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lecture

 2  
• lagerstatten  =  mother  lode;  excellent  fossil  preservation  at  the  site  
• systema  naturae  by  carolus  Linnaeus  (King  Philip  Came  Over  For  Good  Sex)  
o implies  an  order,  but  doesn’t  tell  you  how  these  species  (spp)  are  related  
• hennig  –  phylogenetic  systematics  –  “cladistics”  
• cladistics  –  a  method  of  classifying  animals  and  plants  according  to  the  
proportion  of  measurable  characteristics  they  have  in  common    
• assumptions  of  cladistics:  
o if  organisms  are  related  by  descent,  the  closer  descent  =  the  more  recent  
common  ancestry  
o because  organisms  change  through  evolutionary  time,  they  pass  on  their  
changes  to  their  offspring  
o therefore,  organisms  that  are  most  closely  related  should  share  the  most  
derived  characters,  acquired  by  evolution,  that  are  not  present  in  other  
groups  
o the  search  for  these  sets  of  traits  should  give  us  the  best  approximation  of  the  
evolutionary  sequence  (a  phylogeny)  
• branch  length  usually  refers  to  molecular  data  such  that  longer  branches  =  longer  
time  periods  
• clade  =  a  group  that  includes  MRCA  and  all  common  descendents    
• parsimony  =  use  the  fewest  steps  necessary  to  construct  a  legitimate  tree  –  make  it  
as  simple  as  possible  
o look  for  the  simplest  possible  explanation  so  you  only  have  a  few  traits  
unique  to  a  taxa  
o this  is  a  hypothesis  about  evolution  
• crown-­‐based  definition  –  unify  your  clade  so  it  incorporates  everything  descended  
from  the  MRCA  
• trait-­‐based  definition  –  include  every  animal  that  had  fur,  or  an  opposable  thumb    
o works  for  extant  taxa,  but  not  always  for  extinct  taxa  
• monophyletic  group  –  includes  the  MRCA  and  all  its  descendants  
• paRaphyletic  group  –  includes  the  MRCA,  but  doesn’t  include  all  of  its  descendants  
• pOlyphyletic  group  –  nO  MRCA  or  all  descendents;  2  mono-­‐  or  para-­‐phyletic  clades  
incorrectly  grouped  together  
• systematics  –  the  scientific  study  of  the  diversity  of  organisms,  which  reveals  the  
evolutionary  relationships  between  organisms  
• taxonomy  –  (a  subdivision  of  systematics)  –  the  theory  and  practice  of  classifying  
organisms  
• rejecting  the  spp  approach  –  some  ppl  suggest  trashing  all  names  and  using  a  unique  
number  to  ID  everything  on  earth  –  or  perhaps  using  cytochrome  1  to  define  a  spp  
• phylogeny  –  a  hypothesis  that  describes  the  history  of  descent  of  a  group  of  
organisms  from  their  common  ancestor  
• bifurcating  tree  –  a  lineage  is  represented  as  a  branching  tree,  in  which  each  split  or  
node  represents  a  speciation  event  
o branching  into  2,  not  many  
o doesn’t  necessarily  happen  that  way,  but  it’s  the  most  parsimonious  
explanation  
• starburst  phylogenies    
• phylogenetic  trees  are  constructed  by  analyzing  evolutionary  changes  in  the  traits  of  
organisms  
• cladogenesis;  node;  stem;  crown  group  
• ancestral  traits  –  inherited  from  a  common  ancestor  (hair,  milk  for  marsupials,  
monotremes  and  eutheria)  
• derived  traits  –  a  trait  that  differs  from  its  ancestral  form  (placenta  for  eutheria  
(non-­‐marsupial/monotreme  mammals),  hair  and  milk  for  mammalia  as  a  group)  
• homologous  –  any  features  (DNA  sequences,  behavioral,  anatomical)  shared  by  2+  
spp  that  both  inherited  the  trait  from  a  common  ancestor    
o the  similarity  is  due  to  their  shared  ancestry  
o the  vertebral  column  in  vertebrates  
o bones  in  bird/bat  wings  
• analogous  –  performing  a  similar  function  but  having  a  different  evolutionary  origin  
(wings/flight  in  pterosaurs,  bats  and  birds)  
• convergent  evolution  –  when  independently  evolved  features  subjected  to  similar  
selective  pressures  become  superficially  similar  
o convergent  traits  are  independently  derived  
• evolutionary  reversal  –  when  a  character  reverts  from  a  derived  state  back  to  an  
ancestral  state  
• homoplasies  –  traits  that  are  similar  for  some  reason  other  than  inheritance  from  a  
common  ancestor  
o loss  of  eyes  in  caecilians  =  evolutionary  reversal  and  a  homoplasy  (they’re  
amphibians  that  look  like  eyeless  snakes)  
• outgroup  –  a  lineage  that  is  closely  related  to  an  ingroup  (the  lineage  of  interest)  but  
has  branched  off  from  the  ingroup  below  its  base  on  the  evolutionary  tree  
o ancestral  traits  should  be  found  in  the  outgroup  and  the  ingroup;  derived  
traits  are  found  only  in  the  ingroup  
• to  reconstruct  a  phylogeny:  
o 1.  select  a  group  of  organisms  to  classify  (the  ingroup)  and  an  appropriate  
outgroup  
o 2.  choose  the  characters  that  will  be  used  in  the  analysis  and  identify  the  
possible  forms  (traits)  of  the  character  
o determine  the  ancestral  and  derived  traits  
o distinguish  homologous  from  homoplastic  traits  
• systematists  use  physiological,  behavioral,  molecular,  and  structural  characters  of  
living  and  fossil  organisms  to  reconstruct  phylogenies  
• richness  =  number  of  different  taxa  (alpha,  beta  diversity,  etc)  
• diversity  =  number  of  different  taxa  and  their  relative  abundances  
 
evolutionary  thought  lecture  
• homology  –  any  similarity  between  characters  that  are  due  to  their  shared  ancestry  
• homoplasy  –  when  characters  are  similar,  but  not  derived  from  a  common  ancestor  
• synapomorphy  –  characters  that  are  shared  by  a  group  of  organisms,  but  are  not  
found  in  the  ancestors  of  that  group  
• parsimony  –  adoption  of  the  simplest  assumption  in  the  formulation  of  a  theory  or  
in  the  interpretation  of  data  
• Lamarckian  evolution  –  spp  could  change  through  the  use  or  disuse  of  structures  
during  the  individual  organism’s  lifetime  
o the  environment  presents  conditions  which  produce  “needs”  in  organisms  
o needs  lead  to  modification  of  organs  and  behaviors  
o used  parts  increase  in  size,  disused  parts  decrease  in  size  
o modification  occurs  during  the  lifespan  of  the  organism  and  are  passed  onto  
the  organism’s  offspring  
• uniformatarianism  –  the  same  natural  laws  and  processes  that  operate  in  the  
universe  now,  have  always  operated  in  the  universe  in  the  past  and  apply  
everywhere  in  the  universe  
• Malthus  –  humans  reproduce  at  a  higher  rate  than  their  resources  can  sustain  them;  
the  only  thing  keeping  them  in  check  is  death  and  disease  (competition)  
• darwin’s  argument  for  natural  selection  
o 1.  organisms  have  a  great  potential  fertility,  permitting  exponential  growth  of  
popns  (Malthus)  
o 2.  natural  popns  don’t  normally  increase  exponentially,  but  remain  fairly  
constant  in  size  (Darwin)  
o 3.  natural  resources  are  limited  (Malthus)  
o 4.  a  struggle  for  existence  occurs  among  organisms  in  a  population  
(competition,  Malthus)  
o 5.  variation  occurs  among  organisms  within  popns  (darwin’s  pigeons,  
barnacles)  
o 6.  variation  is  heritable  (animal  breeding)  
o 7.  varying  organisms  show  differential  survival  and  reproduction,  favoring  
advantageous  traits  =  natural  selection  (Darwin)  
o 8.  natural  selection,  acting  over  many  generations,  gradually  produces  new  
adaptations  and  new  species  
• Wallace  
• the  joint  letter  –  hooker  and  lyell  
• the  modern  synthesis  –  Mendel;  TH  morgan  –  genes  on  chromosomes  (the  fly  lab);  
mutations  supply  the  raw  matl  for  natural  selection  to  act  upon  
o JBS  Haldane,  Sewall  Wright,  and  Ronald  Fisher  
o mathematics  can  explain  how  selection  and  mutation  can  affect  gene  
frequencies  within  populations  
o population  genetics  yields  a  genotype  expressed  in  the  phenotype  
o populations  are  gene  pools  with  variation  in  genetic  frequencies  
o genetic  variation  is  a  result  of  random  substitutions  of  base  pairs  in  the  
genotype  by  mutation,  and  in  sexual  organisms,  the  variation  can  also  be  
introduced  with  recombination  
o the  variation  in  genotype  results  in  a  variation  in  the  phenotype,  which  is  
then  acted  on  by  natural  selection  
o natural  selection  culls  the  ‘less  fit’  of  the  random  variants  
o thus,  evolution  has  no  ‘direction,’  except  towards  increasing  fitness,  which  in  
an  extreme  form  means  that  every  feature  in  an  organism  is  honed  by  natural  
selection  (panselectionism)  
Readings  for  Week  Two  
Note:  I  outlined  the  papers  in  the  1,2,3  form  Matt  suggested,  where  1)  is  the  question  posed  
in  the  paper,  2)  is  the  methodology,  and  3)  is  the  main  conclusion.  
 
Hippopotamus  and  whale  phylogeny,  Thewissen  et  al.  2007  
1. Are  hippos  and  cetacea  (whales,  dolphins,  porpoises)  placed  correctly  on  their  
mammalian  phylogeny?  
2. Geisler  and  Theodor  performed  a  new  analysis  using  weighted  characters  
(homoplasies  were  down-­‐weighted)  to  create  what  they  thought  was  the  most  
parsimonious  tree.  They  emphasize  the  importance  of  including  molecular  data  as  
well.  
3. The  authors  of  the  brief  commentary  (Geisler  and  Theodor)  think  hipppos  are  the  
most  closely  related  extant  taxon  to  Cetacea.  The  authors  of  the  initial  paper  
(Thewissen  et  al.)  responded  by  saying  that  Geisler  and  Theodor  upheld  their  main  
finding,  which  was  that  raoellids  (now  extinct)  are  the  sister  group  to  cetaceans.    
“Herbivorous  ecomorphology  and  specialization  patterns  in  theropod  dinosaur  evolution,”  
Zanno  and  Makovicky  2011  
1. How  do  we  use  morphological  factors  to  determine  if  something  was  carnivorous  or  
herbivorous?  
2. The  authors  identified  lots  of  characters  reliable  for  the  indication  of  herbivory  
using  three  statistical  analyses  and  then  tested  these  traits  in  Coelurosauria.  
3. Using  stats,  you  can  have  some  fair  confidence  about  the  feeding  behaviors  of  long-­‐
extinct  animals.  Within  Coelurosauria,  there  is  evidence  of  increasing  specialization  
to  herbivory  in  some  clades,  indicating  that  the  coelurosaurian  beak  was  likely  
correlated  with  an  herbivorous  diet.  This  is  an  example  of  ecomorphology,  which  is  
the  study  of  the  relationship  between  the  ecological  role  of  an  individual  and  its  
morphological  adaptations  (structure  and  function).  
Evolution  of  anatomy  and  gene  control,  Koentges  2008  
1. Should  there  be  more  communication  between  the  subdisciplines  of  biology?  
2. Koentges  did  a  detailed  literature  view  and  provided  a  lot  of  his  own  analysis  and  
suggestions  for  potential  collaborations.  
3. We  need  to  integrate  different  disciplines  (e.g.,  paleontology,  evodevo,  taxonomy,  
genomics,  molecular  bio,  etc.)  to  answer  the  big  questions  in  genomic  systems  
biology.  We  also  need  a  large  centralized  database  to  integrate  data  across  
subdisciplines.    
Studying  Function  and  Behavior  in  the  Fossil  Record,  Benton  2010  
1. How  do  paleobiologists  use  form  to  study  function?  
2. Benton  discusses/analyzes  the  three  main  techniques  used  to  infer  function  and  
behavior  from  fossils:  empirical  evidence,  comparison  with  modern  analogs,  and  
biomechanical  modeling.  He  doesn’t  really  critique  these  methods,  though.  
3. Using  these  three  main  techniques,  paleobiologists  ca  make  evidence-­‐based  
reconstructions  and  really  infer  function  from  form.  

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