male 1)Married 1) Illiterate
….. 2) Female  2) Single 2) Read & write only
3)Widow 3) Primary (1-8)
4) Divorced 4) Secondary (9-12)
5) First Degree
6. Master level
7. Above
 Source of income

2.1. Employment status

 = unemployed

 = formal/permanent employment

 = informal/ non-permanent employment

2.2. What is the highest level of education of the household head?

1. No formal education 5. First Degree
2. Primary (1-8) 6. Above
3. Secondary( 9-12)
4. Diploma
2.3. I there Gender inequality in education sector? 0=No 1= Yes

2.4. Does your household engage in any education sector activities?

(0 = No; 1 = Yes)
2.5. If yes, on 2.4. In what role?
1. Teaching in the school 2. working in Education office

2.6. How many members (who lives here) of your household are permanently
employed?
2.7. Is there Gender difference in education sector?
0. No 1.Yes

2.9. If yes, What are efforts that are being made to bring equality?
1………………………………………………………………..
2……………………………………………………………….
3………………………………………………………………
4……………………………………………………………..
5……………………………………………………………..

 Based on value list the following by order Value

based
1 .GDP incensement
2..Income contribution
3 Knowledge
 4 .Create awareness
5.Others
 Gender equality values in education sector

3.2 How many years have you been working in education sector?

3.3. What are the indicators of gender in equality in education sector in your
district?
1…………………………………………..
2…………………………………………..
3…………………………………………
4…………………………………………
5………………………………………….
3.4. Do you get sufficient support from the school principal or supervisors in office
to reduce gender inequality in education sector? 0. No 1. Yes

3.5. Is the issue of gender inequality frequently discussed in your office?

0. No 1. Yes

3.6. Was there any training on Gender equality in education sector on your
woreda? 0. No 1. Yes
3.7. If yes, What do you understand from training about impacts of Gender
equality?
…………………………………………………………………………………..
3.8 Have you ever participated in activates aimed at gender equality? 0: No 1: Yes
3.9 If yes what kinds of activates?

\s classrooms?
 3.10. What motives you to participate in gender equality policy in education sector
at Gindeberet woreda?

IV. Institutional factors to work for gender equality

.1 Who is a responsible in education sector in your area? 1Government; 2 Community 3 private4 = Community and
overnment 5 = NGO

2 Is there consistent monitoring of the works of gender equality in education sector? 1yes 2. no

3. Is there consistent sanctioning/penalties for those who break gender equality policy in education sector? 1= Yes, there is
gular sanctioning (year round) 2= There is occasional monitoring and sanctioning (not year round) 3= No sanctioning at
; 4= I don’t know

.4. Are the rules governing the gender equality policy in education sector clear and easy to understand? 1 = Yes; 2 = No; 3
don’t know.
4.5. Does everyone follow the rules of the gender equality in education sector strictly? (1= Yes most people; 2 = Yes but

6 If no, why not? (1 = Low enforcement of the rules; 2 = no sanctioning/penalties are in place 3 = any other (
.7. Who designed the rules?
1= locally by only a few; 2= locally by the majority of community members 3= externally by state 4. Government and
V. General questions
5.1. Do you think you have access to up-to-date information on gender equality policy in

education sector? (0=NO, 1=Yes)

5.2. If your answer to question number 6.1 is “Yes”, what is the main source of information?

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………

5.3 What factors mainly affect Gender equality in education sector?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________

5.4 Is there an awareness of gender equality policy in education sector in your area? If your

answers are yes please mention the level of awareness and attitude of community on the issue.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________

 Have you ever got any other support from governmental or non-governmental institutions

training such as awareness creation on gender equality policy in education sector?

(0=No,1=Yes)______If your answer is yes please complete the following table about the

supporting organization/institution, the support you got from it and the impact on education

sector.

Name of List of Its impact on

Organization/institution supports you education sector.
got

5.6. According to your idea what implications does the policy have on disadvantaged from the

gender equality policy in education sector in Gindeberet woreda?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________

5.7. According to your idea what are the problems that affect gender inequality in terms of
education sector in Gindeberet woreda?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________

5.8 Does the socio economic problem and gender equality has r/ship in education sector? If your

answer is yes, please mention their r/ship from your experience.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________

Interview end time________________ Thank you very much for your i

Annex .2 Multi- collinearity test with VIF Tolerance VIF
(Constant)
Age .925 1.081
Education level .566 1.766
Family size .090 .152
Distance from the school .944 1.059
Family income .864 1.158
Training access on Education .932 1.074
Attitude of community .850 1.177
Position of women in community .903 1.108
Marital status .913 1.096
Household composition .851 1.175