Space

SPACE
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjac-earthscience/chapter/the-sun-and-the-
earth-moon-system/
The order of the planets in the solar system, starting nearest the sun and working outward is
the following: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and then the
possible Planet Nine.
MOON PHASES
Moon phases are determined by the relative positions of the Moon, Earth, and Sun.
The Moon doesn't make its own light, it just reflects the Sun's light as all the planets
do. The Sun always illuminates one half of the Moon. Since the Moon is tidally
locked, we always see the same side from Earth, but there's no permanent "dark side
of the Moon." The Sun lights up different sides of the Moon as it orbits around Earth
– it's the fraction of the Moon from which we see reflected sunlight that determines
the lunar phase.
MOON PHASES
The new Moon occurs when the Moon, Earth, and Sun all lie along approximately
the same line. Since the Sun is behind the Moon from Earth's perspective, the side of
the Moon that faces Earth is dark.
At full Moon, the three bodies also lie approximately in a line, but this time, the
Moon is on the opposite side of Earth, so the Sun illuminates the whole side facing
us.
At first quarter and last quarter, the Moon lies perpendicular to a line between Earth
and the Sun. We see exactly half of the Moon illuminated by the Sun — the other
half lies in shadow. The "quarter" used to name these phases refers to the respective
fraction of an orbit that the Moon has completed since new Moon.
The illuminated part of the Moon gradually transitions between these phases. To
remember the in-between phases you'll need to understand these terms: crescent,
gibbous, waxing, and waning. Crescent refers to phases where the Moon is less than
half-illuminated, while gibbous means more than half is illuminated. Waxing means
“growing” or expanding in illumination, and waning means “shrinking” or
decreasing in illumination.
After new Moon, a slice of reflected sunlight becomes visible as a waxing crescent.
The lunar crescent grows until first-quarter Moon. As the sunlit portion of the Moon
continues to increase to more than half of the Moon's face, the Moon turns waxing
gibbous. Then, after the full Moon the sunlit fraction begins to decrease again
(though it still takes up more than half the face of the Moon) to make a waning
gibbous and then a third-quarter Moon. The slice of sunlight continues to decrease
until the moon is a waning crescent and then a new Moon. The whole cycle (from
new Moon to new Moon) takes about 29.5 days.
If you have a hard time remembering which way the moon phases go, just think:
“white on right, getting bright!”
THE PING PONG PERSPECTIVE
Holding a white ball at arm's length

in the direction of the Moon shows how lunar phases depend on where the Moon is
in the sky with respect to the Sun.
The Moon's phases are actually related to orbital motion, and there's a simple and
fun observation that shows how they're connected. All you'll need is a Ping-Pong
ball to simulate the Moon—actually, any small, white sphere would work. Then
head outside about an hour before sunset, or around the time of a first-quarter
Moon. Find the Moon in the southern part of the sky, then hold the ball up at arm's
length right beside it.
You'll see that the ball shows exactly the same phase as the Moon. The Sun
illuminates both the ball and the Moon from the same direction, and you see them as
partly sunlit and partly in shadow, their bright and dark portions mimicking each
other perfectly. If the weather stays clear, you can repeat this observation on the next
several afternoons. Each day the Moon's orbital motion has carried it farther east,
and the sunlit portion of its disk has grown larger. If you hold your ball up near the
Moon, you'll see that its “phase” has thickened too.
To sneak a preview of the Moon's appearance in the days to come, simply move the
ball farther east. And if you move it all the way over so your arm points low in the
eastern sky, the side of the ball that's facing you will be almost completely
illuminated — nearly a “Full Ball,” so to speak. And, sure enough, a day or two
before full Moon, the Moon hangs low in the eastern sky just before sunset and is
almost completely illuminated.
TRY IT OUT!
To find out what phase the Moon is tonight, try our Moon Phase calculator. Note
that the Moon's phase is the same for any location on Earth, but Southern
Hemisphere observers will see the Moon “upside down” from the Northern
Hemisphere view.
Check out this table if you'd like to know an estimate of the moonrise and moonset
for each phase. Keep in mind that this is just an approximation meant to guide the
casual observer, and there's no correction for daylight (or summer) time. The exact
local time depends on a number of factors, including time zone, season, shape of
horizon, atmospheric refraction, among other things.
Phase of the moon Moonrise Moonset

New Moon 6:00 a.m. 6:00 p.m.
Waxing Crescent 9:00 a.m. 9:00 p.m.
First Quarter 12:00 p.m. 12:00 a.m.
Waxing Gibbous 3:00 p.m. 3:00 a.m.
Full Moon 6:00 p.m. 6:00 a.m.
Waning Gibbous 9:00 p.m. 9:00 a.m.
Last Quarter 12:00 a.m. 12:00 p.m.
Waning Crescent 3:00 a.m. 3:00 p.m.
New Moon 6:00 a.m. 6:00 p.m.
What Is an Orbit?
An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around another one. An
object in an orbit is called a satellite. A satellite can be natural, like Earth or the moon. Many
planets have moons that orbit them. A satellite can also be man-made, like the International
Space Station.
Planets, comets, asteroids and other objects in the solar system orbit the sun. Most of the
objects orbiting the sun move along or close to an imaginary flat surface. This imaginary
surface is called the ecliptic plane.
What Shape Is an Orbit?

Orbits come in different shapes. All orbits are elliptical, which means they are an ellipse,
similar to an oval. For the planets, the orbits are almost circular. The orbits of comets have a
different shape. They are highly eccentric or "squashed." They look more like thin ellipses
than circles.
Satellites that orbit Earth, including the moon, do not always stay the same distance from
Earth. Sometimes they are closer, and at other times they are farther away. The closest point a
satellite comes to Earth is called its perigee. The farthest point is the apogee. For planets, the
point in their orbit closest to the sun is perihelion. The farthest point is called aphelion. Earth
reaches its aphelion during summer in the Northern Hemisphere. The time it takes a satellite
to make one full orbit is called its period. For example, Earth has an orbital period of one
year. The inclination is the angle the orbital plane makes when compared with Earth's
equator.
How Do Objects Stay in Orbit?

An object in motion will stay in motion unless something pushes or pulls on it. This
statement is called Newton's first law of motion. Without gravity, an Earth-orbiting satellite
would go off into space along a straight line. With gravity, it is pulled back toward Earth. A
constant tug-of-war takes place between the satellite's tendency to move in a straight line, or
momentum, and the tug of gravity pulling the satellite back.
An object's momentum and the force of gravity have to be balanced for an orbit to happen. If
the forward momentum of one object is too great, it will speed past and not enter into orbit. If
momentum is too small, the object will be pulled down and crash. When these forces are
balanced, the object is always falling toward the planet, but because it's moving sideways fast
enough, it never hits the planet. Orbital velocity is the speed needed to stay in orbit. At an
altitude of 150 miles (242 kilometers) above Earth, orbital velocity is about 17,000 miles per
hour. Satellites that have higher orbits have slower orbital velocities.
Where Do Satellites Orbit Earth?

The International Space Station is in low Earth orbit, or LEO. LEO is the first 100 to 200
miles (161 to 322 km) of space. LEO is the easiest orbit to get to and stay in. One complete
orbit in LEO takes about 90 minutes.
Satellites that stay above a location on Earth are in geosynchronous Earth orbit, or GEO.
These satellites orbit about 23,000 miles (37,015 km) above the equator and complete one
revolution around Earth precisely every 24 hours. Satellites headed for GEO first go to an
elliptical orbit with an apogee about 37,015 km. Firing the rocket engines at apogee then
makes the orbit round. Geosynchronous orbits are also called geostationary.
Any satellite with an orbital path going over or near the poles maintains a polar orbit. Polar
orbits are usually low Earth orbits. Eventually, Earth's entire surface passes under a satellite
in polar orbit. When a satellite orbits Earth, the path it takes makes an angle with the equator.
This angle is called the inclination. A satellite that orbits parallel to the equator has a zero-
degree orbital inclination. A satellite in a polar orbit has a 90-degree inclination.
Words to Know
ellipse: A flattened circle or oval.
orbital plane: An imaginary, gigantic flat plate containing an Earth satellite's orbit. The
orbital plane passes through the center of Earth.
momentum: The mass of an object multiplied by its velocity.
parallel: Extending in the same direction, everywhere equidistant, and not meeting.
As Earth orbits the sun, its tilted axis always points in the same direction. So,
throughout the year, different parts of Earth get the sun’s direct rays.
Day &Night
Sometimes it is the North Pole tilting toward the sun (around June) and sometimes it
is the South Pole tilting toward the sun (around December).
It is summer in June in the Northern Hemisphere because the sun's rays hit that part
of Earth more directly than at any other time of the year. It is winter in December in
the Northern Hemisphere, because that is when it is the South Pole's turn to be tilted
toward the sun.

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SPACE

THE PING PONG PERSPECTIVE

Holding a white ball at arm's length

Phase of the moon Moonrise Moonset

What Shape Is an Orbit?

How Do Objects Stay in Orbit?

Where Do Satellites Orbit Earth?

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