Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2 Early Medieval India
2 Early Medieval India
Tripartite War
After death of Harsha in 647 CE, it is said that there was a struggle for Kanauj
because of it’s strategic location. All these years, Pataliputra was the center of
activity, now it had shifted to Kanauj in the times of Hasha because Kanuaj was in
the Gangetic basin and also near to the north western frontiers and Deccan
After the death of Harsha, a tripartite struggle ensued to take control of Kanauj
between the Gurjar-Pratiharas of Ujjain, Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta and Palas of
Gauda. Apart from that, there was political interference by the Chinese emperor
in selecting the successors of Harsha. Kanauj was taken over by these in some or
the other time from 8th to 11th century CE until all declined due to Turk invasions
of Ghazni and Arab conquest of Sindh.
Nepal –
It overthrew Tibetan domination in 878AD and became an independent
kingdom. It was a center for Tantrik Buddhist learning. New cities like
Kathmandu and Patan came up. It was on the trade routes of India and
China, thus earned huge profits. There was a constant fight between the
landowners and the kings of Nepal.
Apart from these, many hill states in Garhwal, Kumaon, Kulluta, etc came
up in the Himalayas who were not directly related to the happenings in the
plains.
Assam
The earliest kings known are the Varmans of the 9th century who took up
royal titles declaring themselves independent of the Palas. Their king was
Harjaravarman. Later, they were taken by Shalastambha kings. Assam has
the history of defeating the Turkish invasions in 1205 but alter on, they
were captured by the Ahom kings in 13th century.
Orissa-
It mainly consisted of the Shailodbhava dynasty who is considered to be the
descendens of the outcaste Pulindas. Then kingdoms like Gangas from
Andhra, Somavanshis captured Orissa in the 10th century.
Afghanistan-
Hindu Shahi dynasty of Jayapala, Anadapala, etc who ruled in the Kabul
valley. Later had to shift in Punjab due to Turkish invasions. Finally
overthrown due to conquests of Mahmud of Gaznavi.
Chalukyas of Gujarat-
They ruled in the 12th century. Their most famous king who converted to
Jainism is Kumarapala and his minister Hemachandra.
Varna system was in total chaos due to arrival of different invader tribes of
Hunas, Shakas, etc.
New tribes that were assimilated gained Kshatriya status. Khatris in Punjab,
Gurjars, Jats and Abhiras gained Kshatriya status. This swelled the ranks of
kshatriyas. The existence of 36 clans amongst the Rajputs is an example.
The land grants to Brahmins made them land owners and reduced the
vaishyas and shudras to mere peasants. This created total chaos.
We find many kings using terms like Varshashramadharma-sthapana.
Manasollasa talks of Varnadhikari or an official to maintain varna order.
Thus, there was focus on restoring the old social order
Dissent was also building. 11th century Jaina text Dharmapariksha
questions caste on birth. Kathakoshaprakarana does the same.
Kshemendra, a physician in Kashmir talks of asking caste and clan of patient
as a big disease in society. Also, Alvar and Nayanar saints in Tamil Nadu
questioned caste
Buddhism split into 18 sects. Jainism split into seven sects. Heterogeneous
sects also had rivalries like that of Virshaivas and Lingayats in Karnataka.
Thus, everywhere there was chaos and turmoil and splitting.
Family laws were governed by Dharmashastras. It is argued that
subsequent commentaries of Medhatithi and Kulluka to Dharmashastras
incorporated the changing social conditions. The laws of sharing property
called Dayabhaga and Mitakshara came up. Medhatithi also advocated
action against unjust kings. This is seen as a challenge to divine theory
propagated by Puranas.
Condition of Shudras
Guilty of practising heretic acts, physical impurity etc became the reason
for exclusion of Shudras leading to untouchability.
The Brihat Naradiya Purana talks of Chandalas having to beat a stick so that
everyone comes to know of his presece. Untouchables were already
mentioned by Hsuan Tsang during times of Harsha.
Rise of Kayasthas
A new social category called Kayasthas came into picture who were
involved in administration. They had the task of writing and maintaining
records.
Their origins were contested, with some calling them degraded Kshatriyas
and some a mixture of Brahmins and Shudras.
We find varying names for Kayasthas origin Karnika, Lekhakas, Pustspala,
etc.
Though they were recruited from different varnas, they crystallized into a
single new varna of Kayasthas.
The Kayasthas became social elites due to proximity to power and even
received land grants. Such Kayastha landlords were seen in places like
Bengal till recent times. Kayasthas are said to be employed by Chandellas,
Gangas, etc
Kayasthas now became a challenge to Brahmins because even they were
literate and could decide on giving a land grant to a brahmin or not. This
hesitation is mentioned by Kshemendra.
The Kayasthas took up good positions like Tathagata-Rakshita teaching
Tantra in Vikramshila university. Brahmins in vengeance declared Kayasthas
as Shudras.
Condition of Women-
Practice of Sati became even more prevalent. Earliest proof is a memorial
for a Sati built in Eran in Madhya Pradesh in 510 CE
Even though medieval lawmakers took care of her rights to Stridhana,
nothing was done to stop Sati. Rajtarangini mentions Sati prevalent among
royal women.
Very less is known about the status of education of women. However, 9th
century poet Rajashekhara mentions in his Kavyamimansa a list of women
poets worthy of respect like Avantisundari, Indulekha, Kuntidevi,
Prabhudevi, etc.
He also says scholarship doesnt depend on sex.
Rajput women and their status was much more free than common women.
Anupamadevi, wife of merchant Tejapala of Solankis was expert in Jainism.
During same time, Kalhana mentions queens of Kashmir like Didda,
Sugandha and Yashomati
Land Grants
Two broad types- secular grants and religious grants. Religious grants classified as
Brahmadeyas and Devadanas.
History -
Mahabharata in its Danadharma Parva mentions that gifts should be given
to Brahmins for it is they who are king makers without whose favor, the
king cannot rule. The Dana talks of 3 gifts - Go-Dana, Hiranya-Dana and
Prithvi-Dana or land grants, land grants being the best.
Arthashastra, talks of Brahmins being given lands that are tax free.
A clear assertion is also found in Brihaspati Sutra that land granted to
Brahmins should be tax free.
Pali texts of Buddhism also talk of land grants to Brahmins given by
Bimbisara and Prasenjit of Kosala.
The Naneghat caves also talk of royal grants, privileges and exemptions in
Satvahana times.
Thus, it can be said that the practice of giving land grants to Brahmins was
an old one. It's just that it became even more prevalent after 5th century
AD.
In those days, land grants were given to Buddhist and Jain institutions,
temples, royal beneficiary and Brahmins alike. But the grants given to
Brahmin outnumbered all.
Devadanas
The land was given to temple institutions, Hindu or otherwise.
The land grants were given for acculturation of tribals and other non
religious people.
The temple management committees came up. In places where Brahmin
landowners existed, institutions like the Sabhas or mahajanas of agrahara
lands managed the temple while in non Brahmin landlords, their
committees managed it. Eg- velalas of Tamil nadu.
The land was further leased to tenants who paid higher revenues.
Temple grant phenomenon is seen mainly in south India where entire
Temple towns came up with all castes being assigned a ritual with respect
to the temple. Impure castes were kept out.
Brahmadeyas
Brahmadeyas are land grants given to the Brahmins and religious
institutions in general. The rights of the donee were declared by the royal
order.
Does it represent political fragmentation? Why would kings erode their
own status? It can be argued that the kings were deliberately giving such
lands which were not productive or yielding any revenue. However, there
are also references in Bengal that already cultivable land was given as
Brahmadeyas. Given the times where kingdoms were large enough, it
didn't matter if some pieces of land were given to religious institutions. It
also served as a way of legitimizing the rule of the king by collaboration
with a social group of Brahmins. Kalhana' Rajtarangini talks of Brahmins
greedily accepting land grants from the newly invader Huna tribe. Secular
land grants might challenge central authority but not Brahmadeyas as they
were just Brahmins.
Autonomy- Brahmadeya villages were autonomous with the writ of the
state not working. No revenues to be paid and the king's officials and
soldiers were not allowed to interfere. Example - Brahmadeyas in Chola
kingdom had the Taniyur status of not coming under jurisdiction of Nadu.
The Pala inscriptions in Bengal talk of land being given with rights over
ground, water, land, trees and exemption from taxes like kara, bhaga,
bhoga, etc. However, some land grants do refer to the grantee paying a
minimal tax. The Ganjam plates of King Prithvivarmadeva, plates of Gangas
of Kalinganagara talk of minimum tax. Such grants are called kara-
shashanas.
Judicial rights - the Pala inscriptions talk of the right of sa-dashaparadha of
the grantee which can be interpreted as exemption from 10 types of crimes
or the right to punish for these crimes. However, it is not seen everywhere.
Revoking - Land could also be taken away from them. The Chammak plates
of Pravarsena II say that the land was donated to 1000 Brahmins only on
the condition that they did not commit treason against the kingdom,
indulge in oppression or harm villages. If so, their land would be taken back.
Royal servants- It has also been observed that some land grants were given
to Brahmins who were associated with royal courts. A 13th century land
grant copper plate of Calcutta Sahitya Parishat where king vishvarupasena
gives land to a Brahmin called Halayudha. In other cases too the grantees
are found to be royal purohits, jyotishis, shantyagarikas, etc.
Migrants- The land grants refer to the gotra, pravara, shakha, Charana and
native place. From the native place it can be told that there were many
migrant Brahmins who were given land. From the land grants after 5th
century AD, it can be seen that there was a influx of Brahmins from
madhya-desha to areas of maharashtra, bengal, orissa, etc. The possible
reason for migration could be for better livelihood. Main reason could be
the proliferation of kingdoms in different parts of subcontinent and the
need of those rulers for religious legitimacy. This could also explain the
need to classify Brahmins living in different areas into Pancha-Gauda and
Pancha-Dravida in 10th century.
Brahmadeyas included small to large land grants. Example - the
Paschimbaug plate of King Srichandra of Bengal which talks of a vast tract
of land given to 6000 Brahmans.
Self Request- Sometimes Brahmins would put up a request for getting a
land grant. The Damodarpur inscription in 444CE show that a Brahmin had
requested the Guptas for a land to be granted in Pundravardhan bhukti.
Land rights- No right to dispose the land i.e to sell or lease or transfer it.
Orissa inscriptions contain a term called a-lekhani-praveshataya or whose
another record can't be created. Thus, Brahmins was more than landlord
but less than landowner
Indian Feudalism
Characteristics are as described by RS Sharma in Indian Feudalism
Texts on Agriculture-
The indicator of growth in agriculture is seen in the multiples texts that deal
with cropping pattern, weather, diseases, etc. The need for such texts
arises only when large swathes of population is indulged in cultivation.
Thus 10th century text Krishiparashara declares knowledge of rainfall as
root of agriculture. It talks of importance of Sara or manure. It also says
Vaishakha month as sowing time and Pausha month as harvesting.
Vrikshayurveda mentions methods to cure tree diseases
Gurusamhita about weather conditions and cropping patterns
Shunyapurana mentions 50 types of rice grown in Bengal
Rajashekhara tells us about the excellent quality of sugarcane grown in
North bengal.
Irrigation Systems -
Expansion of cultivation meant growth of irrigation because rains cannot be
relied upon.
Deva-Matrika or rain dependent and Nadi-Matrika or river dependent
classification of land
Water lifting devices like Ghatiyantra mentioned in Krishnasukti of
Kashyapa.
Araghatta or Persian wheel- pots on the rim of wheel to lift water
Kashmir- Rajatarangini mentions Lalitaditya Muktapida changing route of
Vitasta or Jhelum and giving Araghattas to villages
Gujarat- Step-well or Vav famous. Rani ki Vav of Solanki dynasty. Maitraka
king inscription of 7th century talks of king gifting Vav to a village. Kunda
were built like Surya Kunda at Sun Temple, Modhera.
Rajasthan- 7th century inscription of Mewar talks of Araghattas being gifted
to villages.
Orissa- 13th century inscription of Ganga kings talks of demarcation of field
and to use water from Tungana tank till crop ripen. This shows use of tank
irrigation
In Bundelkhand, references to Chandellas using irrigation canals to grow
sugarcane.
Well or Kupa were famous in most parts and were common source of
irrigation.
South India- role of temples crucial.
Development in technology - use of cisterns and sluice valves, damming of
river waters, flood control, etc
Fall in Urbanisation -
6-9th century- RS Sharma talked of an urban decay after 6th century due to
fall in trade due to multiple reasons
Monetary anaemia meant shortage of currency which led to fall in
economic activity. This led to downfall of cities.
Increase in land grants that led to ruralization of economy. Immemse
proliferation of land grant copper plates after 600CE.
Political fragmentation led to confusion
Xuanzang talks of decay in Pataliputra, Shravasti, Kapilvastu, etc but
mentions flourishing cities like Thanesar, Prayaga, Kannauj, etc.
Archaeology- Sonkh near Mathura shows 7 layers during Kushana times but
only two in later times
Other side-
Hattas- mentioned in multiple Pala texts. Devapaladevahatta near Nalanda
in 9th century famous. Hatta and Hatta-Marga mentioned in
Tattanandapura in 9th century. Today's Bulandshahr
Prthudaka or Pehowa inscription in 9th century about Ghotaka-Yatra or
horse fair
Mandapika- A big Mandapa with various shops for trade. Kiragram
insvription in Kangra in 9th century. Siyadoni inscription also mentions
same. 9th century inscription at Sripatha in Bayana in Rajasthan.
Lekhapadhhati in Gujarat uses term Maha-Mandapika
10th century Alberuni mentions trade routes connecting Kanauj to
Patliputra, Ayodhya, Kalinga and roads up to Kanchipuram.
8th century texts Kuvalayamala and Jatakamala mention trade via
Shurparaka or Sopara
Arab texts show names like Stambhapura or Cambay in Gujarat.
Mention of officers controlling trade- Hattapati, Shaulkika, Gamagamika
Ranabir Chakravarti has shown existence of Arab trade. Arab texts mention
Al Bahr Al Hind or the Sea of India divided into two parts- Bahr Larvi or Sea
of Gujarat and Bahr Harkal or Sea of Bengal.
9th century text Chachnama names Daybhul in Indus Delta
Texts mention Thane, Kalyan, Sopara, Cambay, Sanjan, Chaul like Al Masudi
while Sanskrit texts mention Hormuz as Ardrapura.
Sino-Indian trade-
Tansen Sen has argued that the nature of trade with China has changed
from Buddhist dominated to trade dominated
By 10th century, China was no longer dependent on Indian Buddhism due
to rise of Chinese Buddhist schools and increasing sinofication of Buddhism.
Xuanzang has mentioned Indian craze for Chinese silk called China-Patta.
Silk fabric and garments were important gifts brought by Chinese missions
to India
Apart from silk, things traded were camphor, porcelain, mercury, exotic
fruits, etc while India sent spices, ivory, leather, cotton textiles, rosewater,
etc.
Cholas and Palas were important traders. Rajendra I mission to China in
1015CE
A Chinese record says Canton River was full of Indian, Persian and Arab
ships. The Chinese had to restrict the outflow of gold and silver. Cotton was
introduced in Japan during this period by Indians.
Chinese copper coins, pottery and artefacts have been found at
Khalakpatna and Manikpatna ports of Orissa between 11th to 14th century.
Various Persian and Arabic products also found way through India to China
like rosewood.
Trading communities -
Trade slumped in 700-900 AD but grew later on till 13th century. This led to
growth of traders. Not that traders were completely absent earlier. They
were present then but in less number and trading in luxurious goods
Existence of vibrant trade means the rural economy is booming. Trade
forms backward and forward linkages. It takes raw material and finished
products from peasants and artisans and deals with customers. Thus
booming trade indicates the overall health of economy.
Traders also started indulging in usuary. There emerged a separate
merchant group called Nikshepa-Vanika in western India. Lekhapaddhati
texts in Gujarat mention a son of merchant who asked his share of property
to start lending budiness. Medhatithi, a medieval law maker talks of
corporations of merchants. The terms used for them was Shrehthi or the
one who indulged in sale of goods and Sarathavaha or one who lead the
merchant caravans.
Role of traders - the families became influential and also took political
positions. Merchant family of Vimala and his descendents Vastupala and
Tajapala who became ministers in Gujarat is an example. Having big
amounts of money, merchants also donated to temples. Same Vastupala
and Tajapala built Jaina temples atop mount Abu.
Jineshvara Suri in 11th century mentions Jaina traders of western India.
Al-Idrisi and Marco Polo in 12th and 13th century talk of truthfulness of
Indian traders.
Education -
The donations Agraharas and Devadanas to temples, mathas and different
Buddhist Viharas,etc made them the centers of education. Apart from that,
religious towns became seat of learning like Kashi for shaivism, etc. Capitals
like Dhar, Anhilwada, etc also were centers of learning.
Students used to travel long for education. Kshemendra mentions students
coming from Bengal to study in Kashmir mathas.
Rajashekhara's Prabandhakosha mentions more than 70 subjects studied
by students.
Tibetan historian Taranatha in 17 th century mentions the craze for
studying Tantra and Mantra in Indian universities of Nalanda, Odantapuri,
Vikramshila, etc.
Trend of temple libraries came up after 8th century CE. It was first taken
forth by Jainas and Buddhists and later on adopted by Hindus. The big
libraries had Bhandaras or stores of manuscripts dealing with different
subjects. The library at Nalanda burned down by Bakhtiyar Khalji in 12th
century.
Foreign students in Nalanda
But literacy less. Still limited to Brahmins and Sramanas.
CHOLAS
Imperial Cholas were the most powerful Kingdom of Tamilakam lasting from 9th
to 13th century and the first south Indian kingdom to extend its influence right up
to southeast Asia.
Chola Administration-
Administrative divisions - Rajam --> 8 Mandalams --> districts called Kottams or
Valanadus --> Nadus --> Assemblies or Varium called Ur, Mahasabha, Nagaram.
Judicial system
King was the final authority in serious offences. Local dusputes decided by the
village assemblies. Unlike Guptas, capital punishment was not very harsh. Court
documents recorded in inscriptions. Taxation during calamity was lenient. At local
level, Sabhas also had judicial functions referred as Dharmasana.
Local representation
From Uttaramerur inscription during reign of Parantaka I
Nadu or Ur- The local govt could have developed in pre-Chola times due to
settlement of agri communities bound by economic and kinship ties. The
villages were made of Vellalas and non-brahmans hence called Vellanvagai.
Nadu also collected taxes and levies at local level and maintained
infrastructure. Headed by Nadalvar.
Sabha- made of land owning Brahmins who were scholarly and we'll
learned. They formed Variyams or committees to look over various aspects
of admin. Various Variyams existed for looking after gardens, fields, gold
allays, etc. The Samvatsara Variyam was an annual committee of more
experienced elders. The election happened by the system of lots.
Conditions included property, 40 years and knowledge in Shastras. No one
allowed consecutive terms. The Sabha had right to levy taxes collected
through Tanduvan or collector. It also had judicial functions called
Dharmasana.
Uttaramerur inscription details- the election used to proceed by lots every
year. The eligibility was 35-70 years, own property of 1/4th Veli or 1.5
acres, knowledge of Vedas or one Veda and a Bhashya. No criminal record,
no stolen property, no failure to submit accounts of earlier posts.
Military Setup
Elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy were important in an army. The total
army was about 150000. Arabian horses were imported for cavalry but
didnt survive due to climate.
Army was led by the prince or Yuvaraja. Velaikkarars as bodyguards of
monarch, ranks included Mahadandanayakas, Nayaks and Senapatis. They
were Vellalas, Brahmins and others.
Very strong navy with Nagapattanam as a port. The conquests went up to
Srivijaya and Shailendras. Thus, Bay of Bengal had become Chola Lake.
Revenue System
Revenue department kept all records.
Taxable lands were called Irai while tax-free land was called Irayili.
Taxes varied according to the type of land. Nansei was wetland, Punsei was
dry land, Nattam was common land, Thottam was garden land. Wetland
gave 1/3rd produce as taxes while dryland gave 1/5th.
During Rajaraja I, the demand was one third, either in cash or kind.
Katamai was tax on land. Kutimai was occupancy dues. Vetti, similar to
Vishti were labour dues.
Eccoru meant obligation of villagers to provide food to State officials.
New land brought under cultivation - 1/10th tax in first year, 1/9th in
second.
Professional tax, house tax collected. However, Kullotunga abolished tolls.
Excluded from taxation were Ur Nattam, temples, tanks, canals, etc.
Person unwilling to cultivate or migrated out, his lands were confiscated.
Currency was called Kalanju
(Conclude saying it is centralized state)
Society
Caste system prevalent. Two major divisions - Valangai or peasants, Idangai
or traders.
Sati was prevalent in royal families and also devadasi system.
Tanjore inscription talks of Devanar Makkal or god's daughters who lived
near Brihadeshwara temple
Different professions find mention like valaiyar or fisherman, vedar or
hunters, kovalar or cowherds, etc.
Like north india, proliferation of subcastes seen - cheek, rathakar, etc.
Foreign contact-
Trade through- Nagapatnam, Kaveripatnam, Arikamedu, Korkai, Kolachel,
Thoothukudi, etc.
Official spread along with spread by monks, traders, guilds like Ayyavole,
etc.
China under Song dynasty was open for trade. Rajendra I himself a mission
to China in 1015CE. Chinese records mwntion 4 such missions who brought
gifts like ivory, spices, leather, glassware, camphor, etc.
Tamil Chinese inscriptions and 300 bronze statues found in Guangzou
province of China
1017CE- Sri Lanka conquered. Shiva temple at Anuradhapura, temples at
Jaffna, Mannar and Trincomalee. Reconstruction of various Busddhist
monesteries in Anuradhapura. A new city of Rajarajapuram with a Shiva
temple. Migration of Tamils via Adam's bridge.
Conquest on islands of Maldives by Ranjendra’s navy.
1025 CE- Conquest of Srivijaya kingdom under Shailendra dynasty.
A reference of grant shows the Srivijaya kind donating for a monastery in
Nagapattinam.
The Tanjore inscription of Rajendra I mentions kingdom of Madamalingam
near the Kra Isthmus of Thailand.
A Chola Surya image has been found at Jaiya, regional capital of Srivijaya
empire.
Similarly, pottery and glass remains have been found at Ko Kao island at
mouth of Takaupa river.
Expansion of Tamil culture in Singapore.
Role of merchant guilds - 11th century Ayyavole imscriotion in northern Sri
Lanka and Sumatra. The base for Manigramam was Takaupa in Thailand.
(Chola art and architecture, metal works- Upinder Singh page 637)
Culture-
Dravida style architecture, temple being the center of activity, temples like
Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram and Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore
(it even had statues of kings).
The bronze statues of Nataraja are famous from Chola period.
Cholas also gave patronage to Tamil language and poets. Kamban’s
Ramayana, Pugalendi’s Nala Venba are masterpieces in Tamil literature.
Thirumurai are collections of compositions of Nayanar and Alvar saints and
is called the 5th Veda.
Possible Question- Evaluate the socio economic conditions from the Gupta
Period to 1200 C.E. as gleaned from the various types of grants or dana shasanas
Intro- Epigraphy and its importance for socio-economic and political history
The said period had important kingdoms like Guptas, Vakatakas, Rashtrakutas,
Cholas, Rajputs, Palas, etc whose Dana Shasanas throw light on the history of the
period.
Social conditions-
1- decentralisation- Dana shasanas resulted in erosion of king's sovereignty.
Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta and 10th century Pala plates have words like
"till sun and moon exist' that show permanent nature of land grants. Study by BD
Chattopadhyaya about Rajputs show that they were land owners under Gurjara-
Pratiharas and rose to power due to former's fall
2- Rise of Brahmins- Brahmadeyas led to rise of Brahmins. Religious and economic
power now combined. Pala plates and Ganjam plates of Orissa talk of tax
exemptions. Yavatmal plates of Vakatakas talk of renewal of tenure. Chola land
grants show Taniyur or tax exempted status for Brahmadeyas
3- Rise of Kayasthas- They were scribes who dealt with land records. Pala plates
show them as an intermediate class between Brahmins and Kshatriyas
4- Rise of Brahmins, local chiefs coupled with fall in trade and monetary anaemia
meant worsening status of Vaishyas and Shudras
5- Information on migration- Land grants to Brahmins have details of native place.
Grants show migration of Brahmins from Madhyadesha to Bengal, Orissa and
Deccan.
6- Condition of peasants worsened as they became mere tenants on their lands.
The sub-infeudation meant increased burden of revenue
7- Institution of village eroded as land grants significantly altered community land
rights and judicial rights of Panchayats.
8- Many grants were in regional languages too showing growth of regional
cultures
Overall, society became even more stratified, rigid and inward looking between
Gupta-1200 CE
Economic conditions-
1- Agrarian expansion seen as most plates are given for growth in cultivation i.e
revenues. It shows more rural centric economy than urban and trade centric. RS
Sharma has comcluded this showe de-urbanization.
2- Tax exemptions of Kara, Bali, Bhaga, etc in some cases meant lessening of royal
revenues, although in case of various Kara-Shasanas of Palas and Orissa, certain
taxes had to be paid by grantees.
3- Vakataka land grants like Chammak and Yavatmal plates were studied by
historians Shrimali and Mirashi. They conclude it was more of a barter based rural
economy showing monetary anaemia
4- Plates and inscriptions of Cholas studied by Subbarayulu and Shanmugan show
varied revenue terms like Katimai, Kutimai, Vetti, etc showing robust bureaucracy
and numerous taxes
5- Rise of temple as financial institutions. Temple towns.
Overall, economic condition varied from place to place. But a certain monetary
anaemia and loss of trade and focus on agriculture can be observed.