Laws of Indices:

There are some laws of indices which are as follows:

Note:
If the bases of left and right hand sides of an equation are the same, their index
must be equal.
i.e. if 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 , then x =y, a ≠ 0.
if 𝑎 𝑥 = 1, then x = 0.
The Exponential Functions:
A function f: R → R defined by f(x) = ax, a > 0 and a≠ 1 is known as exponential function
with base a for all x∈ R.
Domain of Exponential function = R ( set of real numbers)

Range of exponential function = (0, ∞)

1 𝑥
2 x,
The examples of exponential functions are y = y = ( y = ex
) ,
4
Here e is an irrational numbers (Euler’s numbers) given by
𝑙𝑖𝑚 1 𝑛
e= 𝑛→∞ 1+ = 2.7182818
𝑛
The logarithmic Functions:

A function f: (0, ∞) → R defined by f(x) = logax, a > 0 and a≠ 1 is known as

logarithmic function for all x∈ (0, ∞).

The domain of logarithmic function = (0, ∞)

The range of logarithmic function = R(Set of real numbers)

The examples of logarithmic function are

y = log2x, y = log10x, y = logex
The Relation between Exponential and logarithmic Functions:
If 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, then x is called the logarithm of the number y to the base a
and is written as x = log 𝑎 𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 is an exponential function, then x = log 𝑎 𝑦 is a logarithmic function.

The exponential and logarithmic functions are inverse function to each other
Types of Logarithms
1. Common Logarithm
The logarithm with respects to the base 10 is common logarithm.
If 10𝑥 = 𝑁 then 𝑥 = log10 𝑁(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚)

For Example,
100 = 1 (exponential form) ∴ log10 1 = 0(Logarithmic form)
102 = 100 (exponential form) ∴ log10 100 = 2 (Logarithmic form)
103 = 1000 (exponential form) ∴ log10 1000 = 3 (Logarithmic form)
104 = 10000 (exponential form) ∴ log10 10000 = 4(Logarithmic form)
and so on

−1 1
Similarly, 10 = = 0.1 ∴ log10 0.1 = −1 and so on.
10
2. Natural Logarithm
Natural logarithm is a logarithm to the base e, where e is irrational number and
has approximated value 2.7182818 for the natural logarithm, we write log 𝑥 or ln 𝑥
to represent loge 𝑥.

The natural logarithms are also called Napierian logarithms after John Napier, the
inventor of logarithms.
By definition, we have,
𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦
Some examples on logarithmic
(i) log 2 2 = 1 ∴ 21 = 2
(ii) log 2 8 = 3 ∴ 23 =8
(iii) log 3 9 = 2 ∴ 32 = 9
(iv) log 64 64 = 1 ∴ 641 = 64
(v) log 4 64 = 3 ∴ 43 = 64
Example: If 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 = 𝟑, then find 𝒙
Solution,
log10 𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 103 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1000

Practice questions
Evaluate:
(i) log216
(ii) log 81
3
(iii) log5 125
(iv) log100.0001
(v) lne
Properties of Logarithms
If m and n are positive number then the following holds.
Formula 1: log 𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = log 𝑎 𝑚 + log 𝑎 𝑛
𝑚
Formula 2: log 𝑎 = log 𝑎 𝑚 − log 𝑎 𝑛
𝑛
Formula 3: log 𝑎𝑚𝑛 = n log 𝑎 𝑚
Formula 4: log 𝑎 𝑚 = log 𝑎 𝑏 . log 𝑏 𝑚
Formula 5: log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1 ∵ 𝑎1 = 𝑎
Formula 6: log 𝑒 𝑒 = 1 ∵ 𝑒1 = 𝑒
1
Formula 7: logab = - loga
b
1
Formula 8: log 𝑎 𝑏 =
log𝑏 𝑎
Formula 9: log 𝑒 1 = 0 ∵ 𝑒0 = 1
Formula 10: log 𝑎 1 = 0 ∵ 𝑎0 = 1
Formula 11: 𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥
1
Formula 12: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑛 b = logab
n
Formula 1: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛

Let, logam = p and logan = q

⇒ m = ap and n = aq

Now, mn = ap aq
⇒ mn = ap+q
⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑝 + 𝑞
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛

Similarly we can prove

𝑚
Formula 2: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛
Formula 3: log 𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = n log 𝑎 𝑚

Let logam = p
⇒ m = ap
⇒ mn = anp
⇒ logamn = np
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚

Formula 4: log 𝑎 𝑚 = log 𝑎 𝑏 . log 𝑏 𝑚

let logbm = p
⇒ m = bp
now, logam = logabp
= p logab
= logbm logab
= logab logbm
∴ log 𝑎 𝑚 = log 𝑎 𝑏 . log 𝑏 𝑚
d) Evaluate log𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

e) Evaluate log𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎2
 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧
Examples: If = 𝑧 −𝑥 = 𝑥 −𝑦 then show that (i) 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 = 1 (ii) xyz = 1
𝑦 −𝑧

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧

i. Solution: let, 𝑦 −𝑧 = 𝑧 −𝑥 = 𝑥 −𝑦 = k
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 𝑘𝑦 − 𝑘𝑧
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑧 − 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑧 − 𝑘𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑘𝑦

to prove 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 = 1
let 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 = 𝐴
taking log on both sides
⇒ log(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴
⇒ log 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦𝑦 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴
⇒ 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 + 𝑧𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴
⇒ 𝑥 𝑘𝑦 − 𝑘𝑧 + 𝑦 𝑘𝑧 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑧 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴
⇒ 𝑘𝑥𝑦 − 𝑘𝑧𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦𝑧 − 𝑘𝑥𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧𝑥 − 𝑘𝑦𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴
⇒ 0 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴
⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑒0
⇒A=1
∴ 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 = 1

ii. ….
Example: Prove that
_ _ _
i. 𝑦𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧. 𝑧𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥. 𝑥𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 1
_ _ _
ii. 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧. 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 . 𝑧𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 1
_ _ _
i. Solution: let, 𝑦𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧. 𝑧𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 . 𝑥𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝐴
Taking log on both sides
_ _ _
𝑙𝑜𝑔{ 𝑦𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧. 𝑧𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 . 𝑥𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦} = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴

⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 _ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑧𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 _ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 _ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴

⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 log 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 log 𝑧𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 log 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴

⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴

⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴

⇒ 0 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴
⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑒0
⇒ 𝐴=1

∴ 𝑦𝑧 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 _ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧. 𝑧𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 _ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 . 𝑥𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 _ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 1 proved.

ii. …….
 1 1 1
Example: If x = logabc, y = logbca, z = logcab, prove that 𝑥 +1 + +
𝑦+1 𝑧+1
Solution: x + 1 = logabc + 1 = logabc + logaa = logaabc

similarly, y + 1 = logbabc and z + 1 = logcabc

1 1 1 1 1 1
Now, 𝑥 +1 + + = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + +
𝑦+1 𝑧+1 𝑎
𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑐

1
= logabca + logabcb + logabcc [ logab = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎]

= logabcabc

=1
Calculus
 Archimedes of Syracuse first developed the idea of limits to measure curved figures and
the volume of a sphere in the third century B.C. By carving these figures into small pieces that can be
approximated, then increasing the number of pieces, the limit of the sum of pieces can give the
desired quantity.

The modern mathematical concept of Calculus (of which the theory of limits is an important part) is
developed independently by Englishman Sir Issac Newton and German Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz in
the seventeenth century.

Sir Issac Newton Gottfried Leibniz

The concept of limits is essential for calculus. It was a very great advance on all former achievements of
mathematics. Limits express the concepts of infinite small and infinite large quantities in mathematical
terms.
Meaning of x → a (x tends to a)
Let x be a variable and a is a constant number . If x takes a value such that the numerical difference
between x and a sufficiently small, then we say that x tends to a and written as x → a.

Meaning of infinity and zero

1
Let us consider a function f(x) =
x
If we consider the sequence of values x to be 1, 0.5, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, …… whose limit is zero,
then corresponding values of f(x) are 1, 2, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, …… .

i.e. taking the values of x sufficiently close to zero, value of f(x) will be greater than any positive
number, however large. In such case, we say as x tends to 0, value of f(x) tends to ∞.
In symbol x→0lim 1 = ∞
x
On the other hand, taking the values sufficiently close to infinity, value of f(x) will be smaller than any
positive number, however small. In such case, we say as x tends to ∞, value of f(x) tends to 0.
In symbol x→ lim 1 = 0
∞ x
If we are going to approximate the circumference of a circle using the perimeter of an inscribed polygon, even
without computation, we can observe that as the number of sides of the polygon increases, the better the
approximation. In fact, we can make the perimeter of the polygon as close as we please to the circumference of the
circle by choosing a sufficiently large number of sides. Notice that no matter how large the number of sides our
polygon has, its perimeter will never exceed or equal the circumference of the circle.

In symbol, if we let n be the number of sides of the inscribed polygon, Pn be the perimeter of a polygon with
n sides, and C be the circumference of the circle, we can say that the imit of Pn as n→ ∞ is equal to C. Compactly,
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑃 = 𝐶 .
we can write 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
 1
Consider the function f(x) = 𝑥 where x is a natural number. Calculating the values of the function using the
first 20 natural numbers and plotting the points in the xy -plane, we arrive at the table and graph given below.

First, we see that as the value of x increases, the value of f(x) decreases and approaches 0. Furthermore, we can make
the value of f(x) as close to 0 as we please, by choosing x sufficiently large. We also notice that no matter how large the
value of x is, the value of f(x) will never reach to zero.
1
Hence, we say that the limit of f(x) = , as x approaches infinity is equal to 0. In symbol, we write
𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥)= 0. .
𝑥→∞
http://www.brainkart.com/article/Limits-and-derivatives_33889/
l
Indeterminate forms:
0 ∞
If a function f(x) takes the forms 0, ∞ ,∞ −∞, 0 × ∞, 0 0 , ∞0 , 1 ±∞, … at any point x = a then f(x) is said to be
indeterminate at x = a.
x2 − 4
Consider, f(x) = x − 2 ,
22 − 4 0
When x = 2 we have f(2) = 2 − 2 = 0 , which is indeterminate.

MCQ 1. The value of f(x) = xcotx at x = 0 is

a. 0 b. ∞
c. 1 d. indeterminate

Hint. f(0) = 0 ×cot0 = 0×∞ = indeterminate.

MCQ 2. Which one of the following is not an indeterminate form?

∞
a. 0× ∞ b. 0
c. ∞ 0 d. 1∞

Hint. Ans. b
Left hand and right hand limits( one sided limits)
A function f(x) is said to have the right hand limit 𝑙1 at x = a as x approaches a through
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
value greater than a. which is written as 𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙1 or 𝑥→𝑎+0𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙1 or
𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) or f(a + 0).

A function f(x) is said to have the left hand limit 𝑙2 at x = a as x approaches a through value
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙2 or 𝑥→𝑎−0𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙2 or ℎ→0𝑓(𝑎 − ℎ)
less than a. which is written as 𝑥→𝑎
or f(a - 0).
ii. ∞𝟎
Suppose we have nx such that n goes to infinity and x goes to zero

• If x changing faster, then nx tends to zero

• If n changing faster then nx tends to infinity
∴ ∞𝟎 is an indeterminate
Properties on limits
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
If 𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 exists and c is any constant number, then

𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑐. 𝑓 𝑥 ) = 𝑐 . 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥

i. 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚

ii. 𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 ±𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥
iii. 𝑥→𝑎 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

lim
iv. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥

𝑙𝑖𝑚
v. 𝑥→𝑎 𝑐=𝑐

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑛
vi. 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎n

𝑛
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚
vii. 𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)
∴ xn – an = (x – a)(xn-1 + xn-2a + xn-3a2 …………. + an-1)
 lim 3x − 2x+a
Example: Compute the limit of x→a
2(x−a)

lim 3x − 2x+a
Solution: Given, x→a
2(x−a)
lim 3x − 2x+a × 3x + 2x+a
= x→a
2(x−a) 3x + 2x+a
lim 3x− 2x−a
= x→a
2(x−a)( 3x + 2x+a)
lim x−a
= x→a
2(x−a)( 3x + 2x+a)
lim 1
= x→a
2 ( 3x + 2x+a)
1
=
2 ( 3a + 2a+a)
1
=
2(2 3a)
1
= .
4 3a
lim 3x − 2x+a 1
∴ x→a =
2(x−a) 4 3a
 lim x − 2 − x2
Example: Compute the limit of x→1
2x − 2 + 2x2

lim x − 2 − x2
Solution: Given, x→1
2x − 2 + 2x2

lim x − 2 − x2 x + 2 − x2 × 2x + 2 + 2x2
= x→1 ×
2x − 2 + 2x2 x + 2 − x2 2x + 2 + 2x2

lim x2 − 2 + x2 2x + 2 + 2x2
= x→1 4x2 −2 − 2x2 ×
x + 2 − x2

lim 2(x2−1)(2x + 2 + 2x2)

= x→1
2(x2−1)(x + 2 − x2)

lim (2x + 2 + 2x2)

= x→1
(x+ 2 − x2)

(2. 1 + 2 + 2.12)
=
(1 + 2 − 12)

2+2
= 1+1
= 2.
Practice questions:
2 2
lim x 3 − a3
1. 𝑥→𝑎 x−a

lim x2 −5x + 6
2. 𝑥→2 x2 −x −2

lim x − 8 − x2
3. x→2
x2 + 12 −4
Practice question:
Evaluation of limit of the form ∞ - ∞

Example: Evaluate the limit of 𝑥→𝑙𝑖𝑚

∞( 𝑥 + 𝑎 − 𝑥)
Example: Evaluate the limit of 𝑥→𝑙𝑖𝑚
∞ 𝑥( 𝑥 + 𝑎 − 𝑥)

Solution: Given, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥( 𝑥 + 𝑎 − 𝑥 ) form (∞ − ∞)

𝑥→ ∞
( x+a + x )
= 𝑥→𝑙𝑖𝑚
∞ 𝑥( 𝑥 + 𝑎 − 𝑥)×
( x+a + x )
𝑙𝑖𝑚 x ( x +a− x)
= 𝑥→∞
( x+a + x )
𝑙𝑖𝑚 xa ∞
= 𝑥→∞ (∞ )
( x+a + x )
now, dividing both numerator and denominator by 𝑥, we get
………… (left as students work)
Practice questions
e. Solution:
𝑙𝑖𝑚
Given, 𝑥→∞ ( 𝑥 − 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑥 )
Which takes the indeterminate form ∞ − ∞ at x = ∞
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)
= 𝑥→∞ ( 𝑥 − 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑥 )×
( 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 −𝑎 −𝑏𝑥
= 𝑥→∞ ( 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 1 −𝑏 − 𝑎
= 𝑥→∞
( 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)

Case I when b = 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 −𝑎
= 𝑥→∞
( 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑥)

−𝑎
=
( ∞−𝑎 + ∞)
−𝑎
=
∞
= 0.
 ∞
Case II when b ≠ 1, limit takes the form ∞
so, dividing both numerator and denominator by x
𝑥 1 −𝑏 𝑎
−
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥−𝑎 𝑏𝑥
( 𝑥 + 𝑥 )

𝑥 1 −𝑏 𝑎
−𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥
= 𝑥→∞
𝑥−𝑎 𝑏𝑥
( 𝑥2 +
𝑥2
)

𝑎
(1 −𝑏) − 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚
= 𝑥→∞
1 𝑎 𝑏
− +
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥

𝑎
(1 −𝑏) − ∞
=
1 𝑎 𝑏
− +
∞ ∞ ∞
1−𝑏
=
0+ 0
=∞