The History of Islam

Chapter 1
The Islamic Period
BIRTH OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD PBUH
The Birth of Muhammad pbuh
The great leader, Prophet Muhammad pbuh was born on the 20th
of April 571 A.D that coincides with the 11th of Rabi'ul Awwal in the
year of the Abyssinians attack on Mecca to demolish the Ka'baa. This
year was known as the Year of the Elephant ('Amul Fiil) because the
attack was led by elephants.
The Prophetic Family
He came from a poor but respected and honored family. His

father was Abdullah bin Abdul Muttalib bin Abdi Manaf bin Qusay
bin Kilab, he was from the Quraish that was a powerful and
influential tribe in Mecca. His mother was Aminah binti Wahab bin
Abdi Manaf that was also from the lineage of the Quraish. He was
an orphan, his father died before he was born and his mother died
when he was six years old.
His Guardians
Our Prophet Muhammad pbuh was brought up by his

grandfather Abdul Muttalib who was a leader of the Quraish. But
his grandfather passed away when he was nine years old and the
charge of the Prophet was passed on to his uncle Abu Talib. Ever
since he was a child he was nursed by Haleemah from the tribe of
Sa'diyah.
Working as a shepherd
With the passing of his grandfather, Our Prophet worked as a

shepherd in Mecca and then he went to Syria as a merchant. This
instilled him with bravery and nobility, the traits proper for
merchants at that time for the protection of their merchandises and
lives if their caravans were attacked by the marauding Bedouins. He
is known for his truthfulness and great honesty until he was given
the title Al-Ameen (the truthful and honest).
Because of these traits he was noticed by Khadijah binti
Khuwailid, a widower from a prominent noble in Mecca. She gave
him financial capital for business.
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‫صبر ساعة يكون فيه عز الدهر ونعيم الحياة‬
Khadijah was a business-woman of great honour and fortune,
noble and from a respectful family. Our Prophet married her when
he was twenty five years old whereas she was forty years old at that
time. From his marriage to Khadijah they were blessed with six
children.
THE COMMISSIONING OF MUHAMMAD TO PROPHETHOOD
The First Revelation
Even when Muhammad pbuh was still a child he always keeps

to himself. He shunned from worshipping idols, drinking wine and
gambling. He loved to worship and meditate in a cave named Hira'
in the outskirts of Mecca.
Then one day while he was meditating in solitude came Gabriel
(Jibril) to him and said: " ‫(" ا ْق َرأ‬recite). Muhammad said:
" ‫(" ما أنا بقارىء‬I cannot recite). Gabriel repeated the command
three times and then he said:
‫ ا ْق َر ْأ َو َرب َُّك اأْل َ ْك َر ُم‬, ‫ق‬ َ ‫ق اإْل ِ ْن َس‬

ٍ َ‫ان ِم ْن َعل‬ َ َ‫ا ْق َر ْأ بِاس ِْم َرب َِّك الَّ ِذى َخل‬
َ َ‫ َخل‬, ‫ق‬
َ ‫ َعلَّ َم اإْل ِ ْن َس‬, ‫الَّ ِذى َعلَّ َم بِ ْالقَلَ ِم‬

‫ان َما لَ ْم يَ ْعلَ ْم‬
( 5-1 : ‫) العلق‬
"Read! In the Name of your Lord Who has created (all that exists), He
has created man from a clot (a piece of thick coagulated blood), Read!
And your Lord is the Most Generous, Who has taught (the writing)
by the pen, He has taught man that which he knew not"
(Al-'Alaq : 1-5)
The Second Revelation
The Revelation paused for a few days, then the second

Revelation was sent down commanding him to invite mankind to
Islam: " ْ‫ر قُ ْم فَأ َ ْن ِذر‬
ُ ِّ‫( " يَا أَيُّهَا ْال ُم َّدث‬O you (Muhammad) enveloped (in
garments)! Arise and warn!).
With the revelation of this verse Muhammad pbuh started
propagating the new faith secretly, inviting mankind to bear
testimony to the Oneness of Allah thus embracing monotheism. The
early converts were the people closely associated with him, his
spouse Khadijah and his cousin Ali bin Abi Talib. And then some of
the leaders of the Quraish such as Abu Bakr, 'Uthman bin 'Affan,
Zubair bin 'Awwam, Sa'd bin Abi Waqqas and Abdur Rahman bin
'Awf.
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PRESSURES FROM THE PROMINENT QURAISHITES
Apprehension from the prominent Quraishites
The hostilities shown towards Muhammad would not have

surfaced if his teachings are only limited to the reformation of moral
characters and conducts and improving their social lives and did not
touch the issues of polytheism. The Quraishites were anxious and
scared about the safety and the well being of their wealth because
their glory and wealth are closely related with the act of idol
worshipping. Thus, the Prophet's call to abolish polytheism united
the polytheists of Mecca and they began to pressurize Muhammad
pbuh and his followers. Among the prominent Quraish that harbors
the most hatred and hostility towards him was his own uncles, Abu
Lahab and Abu Jahl.
THE FIRST HEGIRA
The Migration to Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
When the pressures and persecutions on the Prophet and his

followers worsened and the situation was no longer tolerable in
Mecca, the Prophet commanded them to migrate to Abyssinia. Even
though the Abyssinians were Christians the Prophet had already
known that the king of Abyssinia named Negus (Najasyi) was a fair
ruler and loved to received traders and refugees and his religious
knowledge was vast. Approximately 100 persons migrated to
Abyssinia but they returned to Mecca not long after that.
HEGIRA TO MEDINA (MADINAH)
The Inhabitants of Yathrib Embraces Islam
The time for pilgrimage to Mecca gave the Prophet the

opportunity to propagate Islam to the people. A handful of
individuals from Yathrib responded positively and embraced Islam
and then spread the message of Islam to their community.
Their numbers grew the following season of pilgrimage, over
seventy men and two women came to perform the rituals of
pilgrimage. They conducted clandestine contacts with the Prophet
and secretly invited him to join them and moved to Yathrib and they
pledged that they would protect and defend him. The Prophet
accepted their invitation and ordered his followers to depart first.
The Prophet's acceptance was not a surprise because he had lost
two of the persons that used to protect and defended him, his spouse
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Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib. With their passing the threats and
pressures on the Prophet accelerated and worsened until he had to
seek protection from the inhabitants of Taif but they were hostile to
him.
When the Prophet's plan to migrate was known by the Quraish,
they unanimously agreed to assassinate him. With the grace from
Allah, the Prophet and his companion Abu Bakr As-Siddiq escaped
safely, leaving Mecca under the cover of the night with Ali bin Abi
Talib sleeping on the Prophet's bed.
Yathrib became Medina Al-Munawwarah
With the migration of the Prophet to Yathrib, its name was

changed to Madinaturrasul (the Messenger's city), it was then
referred to as Madinah (Medina) or Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah
(the brilliant or shining city).
The Prophet's calling unto Islam was enthusiastically received
by the populations of Yathrib, especially the tribes of Aws and
Khazraj, these two tribes are known for their might and bravery.
The migration of the Prophet and his companion on the 16th of
July 622 A.D was considered as the beginning of a new era. It opened
the opportunity to spread the message of Islam and the Muslims.
That is why it was taken as the beginning of the lunar year calendar
called the Year of Hegira (Hijrah) which was first used by Caliph
Umar bin Al-Khattab r.a.
THE LIGHT OF ISLAM IN MEDINA
The Muhajirun and the Ansar as the Defenders of Islam
With the spread of Islam to all corners of Medina, its defenders

increased in numbers. They would sacrifice anything to defend the
Prophet and his religion. Hence the Prophet begins to erect the
pillars of a new society. He constructed a mosque as a place of
worship and where the instructions of Islam and its doctrines were
administered. And then he cemented the ties of mutual brotherhood
amongst the Muslims of Yathrib. The Muslims of Medina were
called Al-Ansar (the helpers).
Both the Muhajirun (the emigrants) and the Ansar were given
equal rights by the Prophet. The Muhajirun and the Ansar were the
pillars for the spread of Islam and its might and glory.
The Prophet forbids the killings and enmities common during
the ignorant (Jahiliyyah) period. He commanded them to come to
him whenever there are disagreements and disputes between them.
Thus the Prophet had established the principles of the Islamic
administration. He constantly promotes the spirit of brotherhood, to
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show love and mercy towards orphans, widowers and slaves and the
merits and virtues of humanity.
DEFENDING MEDINA
After the Prophet had established the administrations of Medina

he began to construct the necessary defenses in protecting Medina
from the attacks of the polytheists of Mecca. They were constantly
trying to take revenge on the Ansar because they protected the
Prophet and his companions and provided them with safe refuge.
The Prophet himself resumed command over the newly assembled
army. He also took part in the battles that follows and these battles
paved the way for the spread of Islam throughout the Arabian
Peninsula.
WARS TO DEFEND ISLAM
There were numerous battles between the polytheists that

wanted to destroy Islam and the Muslims that defended it. The
battles that the Prophet took part in were called Ghazwa whereas the
ones that he did not take part in were called Sariya. Among the
important battles that the Prophet took part in were:
1. Ghazwa Badr Al-Kubra
2. Ghazwa Uhud
3. Ghazwa Khandaq
4. The Hudaibiya Treaty
5. The Battle of Mu'tah
6. The Conquest of Mecca (Fathul Makkah)
7. Ghazwa Tabuk
8. The Farewell Pilgrimage (Hajj Wada')
Ghazwa Badr Al-Kubra
This battle happened during the month of Ramadhan in the

second year after Hegira (2 A.H) between the Muslims and the
polytheists of Mecca at a place named Badr, a place where a market
was held on an annual basis, located between Mecca and Medina.
The reason for this battle is that the Prophet wanted to block the
Quraishites trade caravan to Old Syria (Syam) to weaken their
strength and as a counterweight to the sanctions imposed by them on
the Muslims from performing the pilgrimage to the Sacred House in
Mecca. But the companions arrived late at the specified place and
Abu Sufyan's caravan escaped the encounter and continues on to Old
Syria. Hence the Prophet ordered some of his companions to
intercept the caravan during its return to Mecca.
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The news about the dispatching of the Muslims from Medina
reached Abu Sufyan thus he communicated a message to Mecca
asking for help and they answered and mobilized their forces
because most of them have shares in the trade. The Army was made
up of 900-1000 soldiers. They proceed to Badr and encamped there.
The Muslims was also moving towards the springs of Badr on
the suggestion of the companion Hubab bin Mundhir as to encamp
on the nearest water well and make a basin full of water then destroy
all the other wells so that the Quraish will be deprived of water.
The first encounter was when Aswad bin Abil Asad wanted to
break through the Muslim's ranks and drink from the water basin
but he was struck by Hamzah bin 'Abdul Muttalib. The Quraish
challenges the Muslims in a duel. Hamzah, 'Ali and 'Ubaidah
stepped forward facing the Quraishites chosen delegates, Hamzah
dueling against Shaibah, 'Ali facing Al-Waleed and 'Ubaidah against
'Utbah. The three duels were rapid and the three Quraishites were
killed, then the polytheists advanced and attacked the Muslims.
The battle between the polytheists and the Muslims was fierce.
The Muslim's army was under the direct command of the Prophet.
This battle was known as Ghazwa Badr Al-Kubra.
The Consequences of Ghazwa Badr
The Muslim's army was made up of approximately 316 soldiers

whereas the polytheists were made up of 1000 soldiers. But because
of the bravery and patience and the spirit of sacrifice shown by the
Muslim soldiers in facing death to seek the favor of Allah, they were
victorious. From the Muslim's side there were 14 martyrs whereas 70
polytheists were killed, including some prominent Quraish such as
the Prophet's uncle Abu Jahl.
Ghazwa Uhud
This battle took place near the Uhud mountain, south-east of

Medina, the third year after Hegira (3 A.H).
The reason of the battle is that the idolaters of Mecca wanted to
avenge their defeat at Badr. Thus three thousand soldiers of
disbelievers were assembled and pitted against seven hundred
Muslims. The battle was formerly going in favour of the Muslim
army but a fatal mistake was committed that turned the whole
situation upside down when the majority of the archers stationed on
top of the mountain disobeyed the Prophet's order and deserted their
posts after seeing the victory of the Muslims. This gave the idolaters
the opportunity to encompass the Muslim army and attacked them
from the rear. Seventy Muslims were martyred, among them was
the Prophet's uncle Hamzah, one of the pillars and defenders of
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Islam. The Prophet was also wounded in this battle and fell into a pit
dug by the idolaters.
During the course of the battle an idolater shouted that the
Prophet was killed. This causes great bewilderment and disorder
among the Muslim's ranks. The idolaters also suffered great losses in
the battle. They then departed and returned to Mecca feeling
satisfied because their defeat at Badr was avenged that day.
Ghazwa Khandaq
After Ghazwa Uhud some of the Jewish tribes in Medina

breached the covenant made between them and the Prophet.
This resulted in the banishment of the Jewish tribe of Qainuqa
and Nadeer from Medina. With the banishment of these two tribes,
the Jews enmity and hatred towards the Muslims increased and they
began to goad the idolaters of Mecca to attack Medina with their
support and backing.
The attackers comprises of several tribes thus were named Al-
Ahzab (Confederates). The Quraish recruited 4,000 soldiers, 300
cavalries and 1,500 soldiers on camels under the command of Abu
Sufyan. The Fajara clan rallied a big force with 100 camels under the
leadership of Uyaina bin Hishn. The Asyja clan contributed 400
soldiers under the command of Al-Harits bin Awf and the Murra
clan contributed 400 soldiers under the command of Mis'ar bin
Rukhaila. The Sulaim clan also contributed 700 soldiers as well as
the clan of Sa'd and Asad. It was a great army of ten thousand
soldiers and they all headed for Medina under the leadership of Abu
Sufyan.
In this battle the Muslims showed their military skills in
building defensive lines. Based on the proposal of the companion
Salman Al-Farisi they dig trenches (khandaq) around Medina to
defend themselves.
The Quraish were surprised with this new stratagem unknown
to the Arabs before. They laid siege to Medina for twenty days.
Then dissension broke up among their ranks because of their
inability to break through the Muslims lines. They then divided their
forces into three groups: One group led by Ibnul A'war As-Sulami
were appointed to attack from the upper part of the valley while the
second group under Uyaina bin Hishn from the side and the third
group led by Abu Sufyan attacking the trenches.
Those who managed to cross the trenches were dealt with
swiftly while others ran away from battle. Seeds of discord and
dissension broke between the various factions in the groups.
That night, a hurricane coupled with storms and thunder
ravaged their encampment, forcing them to return to Mecca in
frustration for their inability to achieve their target. They left
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carrying the lightest of provisions. Victory was to the Muslims and
they inflicted a heavy blow on the Confederates.
The Hudaibiya Treaty
The failure of the Confederates in Ghazwa Ahzab had a big

influence in the spreading of Islam throughout the Arabian
Peninsula.
In the sixth year after Hegira, the Prophet led 1,400 Muslims to
Mecca. They intended to perform the lesser pilgrimage (Umrah).
Before reaching Mecca they were met by envoys sent by the Quraish,
negotiations went on between both parties. The Quraish were afraid
that the Muslims wanted to take revenge so they negotiated
reconciliation and peace with the Muslims. Thus both parties agreed
to peace and a treaty was signed. Among the clauses of the treaty
was: all activities of war shall be suspended for ten years, neither will
raise sword against the other. This treaty is called the Hudaibiya
Treaty.
Propagating Islam to the kings beyond Arabia
The Propagation of Islam was not confined to the Arabian

Peninsula but spreads to the neighbouring political entities as stated
in the Qur'an and Prophetic Traditions:
‫ان َعلَى َع ْب ِد ِه لِيَ ُك ْو َن لِ ْل َعالَ ِمي َْن نَ ِذ ْيرًا‬

َ َ‫ك الَّ ِذى نَ َّز َل ْالفُرْ ق‬ َ َ‫تَب‬
َ ‫ار‬
(1 : ‫)الفرقان‬
"Blessed is He Who sent down the criterion (Qur'an) to His slave
(Muhammad) that he may be a warner to 'Alamin (mankind and djinns)"
(Al-Furqan : 1)
ً‫اس َكافَّة‬ َّ ‫أَالَ إِنِّي لَ َرس ُْو ُل هللاِ إِلَ ْي ُك ْم َخا‬

ِ َّ‫صةً َولِلن‬
"Let it be known! I am the Messenger of Allah to you specifically and to all
mankind generally"
The opportunity given by the signing of the truce with the
Quraish was used by the Prophet wisely. In the six and seven year
A.H, the Prophet sent messages and envoys to the kings and Ameers
(tribal leaders) beyond Arabia calling them to Islam.
The messages were sent to:
1. Negus, king of Abyssinia, his name was Ashama bin Al-Abjar,
dispatched by Ja'far bin Abi Talib
2. Vicegerent of Egypt called Muqawqis, dispatched by Hatib bin
Abi Balta'a
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3. Chosroes, Emperor of Persia, dispatched by 'Abdullah bin
Hudhafa As-Sahmi
4. Heraclius, king of the Byzantines, dispatched by Dihyah bin
Khalifah Al-Kalbi
5. Mundhir bin Sawa, Governor of Bahrain, dispatched by Al-'Ala
bin Al-Hadrami
6. Haudha bin 'Ali, Governor of Yamama, dispatched by Sulait
bin 'Amr Al-'Amiri
7. Harith bin Abi Shamir Al-Ghassani, King of Damascus,
dispatched by Shuja' bin Wahab from the Asad clan
8. Jaifer, King of Oman and his brother 'Abd Al-Jalandi, dispatched
by 'Amr bin Al-'As
The Prophet predicted the death of the Persian Emperor
The Prophet's message calling the kings and ameers to Islam

were received graciously by some of the leaders such as Muqawqis,
the Vicegerent of Egypt while some received it harshly such as
Chosroes who arrogantly tore the letter into shreds. The proud
monarch even dictated a command to his viceroy in Yemen, Bazan
by name, to send two men to Medina to tell the Prophet about his act.
The Prophet disclosed to them that the emperor will be murdered
and his kingdom will be torn to pieces just as the letter was torn to
shreds.
They hurried back to Bazan and communicated to him what
they heard from the Prophet about the fate of Persia. Then the news
reached him about the assassination of the emperor. After hearing
the news Bazan and his followers went into the folds of Islam.
Thus the kings and their kingdoms received their fate the way
they received the Prophet's letters.
The Battle of Mu'tah
The Prophet also sent letters to the leaders of the Christian Arabs
that dwelled on the borders of Syria that were part of the Romans
Empire, calling them to Islam. But the Prophet's envoy was
murdered. Thus in 8 A.H the Prophet mobilized and dispatched
3,000 soldiers led by Zaid bin Haritha to the north. They were
confronted by the army of Heraclius made up of Romans soldiers
and their Arabs allies, the battle took place at Mu'tah, a village
bordering Syria. Zaid was martyred in the course of battle and was
succeeded by two commanders, 'Abdullah bin Rawahah and Ja'far
bin Abi Talib. After the martyrdom of both commanders the
Muslims chose Khalid bin Al-Waleed to lead them. Under his
leadership the Muslims army managed to retreat in a fully organized
and well-planned withdrawal from the unbalanced battle because
9
the Romans army outnumbered the Muslims fifty fold their
numbers. Commander Khalid led the army back to Medina and the
Romans were unable to pursuit them.
Khalid Received the Title Saifullah
During the battle of Mu'tah the Prophet was informed by Divine

Revelation about the course of the battle and news about the martyrs.
He then ascended to the pulpit and informed the people of Medina
about the outcome of the battle and the martyrdom of the three
commanders: Zaid, 'Abdullah and Ja'far. The Prophet then said that
the banner of the Muslims army is held by 'Saifullah' (the sword of
Allah) Khalid bin Al-Waleed. From that day, Khalid was referred to
as 'Saifullah'.
The Conquest of Mecca (Fathul Makkah)
The citizens of Mecca signed a peace treaty with the Prophet in 6

A.H but they violated it when they helped their allies to attack the
tribe allied with the Prophet. The aggrieved party sought justice
from the Prophet. The Prophet accepted their pleas and in 8 A.H he
mobilized 12,000 Muslims and proceeded to Mecca.
Destroying the Idols
When the citizens of Mecca heard about the movement of the

Muslim's army some of their chiefs led by Abu Sufyan, surrenders
before the Prophet. The Prophet received Abu Sufyan with honor
and the Muslims entered Mecca without any bloodshed. The
Prophet then commanded his companions to destroy the idols in the
vicinity of the Ka'baa and then he said: "Truth has come and
falsehood has vanished. Surely falsehood is ever bound to vanish"
Among the factors that contributed to the smoothness of the
conquest was the Islamization of the two prominent and famous
Arab warriors, Khalid bin Al-Waleed and Amr bin Al-'As.
Granting Clemency
Even though the Prophet entered Mecca as a commander of a

victorious army, he granted pardon to the people of Mecca whom
oppressed him and his companions.
After this great victory, envoys from the Arab tribes came from
all corners of the Arabian Peninsula seeking the Prophet's audience
and people began to convert into Islam in hosts until Allah's Word
was high above the rest.
Ghazwa Tabuk
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Tabuk was the last battle that the Prophet participated in. The
reason for the battle was that the Prophet received news about the
Byzantines preparation to invade the Muslim's land and they have
amassed their forces at the Palestinian's border. The army was made
up of Byzantines soldiers and pro-Roman Ghassanide (Arabs) tribes.
The Prophet called the Muslims to Jihad and they rushed to
comply with his orders. He then marched with the Muslims
northward to Syria (Syam). They arrived at Tabuk and spent a few
days there, signing treaties with its citizens. Envoys from the people
of Ailah (coastal area of the Kaizun sea) and other tribes came and
made peace with the Prophet. Khalid bin Al-Waleed was dispatched
by him to Dumat Al-Jandal to conquer it. The Prophet then returned
to Medina. This was the last war in the Prophet's time.
THE FAREWELL PILGRIMAGE
In 10 A.H, the Prophet set off with 100,000 Muslims to perform

the pilgrimage. His speech at 'Arafah was immortalized by the
Muslims, in the speech he laid down the principles and guidelines of
Islam and called the people to treat each other fairly and equally.
The Prophet said in his speech: "O people! Know that your god is
One god and you came from the same father, you are from the
progenies of Adam and Adam was created from soil. Know that the
most honorable among you by Allah are the most pious. The Arabs
holds no superiority over the 'Ajm (non-arabs) except with
piousness".
As soon as he had accomplished delivering the speech the last
Qur'anic verse was revealed to him:
‫ْت لَ ُك ُم اإْل ِ ْسالَ َم ِد ْينًا‬ ُ ‫ت لَ ُك ْم ِد ْينَ ُك ْم َوأَ ْت َم ْم‬

ِ ‫ت َعلَ ْي ُك ْم نِ ْع َمتِي َو َر‬
ُ ‫ضي‬ ُ ‫ْاليَ ْو َم أَ ْك َم ْل‬
3 : ‫المائدة‬
"This day I have perfected your religion for you, completed My
Favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion"
Al-Maaidah : 3
This pilgrimage was known as Hajj Wada' (the Farewell

Pilgrimage) because it was the last pilgrimage performed by the
Prophet thus the apostolic work of Muhammad to mankind was
completed.
DEATH OF THE PROPHET PBUH
Less than three months after the pilgrimage the Prophet fell ill,
his sickness grew severe and on Monday, the 13th of Rabi'ul Awwal
11
in the eleventh year of Hegira that coincide with the 8th of July 632
A.D he returned to Allah. He was sixty three years old when he
passed away, after completing his apostolic work and uniting the
once divided Arabs under the banner of Islam. From that day on the
Arabs were united and their unity was as solid as a strong
foundation that is hard to destroy.
THE PROPHET'S ATTRIBUTES AND MANNERS
The Prophet pbuh combined both perfection of creation and

perfection of manners. In him was the beauty and perfection in
character and ornamented with peerless attributes no one else was
endowed with. He was extremely knowledgeable and polite in
speech. He was intelligent and bright. He spoke inclusively and
decisively, it was not excessive nor was it short of meaning. His
mind is sharp, if asked about something he could give the answer
quickly and politely. He was also a skilled politician. His soul is
pure. He is truthful and trustworthy, noble and courageous and ill-
manners and indecency are completely alien to him. He is the most
gentle and merciful to all.
To be brief, he was endowed with the top of perfection in
creation and attributes.
The Qur'anic verse below described perfectly the perfection of
the Prophet's attributes:
ٍ ُ‫ك لَ َعلَى ُخل‬

‫ق َع ِظي ٍْم‬ َ َّ‫َوإِن‬
4 : ‫القلم‬
"And Verily, you (O Muhammad) are on an exalted (standard of)
character"
Al-Qalam : 4
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the Prophet's family tree from his father's and mother's
side!
2. Who brought up the Prophet when he was young?
3. What was the first Revelation brought down by Gabriel?
4. Name the first companion that embraced Islam!
5. Why the idolaters of the Quraish resisted and opposed his

propagation?
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6. Explain about:
a. The first migration
b. The second migration
7. What is the difference between Muhajirun and Ansar?
8. What causes Ghazwa Badr? Where did it take place? What was
the outcome of the battle?
9. Explain about:
a. Ghazwa Uhud
b. Ghazwa Khandaq
c. Al-Hudaibiya Treaty
10. How did the Prophet take advantage from the truce after the
Hudaibiya Treaty?
11. Explain about:

a. The battle of Mu'tah
b. The Conquest of Mecca
c. The Farewell Pilgrimage
12. Name the five kings or Ameers the Prophet sent his messages to!
13. How did they receive the Prophet's invitation?
14. Who was it that received the Prophet's letter kindly? Who tore
his letter to shreds?
15. What was the Prophet's prediction about Persia?
16. When did the Prophet passed away? How old was he then?
17. Explain about the Prophet's character!
18. Explain the reason for Ghazwa Khandaq! What was the reason
for the Confederate's defeat!
19. Explain about:

a. Khadijah binti Khuwailid
b. Abu Lahb
c. Abu Sufyan
d. Zaid bin Haritsah
e. Saifullah
f. Bazan
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20. What happened in:
a. 571 A.D
b. 622 A.D
c. 632 A.D
d. 8 A.H
e. 10 A.H
Chapter II
The Righteous Caliphs
(Khulafa Ar-Rasyidin)
THE FIRST CALIPH
ABU BAKR AS-SIDDIQ
(11-13 A.H = 632-634 A.D)
Abu Bakr was chosen as caliph
The Prophet did not leave any will pointing to who would be
the caliph after his death. He leaved this important matter for the
Muslims to decide through discussions.
Shortly after the Prophet had passed away, the Muhajirun and
the Ansar in Medina gathered to discuss and then choose a caliph to
14
whom they will give their pledges of loyalty to. The Ansar
demanded that the would-be caliph be chosen from them, thus they
pointed to Sa'ad bin Ubadah as their chosen one. The Muhajirun
disagreed and a debate ensued between them, nearly turning into a
fight between them. Abu Bakr rose to his feet and delivered a
profound speech and said the Quraish have more rights to be a
caliph because the Muhajirun are the earliest to embrace Islam, they
accompanied the Prophet the longest and the Qur'an gave the
Muhajirun precedence over the Ansar. Abu Bakr's speech was
known as the Day of Tsaqifah speech. After delivering this speech
the Muslims immediately gave their pledges of loyalty to him,
starting from Umar bin Al-Khattab and then followed by the rest of
the companions.
Abu Bakr's precedence over the other companions
Abu Bakr As-Siddiq was the most prominent among the

Prophet's companions, he was the most experienced and his
contribution to Islam was by no means small. He was one of the
Quraish's aristocrats, wealthy and generous and was held in high
esteem by his people. During the time of the Prophet, besides being
a wealthy merchant he was an authority in the lineages of the Arabs
and a fair judicial figure. It was he who accompanied the Prophet
when he migrated from Mecca to Medina. He stayed by the
Prophet's side until he passed away. When the Prophet was very
sick he delegated him to lead the congregated prayers. That is why
the people considered him to have the right and held the highest
precedent from the rest to be the caliph.
His first responsibility after being appointed as caliph
When Abu Bakr was appointed as the caliph, the political

situation in the Arabian Peninsula was unstable. With the death of
the Prophet, most of the Arabian tribes refused to submit themselves
to the federal government in Medina. They considered that the
Quraish holds no authority on them anymore. At first, their
insubordination was resulted from their disbelieved of the Prophet's
death, but after his passing was confirmed some of them became
disillusioned and doubted the righteousness of Islam. They thought
that the Quraish will never recover from the loss of their great leader.
Because of their proud nature they refused to submit themselves to
the Quraish just for the sake of religion. Moreover, the majority of
the Arabs at that time were new converts to Islam and it was still
hard for them to leave things that they used to do but are forbidden
in Islam such as drinking liquor, gambling and so on.
15
Based on these reasons, some of the Arabian tribes refused to
submit to Abu Bakr's leadership and they also refused to give the
obligatory alms (Zakat) because they considered it as tributes that
they have to pay to the Prophet.
Emergence of false prophets
Insubordination and mutiny spread like wildfire from one tribe

to another, shaking the very foundation of the new caliphate. It only
holds authority over Mecca, Medina and Taif. The situation became
graver with the appearances of liars claiming to be prophets. One of
them and the most dangerous was Musailamah Al-Kazzab, he
claimed to be a prophet even when the Prophet was still alive. He
alleged that Allah granted him and the Messenger of Allah
prophethood. Because of this blatant lie and deceit he was called Al-
Kazzab (the liar or deceitful). He gathered a large following in
Yamama. There were others claiming to be prophets such as
Thulaihah bin Khuwailid and Sajah At-Tamimiyyah, a woman who
then married to Musailamah.
Confronting the apostates
The critical situation was handled by Abu Bakr willfully and

decisively. He assembled and dispatched eleven forces to subjugate
the apostates. Each commander was ordered to bring his forces to
their designated areas.
Some of the companions advises him not to wage war on the
people who refuses to give the obligatory alms but the unwavering
strength of his will stands out, Abu Bakr then said: "Know that if
they refuses to pay even a piece of rope that they used to pay to the
Prophet I will wage war on them even if it means my demise"
It took him one whole year to subjugate and subdue the
apostates, the false prophets and the people who refused to pay the
obligatory alms until the Word of Allah was the highest again. The
Muslims owed this great victory to Khalid bin Al-Waleed, the
fearless Saifullah. He subjugated the forces of Thulaihah and Sajah
and forced them to submit themselves once again to Islam. He
wreaked havoc on Musailamah's troops and succeeded in killing
him.
Compiling the Holy Qur'an
After the successful campaign against the mutineers and the

apostates, Umar bin Al-Khattab was worried that verses from the
Qur'an would be lost because a lot of its memorizers were martyred
in battles especially in the battle of Yamama. He suggested to Abu
16
Bakr to gather the verses of the Qur'an and compile it in one book.
After careful deliberation and asking Allah for guidance the caliph
followed the advice and the verses that were written on stones, furs,
bones and stems of the date palm trees were gathered and rewritten
in one book. Four of the famous writers of the Qur'an were Zaid bin
Tsabit, 'Abdullah bin Zubair, Sa'id bin Al-'Ash and Abdur Rahman
bin Harits bin Hisyam. The copy of the Holy Qur'an was first kept in
Abu Bakr's residence and then were given to Umar for safekeeping
and then passed on to one of the Prophet's spouse, Hafsah binti
Umar bin Al-Khattab.
Conquests during Abu Bakr's caliphate
After subduing the apostastes, Caliph Abu Bakr concentrated on

the conquest of the adjacent countries, to spread the propagation of
Islam and to distract the Muslims from internal fighting and
disputes. Thus he dispatched the Muslim armies to the borders of
the Byzantines (Romans) and the Persian empires.
For the Arabs, war gave them the opportunity to gain
martyrdom in Jihad with the sole intention of seeking the Favor of
Allah. On account of that pure intention, they were bestowed with
glorious victories and the abundance in the spoils of war.
Caliph Abu Bakr passed away while his armies were in the
middle of liberating the lands under the Byzantine's and the Persian's
influence. The conquests continued under the caliphate of Umar bin
Al-Khattab.
QUESTIONS
1. Who was the first Caliph after the Prophet passed away?
2. Explain the events that led to his appointment!
3. What were the obstacles he had to confront with during his

caliphate?
4. Why was the Qur'an gathered? Who suggested it?
5. Name the four writers of the Qur'an!
6. Who claimed to be prophets during the time of Abu Bakr? Who

was the most dangerous among them and why?
7. How did Caliph Abu Bakr handle the people who refuse to pay
the obligatory alms?
17
8. What was Abu Bakr's strategy after subjugating the apostates,
the false prophets and the people who refuse to pay the obligatory
alms? Why?
9. What was the general intention of the Arabs when going to war?
10. Which country did the Muslim forces want to liberate?
THE SECOND CALIPH

UMAR BIN AL-KHATTAB
(13-23 A.H = 634-644 A.D)
"Al-Farooq" Umar bin Al-Khattab
Umar bin Al-Khattab was a great warrior from the Quraish and
one of its prominent and respected chiefs. He embraced Islam in the
6th year of Prophethood and with his conversion to Islam, its strength
increased. This was not surprising because he was known to be a
fearless warrior and a champion in upholding justice. He openly
declared his conversion to Islam because of his confidence that no
one dared to oppose him.
Umar bin Al-Khattab was resolute and uncompromising in the
matter of truth and falsehood until he was nicknamed Al-Farooq (the
distinguisher).
The liberation of adjacent lands was extended during his time as
well as the expansion of the Islamic state and the implementation of
administrative laws in the government.
18
1. Expansion of the Islamic lands during his caliphate
Liberating Palestine and Syria
The opportunity for the spread of Islam in the Roman's colonies
The nobles of the Roman's empire treated the subjects in their

colonies cruelly. The people were oppressed constantly making
them resentful and looking for ways to free themselves from their
clutches. In the meantime, the Byzantine Empire is divided because
of religious disputes and weakened by excessive wealth. Its citizens
were disunited and were suffering because of the excessive taxes
imposed on them.
This gives the Arabs a golden opportunity to conquer Syria and
Palestine and the lands under the Byzantine's influence. Moreover,
the Muslims were known for their bravery because of their strong
faith. They were never afraid to face death in the name of religion
and truth especially with The Holy Qur'an stirring up their spirit for
Jihad.
When the Prophet was nearing his death, he commanded
Usamah bin Zaid to lead a military expedition to subjugate the tribes
settling near the Palestinian's border. The expedition was halted
because of the Prophet's death until it was continued by Abu Bakr.
Usamah's expedition ended with the Muslim's victory after besieging
the enemy for forty days.
The Romans harbors a great resentment over the Muslim's
victory. Heraclius massed his forces on the Syrian and Palestinian
borders in retribution, preparing to engage the Muslim forces. Abu
Bakr called the Arabs to Jihad and a large army gathered at Medina.
Abu Bakr divided them into four divisions with four separate
commanders:
1. Abu Ubaidah bin Al-Jarrah, dispatched to Homs

2. 'Amru bin Al-'As, dispatched to Palestine
3. Yazid bin Abi Sufyan, dispatched to Damascus
4. Syurahbil bin Hasanah, dispatched to Jordan
Abu Bakr ordered the four commanders to help each other and
appointed Abu Ubaidah as the Supreme Commander. 'Amru bin
al-'As was given the permission to liberate Palestine by himself but
he must come to the aid of others when needed.
While the Muslim armies were attacking the Byzantine colonies
in Syria and Palestine, Abu Bakr sent another military expedition
under the command of Khalid bin Al-Waleed with Mutsanna bin
Haritsah as his deputy to liberate Iraq. While Khalid was gaining
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successive victories in Iraq he received news that Abu Ubaidah forces
were unable to break the Roman's defenses, thus Abu Bakr
commanded him to come to Abu Ubaidah's aid as soon as possible.
Khalid then proceeded to Syria with 1,500 troops, traversing the
Badi'atus Samawwah desert in incredible speed.
The arrival of Khalid to Syria renewed the morale of the Muslim
soldiers. They succeeded in taking the city of Basra with the help of
its governor, Romanus. He surrendered the city to the Muslims after
showing them the route to enter the city through tunnels underneath
its walls.
The Battle of Yarmuk (13 A.H = 634 A.D)
When the news about the Muslims victory reached Heraclius, he

mobilized four large forces to engage the fearless Muslims. In view
of the situation that turns in the favor of the Romans the
commanders of the Muslims forces gathered and discussed about the
grave situation. In the meeting 'Amr bin Al-'As proposed that the
forces to unite at one place and fight the Romans under the
command of Khalid bin Al-Walid. The chosen place was a riverbank
of the Yarmuk river (a rivulet from the Sei river in Jordan) called
Wakusah. The Caliph agreed with 'Amr bin Al-As proposal thus
40,000 Muslim soldiers gathered at Wakusah and prepare to engage
240,000 Roman soldiers. The battle that ensued raged fiercely and
violently.
News about Caliph Abu Bakr's death
In the heat of the battle between the Romans and the Muslims,
came the news from Medina about the death of Caliph Abu Bakr and
the appointment of Umar bin Al-Khattab as his successor. With it
was a letter mandating the transfer of the general command of the
army (Supreme Commander) from Khalid bin Al-Walid to Abu
Ubaidah. Khalid kept the letter a secret until victory was achieved
by the Muslims.
The battle of Yarmuk ended with the defeat of the Romans with
a large number of their soldiers killed. The defeat left Heraclius
discouraged and the morale of his soldiers low and dejected. Syria
fell into the Arab's hand with this victory.
The reason behind the changing of commanders
Caliph Umar replaced Khalid not because he did not have faith
in his capability as the Supreme Commander, but because he was
afraid that the Muslims will be misled and holds the conviction that
their victories were because of him, Khalid was greatly loved by his
soldiers because of his bravery and because of the victories achieved
20
in every battle that he led them into. Furthermore, Caliph Umar
considers him to be too harsh and severe towards enemies from the
same race in the war against the apostates, he executed those who
had already surrendered and asked him to spare their lives. When
asked about being replaced, he said: "I fought not for the sake of
Umar"
After the victory at Yarmuk, the Muslim army proceeded to
Damascus and encircled the city for seventy days. They gave its
population three choices: either they embrace Islam or pay tribute to
the Muslims or going to war.
The strong and sturdy fortifications of the city were of no match
to the siege of the Arabs. The soldiers blockaded every entrances
into the city so that reinforcements cannot be sent, forcing the
citizens of Damascus to open its gates to the Muslims.
The Battle of Ajnadin (16 A.H = 636 A.D)
With the fall of Damascus into the Muslim's hand, the cities in
the northern part of Syria such as Aleppo, Homs and Antioch also
fell like dominoes. General Aretion, the Roman military commander
in Syria entrenched himself and the remainder of his forces near
Baitul Maqdis at a place called Ajnadin. A fierce battle between the
Romans and the Arabs took place there.
The battle ended with the victory of the Arabs and the
remainder of the Romans forces withdrew to Ceasarian and Baitul
Maqdis. With the Romans defeat at Ajnadin, the cities of Jaffa, Gizet
Yamla, Tyre (Tyrus), Acre (Uka), Sidon, Askalonia and Beirut on the
coastal areas of Syria and Palestine fell to the Arabs.
The conquest of Baitul Maqdis (18 A.H = 639 A.D)
The Muslim army were determined to conquer Baitul Maqdis,

the capital of Palestine and considered holy by the Christians. A
strong fortress surrounded the city and defended by a large force
under the command of Aretion himself. The siege lasted for four
months and succeeded in forcing the Patriach of the city to come out
and express his readiness to surrender the city with the condition
that Caliph Umar himself that accepts the surrender. Caliph Umar
departed for Baitul Maqdis and received the surrender of the city
and he then asserted the security of its citizens and affirmed their
freedom to practice their religions.
Thus the entire of Syria and Palestine fell into the Muslim's
hand, after six years of fighting courageously.
The liberation of Iraq and Persia
21
For the Arabs, conquering the lands under the Persian rules was
harder when compared to the conquering of the lands under the
control of the Roman soldiers because of their unity.
Caliph Abu Bakr had sent military expeditions to the Iraqis
border to subjugate the Arabian tribes settling south of the Euphrates
river. They succeeded in conquering Hirah and Anbar but were
forced to withdraw because of the attack by the much larger Persian
army sent by Chosroes Yazdayird III under the command of
commander Rostum. The Muslim army was forced to withdraw into
the Sahara desert. The situation stayed like this till the end of Abu
Bakr's caliphate.
The defeat was because the Muslims was concentrating on
conquering Syria and Palestine and engaging the Romans in battles.
After the Romans were finally defeated in Syria and Palestine during
the battle of Ajnadin in 16 A.H, Caliph Umar dispatched the army to
Iraq. In the beginning, Caliph Umar wanted to lead the military
expedition himself but most of the companions advises him against it
and suggested that the command be delegated to Commander Sa'ad
bin Abi Waqqas. He agreed to the suggestion and appointed Sa'ad as
the Supreme Commander.
The battle of Cadissia (16 A.H = 636 A.D)
Sa'ad and his forces proceeded to Cadissia, a fort that was the
gateway to Iraq. He was met by Rostum with 30,000 soldiers under
his command whereas the Muslim army was only made up of 7,000-
8,000 soldiers.
The Persians laughed cynically when seeing the military
equipments of the Muslims that consisted of slings to throw stones
from that they cynically referred to as a thread weaver. A fierce
battle ensued that lasted for three days and ended with the Muslim's
victory. Commander Rostum and a number of his soldiers were
killed in this battle while the rest was forced to flee for their lives.
Sa'ad and his army pursued them and another battle took place at
Jalula in 17 A.H.
One of Chosroes princesses was taken prisoner and a large
number of the Persian soldiers were killed in the battle. Sa'ad then
entered Iraq and conquered Madain, the capital of the Persian
Empire after besieging it for two months.
With the fall of Madain, The Muslims acquired a large amount
of spoils of war, among it was the Chosroes's throne made from pure
gold. Chosroes Yazdayird III fled to Helwand. The Cadissian battle
was among the greatest battles that took place during the caliphate of
22
The battle of Nahawand (21 A.H = 642 A.D)
Fathul Futuh
Chosroes Yazdayird III was unable to assemble a new army after

the fall of Madain, it took him four years to recruit a new army made
up of 150,000 soldiers to engage the Muslims. He mobilized his
forces in 21 A.H and Caliph Umar sent fresh reinforcements to assist
Sa'ad. Both armies met at Nahawand and after a fierce battle the
Muslims achieved an astounding victory even though the Persians
were fighting tenaciously in the defense of their country. This battle
was called Fathul Futuh (the conquest of all conquests).
Yazdayird III was the last of the Sassanites
The Muslim army continuously pursued Yazdayird III, turning

him into a fugitive in his own land. He had to systematically move
from one territory to another in stages, until he was forced to flee to
the eastern borders of his country. He was assassinated while being
a fugitive in 31 A.H (652 A.D) during the caliphate of Utsman bin
'Affan.
The Sassanites Empire vanish from the face of the earth with the
assassination of Yazdayird III, proving the Prophet's prediction that
the Persian Empire will be torn to pieces by the Muslims the way
Chosroes tore the Prophet's letter.
These successive victories have a big impact on the lifestyles of
the next generation of Arabs. The incalculable pleasure and
excessive material wealth clouded and deceived their minds who
used to lead a rough and simple lifestyle.
Conquest of Egypt
Egypt before the liberation of Islam
Egypt as well as the rest of the Byzantium territories was

divided because of conflicts in religion and sectarian disputes.
Before the advent of Islam, the Christians in the eastern part of the
empire were divided into two sects:
1. the Mulkaniyyin sect that was the ideology of the Romans

2. the Ya'kibah sect that was the ideology of the Egyptians and
Syrians
Because of these sectarian disputes, Egypt was constantly

oppressed by the Romans until the head of the Coptic Christians
(natives of Egypt), Patrick Benyamin had to flee from Egypt to escape
23
the Romans tyranny. Patrick's brother, Mina was caught and
burned alive by the Romans and his ashes thrown into the Nile river
because he refused to follow the Romans ideology.
Aside from the difference in ideology, the Egyptians were also
burdened with excessive taxes, they were forced to pay individual
taxes, a variety of business taxes, livestock taxes as well as taxes for
their crops, trades, boats, jewelries etc. There were even taxes for
transportations, pedestrians and for walking, either he is rich or poor
there are no exceptions, even a funeral ceremony have taxes imposed
on it.
The Egyptians also have to attend to the needs of the Romans
nobles and entertain them whenever they visit their villages.
The Egyptians was hoping for liberation from the Muslims
Poverty and misery that encompasses the Egyptians lives made

them to resent and hate the Romans rule and were secretly hoping
for a savior that will liberate them from this humiliation. News
about the liberation of Syria and Palestine by the Muslims reached
them and they came to know about their gentleness and nobleness in
their relationship with their subjects and their tolerance towards
other religions. The conquered subjects were free to practice their
religion and their faith honored and respected.
This increases their desire to free themselves from the Romans
with the help from the Muslims.
'Amr bin Al-'As request to liberate Egypt
Shortly after the liberation of Syria and Palestine, 'Amr bin

Al-'As make a request to Caliph Umar to liberate Egypt. He
informed Umar about the prosperity and the fertility of the Nile
valley and its strategic military importance to the Muslims ('Amr bin
Al-'As had visited Egypt before the advent of Islam).
He firmly stated that the strength of the Muslim forces in Syria
and Palestine will increase and its southern borders protected from
attacks if Egypt was conquered but if it was left under the Romans
control it will endanger the Islamic sovereignty over Syria and
Palestine. 'Amr bin Al-'As added that Egypt can be easily conquered
because its people are weak and the Roman soldiers there would be
afraid to face the Muslims because they have experienced the
intensity and the fierceness of the Muslim attacks in numerous
battles in Syria and Palestine.
In the beginning, Caliph Umar hesitated to grant 'Amr bin
Al-'As wish because he was afraid that by sending a military
expedition to Egypt, it will stretch the strength of the Muslim army
especially when they were still in the process of liberating the whole
24
of Syria and Iraq. He did not dare to expand the Muslims conquest
before their sovereignty in the conquered territories was solidified.
But after repeated requests from 'Amr bin Al-'As accompanied by
strong arguments and good explanations he finally granted this great
commander's wish.
Caliph Umar provided him with 4,000 soldiers to spearhead the
conquest of Egypt.
'Amr bin Al-'As was not the least troubled, even though the
strength of his forces is barely enough compared to the difficult task
ahead of them because he knew that the Caliph will not turn down
his request for reinforcements when the time comes.
Muslim army conquered the Egyptian cities
'Amr bin Al-'As departed with his soldiers and proceeded

through the Sinai desert until arriving in the Al-'Arisy and the city
fell without any resistance, then he proceeded to Al-Farma, an
ancient city with strong fortifications and was the southern gateway
into Egypt back then.
They besieged the city for a month and the city surrendered in
Muharram 19 A.H (January 640 A.D).
From Al-Farma he proceeded to Bilbis and met with the Roman
general Aretion who fled to Egypt shortly before the fall of Jerusalem
in Palestine. Bilbis fell into his hands after battling Aretion's forces
for a month.
When Bilbis fell into the Muslims hand they found Muqawqis,
the vicegerent of Egypt's daughter, princess Armanusah who sided
and sympathized with the Egyptians, she was not taken captive by
him but instead she was returned back to her father with honor and
respect. This act from 'Amr bin Al-'As gained him the respect and
affection of the Egyptians because she loved and protected them
from the Romans oppression.
After Bilbis was conquered, 'Amr bin Al-'As marched to Umm
Dunein (Teodonius), a city situated at the bank of the Nile river.
They engaged the Romans in battle there for weeks that resulted in a
stalemate between them.
Requesting for reinforcements
When 'Amr bin Al-'As was having difficulties facing the much
larger Romans forces he asked Caliph Umar bin Al-Khattab for
reinforcements.
Caliph Umar quickly sent 4,000 fresh troops under the command
of four famous warriors: Zubair bin Al-'Awwam, Miqdad bin Al-
Aswad, Ubadah bin Shamit and Maslamah bin Mukhallad.
25
'Amr bin Al-'As was experiencing difficulties during the siege of
Umm Dunein because his soldiers were demoralized with the
decrease in their numbers with every passing day while
reinforcements was nowhere in sight. But 'Amr bin Al-'As was no
ordinary commander, he is not the type who can be defeated by
despair and hopelessness. His overwhelming courage inflamed the
spirit of his despairing soldiers and they launched a fresh attack and
succeeded in breaking through the city's defenses, forcing the Roman
troops fleeing to Fort Babel and leaving their ships to the Muslims.
The reinforcements sent by Caliph Umar arrived in 'Ain As-
Syams and 'Amr bin Al-'As proceeded there immediately to receive
them. In the meantime, a Roman general named Theodore had
assembled 20,000 soldiers and attack 'Amr bin Al-'As forces in 'Ain
As-Syams. The Romans were heavily defeated in this battle with
only a small number of them that made it back to Fort Babel.
The siege of Fort Babel
'Amr bin Al-'As made Umm Dunein and 'Ain As-Syams his
military headquarters to strengthen his position there. According to
his estimation, there are no obstacles left to prevent him from his
objective save from the Roman fortress of Fort Babil, also known as
the Palace of Wax.
After finishing his tasks in Umm Dunein and 'Ain As-Syams,
'Amr bin Al-'As marched to Babil with his forces. The siege of this
fort started in early September 640 A.D.
Babil was the strongest fortress in Egypt, its walls are solid with
towering towers and almost completely surrounded by the Nile
river. During high tide its trenches will be completely flooded with
water.
The Muslim soldiers besieged the fort for seven months, when
Muqawqis saw the patience of the enemy, he went out accompanied
by his escorts to Raudha island, there he sent a delegation to meet
'Amr bin Al-'As to discuss a peace treaty. 'Amr bin Al-'As received
the delegation respectfully and to them he offered three choices:
either embrace Islam or pay tribute or continuance of war.
When the delegation returned, Muqawqis asked them about the
Muslim's conditions. They said to him: "We looked at them and saw
that they prefer death from living and they prefer modesty from
wealth and this world have no values to them and they prefer to sit
on the ground. Their commanders are like normal soldiers, there are
no difference between a master and a slave. When it was time to
26
pray they would wash parts of their bodies with clean water and
then pray devotedly".
This short explanation amazes him tremendously and impressed
his heart, he then said to himself: "Such people would one day rule
the world".
Signing of a peace treaty
Not long after that, envoy from 'Amr bin Al-'As came and met
with Muqawqis to further discuss about the treaty. The terms of the
treaty were:
1. Every Coptic (natives of Egypt) has to pay tax of two dinar

annually, except for old men, women and children.
2. The Romans have to preserve and repair all the bridges
destroyed by them between Egypt (Old Egypt was located not far
from present day city of Cairo) and Alexandria.
3. The Egyptians have to provide accommodation for a Muslim
(receive him as a guest) if the need arises.
Muqawqis accepted the terms of the peace treaty and his action
was approved of by the Coptic's nation. But Caesar Heraclius in
Constantinople viewed his vicegerent's action as act of treason.
Muqawqis was summoned back to Constantinople and thrown in
prison. Heraclius ordered all his military commanders to wage war
on the Muslims and drive them out from Egypt. Thus the war
started again and the terms proposed by 'Amr bin Al-'As in the treaty
were of no use.
The invasion of Fort Babel
The Muslims were hindered from invading Fort Babel for

several months because the Nile river was flooded making the water
level rise too high. For 'Amr bin Al-'As, there were no other
alternatives but to wait patiently for the water to subside in order to
succeed in this invasion.
The siege that goes on for months was also hard on the Romans.
Then in March 641 A.D they heard the Muslims celebrating joyously
the death of Caesar Heraclius. This sad turn of events demoralized
the Roman soldiers and opened the door for the Muslim's victory.
The Muslims started their invasion of the fort in April that same
year. Zubair bin Al-'Awwam prop up a ladder on the south east part
of the walls. He called to the Muslims to shout the Takbeer
simultaneously when they heard him shouting it. He ascended the
wall and when he reached the top he unsheathed his sword and
shouted the Takbeer, followed by the rest of the soldiers outside the
fort.
27
The influence of Allah's Word.
The Romans thought that the Muslim soldiers had invaded the
fort when they heard the thunderous voices shouting the Takbeer so
they started to run, abandoning their defensive positions. Zubair
and several Arab warriors wasted no time and opened the fort's door
and only then did the rest of the Muslim soldiers able to enter the
fort. Thus in April 641 A.D, the Roman soldiers protecting the fort
surrenders themselves, after the Muslims guaranteed the safety of
their lives.
The conquering of Alexandria
After Babil was conquered and soldiers were posted to protect it,
'Amr bin Al-'As and his army proceeded to Alexandria. He
conquered several other forts while on the way. Roman soldiers that
managed to escape withdrew to Alexandria and joined the Roman
soldiers still holding out there. Reinforcements of 50,000 soldiers
also arrived from Constantinople to defend Alexandria.
Alexandria was the last Roman stronghold
Alexandria was the second capital and the second city of

commerce for the Byzantium Empire.
Caesar Heraclius knew that if Alexandria fell into the Muslim's
hands the Roman's domination over Egypt would disappear
completely. Based on this assumption he dispatched a large army to
defend Alexandria to the last man.
The Muslim army did not have the necessary techniques or the
adequate equipments to encircle the city, they even cannot prevent
the reinforcements sent by the Romans from Constantinople (capital
of the Byzantium Empire) from getting through because of the lack
of a naval armada. That is why the siege lasted for fourteen months.
Their numbers are also relatively small compared to the Roman
troops defending the city. But the Coptic nations are on the Muslim's
side, they were always prepared to assist the Muslims with
provisions and equipments.
With extraordinary patience and seriousness, 'Amr bin Al-'As
soldiers were able to break the walls of Alexandria, ruining it little by
little with every passing day until this big city of commerce fell into
the Muslim's hands after fighting intensely. 'Amr bin Al-'As knew
that in order for their domination over Egypt to last they would have
to gain the natives affections towards him and his soldiers. That is
why they associated with the natives as the association of a military
commander that entered a country peacefully, not as conquerors.
28
Second treaty between 'Amr bin Al-'As and Muqawqis
Muqawqis returned to Egypt from his exile after the death of

Heraclius and another peace treaty was signed between him and
'Amr bin Al-'As. Among the terms of the new treaty was:
1. Every non-Muslim have to pay individual taxes of two dinars

annually
2. The Romans were given eleven months to leave Alexandria.
They were allowed to take all their belongings with them.
3. The Romans agreed not to invade Egypt again
4. The Muslims agreed not to interfere with the affairs of the
churches and the Jews.
5. The Muslims agreed to let the Jews settled in Alexandria
To make sure that the Romans would abide to the treaty, 'Amr
bin Al-'As decreed that the Romans must surrender 150 soldiers and
50 officers to the Muslims as a guarantee.
Romans left Egypt
With the fall of Alexandria, the Muslims were able to conquer

the rest of the cities easily until the Romans domination over Egypt
disappears completely, and the flags of Islam waved victoriously on
top of its towers and buildings.
QUESTIONS
1. Why did Abu Bakr make a will pointing to his successor? To

who did he willed it to? Mention some of his attributes!
2. Why was it easy for the Muslims to conquer the Eastern Romans
(Byzantium) colonies in Syria and Palestine?
3. Why did Abu Bakr ordered Khalid to bring some of his troops
out from Iraq to Syria?
4. Why was Khalid replaced as the Supreme Commander?
5. Who replaced Khalid as the Supreme Commander? What was

his reaction to being replaced?
6. Explain the conquest of Baitul Maqdis briefly!
29
7. Why was the Muslim army forced to withdraw from facing the
Persian army during the time of Caliph Abu Bakr?
8. Explain about the battle of Cadissia!
9. Which battle was known as Fathul Futuh? Why was it named

like that?
10. Where did Chosroes Yazdayird III fled to? How long does it
take for him to mobilize a new army? How many soldiers were
there?
11. What was the outcome of the battle between the Muslims and
Chosroes Yazdayird III army? Who led the Muslim army back then?
12. Explain about the situation in Egypt before being liberated by

the Muslims!
13. Who was the Islamic warrior that conquered Egypt? What was
his reason for conquering it?
14. Which route did the Muslims take to reach Egypt? Which city
was conquered first?
15. How many soldiers did Caliph Umar send to assist Amr bin
Al-'As army? Who commanded the troops?
16. Who was the vicegerent of Egypt when 'Amr bin Al-'As came to
conquer it?
17. How long was the siege of Babel? What were the difficulties
that prevented the Muslims from conquering it?
18. What was the delegation's answer when Muqawqis asked them
about the Muslim's condition?
19. Explain about the Muslim's invasion of Fort Babil!
20. What were the terms of the first treaty between Muqawqis and
'Amr bin Al-'As? Why was Muqawqis imprisoned?
21. How long did the Muslims besiege Alexandria? What were the
obstacles that prevented them from conquering it? How many
Roman soldiers were there in Alexandria?
22. Why was Alexandria important to the Byzantium Empire?

30
23. Mention the terms of the second treaty between Muqawqis and
'Amr bin Al'As!
24. Explain the following matters:

a. Ajnadin
b. Baitul Maqdis
c. Nahawand
d. The Sassanites dynasty
e. Muqawqis
f. Zubair bin Al-'Awwam
g. Fort Babil
h. Heraclius
i. Alexandria
j. Constantinople
II. ARRANGING THE ADMINISTRATIVE RULES
Dividing administrative territories
The Islamic sovereignty spread widely during the caliphate of

Most of the Persian and the Byzantium territories were
conquered by the Muslims. That is why Caliph Umar tried to
administer justice throughout the whole country.
The Caliph improved and corrected a lot of things. The situation
of the conquered territories, its advancements and its well organized
administrative rules helped Umar bin Al-Khattab a lot in his effort to
arrange the Islamic Sovereignty.
Caliph Umar divided the Islamic country into several territories
or provinces. New cities were built and in several large territories
new capitals were established such as the city of Kufah, Basra (Iraq)
and Fasthath (Egypt).
Appointment of governors as provincial rulers
Caliph Umar appointed a governor (wali) as the head

administrator of a territory and assisted by lower officers such as the
Minister of the state income, Magistrate (Qadhi), Secretary of State,
Military Commander and Chief of Staff.
They were constantly watched by the Caliph's spies who will
report their actions back to him. Even though the Caliph will only
appoint those who are an expert in their fields, they were constantly
monitored so that the people would not be mistreated and
oppressed. Based on his thoroughness, he would audit the wealth of
31
a governor before appointing him and when he retired his wealth
would be audited again. If his wealth increases from before and the
increase were found to be obtained illegally, the excess wealth or
parts of it would be taken and given to the State Treasury
(Baitulmal).
A meticulous leader
Umar bin Al-Khattab was the first caliph to arrange and

implement the 'hisbah', a set of laws that watches over the affairs of
the markets and preserves the courtesy and moral behaviors and
supervises the weights and scales used so that no cheating can be
committed. Even the conditions of the roads and its cleanliness did
not escape his attentions, nowadays this matter is under the
administration of the City Council (now the Public Works
Department).
Arranging Councils
With the wealth of the Persian's Chosroes in the Muslim's hand

and the abundance of gold, silver and precious stones obtained as
spoils of war and the payment of taxes by the non-Muslims (Jizyah)
and taxes from agricultural produces overflowing the state's
treasury, a system to administer it was needed.
In order to regulate the state's wealth Umar copied the Persian
system of establishing state boards or councils (to register the inflow
and outflow of money) such as the Military Council that manages all
the data concerning the soldier's name and their wages. He also
established the Accounting Board of the state's assets that regulate all
the income into the State's Treasury (Baitulmal) and arrange the
bestowing of presents and gifts to the Muslims according to their
status, based on the closeness of their relationship with the Prophet,
when they embraced Islam or their contributions in the battles
during the Prophet's time.
Arranging the judicial affairs
Umar was the first caliph that arranges the Islamic judicial
affairs systematically. It was he who chooses and appoints judges for
every territory. Occasionally the appointment of judges was
delegated to his governors for specific territories, according to a
specific condition and place.
Only a Mujtahid can be a judge, i.e. an expert in Islamic
Jurisprudence and are capable to give a ruling based on the Qur'an
and the Prophetic Traditions.
32
The judges have complete freedom to carry out their duties.
They were not influenced by the governor's authority. To them there
are no difference between the rich and the poor, the noble and the
contemptible.
They presided over their proceedings openly in mosques. They
were given sufficient salaries so that they can concentrate fully in
judicial matters.
The piousness and the heroism of the Muslims reached its zenith
during the caliphate of Umar bin Al-Khattab. There was an incident:
When Caliph Umar wanted to appoint Ka'ab bin Abi Yasar to be the
Supreme Judge of Egypt, he refused because he was not convinced
that he can be just and fair to the people, thus was an example of the
piousness of the Muslims back then.
Caliph Umar passed away
While Caliph Umar was making every effort to organize and

arrange every matter relating to the Islamic State, calamity struck
him, in fact, struck Islam, which resulted with his assassination.
The slave of Mughirah bin Syu'bah named Fairuz a.k.a Abu
Lu'luah, a Persian prisoner of war from the Nahawand battle are full
of hatred and enmity towards Umar. To him, Umar was responsible
for the fall of the Persian Empire. Thus one day, when Umar was
about to lead a Fajr prayer he came from behind and stabbed the
wise caliph.
Umar bin Al-Khattab passed away in Zulhijjah 23 A.H. He was
63 years old and ruled the Islamic Caliphate for 10 years and 6
months.
Selecting the next caliph
When Umar felt that his end is near, he pointed to six chosen
companions, they were the members of his advisory council. They
will choose from among them and the one that received the most
votes will be appointed as the next caliph. The six companions are:
Ali bin Abi Talib, Uthman bin Al-'Affan, Zubair bin Al-'Awwam,
Sa'd bin Abi Waqqas, Abdur Rahman bin 'Awf and Thalhah bin
Ubaidillah. According to Umar's will, the one with the most votes
will be appointed as the caliph, but if the votes were even, the one
agreed by Abdullah bin Umar will be chosen as the next caliph.
Uthman bin Al-'Affan was selected to be the next caliph.
QUESTIONS
1. How did Umar arrange the affairs of the Islamic State?
2. Mention some of the councils or boards established by him!

33
3. Who has the right to appoint a judge? What was the requirement
to be a judge?
4. What causes Umar's assassination? Who assassinated him?
5. When did Umar pass away? How old was he?
6. How long did he rule the Islamic State?
7. How was the next caliph selected? Explain!
8. What was Umar's will relating to the selection of the caliph from
among the six companions? Who was chosen as the caliph?
9. Explain the following matters:

a. Governor (Wali)
b. Judge (Qadhi)
c. Council
d. Hisbah
THE THIRD CALIPH

UTHMAN BIN AL-'AFFAN
(23-35 A.H = 644-656 A.D)
Uthman bin Al-'Affan's lifestyle and characteristics
He was among the first to embrace Islam. He was once the

Prophet's secretary, in charge with the writing of the Revelations.
During the caliphate of Abu Bakr, he was the caliph's advisor.
Uthman bin Al-'Affan was famous for his piousness and
sincerity. He once spent most of his fortunes for the sake of Islam.
He was dearly loved by the Prophet until the Prophet's daughter,
Rukayyah, was given to him in marriage. After she passed away, he
married another one of the Prophet's daughter, Umm Kultsum. That
is why he was given the title Dzun Nur'ain, the one with two lights.
He emigrated twice, to Abyssinia and Medina.
Conquests during his caliphate
During his rules the Islamic State continues to expand, the whole
of Persia until reaching Tebristan, Azerbaijan and Armenia. A naval
armada was established on the proposal of Mu'awiyah bin Abi
Sufyan, the Governor of Syria. The naval armada was established to
attack the Byzantines. Mu'awiyah was able to conquer several
34
coastal countries in Asia Minor and territories along the coast of the
Black Sea as well as the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes with the help
of the naval armada.
The Roman's assault on Egypt
The fall of Egypt into the Muslim's hands was a big loss for the
Byzantines. That is why they broke the treaty made with 'Amr bin
Al-'As and attacked Alexandria in 25 A.H (644 A.D) but they were
forced to retreat. They attacked Egypt for the second time in 31 A.H
(654 A.D) with Caesar Constantine, the son of Heraclius himself
leading the army. But they were defeated by the Muslim army
commanded by Abdullah bin Sa'ad and forced to retreat. Naval
armadas of both forces participated in the battle known as the battle
of Zatus Shawari.
During Uthman's caliphate, Commander Abdullah also
conquered North Africa (Tunisia) and Nubia (northern Sudan),
forcing them to make a peace treaty with him.
Uthman's political views
Uthman was appointed as the caliph when he was 70 years old.

He is mild mannered and friendly in nature. His time was the
beginning of the transition period for the Arabs, from an
uncomplicated and simple life to a life full of wealth, as a result of
the abundance of riches that flows from the conquered territories.
Caliph Uthman appointed his family members and close
relatives as Governors because he trusted them more than he trusts
others not from his kinship. He took this political direction because
he hoped that it will strengthen the Islamic Caliphate thus avoiding
dissension.
'Amr bin Al-'As, the governor of Egypt was replaced by
Abdullah bin Sa'ad, his foster brother. The Governor of Basra, Abu
Musa Al-Asy'ari was replaced by one of his family members,
Abdullah bin 'Amir. Whereas the governors from his kinship
retained their positions such as the Governor of Syria, Mu'awiyah
bin Abi Sufyan. He even appointed Marwan bin Al-Hakam, one of
his relatives, as his advisor.
Several important positions were also taken by his kinship, the
Umayyah clan. His directives were considered strange by some
companions, including the method of the state's expenditures which
was different from the one implemented during the caliphate of Abu
Bakr and Umar. He gave Abdullah bin Sa'ad the right to own one-
fifth of the spoils of war taken in Africa. He gave permission to the
Quraish to own lands in Iraq and Syria and other territories. This
35
resulted in hatred towards his administration in some parts of the
Islamic State.
His political strategies angered some of the Muslims, resulting in
hatred and hostility towards him and his governors, especially when
some of the governors levied them with extremely high taxes,
furthering their anger towards him.
The slandering of Caliph Uthman
The anger of some of the Muslims grew day by day. In the

meantime, a slanderer from the Jews that just embraces Islam,
Abdullah bin Saba' by name, took advantage of the situation to
further fueled the anger.
He traveled everywhere, libeling and vilifying the caliph and his
governors. He spread his poison in Hejaz, Basra, Kufah, Syria and
Egypt. He instigated them as much as possible, he even dared to say
that the Prophet had willed that Ali bin Abi Talib was to be the
caliph and only he has the right to be the caliph. His instigation was
taken in by the people and they held the opinion that Uthman had
taken the post of caliph illegally by going against the Prophet's will.
Ibnu Saba' and his followers in Egypt, Basra and Kufah agreed
to go to Medina to confront the caliph, by force if need be, resulting
in unrests and disturbance everywhere.
The Egyptian envoy made up of 600 persons arrived in Medina.
They were led by Muhammad bin Abi Bakr and Muhammad bin Abi
Huzaifah. They demanded the caliph to replace all of his governors
and to sack Abdullah bin Sa'ad, his governor in Egypt. Caliph
Uthman bowed to their demand and appointed Muhammad bin Abi
Bakr as the Governor of Egypt.
Caliph's residence surrounded
The Egyptian envoy accepted the Caliph decision and returned

happily. A new slander arises when the Egyptian envoy went back
to Medina claiming that they caught the caliph's messenger with a
letter written by Marwan and was stamped with the caliph official
seal ordering Abdullah bin Sa'ad, the Governor of Egypt to punish
and oppress the rebels. The envoy claimed that they intercepted the
letter from a servant that was on his way to Egypt. Uthman bin
Al-'Affan denied the allegation and swore that he did not order
Marwan to write the letter nor did he knew anything about it.
They demanded him to surrender Marwan to them for
questioning but the Caliph refused to accept their demand.
The situation grew worse with slanderous allegations and
gossips springing up everywhere. The Muslim troops were divided
in several cities under the Islamic control. This gives an opportunity
36
to some factions to besiege the Caliph's residence that lasted for 40
days.
Some prominent companions sent their sons to protect the
Caliph's lives. On the 18th day of the siege, Uthman asked for
Mu'awiyah and the rest of his governors assistances. When the
rebels found out about the matter, they could not contain their anger
and some of them entered the Caliph's residence. They struck him
with their swords which resulted in his death and confiscated his
belongings. The assassinators were unknown because of the chaos
and the confusion surrounding the situation with the attackers of the
Caliph and his defenders mixing up together. This undignified and
sad event happened in 35 A.H (656 A.D)
QUESTIONS
1. Mention some of Uthman's noble characteristics! What was his

position during the time of the Prophet and Abu Bakr As-Siddiq?
2. Why was Uthman known as Dzun Nur'ain?
3. Mention the territories under the caliphate rules during the time
of Uthman! What was the purpose of building a naval armada?
4. Explain about the Roman's assault on Egypt!
5. What were Caliph Uthman political views? Mention some of his

directives that were considered to be wrong by some factions!
6. What was the slander that resulted in his assassination? Who

spread it and where?
7. Explain briefly about the Egyptian envoy to Medina!
8. How long was Caliph Uthman surrounded? Why was he

surrounded? What action did some of the prominent companions
take to protect his lives?
9. When was Caliph Uthman assassinated? Who assassinated

him?
10. Explain about the following matters:

a. Constantine
b. Zatus Shawari
c. Abdullah bin Saba'
d. Muhammad bin Abi Bakr
37
THE FOURTH CALIPH
ALI BIN ABI TALIB
(35-40 A.H = 656-661 A.D)
Ali bin Abi Talib
He was among the first to embrace Islam, when he was still a

child. He was the Prophet's nephew and his son-in-law, the husband
of the Prophet's daughter, Fatimah Az-Zahra. He was known for his
bravery and courage and participated in all the Prophet's battles
except for the battle of Tabuk. He held important posts during the
caliphate of Umar and Uthman and was entrusted to handle difficult
and sensitive matters. He was also one of the council members
picked by Umar to choose his successor. He agreed with the
appointment of Uthman as the caliph but he did not agree with his
political views especially during the last days of his caliphate.
When Uthman was assassinated, the people of Medina pledge
their loyalty to Ali bin Abi Talib and appointed him as the next
caliph, but his appointment are deemed by some Muslims to be
uncustomary because Medina was at that time under the rebel's
control and only a handful of the companions were present such as
Thalhah and Zubair. These two companions were forced to pledge
their loyalty to him because of the pressure from the people.
Ali bin Abi Talib's political views
In Ali bin Abi Talib's opinion the governors appointed by Caliph

Uthman were not suitable and capable to manage the affairs of the
people. Therefore he intends to replace all of them even though his
position as the caliph is still weak. Some of the companions advices
him against it but he refused to back down from his decision.
Division among the Muslims
Caliph Ali's policy resulted in the dissension among the

Muslims. They were split into three groups:
1. The group that supports Ali

2. The group that demands retribution for the death of Uthman,
headed by Mu'awiyah bin Abi Sufyan
3. The group that did not agree with Mu'awiyah's demand and did
not agree with the appointment of Ali, headed by Thalhah, Zubair
and 'Aisyah
The Camel War
38
Caliph Ali had Mu'awiyah replaced as the Governor of Syria but
he did not pay any attention to the Caliph's command and continues
to hold his post as the governor. Thus Caliph Ali prepared an army
to fight him. Just as he was about to leave for Syria he received news
about the people of Mecca rebelling against him led by Thalhah,
Zubair and 'Aisyah. The rebels located themselves in Basra with a
large army under the command of 'Aisyah in 36 A.H (567 A.D)
When hearing the news, Caliph Ali canceled his plan to attack
Syria and proceeded immediately to Kufah and then to Basra with
200,000 soldiers. Both armies met at Basra in a battle known as the
Camel War (Waqi'atul Jamal). It was so called because 'Aisyah was
riding a camel while leading the rebel's army.
Caliph Ali won this battle and Thalhah and Zubair was killed
and 'Aisyah captured but she was not treated like a prisoner of war
but was respected and honored. She was escorted back to Mecca and
advised not to interfere with the politics of the state.
The clan of Hashim and Umayyah
The disputes between the Muslims did not end with the Camel
War because there are still two opposing groups left, the group loyal
to Ali from the clan of Hashim and the group loyal to Mu'awiyah
from the clan of Umayyah.
The clan of Umayyah continues their pressure on Caliph Ali to
find the killers of Uthman. But Caliph Ali did not press the matter
hard enough until they accused him to be involved in the
assassination of Uthman. This revives the long standing feud
between the two clans ever since the Jahiliyya times.
Soldiers of Caliph Ali and Mu'awiyah
There were vast differences between the loyalties of soldiers

from both sides. Mu'awiyah had governed Syria for twenty years
and he was able to win the hearts of the Syrians with his generosity
and intelligence, thus establishing his power in the territory and all
the Syrians obeyed his command. This was not due to their fear but
because of their love and affection towards him. Moreover, the law
abiding nature of the Syrians was a tremendous help for him to
achieve his objective.
Whereas Ali's soldiers came from various areas and social
classes, in fact the majority of them were Bedouins who disliked law
and order and refused to submit themselves to any laws.
The Seffein War
39
Caliph Ali received news that Mu'awiyah was prepared to battle
him. That was why Caliph Ali immediately dispatched his forces to
confront Mu'awiyah's troops at Seffein. Both forces met at the
western bank of the Euphrates river in Seffein and the battle was
severe and lasted for forty days. Ali's forces were winning the battle
forcing Mu'awiyah to think about the possibility of retreat. But 'Amr
bin Al-'As, who was fighting on Mu'awiyah's side, refused to retreat
due to his vast experiences in politics and warfare, especially against
the Romans. He proposed a strategy that made Mu'awiyah cancel
his intention to retreat. Then 'Amr bin Al-'As ordered his troops to
stick the Qur'an at the tip of their swords and raise them up as a sign
of peace.
The attitude of Ali's soldiers
Ali's soldiers were deceived by the tactics and they urged Ali to
stop the battle. Caliph Ali insisted on continuing the battle because
he was convinced that Mu'awiyah's peace proposal was just a
deception. However, his troops pressured him to cease the battle
therefore he was forced to accept their demands
After both sides agreed to hold an arbitration meeting to settle
their disputes, Caliph Ali and his troops withdrew to Kufah while
Mu'awiyah's troops to Syria.
Ali will be represented by Abu Musa Al-'Asy'ari, an honest old
man and Mu'awiyah will be represented by 'Amr bin Al-'As, the
famous Arab politician.
Casualties of the Seffein War
Both sides engaged with one another for 90 times in the war,
with a lot of casualties on both sides. Approximately 25,000 of Ali's
troops and 45,000 of Mu'awiyah's troops were among the casualties.
After Ali withdrew his troops to Kufah, a group of his followers
mutinied and left him and they were known as the Khawarij (group
that renounced Ali).
The reason for the mutiny was because they thought that Caliph
Ali made a grave mistake by stopping the war and agreed to accept
the arbitration when they were victorious in the battle. They
pressured him to continue with the battle but Ali refused to break the
treaty made with Mu'awiyah even though he himself disapproved of
it. This resulted in a mutiny and riotings. The mutineers consisted
of 12,000 people.
Some of the mutineers were defeated by Caliph Ali while the
rest managed to run away. The party of Khawarij was established by
the remainders of the mutineers. They were extreme in their Islamic
40
ideology and refused to submit to the rule of any Caliph. The
principle for their movement was "Power only belongs to Allah".
Result from the arbitration meeting
When the time of the meeting arrived, the representatives from

both sides met at Dumatul Jandal. Caliph Ali's delegation of 100
people was led by Abu Musa Al-'Asy'ari while Mu'awiyah's
delegation of also 100 people was led by 'Amr bin Al-'As. Mu'awiyah
himself was among the delegation.
'Amr bin Al-'As managed to outwit Abu Musa with his
cunningness in the meeting.
In one of the narration it was said that 'Amr bin Al-'As
demanded that both Ali and Mu'awiyah must be brought down from
their positions as caliphs as the basis for the negotiation to proceed.
After they have vacated their posts, the choosing of the next caliph
will be decided by the Muslims and they will have complete freedom
to choose whoever they wished.
Abu Musa accepted the demand wholeheartedly and agreed for
it to be basis of the negotiation. On the day of the meeting at
Dumatul Jandal (a place between Iraq and Syria), in front of
thousands of Muslims, Abu Musa was deceived by the political
craftiness of 'Amr bin Al-'As.
In respect of his age and status, 'Amr bin Al-'As gave precedence
to Abu Musa to stand on the pulpit and inform the masses about the
basis of the negotiation that were agreed by both sides. Abu Musa
ascended to the pulpit sincerely and informed that for the benefit of
the Muslims, they had agreed to remove Ali and Mu'awiyah from
their respected posts. Concerning the appointment of a new caliph,
the affair will be decided fully by the masses. He said:"I, as Ali's
representative, hereby sincerely remove Ali from his current post as
the caliph".
And then 'Amr bin Al-'As ascended to the pulpit and declared
that he accepted and supported Ali's removal as the caliph and he
decreed Mu'awiyah to be the Amirul Mu'minin (leader of the
believers).
'Amr bin Al-'As regained his post as the governor of Egypt
Due to the flaw in the outcome of the negotiation at Dumatul

Jandal, the civil war between the Muslims started again. Mu'awiyah
strived to remove the governors appointed by Ali. He dispatched
Amr bin Al-'As to Egypt to confront Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, the
governor appointed by Ali. Muhammad was killed in the battle and
Amr bin Al-'As was appointed as Governor of Egypt, his former
position.
41
Assassination of Caliph Ali
The outcome of the negotiation at Dumatul Jandal greatly

disappointed Ali's supporters. Therefore, Caliph Ali planned to
attack Syria which was Mu'awiyah's stronghold. However, the Iraqis
were ignorant towards him making it difficult for him to assemble an
army thus he had to cancel his plan. In the meantime, three person
from the Khawarij made an evil plot to assassinate Ali, Mu'awiyah
and 'Amr bin Al-'As. According to them, they were the main cause
for the civil war between the Muslims.
The three Khawarijites were: Ibn Muljam dispatched to
assassinate Ali, Al-Barak dispatched to assassinate Mu'awiyah and
'Umar bin Bakir dispatched to assassinate 'Amr bin Al-'As.
Ibn Muljam succeeded to assassinate Ali, but his two partners
failed to achieve their objectives, because Mu'awiyah and Amr bin
Al-'As were well guarded.
Thus on the 17th of Ramadhan 40 A.H (661 A.D), Caliph Ali bin
Abi Talib was assassinated by Ibn Muljam with a poisoned dagger in
the Kufah mosque while preparing to lead the Dawn prayer. He
passed away after ruling for four years and nine months, a period of
war and bloodshed. With the death of Ali bin Abi Talib, the Muslims
pledged their loyalties to his son, Hasan bin Ali as the next caliph.
Hasan bin Ali bin Abi Talib
After Hasan was appointed as the caliph, Mu'awiyah made

preparations to attack Kufah, Hasan's stronghold. Hasan received
news about the preparation. Therefore, he assembled an army from
the citizen of Kufah to confront Mu'awiyah's forces. But he failed to
gather their support. The Iraqis paid no attention to him, as they
paid no attention to his father.
Thus he was forced to withdraw to Madain with his followers.
There he negotiated a peace treaty with Mu'awiyah.
Hasan informed Mu'awiyah that in order to prevent the
bloodshed of the Muslims, he was willing to vacate his post as the
caliph, as long as Mu'awiyah promised not to insult and disgrace his
father's name on the pulpit and promised to leave the appointment
of the next caliph to the Muslims.
The negotiation terms proposed by Hasan were accepted by
Mu'awiyah and he promised to carry out the terms stated in the
negotiation. The treaty between Hasan and Mu'awiyah was signed
in 41 A.H.
QUESTIONS
42
1. When did Ali embrace Islam? What was his relationship with
the Prophet? What position did he occupy in the period of Umar and
Uthman?
2. Describe briefly his appointment as Caliph!
3. What was his intention after being appointed as a Caliph?
4. When did the Muslims split into three groups? State them!
5. What was the reason for the Camel War? Where did it happen?
Who led the troops? How many soldiers were there? What was the
outcome of the war?
6. What was the reason for the dispute between Ali and
Mu'awiyah?
7. Differentiate between the characteristics of Ali's and

Mua'wiyah's soldiers.
8. What caused the Seffein War? Why was it named Seffein? How
long was the war? How many times were they engaged in battle?
9. Which side was victorious? What was the strategy of 'Amr bin
Al-'As?
10. Did Ali wanted to sign the treaty? Why did he agree to it?
11. Who was Ali's representative? What were his characteristics?

Who represented Mu'awiyah? What were his characteristics?
12. In the Seffein War, how many casualties were there?
13. Describe briefly the emergence of the Khawarij? How many of

them were there? What was the basis for their movement?
14. Where did the arbitration take place? How many delegations
were there for both sides? What showed the cunningness of 'Amr bin
Al-'As?
15. Describe briefly the proceedings of the failed negotiation!
16. What was Ali's actions regarding the disappointing result? Why
did he cancel his plan?
43
17. What did the Khawarijites intended to do? State the three
Khawarijites and their aim! What was the outcome of their plot?
18. When was Ali assassinated? What was he doing at that time?
Who was appointed as Caliph after him?
19. What did Hasan do after being appointed as Caliph? Why did he
surrender the Islamic Caliphate to Mu'awiyah? What were the terms
proposed to Mu'awiyah? How did Mu'awiyah react to it?
20. When was the peace treaty signed between Hasan and
Mu'awiyah?
CHAPTER III
THE UMAYYAH CALIPHATE
(40-132 A.H. = 660-750 A.D.)
The competition between the clans of Umayyah and Hashim
Mu'awiyah bin Abi Sufyan, the founder of the Umayyah

Dynasty was the great grandchild of Umayyah bin Abdi Syams bin
Abdi Manaf. Umayyah was one of the leaders of the Quraish during
the Ignorant Period. His status and nobility equals that of Hashim
bin Abdi Manaf. That was why the descendants of Umayyah and
Hashim were always competing to gather influence and to gain
position among the Quraishites. The competition frequently resulted
in bloodshed between both sides, either during the Jahiliyya period
or the period of Islam.
Among the famous descendants from the Umayyah clan was:
Harb, Abu Sufyan, Mu'awiyyah Bin Abi Sufyan, and Yazid Bin
Mu'awiyyah.
The high status held by Abu Sufyan in the Quraish community
was recognized by Prophet Muhammad during the conquest of
Mecca, the Prophet declared: "Those who sheathed his sword will be
safe, those who take refuge in the mosque will be safe, those who
take refuge in Abu Sufyan's residence will be safe".
Abu Sufyan's high status was recognized by the Prophet in his
declaration, a recognition never before received by any of his
companions.
Whereas Yazid Bin Mu'awiyyah was appointed by Caliph Abu
Bakr to lead the Muslim soldiers to conquer Syria and then was
appointed governor of Damascus, while Mu'awiyyah Bin Abi Sufyan
became governor of Syria. When Caliph Abu Bakr passed away,
Caliph Umar gave the territory ruled by Yazid to Mu'awiyyah. Then
44
during the era of Caliph Uthman, Mu'awiyyah was appointed as the
governor of the whole of Syria.
That was the historical lineage of the Umayyah clan. They were
leaders during the times of Jahiliyya and Islam.
1. Mu'awiyyah Bin Abi Sufyan (40-60 H. = 660-680 A.D.)
Mu'awiyyah bin Abi Sufyan was able to maintain his post as a

Caliph due to various reasons, his sharp wits, his strategy of thinking
and his political skills. He was not unanimously chosen by the
Muslims as the Caliph but achieve the position of Caliph due to his
political skills.
Mu'awiyyah's appointment as the Caliph marked the end of the
Elective Board that appoint the Caliph who obtained the most votes,
as done during the period of Khulafaurrasyidin( the Righteous
Caliphs) which is the rules used by the republic nowadays. From
then on, the position of the Caliph became the hereditary rights for
his descendants, turning the Islamic Sovereignty into a monarchy.
This was because Mu'awiyyah was greatly influenced by the
laws bequest by the Romans in Syria, where he used to be governor.
The grandeur of kings that were never found during the time of
the Caliphs was copied. He was the first Caliph who used the throne
and guards that guarded him day and night. Even in the mosque, he
had a special position where he could pray in solitude while guarded
by his bodyguards, in anticipation to what had happened to Caliph
Ali.
Mu'awiyyah bin Abi Sufyan's personality
Mu'awiyyah bin Abi Sufyan was a famous Arab diplomat, he was

dispatched by the Prophet to deliver his letter to the Caesar of the
Byzantium empire. He had a successful political career and achieved
status and power higher than those who were more capable than
him. His modest characteristics and patience opened the path for him
to achieve his goals.
Due to his characteristics, he was able to overcome the
opposition of the Muslims. In the religious context, he was
knowledgeable and was not a fanatic. This was proven by his
appointment of a Christian named Sarjun as his Minister of Finance,
and his reconstruction of the church that were destroyed by an
earthquake in Iraq. Even the Ahl Zimmah (Jews and Christians) that
submitted themselves under the Islamic Law admitted to his fairness
and his unfanatical religious views. They would present their most
sensitive problems to Mu'awiyyah himself.
Conquests during the time of Mu'awiyyah

45
1. Eastern Conquest
Mu'awiyyah expended the Islamic empire towards the eastern

lands, reaching Sind (the Indus River territory). He ordered his
governor in Khurosan, Sa'id bin Utsman bin Affan, to cross the Sihon
river and conquer Samarkand and Sogdiana, until the two lands
were subjugated by him.
2. War against the Byzantines
The Byzantium Empire always dispatched their soldiers to

plunder the lands ruled by Muslims. That is why Mu'awiyyah bin
Abi Sufyan prepared his forces to engage the empire at sea and on
land. In order to accomplish this difficult task, he ordered his
military forces to engage the Byzantians continuously, both in winter
and in summer.
Mu'awiyyah's forces defeated them in several battles in Armenia
and Asia Minor. His naval armada consisted of 1,700 small warships
were ordered to attack the island of Cyprus and roads in the
Mediterranean Sea, until the two islands and many others in the
Archipelago were conquered.
In 48 H. (669 A.D.) he dispatched a military expedition led by
Commander Sufyan bin 'Awf and a naval armada under the
command of Admiral Fadhalah Al-Anshari to attack Constantinople
(Capital of the Byzantines). He appointed his son Yazid bin
Mu'awiyyah as the Supreme Commander of both forces.
The first assault on Constantinople
The large forces attacked the Byzantium territories and besieged

Constantinople, but they were unable to conquer the city due to its
strong defenses. Finally, they were forced to return to Syria after
losing several battleships and majority of their soldiers. In the battle,
Abu Ayyub, the companion who personally received the Prophet in
his house during the Prophet's emigration to Yathrib, was martyred.
In remembrance of the noble companion, a grand mosque was built
in the heart of Constantinople named Ayyub Mosque. Until now, the
mosque is still frequently visited.
The second assault
In 58 AH (679 A.D.), Mu'awiyyah dispatched his forces to

besiege the capital of Byzantium for the second time. The siege lasted
for two years. Mu'awiyyah passed away when victory was about to
be achieved and the forces besieging the capital were commanded to
46
return to Syria. Mu'awiyyah's predecessors continued the effort
earnestly.
3. The African War
In 50 A.H., Mu'awiyyah appointed Uqbah bin Nafi' as the

governor of Morocco, the Commander defeated the Roman soldiers
in the territory until the Islamic Sovereignty reached Tunisia. Many
of the Barbars embraced Islam. Uqbah built the city of Qairawan as
the headquarters of his military forces. He also built the famous Nafi'
Mosque in remembrance of the companion martyred there.
Appointment of the heir to the throne
In 56 A.H. (676 A.D.), Mu'awiyyah used his status as the Caliph

to influence the Caliph Council to appoint his son Yazid as the Heir
to the Throne in the event of his death. With the appointment of his
son as the Heir to the Throne, the way of appointing of Caliphs was
changed from being elected by the Islamic Meeting Council to be a
hereditary tradition. And he also broke his promise with Hasan bin
Ali i.e. the promise to leave the appointment of the next Caliph to the
Islamic Meeting Council.
Even though Mu'awiyyah gave the reason that his action was to
prevent conflict and dispute, as what happened to the Caliphs before
him, his action resulted in conflicts and mutinies after his death.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain briefly the lineage of the Umayyah Clan! State the names
of some of its nobles!
2. What was Abu Sufyan, Yazid bin Mu'awiyyah and Mu'awiyyah
bin Abi Sufyan's virtues?
3. Who was the founder of the Umayyah Dynasty? How did he
establish it?
4. Explain briefly Mu'awiyyah's personality!
5. Until where did the Umayyah Dynasty spread its influence in the
Eastern regions?
6. When did Mu'awiyyah launch the first assault on the Byzantines?
Who was the Commander? Which territory was conquered by him?
7. What was the result of the first assault on Constantinople? What
were the losses suffered by Mu'awiyyah's forces? Why was the
Ayyub Mosque built in the heart of Constantinople?
8. When did Mu'awiyyah launch his second assault on the
Byzantines? How long did they besiege Constantinople? Why did
they return to Syria?
47
9. Who was Uqbah bin Nafi'? What were his achievements? Till
where did the Islamic Sovereignty reached due to his achievements?
10. When and how the Caliphate became a hereditary tradition?
What promise did Mu'awiyyah break with Hasan bin Ali? What was
his reason to appoint his son as the heir?
2. YAZID BIN MU'AWIYYAH

(60-63 A.H. = 680-683 A.D.)
Companions' attitude towards Yazid's rule
Yazid's mother was a Bedouin who was married to Mu'awiyyah

before he became a Caliph. Because of that, Yazid was brought up in
a village while being educated in proper language and manners in an
unadulterated environment. Therefore he was brought up with the
Bedouins' characteristics of bravery, fluency in speech and poetry.
However he was not suitable to be a caliph due to his bad
behaviors according to the Islamic point of view. That was why his
rule was disliked by the prominent Companions such as Husein bin
Ali and Abdullah bin Zubair.
The Karbala Incident (61A.H. = 681 A.D.)
Some of the Iraqis sent letters to Husein bin Ali asking him to
come to Kufah. They told him that they were prepared to help him in
every way possible. Husein was deceived by the contents of the
letters. He forgot about what happened to his father, Ali bin Abi
Talib and his brother, Hasan bin Ali, due to the Iraqis. He proceeded
to Kufah with 80 of his followers. But when reaching Karbala, he was
met by Yazid's forces led by Ubaidillah bin Ziyad
Death of Husein
A fierce debated ensued between Husein and Ubaidillah who

advised him not to continue his journey, but due to the pressure
from some of his followers, Husein was determined to continue with
his journey, resulting in a clash between him and Yazid's forces. Only
then did Husein realize that he was deceived because only a handful
of the Iraqis were willing to help him. Husein and his small group of
followers were encircled by Ubaidillah bin Ziyad's troops who were
greater in numbers. Husein was brutally killed in the battle, he was
beheaded and his head was presented to Yazid in Damascus.
Even though Yazid was cruel, he was saddened by Husein's
tragic death as his father willed to him, in the event of conflict
between him and Husein and he was able to defeat him, he must
48
forgive him and treat him respectfully. But now he cannot do
anything but give his generosity to Husein's sons and families, they
were sent to Hejaz with honor and respect.
The mutiny in Hejaz
The news about the Karbala incident shook the Muslims. They
filled with sadness and enmity. Thus the Shi'ites united to seek
revenge, and the Muslims' antipathy towards the Umayyah Dynasty
increased.
The feeling of sadness and enmity were everywhere especially in
Medina, where Husein bin Ali's grandfather i.e. Prophet Muhammad
was laid to rest. Thus a big mutiny against Yazid's rule broke out in
Medina in 63 A.H. (683 A.D.), the mutineers succeeded in expelling
the governor of Medina and captured several people from the
Umayyah clan.
Yazid dispatched 12,000 soldiers led by Muslim bin Uqbah to
stop the mutiny.
The troops encircled Medina from the northern side of the city
i.e. Wadi Al-Harrah. Then the city surrendered and was once more
under Ummayah's rule.
After subjugating Medina, Muslim bin Uqbah and his troops
proceeded to Mecca as Abdullah bin Zubair had appointed himself
as the Caliph with the citizens of Mecca pledging their allegiance to
him but Muslim bin Uqbah died before reaching Mecca and
command of the army was given to Hashim bin Numair, one of the
famous warriors of the Umayyah clan.
A fierce battle occurred between them and Abdullah bin
Zubair's troops in Mecca in 64A.H.(683 A.D.). Parts of the Ka'bah's
walls were destroyed by catapult fire.
During the battle, they received the news about Yazid's death.
Ibn Numair ceased the battle upon receiving the news.
These events during Yazid's rule were a calamity for the
Muslims and will forever be the dark historical pages of his rule.
QUESTIONS
1. Name the two prominent companions who disliked Yazid's rule?

What was the reason?
2. Why did Husein bin Ali proceed to Kufah? How many of them
were there?
3. What happened in Karbala? What was the reason for it?
4. What showed to the brutality of Husein bin Ali's death?
5. What was Yazid's reaction towards Husein's death? Why did he
react in such a manner?
49
6. What was the cause for the mutiny in Hejaz? What step did Yazid
take to stop the mutiny?
7. Who was the Commander that subjugated Medina? Where did
they proceed after subjugating it?
8. Who proclaimed himself as the Caliph in Mecca? Who was the
commander of Umayyyah's troops? Did they succeed in defeating
Abdullah's troops?
9. State some of the dark sides of Yazid's rule.
MU'AWIYAH BIN YAZID

(64 A.H = 683 A.D)
Before his death, Yazid willed that his son, Mu'awiyah bin Yazid
to be his successor, following the tradition started by his father
Mu'awiyah bin Abi Sufyan.
But Mu'awiyah II bin Yazid only ruled for 40 days because of
sickness and because his heart could not accept the changes and the
damage done by his father. He stepped down from being the caliph
and left the appointment of the next caliph to be chosen by the
Islamic Meeting Council but his wish did not become a reality
because the election of the next caliph was influenced by the
Umayyah family.
MARWAN BIN HAKAM

(64-65 A.H = 683-685 A.D)
Dissension in the Umayyah's family
With the stepping down of Mu'awiyah II, the Syrians were in

dilemma as to who will succeed him as the caliph. It causes a split in
the Umayyah family with one side wanted to appoint Khalid bin
Yazid who was still young and the other wanted to appoint Marwan
bin Hakam who was one of the elders in the Umayyah family. This
dispute nearly causes the loss of the caliphate from their clutches.
Abdullah bin Zubair rejection
In the meantime, Abdullah bin Zubair's influence spread and he

was recognized as the caliph by the people of Hejaz, Iraq, Yemen and
Egypt, even some of the Syrians also supported him but he lack the
political insight and was not a skilled politician.
Hasyim bin Numair, a military commander from the Umayyah
clan was prepared to pledge his loyalty to him if he is prepared to
move to Syria. The offer was turned down by Abdullah because he
50
wanted to revive the glory of the Hejaz once again by making it as
the center of the Islamic Caliphate. He failed to realize that his
decision would reduce the support upon him to be the caliph. The
Umayyah clan reunited once more and unanimously decided on
Marwan bin Hakam as the next caliph in 64 A.H. Thus the caliphate
was transferred from the descendants of Abu Sufyan to the
descendants of Marwan bin Hakam, a bigger split from the Umayyah
clan.
This marked the beginning of the rivalries between Abdullah bin
Zubair in Mecca and Marwan bin Hakam in Damascus.
Disturbances in Syria
Riots and political unrest happened in Syria during the rule of

Marwan but he was able to quell it due to his strong will and effort.
He also sent a military expedition to Egypt to regain control of the
province from the governor appointed by Ibnu Zubair.
Marwan ruled for nine months and he spent the time
consolidating his position. Before his death he pointed to his sons,
the crown princes Abdul Malik and Abdul Aziz as his successor.
QUESTIONS
1. Who was Yazid's successor? Why did he rule for only 40 days?
What was his reason for stepping down?
2. What was his wish? Why was not it realized?
3. What was the dilemma faced by the Syrians when Mu'awiyah

bin Yazid stepped down? Specify the two factions!
4. What was Abdullah bin Zubair position at that time? Why did
he refuse to move to Syria?
5. Who was appointed as the caliph? What were the changes that
affected the Umayyah Dynasty after his appointment?
6. Who did Marwan showed as his successor?
5. ABDUL MALIK BIN MARWAN

(65-86 A.H = 685-705 A.D)
Abdul Malik bin Marwan's personality
51
With the death of Marwan bin Hakam, disturbances arise in the
Umayyah Dynasty which nearly split the dynasty and destroys it
due to uprisings and rebellions. Luckily the successor was Abdul
Malik bin Marwan, his son who was intelligent and strong will and
clever in administrating the government's affairs. He was one of the
greatest caliphs in the Umayyah Dynasty.
The first action that he took was to quell the uprisings and
rebellions. The war against the rebels took seven years and after that
the administrations returned to normal and the position of the caliph
was consolidated once more.
Difficulties faced by him
1. The Shi'ites' rebellion
The Muslims were angry with the Umayyah family because of

the death of Husein bin Ali at Karbala. The Shi'ites took the
opportunity to spread hatred in Kufah towards the Umayyah family
until the citizens of Kufah regretted their action and cries for
vengeance. They marched to 'Ain Al-Wardah, a place near the
Euphrates river. They managed to gain support from the citizens of
Basra and Madain and included them in their ranks and start a
rebellion.
When Abdul Malik bin Marwan heard about the rebellion, he
dispatched 30,000 soldiers under the command of Ubaidillah bin
Ziyad and they succeeded to defeat the rebels.
Not long after the incident, a faction of the Shi'ites led by
Mukhtar bin Abi Ubaid, the Iraqi governor appointed by Abdullah
bin Zubair, declared their independence from both the Umayyah
Dynasty and Abdullah bin Zubair.
The battle with Mukhtar's followers wreaks havoc among Ibnu
Ziad's forces and Ibnu Ziad was also killed in the battle.
2. Abdullah bin Zubair
Caliph Abdullah bin Zubair appointed his brother Mash'ab as

the Governor of Iraq and commanded him to regain the control of
Iraq from Mukhtar, his renegade governor.
The battle between Mukhtar's and Mash'ab armies took place in
67 A.H (687 A.D). Mash'ab won the battle whereas Mukhtar and
7,000 of his soldiers were killed.
Mash'ab prepared to wage war on Abdul Malik bin Marwan
after he had finished cleaning-up the remnants of the Shiites
resistance led by Mukhtar bin Ubaid.
52
Caliph Abdul Malik bin Marwan proceeded to assemble an
army made up of soldiers from Syria, Egypt and Algeria and in 72
A.H (692 A.D) a fierce battle ensued between both forces and
Mash'ab was killed in the battle and his soldiers heavily defeated.
The defeat was due to the betrayal by the Iraqi soldiers who left his
ranks and joined with Abdul Malik.
After his great victory in Iraq, Abdul Malik marched his soldiers
to Hejaz to engage Abdullah bin Zubair. Abdul Malik appointed Al-
Hajjaj bin Yusuf Ats-Saqafi as the commander of the army. He
besieged Mecca until the city surrendered and Abdullah bin Zubair
killed in 73 A.H (693 A.D). Al-Hajjaj was promoted to be the
governor of Hejaz, Yemen and Yamamah until 75 A.H.
3. The Khawarijites
After Abdul Malik had cleansed Syria and Palestine from the
remnants of the rebels, he marched his forces to Masyrik (eastern
territories) with his famous commander Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf Ats-
Tsaqafy commanding the army. Al-Hajjaj proceeded immediately to
Kufah, in the mosque he addressed the people sternly and boasted
about his achievements. He reminded them that he will deal with
those who refused to obey his orders swiftly. He then proceeded to
Basra and did the same thing. Al-Hajjaj then helped Mahlab bin Abi
Sufrah to cleansed Iraq and Persia from the Khawarijites. Al-Hajjaj
was famous for his cruelty and his cold-bloodedness in killings.
4. 'Amr bin Sa'id
In 70 A.H (690 A.D), one of Abdul Malik's family members,

'Amr bin Sa'id, rebelled against him. The rebellion was suppressed
by him through cunningness and deceit. He proclaimed 'Amr bin
Sa'id as the crown prince and ordered for his audience before him.
When 'Amr bin Sa'id presented himself the proclamation was
cancelled and he was immediately executed, his head was thrown
down to his escorts waiting downstairs. 'Amr bin Sa'id's soldiers
were scared and run for their lives when they saw what happened to
their leader. This was the last danger faced by his administration and
with the execution of 'Amr bin Sa'id, Abdul Malik consolidated his
position as the caliph.
Reforms done by Abdul Malik
After defeating the rebels, Abdul Malik quickly reformed and

improved the internal affairs of the country. That is why he was
called the second founder of the Umayyah Dynasty. Among the
reforms made were:
53
1. Reforming the caliphate's administration
Before Abdul Malik was appointed as the caliph, the currency

used by the people was the Persian's and the Byzantium's coins. This
was changed by him. He built a coin factory in Damascus and it
manufactured coins with the writing 'La Ilaha Illa Allah' on one side
and the name of the caliph on the other.
Correspondence matters of the Finance Ministry that used to
used Persian and Romans languages were changed to Arabic, this
regulation was in effect in Syria and Persia, whereas in Egypt the
official language of correspondence was not change to Arabic except
during the rule of his son Walid bin Abdul Malik.
Abdul Malik's effort had a significant impact on the progress of
the Arabic language, turning it into a language of science, especially
in the field of mathematics and astronomy. Abdul Malik also
revived the activities of poets in beautifying their poetries and
compositions. He himself was known as a skilled orator and an
eloquent poet.
2. Improving the intelligence facilities
Abdul Malik improved the intelligence system established

before him. He built resting posts for every distance that can be
covered on horseback in one day.
The main objective for the intelligence post was to monitor the
work done by the appointed officers and to report about territorial
matters back to the caliph.
3. Establishing a supreme court
Abdul Malik established a supreme court to check and judge the

affairs of the nobles and officers of the government. He established it
to prevent them from oppressing their people and underlings. The
court was led by a well known judge and an expert in religious
matters. Whosoever felt that he was oppressed by the nobles can
make his complaint to the court.
4. Building magnificent buildings
Abdul Malik repaired and built beautiful buildings in the cities

such as the holy Qubbatus Sakhra at Baitul Maqdis. He built Dar
Ash-Shina'ah in Tunis, a factory to manufacture arms and warships.
Hundreds of warships were manufactured for the naval forces of the
Umayyah Dynasty.
54
Death of Abdul Malik
Abdul Malik died in Damascus after ruling for 21 years. He was

60 years old. From that time 18 years were spent to quell the
rebellions and confronting Abdullah bin Zubair.
The actual successor was his brother Abdul Aziz but he died
before him, thus Abdul Malik proclaimed his two sons, Al-Walid and
Sulaiman as crown princes.
The historians named Abdul Malik as 'Abdul Muluk' which
means the father of kings because four of his sons, Al-Walid,
Sulaiman, Yazid and Hisyam became caliphs too.
QUESTIONS
1. State some of Abdul Malik's personality! What did he do in the

first years of his administration?
2. What were the difficulties faced by him?
3. Explain briefly about his wars against the following rebellious

figures:
a. Mukhtar bin Abi Ubaid
b. Abdullah bin Zubair
c. Mash'ab
d. Khawarij
e. 'Amr bin Sa'id
4. From where did Abdul Malik assemble his soldiers to confront

Mash'ab? What was the main factor to Mash'ab defeat?
5. When was Abdullah bin Zubair defeated? Who was the

commander that defeated him? What was he famous for?
6. What were the reformations done by Abdul Malik?
7. What was the main duty of the intelligence post? What was
written on the coins during his period?
8. Who was Abdul Malik crown prince? Why was he replaced?

Who replaces him?
9. Why was he called 'Abdul Muluk'?
10. Explain the following:

a. Dar Ash-Shina'ah
b. Al-Masyrik
55
c. Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf Ats-Tsaqafy
AL-WALID BIN ABDUL MALIK

(86-96 A.H = 705-715 A.D)
The golden era for the Umayyah's dynasty
The reign of Caliph Al-Walid bin Abdul Malik marked the

golden era and the glory of the Umayyah Dynasty. Umayyah's
sovereignty stretches until Hindustan and the borders of Tiongkok
on the east and to Spain and southern France to the west. During Al-
Walid bin Abdul Malik's period the Islamic civilization and culture
flourished, great buildings and mosques were built such as Al-
Umawy mosque in Damascus. The Prophet's mosque (An-Nabawy)
in Medina was also refurbished and improved by him.
Al-Walid was known as a kind-hearted caliph especially to the
poor and destitute. He was really concerned about the affairs of the
people and always strived to ease their sufferings. He built hospitals
and facilities for lepers etc. He also built lodges complete with its
caretakers, established road signs for traveling conveniences and
facilities for the blind.
Conquests during Al-Walid's caliphate
Expansion to the east
Al-Walid's soldiers led by Commander Qutaibah bin Muslim

crossed the Jihon and the Sihon rivers and conquered Bukhara and
Samarkand, two nations with the majority of its citizens who were
Turkish, located in Central Asia.
With this conquest, the Islamic Sovereignty expanded until
reaching the borders of Tiongkok (China).
Expansion to the west
Among the expansions during Al-Walid's period was the

expansion towards Maghribil Aqsa regions (far west) which was
conquered by the Muslims but their position were not stable due to
the resistances launched by the Barbars. Al-Walid then strengthened
the Muslim's position there.
The Barbars hated the Arab leaders who ruled them because
they were treated like slaves. The Byzantines often sent their armies
to aid their resistance.
56
Caliph Al-Walid appointed Musa bin Nushair as the Governor
of North Africa to rule the troubled region. Through Al-Walid's
effort, Maghribil Aqsa was conquered. Musa bin Nushair continued
the expansion until reaching the shores of the Atlantic sea (other than
the city of Kueta)
Islam expanded to Europe
The Islamic Sovereignty was always waiting for the opportunity

to conquer Spain (Andalus). In 710 A.D Witiza, the king of eastern
Goth died and his general Roderick ascended to the throne. All of
Witiza's sons allied themselves with Graf Yulian, Roderick's enemy
to seize back their father's throne.
Graf Yulian asked for Musa bin Nushair's assistance which was
accepted by him. Caliph Al-Walid consented to Musa's decision and
advised him to be cautious of Graf, if the request was just a
deception. Musa ordered his deputy Tharif bin Malik to lead 500
soldiers to seize several ports in southern Spain. Tharif managed to
fulfill his mission due to the great assistance from Graf. After Musa
was convinced with Graf's sincerity he dispatched 7,000 soldiers with
the majority of it were Barbars under the command of Thariq bin
Ziyad, the Governor of Tanger to invade Spain.
Liberation of Spain (Andalus)
In 92 A.H (711 A.D) Thariq bin Ziyad crossed to Spain using

ships provided by Graf Yulian.
Before crossing to the European mainland, Thariq and his
soldiers prepared themselves near a mountain slope, now known as
Jabal Thariq (Thariq mountain) or also known as Gibraltar, the strait
that divided Africa and Europe also have the same name (the Strait
of Gibraltar).
After crossing the strait, he proceeded to the southern province
of Western Goth in the Iberian Peninsula and conquered several
strong fortresses. He then marched to Toledo, the capital of the Goth
nation.
Roderick sent 100,000 soldiers to repel Thariq's invasion. Seeing
the number of the enemy and the uneven balance of power, Thariq
asked Musa for reinforcements. Musa immediately dispatched 5,000
soldiers, making the total of the Muslim's forces to 12,000 soldiers,
thus the battle of Xerez started.
The Muslims were frightened because of the sheer number of the
enemy. Thariq raise the morale of his soldiers with his fiery and
famous speech: "Your enemies are in front of you whereas the sea
spread behind you, By Allah, you have got nothing save your
determination and patience…..".
57
Witiza's sons helped Thariq and Graf Julian betrayed Roderick,
splitting Roderick's forces. Thariq achieved great victory here and
successfully conquered the strategic regions of Cordova, Granada,
Malaga. He then advanced to Toledo and managed to kill Roderick.
With the success of the invasion, Islam started to reorganize and
improve the government administration, the social structures,
knowledge and all aspects of social lives comprehensively.
Al-Walid ruled for 9 years and 7 months. He died while he was
42 years and 6 months old and was buried at Damascus. His brother,
Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik was appointed as his successor.
QUESTIONS
1. Why was Al-Walid period called the golden era of the Umayyah
Dynasty?
2. State some of his personalities?
3. State the conquest of the eastern region during Al-Walid rule?
4. State the conquest of the western region! Why did the Barbar
always launch a resistance?
5. Who was appointed as the Governor of Maghribil Aqsha? State

the region conquered by him!
6. When did the Muslims first set their foot on European soil?
What region was conquered first? Who did the Muslims seize it
from?
7. Who was the famous conqueror of Europe? Where was his name
immortalized?
SULAIMAN BIN ABDUL MALIK

(96-99 A.H = 715- 717 A.D)
The direction took by Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik
The Islamic State during Caliph Sulaiman's caliphate was a

period of extravagant and wealth. His administration differed from
that of his father Abdul Malik and his brother Al-Walid. If his father
and brother appointed experienced men such as Al-Hajjaj, Qutaibah,
Musa and Thariq to take charge of the administration and military
affairs, Sulaiman did just the opposite. He even ordered them to be
sacked and replaced and their followers caught and imprisoned.
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Not long after coming into power, he released all the prisoners
imprisoned by Al-Hajjaj and his family in Iraq was thrown in prison
and his wealth confiscated. Qutaibah bin Muslim, the conqueror of
the region behind the Jihon river, also suffered the same fate.
Sulaiman's anger towards both families was due to their effort to
replace him as the crown prince when Al-Walid was still alive.
Musa bin Nushair suffered a worst fate, the great commander
who conquered North Africa and Spain was imprisoned and died in
poverty.
Musa received his wrath because before Al-Walid's death,
Sulaiman sent a letter to him forbidding him to come to Damascus
with the spoils of war except after Al-Walid's death so that the
wealth would fall into his hands. His orders were ignored by Musa
bin Nushair and he brought the spoils of war to Damascus when Al-
Walid was still alive. This really angered Sulaiman and when he
became the caliph he took his revenge cruelly.
The third siege of Constantinople
Constantinople was besieged by the Muslims for the third time

during the rule of Caliph Sulaiman. Before the death of Al-Walid, he
prepared a large army to assault Constantinople under the command
of his brother Maslamah bin Abdul Malik. This effort was continued
by Caliph Sulaiman.
The Muslim armada consisted of 1,700 battleships carrying
100,000 soldiers. A Byzantium noble named Lord Leo allied himself
with the Muslim's forces in Asia Minor. He made an alliance with
the Muslims because he was vying for the Byzantium's crown.
Upon reaching Asia Minor, the Muslims conquered the cities in
Asia Minor one by one until reaching the walls of Constantinople.
They were met by Muslim's armada arriving from Syria and Egypt
and the siege of the city begun.
But when the siege was nearing its objective, Lord Leo betrayed
the Muslims. He proclaimed himself as the Caesar of Byzantines and
launched an assault on the Muslims. He burnt the Muslim's armada
and the Muslims suffered heavy casualties. They returned to Syria
suffering great losses.
QUESTIONS
1. What was the difference between Sulaiman's political directive

to that of his father and brother?
2. What did he do when he was appointed as caliph? Who were

the victims of his retribution?
59
3. What was the reason behind his anger towards the families of
Al-Hajjaj, Qutaibah and Musa bin Nushair?
4. Who led the third siege of Constantinople? What was the

strength of the Muslim's forces?
5. Explain briefly about the Muslim's journey to Constantinople,

the conquests of cities and the result of the siege!
UMAR BIN ABDIL AZIZ

(99-101 A.H = 717-720 A.D)
Muslims considered Umar bin Abdil Aziz to be like Caliph

Umar bin Al-Khattab in terms of his piousness and justice. Thai
came as no surprise because Ibn Umar bin Abdul Aziz was one of the
sons of 'Ashim bin Umar bin Al-Khattab. Thus he inherited some of
his grandfather's noble characteristics such as asceticism, abstinence,
fairness and knowledgeable in religious matters.
Due to his personality and policy that resembled that of Caliph
Umar bin Al-Khattab, some of the Muslims dubbed him "the fifth
righteous caliphs". His nobleness was narrated in numerous stories,
telling about his modesty and asceticism, his carefulness in dividing
between his personal and family rights and that of the government.
It was narrated that during his reign there were no poverty save for
the poorness of Umar bin Abdil Aziz's family.
He was the Governor of Hejaz during the reigns of Caliph
Abdul Malik and Al-Walid. His administered the refurbishment of
An-Nabawy mosque and his administration ran smoothly.
When he heard about his appointment as caliph, he cried
because of the heavy responsibility entrusted upon him. He ordered
for the Prophetic Traditions to be gathered and written because the
Muslims were divided into several sects and groups. Umar was
worried that the masses would obeyed their leaders more that they
would the Prophet.
Umar bin Abdil Aziz domestic policies
Caliph Umar replaced the governors appointed by Sulaiman

with those who are capable to hold the positions. They were
responsible for the administration of their respective territories in
front of the caliph. They were not allowed to pass a death sentence
without the approval of the caliph.
Among the proof of his justness was his distribution of gifts and
presents to the Muslims which was distributed evenly. He tried to
improve the relationship between Umayyah clan and the
descendants of Ali bin Abi Talib as well with the Shiites. Ever since
60
Hasan bin Ali stepped down as caliph and hand it over to
Mu'awiyah in 41 A.H, Ali's name was smeared and condemned on
the pulpit. Umar bin Abdil Aziz forbade this practice of disgracing
Ali's family in 99 A.H.
Umar bin Abdil Aziz foreign policies
Umar bin Abdil Aziz distanced himself from invading other

countries. The Muslims forces besieging Constantinople were
summoned back to Damascus. His interest lies in spreading the
propagation of Islam. Several preachers were sent to the kings of
Hind and Sind inviting them to Islam. They were not obligated to
pay tributes and retained their independence. He sent the same
invitation to the Turkish kings and the Barbar chieftains.
Caliph Umar's soft approach had a big influence until some of
the Hindu kings embraced Islam sincerely.
Death of Caliph Umar bin Abdil Aziz
Even though Caliph Umar only reigned for two years and two
months, his name was immortalized next to the Righteous Caliphs
due to his nobleness, until he was called the fifth Righteous Caliphs.
He passed away in 101 A.H (720 A.D) while he was 39 years old. He
did not leave a will pointing his son as his successor.
QUESTIONS
1. Why was Umar bin Abdil Aziz compared to Umar bin Al-
Khattab? What were their similarities?
2. What post did he hold during the caliphate of Abdul Malik and
Al-Walid? What was his contribution back then?
3. What was his internal policy?
4. What was his foreign policy? What was the result of his foreign
policy?
5. When did he pass away? How long was his rule? How old was
he when he died?
61
YAZID BIN ABDIL MALIK
(101-105 A.H = 720-724 A.D)
Yazid bin Abdil Malik followed Umar bin Abdil Aziz's footsteps
in the beginning of his rule but this was prove to be temporary. His
actions and decisions resulted in chaos in the government.
The foundation of the Umayyah Dynasty was shaken and chaos
and rebellions erupted in the Arabian Peninsula.
Yazid bin Mahlab, an ex-military commander and governor of
Masyrik (Eastern region) managed to escape from prison during the
death of Umar bin Abdil Aziz. He staged a rebellion and captured
the governor of Basra, Kufah also fell into his hands and manage to
win a lot of supporters from both regions.
Caliph Yazid ordered Maslamah bin Abdil Malik to lead an
army to counter the threat from Yazid bin Mahlab. Even though
Maslamah was successful in killing Yazid bin Mahlab, it greatly
influenced the course of the Umayyah Dynasty.
During Yazid's caliphate the family of the Abbasites started to
gather their strength in Khurasan in 103 A.H (722 A.D). They are the
ones who will overthrow the Umayyah Dynasty. Abu Al-Abbas As-
Safah (shedder of blood), the first caliph from the Abbasites was born
during Yazid's period.
Caliph Yazid passed away in 105 A.H (724 A.D) and he was 40
years old at that time. He reign for 4 years and 1 month and it was
marked with luxury and chaos.
HISYAM BIN ABDIL MALIK

(105-125 A.H = 724-743 A.D)
Hisyam bin Abdil Malik was proclaimed as Yazid's successor on

the day of his death in 105 A.H (724 A.D). He was a noble, brave,
intelligent and wise caliph. He was known as a great statesman with
a sharp and meticulous mind. There were some who said that the
greatest statesman of the Umayyah Dynasty were Mu'awiyah, Abdul
Malik and Hisyam.
The rebellion in Kufah
During his caliphate groups from the Zaidiyah sect rebelled

against him led by Zaid bin Ali Zainul Abidin, descendants of Ali bin
Abi Talib, he called on the people of Kufah to pledge their loyalties to
him as the caliph, he had more than 15,000 followers.
The Zaidiyah rebellion was repelled by the Governor of Kufah
Yusuf bin Muhammad. During the battle, most of Zaid's followers
62
deserted him, forcing him to fight with only a handful of his loyal
followers. Zaid was killed in battle in 122 A.H. One of Zaid's son,
Yahya was able to flee to Khurasan and stayed there for 3 years.
The people of Khurasan proclaimed him as caliph and rebelled
against Caliph Hisyam bin Abdil Malik. He shared the same fate as
his father and was killed in battle.
Conquests during Hisyam's period
His caliphate was marked with conquests, he constantly wage

war on the Byzantines on the Syrian borders and in Asia Minor as
well as the Turks in Caucasia. He appointed his military
commanders from the Umayyah family.
During his period the Arabs in Spain (Andalus) started their
invasion of France, reaching the city of Tours in southern France.
The Muslim army gained victory due to their brilliant commander
Abdul Rahman Al-Ghafiqy.
Their fortunes turned with the coming of winter in Tours and
Poitiers, Abdul Rahman's forces were defeated by the famous French
commander, Karel Martel. With their defeat, the European continent
slipped from the Muslim's hands.
Improvements done during his caliphate
Caliph Hisyam bin Abdil Malik paid great attention to the

prosperity of his kingdom. He ordered for rivers to be dug for
irrigation, especially at places along the route to Medina. He
established the silk industry and built several more armaments and
military clothing factories.
Hisyam loves to ride horses and he was the first caliph to build a
racecourse.
Among his flaws was the way he treated the 'Alawiyyin, he was
harsh towards them and oppressed them constantly.
QUESTIONS
1. Why was there chaos during Yazid bin Abdil Malik caliphate?
2. Who is Yazid bin Mahlab? How did Yazid bin Abdil Malik
confront him?
3. Where did the Abbasites gather their strength? What year was
it?
4. State the good and bad characteristics of Caliph Hisyam bin

Abdil Malik!
63
5. Explain briefly the rebellion launched by Zaid bin Zainul Abidin
and his son Yahya!
6. State the conquests during Hisyam's period!
7. Who was the Muslim commander that launched an attack on

France? Where did the battle take place? What was the outcome of
the battle?
8. What were the improvements done by Hisyam bin Abdil Malik?
UMAYYAH CALIPHATE IN THE EVE OF THEIR DOWNFALL
Al-Walid bin Yazid was a weak caliph
With the death of Hisyam bin Abdil Malik, the Umayyah

Dynasty entered its weak stages. In 125 A.H Al-Walid bin Yazid
ascended the throne to be the caliph.
He was a weak caliph and his behaviors were harsh and he
loved to do things prohibited by the religion. That is why the nobles,
especially his family hated him and they assassinated him. He was
succeeded by Yazid and then by Ibrahim, both were the sons of Al-
Walid bin Abdil Malik.
The decline peaks during the reign of Yazid and Ibrahim
The decline of Umayyah Dynasty reached its peak during the

reign of Yazid and Ibrahim bin Al-Walid whereas the Abbasites
strength in Khurasan grew strongly.
Marwan bin Muhammad the unfortunate caliph
The last caliph of the Umayyah Dynasty, Marwan bin

Muhammad ascended to the throne in 127 A.H (745 A.D). He was a
wise statesman and a fearless warrior, but he was not fortunate, even
his noble characteristics could not prevent the Umayyah Caliphate
from collapsing.
Mutinies rose in every corner of the kingdom, the Khawarijites
rebelled in Palestine, Hadramawt and Yemen. Marwan bin
Muhammad was able to defeat them but he was unable to defeat the
supporters of the Abbasites.
Marwan bin Muhammad intercepted a letter sent by Ibrahim Al-
Imam (one of the chieftain of the Abbasites) to Abu Salmah, a
preacher and one of the Abbasites consorts in Iraq. Ibrahim bin Al-
64
Imam was captured and imprisoned and later was killed because of
the letter.
Before his death he willed to his followers to continue with the
struggle and to appoint his brother Abul Abbas and then Ja'far as the
caliph. He also ordered his family to leave Kufah as soon as possible.
Khurasan became the headquarters for the Abbasites movement
Khurasan was picked as the center for the Abbasites movement

because of its remoteness from Damascus, capital of the Umayyah
caliphate and because of the population's hatred towards the
Umayyah's rules due to their oppression on the population of
Khurasan.
One of Abbasites main supporters and the back bone of the
movement was Abu Muslim Al-Khurasany, he succeeded in splitting
the Arab tribes living in Khurasan with his clever tactics and trickery.
He then proceeded to attack the governor appointed by Marwan,
Nashru bin Saiyar. Nashru was defeated and he ascended to power
in Khurasan.
Abu Muslim then marched with his army to Iraq and conquered
Kufah. There he proclaimed Abu Al-Abbas As-Safah as the first
caliph of the Abbasites on the 13th of Rabi'ul Awwal 132 A.H (30th
October 749 A.D).
The end of Marwan bin Muhammad's life
After his appointment as caliph, Abu Al-Abbas ordered his

uncle Abdullah bin Ali to attack Marwan bin Muhammad. Abdullah
prepared his army and met with Marwan's forces made up of 120,000
soldiers on the bank of the Zaad river (a tributary of the Tigris river).
Even though Marwan's forces were larger in numbers they were
unable to stand the attack of the enemy and were defeated by
Abdullah. Marwan was forced to withdraw to Mosul by crossing the
Tigris river, but the population of Mosul was unwilling to accept him
thus they destroyed the bridge, forcing him to turn and change his
direction towards Herran and then straight to Damascus. He was
constantly pursued by Abdullah until he reached Fusthath (Egypt).
From there on Abdullah delegated his brother Saleh bin Ali with the
task to pursue him.
Saleh caught up with Marwan at the village of Bushair in Al-
Fayyum (Egypt) and the unfortunate caliph was killed by his enemy.
This tragedy happened on the 27th of Dzulhijjah 132 A.H or the 5th of
August 750 A.D. His head was impaled on a stake and sent to Abu
Al-Abbas in Kufah. All of Umayyah's descendants were killed by the
Abbasites, except one who managed to escape death and fled to
Andalus (Spain), Abdul Rahman.
65
Thus the Umayyah Caliphate ended and the black flag, the
symbol of the Abbasites waved gloriously on top of the towers of
Damascus.
FACTORS LEADING TO THE FALL OF THE UMAYYAH

CALIPHATE
1. The betrayal of Ali bin Abi Talib
Among the main factors that paved the way for Mu'awiyah to be
the first caliph of the Umayyah Dynasty was his military skills and
intelligent. He successfully removed all the obstacles and defeated
the Khawarijites and Shi'ites with his cleverness and trickery. But he
made a big mistake by insulting Ali bin Abi Talib and humiliating
him in his sermons in front of the Muslims. This increased the anger
of the Shi'ites towards him.
2. Breaking the agreement made with Hasan bin Ali
Mu'awiyah second mistake was breaking the agreement that he

made with Hasan bin Ali to leave the appointment of the caliph after
him to the Muslim's consensus. This agreement was violated when
he proclaimed his son Yazid as the crown prince. This resulted in the
battle of Karbala that ended with the brutal killing of Husein bin Ali.
The tragedy deeply saddened the Muslims until most of them sided
with Ali's descendants and Fatimah.
The tragedy also resulted in rebellions and mutinies everywhere
against the Umayyah's rules. Abdullah bin Zubair led a rebellion in
Mecca. Mukhtar bin Ubaid mutinied in Iraq. Shi'ites constantly
renewed their oppositions until the foundation of the Umayyah's
power was shaken. Of course when the government was powerful
they were easily defeated but the movement never died.
Mu'awiyah's decree making the caliphate to be the sole rights of
the Umayyah families was also a contributing factor, even the
Prophet's descendants did not reserved the rights to be caliph.
The incident that angered the Persians was what happened to
Ali Zainul Abidin bin Husain bin Ali, his mother was the daughter of
Yazdayird, Chosroes of Persia who was held in high esteem by the
Persians. That is why the Persians held Husein bin Ali descendants
in high esteem and were highly respected because he connected the
Prophet's family with the Chosroes. The Persians wanted the
continuation of the Islamic Sovereignty to be under the rule of those
who combined the blood of Persian's nobles and the sacred blood of
the Prophet's descendants.
The Persians were also insulted by the Umayyah's policy of
giving priority to the Arabs and ignoring the non-Arabs. Important
66
posts were reserved for the Arabs. All non-Arabs had to pay tributes
even after they had embraced Islam. Non-Arab Muslim soldiers had
no rights to receive spoils of war, even though Islam had clearly
stated equal rights among Muslims.
3. Fanaticism
The Umayyah revived the ideology of nationalism of the

Ignorant period. This narrow ideology of nationalism was forbidden
with the advent of Islam. The appointment of caliph was reserved
for only one tribe. This opened the door for Abu Muslim Al-
Khurasany to establish the Abbasites Dynasty.
The last caliphs of the Umayyah Dynasty paid no attention to
governmental affairs and only busied themselves in luxury. This
increased the Muslim's hatred towards their rule. Byzantines
customs and traditions that corrupted the mind and souls were
copied by them.
4. Appointing two crown princes
The appointment of two crown princes had a negative effect.

The first prince to ascend to the throne would strive to replace his
brother with his own son. This led to the splitting of the Umayyah
family. Then the next caliph would seek revenge on those who tried
to prevent him from coming into power. This decreased the Muslim's
support and sympathy towards their rule and they were constantly
waiting for a leader who would unite them in seeking revenge
towards the Umayyah clan. At the same time Abu Muslim appeared
bringing in new hope and the promise of reformation, bearing the
banner of the Abbasites.
QUESTIONS
1. Why was Al-Walid bin Yazid considered as a weak caliph? What

were the consequences?
2. Who succeeded Al-Walid bin Yazid? How was the caliphate at

that time?
3. What were Marwan's true characteristics? Who rebelled against

him?
4. Who was Ibrahim Al-Imam? Why did Marwan kill him? What
was his last will?
67
5. Describe the Abbasites movement! What was the role of Abu
Muslim Al-Khurasany? How did he manage to control Khurasan?
6. What did Abu Al-Abbas do after being appointed as caliph?

Who led the Abbasites' army? Where did they met and fought?
7. How many Marwan soldiers were there? Who won? Where did
Marwan flee to?
8. Who continued the pursuit of Marwan? Where was he captured?

When was he captured?
9. How did the Abbasites treat Marwan and the Umayyah clan?
Where was the capital of the Abbasites caliphate?
10. State the reasons for the fall of the Umayyah Dynasty!
CHAPTER IV
THE ABBASITES CALIPHATE
(132-656 A.H = 750-1258 A.D)
The Abbasites
Abdul Muttalib bin Hasyim bin Abdi Manaf had a few sons.
Among them were Abdullah (Prophet's Muhammad father), Abbas
and Abu Talib. Only Abbas and Abu Talib bear a lot of offspring.
Their descendants spread throughout the Islamic land, from the
western part of North Africa to the Middle East.
Abbas was born three years before the Year of the Elephant,
meaning that he was three years older than the Prophet. His mother
was Nutailah binti Janab. Abbas was a wise noble of the Hasyim
clan. He was a close friend of Abu Sufyan bin Harb. When the
Prophet started his calling to Islam he sincerely protected him. He
was honored and deeply loved by the Prophet and the caliphs after
him. He passed away during the caliphate of Utsman bin Al-'Affan.
Abdullah bin Abbas was his second offspring. He was born two
years before the Hegira. He was 13 years old when the Prophet
passed away. He was greatly loved and was a favorite of the
Prophet. During the caliphate of Umar bin Al-Khattab he was the
member of the Caliph's advisory council. Even though young in age,
Umar constantly asked for his advice regarding the rules and affairs
68
of the state. The Abbasites families originated from Abdullah's
descendants because none of his siblings bear any generations.
Ali bin Abdullah was one of Abdullah's sons. He was born on
the same night of Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib's death. In remembrance
of his death, Abdullah named his son with the caliph's name.
Muhammad bin Ali was the oldest sibling of 20 sons and 11
daughters of Ali bin Abdullah. He was the father of Ibrahim bin Al-
Imam, Abu Al-Abbas As-Safah and Abu Ja'far Al-Manshur. These
three sons of his were the backbone of the Abbasites Dynasty.
Golden Era for the Abbasites caliphate
The Abbasites reign for five centuries, from 132 A.H (749 A.D),
i.e. when Abu Al-Abbas As-Safah came into power until the
Mongolian-Tartar invasion of Baghdad led by Hulagu Khan in 656
A.H (1258 A.D).
The beginning of the Abbasites Dynasty until the caliphate of
Al-Watsiq Billah in 232 A.H (879 A.D) was known as a period of
glory and grandeur for them and a golden era for Islam.
1. ABU AL-ABBAS AS-SAFAH

(132-136 A.D = 749-754 A.D)
Abu Al-Abbas was proclaimed as the first caliph of the

Abbasites at Kufah on the 13th Rabi'ul Awwal 132 A.H (30th October
749 A.D).
Caliph Marwan, the last caliph of Bani Umayyah was still alive
back then thus a battle took place at Al-Fayyum in Egypt which
ended with the death of Marwan. Abu Al-Abbas then moved to
Hirah, then to Anbar and proclaimed it as his center of
administration and changed its name to "Hasyimiyyatul Anbar", in
remembrance of the Bani Abbas forefather, Hasyim.
The Abbasites did not make Damascus as their administrative
capital because it is a stronghold for the remainder of Bani
Umayyah's followers. Furthermore, it is located far from Persia, the
center for the Abbasites' power and because of its close proximity to
the borders of the Byzantine Empire which could endanger the still
young empire.
As-Safah's political directive
The first step that he took after appointed as caliph was to

strengthen his power. His political direction can be seen from his
first sermon after being proclaimed as caliph at Kufah. In his
inauguration speech he talked about the virtues of the Muhammad's
69
family and condemned Bani Umayyah because they seized the
caliphate for themselves. He condemned the Syrian army and
praised the people of Kufah for their honesty in helping the
Abbasites to uphold the caliphate. He ended his sermon by saying:
"I'm As-Safah who is not afraid to shed the blood of others if
needed". He was determined to stop those who dare to prevent him
from power with his sword. From that day on he was known as "As-
Safah" (the shedder of blood).
The period of his caliphate
As-Safah's period was spent to subjugate the regions and

commanders still loyal to the Umayyah caliphate. He was bent on
eliminating the whole generations of the Umayyah clan.
Abdullah bin Ali also did the same thing in Syria. He invited all
the governors loyal to the Umayyah caliphate to a reception and then
murdered most of them.
As-Safah also killed Abu Salmah Al-Khilaly who was his right
hand man during the establishment of the Abbasites caliphate. Abu
Salmah was even given the title "Wazir" or prime minister of the
Muhammad's family. He was killed because he was suspected to
transfer the caliphate to the Alawiyyin (descendants of Ali bin Abi
Talib).
The same fate befall on Abu Muslim Al-Khurasany, As-Safah
was afraid that he would endanger the Abbasites due to his growing
influence but his intention to kill Abu Muslim was prevented by his
death and it was carried out during the time of his brother, Abu Ja'far
Al-Mansur.
As-Safah died on the 17th Dzulhijjah 136 A.H (9th June 754 A.D)
after reigning for 4 years and 9 months.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the ancestral line of the Abbasites!
2. How long did the Abbasites hold the Islamic Caliphate? When
did their rule start and till when?
3. When was known as the golden era of the Abbasites Dynasty?
4. Who was the first caliph of the Abbasites? When was he

proclaimed as caliph?
5. Why was he known as As-Safah? What does it mean? What was

his political directive?
70
6. Who is Abu Salamah? What title was given to him by the
Abbasites clan? Why was he given the title? Why was he killed by
As-Safah?
7. What became of Abu Muslim Al-Khurasany? What was the

reason behind it?
8. When did As-Safah died? Who was his successor?
2. ABU JA'FAR AL-MANSHUR

(136-158 A.H = 754-775 A.D)
Abu Ja'far was proclaimed as caliph the day his brother As-
Safah passed away. He was called the real founder of the Abbasites
Dynasty because it was he founded the basis for its laws and rules.
His caliphate was the beginning of the golden era for the
Abbasites Dynasty, a period for the development of science and
knowledge that ensured the brilliant future of the Dynasty. By then,
the Persian's influence was apparent and the caliphs copied a lot of
the Chosroes tradition. Even the administrative system of the
Dynasty was influenced by the Persians and the royal court of the
Abbasites was dominated by Persians compared to the Arabs.
Difficulties faced by Al-Manshur
Caliph Al-Manshur had to face a lot of difficulties during the

beginning of his caliphate which he faced with determination and
firmness. His firmness and determination helped him to overcome
all the difficulties. Among the problems were the rebellions
launched by his uncle Abdullah bin Ali, Abu Muslim Al-Khurasany
and the Alawiyyin.
1. Abdullah bin Ali
Abdullah bin Ali made a statement stating that As-Safah had

promised him the caliphate after his passing if he succeeded in
defeating Marwan bin Muhammad Al-Umawy. His statement was
validated by some and they pledged their loyalty to him. Abdullah
refused to acknowledge Al-Manshur as caliph. Al-Manshur used the
strength of Abu Muslim Al-Khurasany to subjugate Abdullah's
opposition in Syria.
At the same time, there were 17,000 soldiers from Khurasan in
Abdullah bin Ali forces, afraid that they would betray him and join
Abu Muslim's ranks Abdullah killed all of them, thus weakening his
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own forces by his action. Abu Muslim conquered Syria with ease
and Abdullah was captured and imprisoned for the rest of his life.
2. Abu Muslim Al-Khurasany
Caliph Al-Manshur was angry with Abu Muslim Al-Khurasany

because of his boastfulness and his refusal to obey the caliph's
command. Abu Muslim also had shed a lot of innocent blood with
no apparent reason. He even expressed his disavowal of the caliph.
Sensing that Abu Muslim was becoming a threat to the well being of
his caliphate, he was summoned by Al-Manshur to appear before his
court and was killed. With the elimination of Abu Muslim, Al-
Manshur sovereignty was consolidated entirely.
3. The Alawiyyin
The Abbasites built their caliphate on the rubbles of the

Umayyah Dynasty. The Alawiyyin was not satisfied because they
believed that they have the right to the caliphate more that the rest of
the Hashimites. The Alawiyyin declared their hostilities towards the
Abbasites. On top of that, the Abbasites raise the flag on the name of
the Hasyim clan until the Alawiyyin agreed to help in toppling the
Umayyah Dynasty, but they were abandoned after successfully
accomplishing the objective.
In 145 A.H, the people of Hejaz pledged their loyalties to
Muhammad bin Abdillah Al-Alawy as caliph. He sent his brother
Ibrahim to Basra to spread the word about his proclamation so that
the people of Basra would follow suit.
Al-Manshur sent his troops to subdue him and Muhammad bin
Ali died in battle that same year. His brother Ibrahim proclaimed
himself as the caliph in Iraq and Persia after his death but he shared
the same fate and was killed by Al-Manshur's soldiers in 146 A.H.
Al-Manshur's foreign policy
1. The Byzantines
The Byzantines were constantly looking for weaknesses in the

Umayyah Dynasty to launch as assault on the Muslim lands
bordering their empire. The Caesar of Byzantines dispatched his
soldiers to attack Syria during the caliphate of Al-Manshur in 138
A.H. The attack was thwarted by the Abbasites and the battle ended
with the signing of a seven year truce between them.
After defeating the Alawiyyin's rebellion, Caliph Al-Manshur
began his campaign on the Byzantines. The Caesar of the Byzantine
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Empire asked for a peace treaty and promised to pay tributes to the
Abbasites caliphate.
2. Andalus (Spain)
Andalus (Spain) was still under the Umayyah's rule due to the
effort of Amir Abdurrahman bin Mu'awiyah bin Hisyam. He
escaped to Andalus when the Abbasites were exterminating his
family lines. Andalus broke free from the Abbasites' rule in 138 A.H
= 757 A.D. Al-Manshur was unable to conquer it due to its farness
and because he was busy facing internal conflicts and rebellions.
To keep the Umayyah's power in check, the Abbasites
established friendly ties with the leaders of countries bordering
Andalus such as Pepyn the king of Franks, exchanging diplomats
and gifts.
3. Africa
The Berbers (North Africa) hated to be ruled by the Arabs who

constantly humiliated them. They were not treated as equals by the
Arabian governors. Even though they had embraced Islam, the
relationship between them was like the relationship between a
conqueror and the conquered.
When the Umayyah Dynasty was weakening, they rebelled and
established several independent states. But before long, there were
conflicts between them and Al-Manshur took this opportunity to
subjugate the regions once again under his rule in 144 A.H.
The city of Kairawan changes hand a couple of times between
the Abbasites and the Berbers until it was fully controlled by the
Abbasites in 155 A.H.
Developments during his caliphate
Building Baghdad and other cities
Caliph Al-Manshur built the city of Hasyimatul Kufah as the

capital of his administration. Then he built Baghdad at a very
strategic place, located not far from the sea and between the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers. Baghdad was made as the center for his
military forces.
A period of compositions and translations
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Al-Manshur encourages the poets to compose and translate
books from Persia, Greece and India into Arabic. He himself was
fond of medical sciences, astronomy and philosophy. Thus Baghdad
thrived as the center of knowledge and civilization. Some famous
poets, composers, translators were born during his periods such as
Ibn Muqaffa', the translator of the book Kalilah and Daminah.
Al-Manshur's meticulousness
Caliph Al-Manshur was very prudence and meticulous in

preserving the law. He was known for his industriousness and his
carefulness in maintaining the laws of his court. He was always alert
and vigilance in all his endeavors. Al-Manshur stated: "Four persons
must always go through the doors of my court, if only one of them is
missing, the caliphate could not stand such as a chair could not stand
without its four legs. They are: 1. a fair judge, 2. an intelligence chief
who watches over the government servants, 3. a just and honest chief
of taxes and 4. an unbiased chief of postal department who always
sent to me news about the actions of the caliph's nobles".
Al-Manshur utilizes the heads of the postal department well.
They were his eyes and ears that supervised the affairs of the
caliphate. Through them, Al-Manshur came to know about the
actions of his governors such as the verdicts passed on by his judges,
the amount of money that flows into the state treasury etc.
Heads of the postal department constantly reported to him
about the current market price of goods, foods etc, thus his
relationship with his governors are close. If the price of goods rises
above the normal market price, he ordered for it to be decreased. If
an officer was negligent or careless, he will be reprimanded or
deactivated.
Caliph Al-Manshur was known for his meticulousness in the
expenditures of the state until the state treasury was abounded with
wealth and was enough for the expenses of the state for the next ten
years when he died. But Al-Manshur had some flaws and
weaknesses, among them were the shedding of innocent blood and
the betrayal of those whose safety he had guaranteed.
Al-Manshur died on the 7th Dzulhijjah 158 A.H (8th October 775
A.D) and was succeeded by his son Al-Mahdi.
QUESTIONS
1. When did the Abbasites enter their golden era? What is it that
flourished at that time?
2. What were the difficulties faced by Al-Manshur? How did he

overcome it?
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3. Why did Abdullah bin Ali rebel against him? Why was he
defeated easily?
4. Why was Abu Muslim hated by Al-Manshur? How did Al-

Manshur neutralize him?
5. Why was the Alawiyyin hostile towards the Abbasites? Who

was their leader?
6. What were Al-Manshur's policies towards Byzantines, Andalus

and Africa?
7. State the cities built by Al-Manshur! What made Baghdad a

strategic location?
8. Explain about Al-Manshur's meticulousness and vigilance! Who

were the four pillars of his caliphate?
9. How did Al-Manshur know about the behavior of his

governors? What was the responsibility of the head of the postal
department during his caliphate?
3. AL-MAHDI
(158-169 A.H = 775-785 A.D)
Period of reforms and changes
Caliph Al-Mahdi ruled for the years. His caliphate was seen as
the transitional period between the time of harshness and violence of
past caliphs of the Abbasites to the time of hospitality and the spread
of science and knowledge and civilization that marked his caliphate
and the caliphs after him.
Al-Mahdi began his rule with several reformations and
developments, helped by the abundance of state's wealth inherited
from the time of Abu Ja'far Al-Manshur.
Among his efforts was the building of water tanks along the
route to Mecca for traveling caravans and the expansion of Masjidil
Haram. He ordered for the weak that were unable to work to receive
regular expenses so that they would not beg.
He established postal posts between Mecca, Medina and Yemen
and perfected its regulations. Al-Mahdi was also known for his
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generosity and philantrophy, so much so that it was close to
squandering and wastefulness.
His attitude towards the Zindiq (Atheist)
Al-Mahdi was not always gentle in nature, he was occasionally

strict and harsh on his insubordinates, especially the Zindiq (Atheist)
that surfaced during his caliphate. They allowed things that were
forbidden and depraved the morals and character. Al-Mahdi strived
to crush this movement, and he even established a special
department led by a person whose post was called "Shahibuz
Zanadiqah". His job was to crush and eliminate the group and its
teachings. The effort to crush this group was continued by the next
caliph Musa Al-Hadi.
His foreign policy
Other kingdoms began to respect and fear the Islamic Caliphate

during the time of Al-Mahdi due to its grandeur, glory and majesty.
The never ending conflict between the Abbasites and the
Umayyah in Andalus paved the way for Emperor Karel de Grote to
hold diplomatic ties with the Abbasites' caliphs. This proved to be
beneficial for the Abbasites in their campaign against the Byzantines.
The war between the Abbasites and the Byzantines continues
during Al-Mahdi's caliphate. Muslim's military expeditions attacked
the Roman's regions until reaching Ankara (Anggora) in Asia Minor.
The Caesar of Byzantium commanded his army to attack the Islamic
lands at the Syrian borders in retaliation, forcing the Muslim's forces
there to withdraw. Then it was Al-Mahdi's turn to response.
In 163 A.H Al-Mahdi assembled a large military force under the
command of his son Harun Ar-Rasyid and assisted by Commander
Khalid Al-Barmaky. They defeated everything that obstructed their
path and succeeded in conquering the fortress of Smala, the strongest
Byzantium's fortress. Al-Mahdi launched another military campaign
in 165 A.H, also commanded by Harun Ar-Rasyid. This time Harun
advanced until reaching the shores of the strait of Bhosporus, forcing
Queen Irene (holding the post of Caesar on behalf of her young son
Constantine VI, 780-797 A.D) to agree to pay tribute of 90,000 dinar
every year to the Islamic Caliphate. The campaign ended with the
signing of a truce between both empires for three years.
Islamic propagation was expanded to the eastern regions during
his rule. Islamic preachers entered Hindustan (India) and were
forced to face intense oppositions and battles. They destroyed
temples, statues of Buddha and idols. But a terrible mishap
happened during their return, a big storm hit them at the Persian
Gulf and a lot of ships sunk and its passengers drowned.
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Death of Al-Mahdi
On the 22nd Muharram 169 A.H (4th August 785 A.D) Al-Mahdi
passed away. He left a will pointing to his two sons, Musa Al-Hadi
and Harun Ar-Rasyid, as his successors. He stated that the post of
caliph to be held first by Al-Hadi then by Harun Ar-Rasyid.
4. MUSA AL-HADI
(169-170 A.H = 785-786 A.D)
Before Al-Hadi's proclamation as caliph, he spent most of his

time in Masyrik. He was engaged in a battle there when being
appointed as caliph. The events experienced by him there had a big
influence on his politics, conducts and behaviors.
The Alawiyyin's threat
Descendants of Ali bin Abi Talib believed that the caliphate was
rightfully theirs. They staged a rebellion in Hejaz during the
caliphate of Musa Al-Hadi, under the leadership of Husein bin Ali,
grandson of Hasan bin Ali bin Abi Talib. Husein was victorious in
Medina. He managed to occupy the governor's palace and freed all
the prisoners. He was proclaimed as caliph by the people of Medina.
Husein then proceeded to Mecca with his forces, and he met
with Caliph Musa Al-Hadi's soldiers at Wadi Fuch, situated between
Mecca and Medina. Husein bin Ali and some of his relatives and
soldiers were killed in the battle. The battle of Wadi Fuch had a big
impact on the course of the Abbasites Dynasty. Two of Ali's
descendants that managed to escape would turn out to be the biggest
threat to the Abbasites in the future. They were Yahya bin Abdillah
who were proclaimed the Ameer of the Dailamy kingdom and his
brother Idris bin Abdillah who built the Bani Idris Dynasty in
Morocco (Maghribil Aqsa).
Death of Al-Hadi
On the 14th Rabi'ul Awwal 170 A.H (13th September 786 A.D)
Caliph Al-Hadi died while he was 26 years old. He ruled for one year
and three months. His brother Harun Ar-Rasyid succeeded him as
caliph.
QUESTIONS
77
1. Why was Al-Mahdi's caliphate known as the transitional period?
What were the reforms done by him?
2. Who were the Zindiqs? How did Al-Hadi face them?
3. Why did the rest of the kingdoms respect and fear the Abbasites
Dynasty? What was Al-Hadi's attitude towards the Byzantines?
4. Explain about the Muslim's expedition into Hindustan!
5. When did Al-Hadi pass away? Who was pointed as his

successor?
6. Why does the Alawiyyin demand the caliph's position? Who led
their rebellion in Hejaz during Al-Hadi's caliphate?
7. Where did both armies meet? What was the outcome of the
battle?
8. Who were the two descendants of Ali that escaped and became a
threat to the Abbasites? Where did they rule?
5. HARUN AR-RASYID
(170-193 A.H = 786-809 A.D)
Harun Ar-Rasyid's appointment as caliph
Harun Ar-Rasyid was proclaimed as caliph on the day Al-Hadi

passed away. He was the most famous caliph of the Abbasites
Dynasty. The city of Baghdad reached its zenith of glory and
grandeur during his rule.
Harun Ar-Rasyid administered his kingdom so well that it
became the yardstick for other races throughout the ages. Countless
tales and stories that were passed on by generations proved the
success of his administration, among them were the famous "Tales of
1001 nights". He was patient, extremely well mannered and devoted
to the scholars, philosophers and poets that flocked to Baghdad from
all corners of the world.
At that time factories, observatories, schools and so on were
built and Baghdad became the center of knowledge, culture and
trade.
No emperor's palaces could compare to the palace of Harun Ar-
Rasyid which was full of scholars, lawmakers, poets, composers,
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singers, artists and so on that came from all walks of life. Harun
himself was a poet and a story teller. He was wise, noble, respected,
honored, loved and feared by the people.
Harun Ar-Rasyid was the only caliph from the Abbasites to
perform the pilgrimage to Mecca on foot, accompanied by his
escorts. This was pointed out as significant in the history of his
leadership by the historians. At the holy land, he spent his wealth
doing good deeds and fulfilling the needs of the masses. Even his
wife Queen Zubaidah spent her money to finance the digging of
springs and then channel the water to Mecca. The spring can still be
found today named "the spring of Zubaidah".
Harun Ar-Rasyid and the Alawiyyin
Caliph Harun Ar-Rasyid wished to improve the relationship

between the Abbasites and the Alawiyyin. He treated them with
respect and those imprisoned in Baghdad were freed. But the
Alawiyyin refused to change their views that only they have the
right to be caliphs. Moreover the matter had become their faith and
belief thus they never flagged in their effort to seize the caliphate.
Confrontation with Yahya bin Abdillah
At Dailam, a country south of the Caspian Sea, an Alawiyyin

movement led by Yahya bin Abdillah, the great grandson of Hasan
bin Ali bin Abi Talib emerged. Almost all of the population of
Dailam supported Yahya's movement and this pose a serious threat
to the Islamic Caliphate.
Harun Ar-Rasyid ordered Commander Fadhal bin Yahya Al-
Barmaky to lead 50,000 troops to Dailam. Fadhal followed Harun
Ar-Rasyid's attitude of gentle persuasion and coaxed him to accept a
peace treaty with Harun Ar-Rasyid.
Yahya was prepared to accept the offer if Caliph Harun would
write a letter with his own hand promising his safety and witnessed
by the scholars and the Supreme Judge of Baghdad as well as the
nobles from the Hasyim clan.
Yahya's wish was granted by Caliph Harun and the letter of
guarantee was sent to him along with expensive gifts and presents.
Yahya then went to Baghdad accompanied by Fadhal and was
received by Harun with honor and respect. Nevertheless, Yahya's
movement was eventually restricted and monitored by the caliph.
Confrontation with Idris bin Abdillah
Caliph Harun used the same political strategy on Idris bin

Abdillah. This noble from the Alawiyyin had a lot of followers from
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the Berbers and managed to establish a kingdom in Morocco in 172
A.H (788 A.D). The kingdom was known as the Bani Idris Dynasty
that remained in power until 311 A.H (923 A.D).
Harun Ar-Rasyid sent one of his nobles that were known for his
political skills to Africa. His name was Sulaiman bin Jarir. The
threat to the caliphate did not disappear with the death of Idris
because his followers appointed his youngest son, also named Idris,
to be his successor.
After succeeded in facing the Alawiyyin's threat, Caliph Harun
had to faced riots and mutinies in Mosul, Syria, Armenia and
Khurasan. Eventhough the above matters really hampered the
running of his administration. He was able to cope with all the
turmoils and disturbances.
Establishing the Bani Aghlab kingdom in Africa
According to Caliph Harun's views, Berber's nation in North

Africa that was constantly in turmoil should be given the right of
self-administration under the protection of the Abbasites Dynasty.
This strategy of his would release him from the difficulties of facing
the Berbers and would impede Bani Idris from advancing into the
Abbasites territories.
In 184 A.H, Ibrahim bin Aghlab was appointed as Ameer to
head the government there, with the agreement that Ibrahim and his
successors would recognized the Abbasites Caliphate. Thus the
kingdom of Bani Aghlab was established in Africa in 184 A.H (800
A.D) with Kairawan as its capital. The Dynasty ruled in Africa until
296 A.H (908 A.D).
Diplomatic ties with the emperors of Tiongkok (China)
Harun Ar-Rasyid wanted to guarantee the safety of the Muslim's

lands. Therefore he made peace with the Tiongkok (China) that
bordered the eastern regions. He always exchanged gifts with the
Tiongkok's emperors.
Against the Byzantines
To ensure the safety of the western regions from Byzantines'

attacks, Caliph Harun made the city of Tarsus as a military command
post for his army. One of his Turkish commanders was ordered to
launch an attack on the Byzantines in Asia Minor due to their
constant pillaging at the borders of the Muslim's lands. Caliph
Harun would occasionally lead the army expedition into the region.
In 181 A.H, Caliph Harun proceeded with his military forces to
attack Byzantines. He won several battles and reached Ankara
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(Anggora) while the Muslim's naval armada in the Mediterranean
Sea conquered the island of Crete and Cyprus. Therefore Queen
Irene was forced to sign a disarmarment treaty with Caliph Harun
with the condition that she must pay tribute to the Abbasites every
year. But the terms of the treaty were violated by her successor and
war broke again between the Abbasites and the Byzantines Empire.
Caliph Harun advanced again with his forces and conquered the city
of Heraclius, forcing the Byzantines to pay tribute again.
Nevertheless, the war between them never stopped because the
Byzantines would make use of every opportunity to attack the
Islamic lands.
Harun Ar-Rasyid and Charlemagne
Through his wise political strategy, Caliph Harun managed to

tie a close relationship with the French Emperor Charlemagne (Karel
de Grote). The friendship ended up with a mutual agreement, that
Charlemagne would keep the Bani Umayyah's power in check thus
leaving Caliph Harun free to concentrate on his campaign against the
Byzantines.
Caliph Harun and Charlemagne exchanges gifts and letters
regularly. Among the gifts given by him to Charlemagne was a
'water clock', it was so amazing and so meticulously crafted that the
Europeans thought of it to be the work of magic. Caliph Harun also
presented him with the key of the Grand Church at Baitul Maqdis.
That is why the French nowadays claimed that they hold the right to
protect the holy sites in Palestine and to protect the Christians
performing the pilgrimage there because they are the custodian of
the key.
The Barmaks
The Barmaks were the nobles of Persia. One of the members of

the family, Khalid bin Barmak was appointed as wazir (equivalent to
a prime minister) by As-Safah and Al-Manshur. Caliph Harun Ar-
Rasyid took his son Yahya bin Khalid to be his wazir. Yahya was
assisted by his four sons, Ja'far, Fadhal, Muhammad and Musa.
Caliph Harun trusted them entirely and all the government affairs
were entrusted to them.
Fadhal was the oldest among the four sons and he was his
father's right hand man that helped him in solving extremely difficult
and extraordinary matter.
Fadhal was nursed by Caliph Harun's mother as he was nursed
by Fadhal's mother. Thus both became foster brothers and when
Caliph Harun's son, Muhammad Al-Amin was born, he entrusted
Fadhal with the responsibility to educate him.
81
In 176 A.H, Ja'far who was also one of Yahya's sons was
entrusted with the responsibility to pacify the riot in Syria. He was
appointed as the governor of Khurasan in 186 A.H and then
promoted to be the supreme commander of the army. In short, Ja'far
held a special position in Caliph Harun's heart. He was loved and
respected by the caliph.
Status of the Barmaks
The Barmaks was loved and admired by the masses. Poets

composed intricate poetries praising the family and singers sang
beautiful songs telling about their nobleness and generosities. They
became the metaphor for prestige and nobleness.
But nothing ever last forever, changes of time and circumstances
brought the family down to the deepest depth of calamity and
misfortune.
Caliph Harun sensed that the Barmaks' influence and power had
grown too strong and equals that to his influence and power, even to
be superior to his. Once, Caliph Harun asked them to provide him a
small amount of money but they ignored him. Everyone went to
seek their audience and favor, and there was nothing left for Harun
Ar-Rasyid except his title as caliph. Fadhal's and Ja'far's grandiose
was resented by some quarters, in addition to the instigations made
by Barmaks' enemies to Harun and their allegations that the Barmaks
spent the State Treasury's wealth according to their heart's content
added to Caliph Harun's anger.
This was followed by the Yahya bin Abdillah Al-Alawy's
incident. After Caliph Harun nullified the guarantee of safety for
him, Caliph Harun puts him under house arrest at Ja'far Al-
Barmaky's palace. But Ja'far released him due to his love and respect
to the Alawiyyin. When the news reached Caliph Harun, he was
very angry with Ja'far. Not long after that Caliph Harun received
news about the assistance gave by the Barmaks to Abdul Malik bin
Saleh Al-Abbasy who was trying to seize the caliphate from Harun
Ar-Rasyid.
The fall of the Barmaks
Caliph Harun determination to eliminate the family was

resolved due to the incidents. He ordered for Ja'far's execution,
followed by his father and all their families and close associates. As
for Abdul Malik bin Saleh and his family, they were captured and
sent to prison.
Death of Caliph Harun Ar-Rasyid
82
On the 3rd Jumadil Tsaniah 193 A.H (24th March 809 A.D), Caliph
Harun passed away at his military headquarters in Tarsus, he was 47
years old and ruled for 23 years 2 months and 18 days. Before his
death he appointed his three sons as Ameer in the government.
Muhammad Al-Amin was appointed as Ameer for the western
regions of the empire, Abdullah Al-Makmun will rule Persia and
Qasim will rule Armenia and the Arabian Peninsula. Al-Amin was
proclaimed the first crown prince whereas Abdullah Al-Makmun
who was older the second crown prince and will only be the caliph
after Al-Amin.
QUESTIONS
1. Why was Harun Ar-Rasyid seen as the most famous caliph of

the Abbasites? State some of the symbol of his grandeur!
2. State some of his noble characteristics! What was built during

his caliphate?
3. How did Caliph Harun treat the Alawiyyin?
4. Who stage a rebellion in Dailam? Who was the commander sent

to Dailam? How many soldiers did he command?
5. What strategy did Fadhal take to subdue Yahya? What were the
conditions submitted by him? How did Caliph Harun response to his
condition?
6. Who was Idris bin Abdillah? How did Caliph Harun confront
him?
7. Why was Bani Aghlab Dynasty established? Who was

proclaimed as its Ameer? What was the condition put forth by
Caliph Harun?
8. Explain about the confrontations between Muslim and

Byzantine soldiers during Caliph Harun's caliphate!
9. Who was Charlemagne? What was the reason behind their

relationship? What gifts did Caliph Harun give to him?
10. Explain about the relationship between the Barmaks and

Abbasites! State some of their nobles!
11. Explain about the Barmak's status during Harun Ar-Rasyid's

caliphate!
83
12. Why did Caliph Harun decide to eliminate the Barmaks?
13. What happened to Abdul Malik bin Salih and his family? Why?
14. When did Caliph Harun pass away? How old was he? How long
did he rule?
15. State the regions given to Caliph Harun's sons! Who was
proclaimed as the crown prince?
6. AL-AMIN AND AL-MAKMUN

(193-218 A.H = 809-833 A.D)
Muhammad bin Al-Amin was appointed as caliph after the

death of Harun Ar-Rasyid.
Al-Amin entrusted his Prime Minister Fadhal bin Rabi' with the
affairs of the state. Fadhal was known as a slanderer and a defamer.
It was he who instigated Harun Ar-Rasyid to topple the Barmaks.
He also caused for the split between the two brothers, Al-Amin and
Al-Makmun.
The first action done by him to cause for conflict between them
was the surrendering of the inheritances at Harun Ar-Rasyid's
military headquaters at Tarsus to Al-Amin. According to Harun's
will, it must be given to Al-Makmun. Fadhal also instigated Al-
Amin to replace Al-Makmun's position as the second crown prince
with Al-Amin's son Ishak. This was the beginning of the disputes.
Due to Fadhal's instigation, Al-Amin dared to break the
agreement pledged when Harun was still alive. Al-Amin's action
angered the people at Khurasan and other big cities because Al-
Makmun was greatly loved by the masses due to his piousness and
character.
Conflict between Al-Amin and Al-Makmun
The state was enveloped with chaos and havocs due to the
provocation. Civil war broke out and ended with the victory of Al-
Makmun's soldiers led by Commander Thaher bin Husein. Al-Amin
was killed in battle and the caliphate was transferred to Al-Makmun.
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Al-Makmun's victory over Al-Amin also signified the victory of
the Persian over the Arabs, or the defeat of the Arab's influence by
the Persians. Fadhal bin Rabi', Al-Amin's prime minister was an
Arab whereas Fadhal bin Sahl, Al-Makmun's prime minister was
Persian, because a prime minister signifies a caliph's power and
might.
Persian's blood and spirit ran through the body of Al-Makmun,
because his mother was Persian. That is why he favored the Persians
more than the Arabs. Moreover his success in seizing the caliphate
was due to the Persians' assistance. Thus the Persians were very
influential during Al-Makmun's caliphate.
Facing the Alawiyyin's threat
Persian's spirit and feelings ran deep in Al-Makmun due to the

influence of his prime minister Fadhal bin Sahl. That is why the
Alawiyyin was held in high esteem during the beginning of his rule.
He took the blue colour, the sign of the Alawiyyin to be the symbol
of his caliphate in exchange for black, the symbol of the Abbasites.
He even appointed Ali Radhi Al-Alawy, one of Alawiyyin's nobles as
his crown prince. He did it to win the Persians' favor due to their
conviction that only the Alawiyyin have the rights to the caliphate.
The appointment was proclaimed while he was in Khurasan.
The citizens of Baghdad were angry when they heard about the
proclamation and pledged their loyalty to his uncle Ibrahim bin
Mahdi and appointed him as caliph.
Al-Makmun proceeded immediately to Baghdad from Marwa
(capital of Khurasan) after hearing the news.
As soon as reaching Baghdad, he puts on the black symbol of the
Abbasites again and managed to return the trust of the Iraqis and his
families to him. Ibrahim bin Mahdi fled from Baghdad after being a
caliph for two years, but Al-Makmun forgave him and made peace
with him.
Thahiriyyah Dynasty
Khurasan was very influential during Al-Makmun's rule. The

administration of the region was given entirely to Thahir bin Husein,
his military commander that defeated Al-Amin and conquered
Baghdad. Thus Khurasan was given autonomous right under the
rule of Thahir's family in 198 A.H (820 A.D).
Al-Makmun's attitude towards knowledge
Caliph Al-Makmun was a wise caliph and gave priority to

freedom of thought and observations. According to him, the
85
splitting of Muslims into several groups was mainly caused by the
disputes in religious affairs. He establishes the debating council
(Majlis Munadharah) to avoid the disputes and conflicts. It was a
place to discuss and debate strange and difficult religious matters.
The council would convene in front of Al-Makmun and witnessed by
prominent scholars. The result from the discussion will be spread to
the masses so that they will only implement the set of laws that had
been agreed upon, thus avoiding conflicts and disputes.
Al-Makmun's activities and efforts were not confined only to
religious knowledge, but encompassed general knowledge and
culture too. He encouraged translators to translate foreign books
into Arabic, especially books and literatures from Greece and Persia.
A lot of books were translated and composed such as
philosophy, medical sciences, astronomy, geometry, music and so
on. He also sent envoys to Constantinople to translate books there
into Arabic.
Thus the historians were not wrong when they said that
Muslims connected the knowledge of the ancient civilization with
the western civilization of this century.
Death of Al-Makmun
Al-Makmun pass away on the 19th Rejab 218 A.H (10th August
833 A.D) at Tarsus while his soldiers were engage in a battle with the
Byzantines. He was 48 years old and ruled for 20 years 5 months and
24 days. Before he died he willed that his brother, Abu Ishak
Muhammad Al-Mu'tashim bin Rasyid, as his successor.
QUESTIONS
1. Who was the prime minister entrusted by Al-Amin to handle the

state's affairs? What was his characteristic?
2. What was the instigation that he made to Al-Amin? What was

the outcome to Al-Amin's violation of the agreement made while he
was the crown prince?
3. Why was the Persian's influence great during Al-Makmun's

rule? State some of the influences!
4. How did Al-Makmun face the Alawiyyin? Why did he use the
blue insignia while in Khurasan?
5. Who was proclaimed as caliph by the people of Baghdad when

Al-Makmun announced Ridha Al-Alawy as his crown prince?
86
6. What did Al-Makmun do to return the people's trust to him?
7. Explain the origin of the Thahiriyyah Dynasty!
8. What was Al-Makmun's contribution in science and knowledge?
9. When did Al-Makmun pass away? How long did he rule? Who
was his successor?
7. AL-MU'TASHIM AND AL-WATSIQ

(218-232 A.H = 833-847 A.D)
Caliph Muhammad Al-Mu'tashim period was marked by

religious conflicts. Differences among the scholars appeared
everywhere. But Al-Mu'tashim was ignorant and did not pay much
attention to the matters.
Turkish soldiers
Al-Mu'tashim took a lot of Turkish's slaves in his army, they

numbered around 70,000 soldiers. They were given priority over the
Arabs and Persians. This causes jealousy and hatred among the
Arabian and Persian commanders. They agreed to topple Al-
Mu'tashim from the caliph's throne and replace him with Ameer
Abbas bin Al-Makmun, his brother's son. Al-Mu'tashim came to
know about the conspiracy thus all the conspirators plus Ameer
Abbas was killed.
Frictions among the commanders
Al-Mu'tashim took harsh measures against the Arabian and

Persian commanders after the failure of the attempted coup. Slowly
he decreases their numbers and erased their names from the military
roster. Finally, he entrusted all his affairs to his Turkish
commanders.
Even though they were originally slaves and prisoners of war,
they knew that the caliph loved and gave them precedent over the
others. Thus they would always do as their hearts contents. Al-
Mu'tashim built Samarra on the eastern bank of the Tigris River to
minimize the damage done by the Turkish soldiers. The new city
was also made the capital of the state.
Al-Mu'tashim concentrated most of his efforts in subduing the
rebellions that sprang up everywhere, this causes for peace and
security of some of the Abbasites regions to falter.
87
The Caesar of the Byzantines took the opportunity to pillage the
Muslim's lands in Syria while Al-Mu'tashim was fully occupied with
the domestic affairs of the caliphate.
Battle with the Byzantines
In 223 A.H, Al-Mu'tashim prepared 200,000 soldiers to avenge

Byzantines' attack on Syria. The bulk of the forces were stationed at
Tarsus. After several fierce battles, he succeeded to seize several
Byzantines' fortresses and conquered Amur, a big city at Galatia in
Asia Minor. Thus Al-Mu'tashim managed to liberate the region from
the Byzantines' tyranny.
Death of Al-Mu'tashim and the appointment of Al-Watsiq
Al-Mu'tashim died on the 18th Rabi'ul Awwal 227 A.H (4th

February 842 A.D), leaving seeds of destruction for the Abbasites by
giving too much power to the Turks that will spell disaster for the
Abbasites in the future.
He was succeeded by his son Harun Al-Watsiq Billah. He took
after his father and gave priority to the Turks. During his caliphate,
the Khawarijites at Hejaz and the Kurds at Mosul declared their
independence from the Abbasites. Chaos erupted everywhere in the
Arabian lands making some quarters in Baghdad demands the
stepping down of Al-Watsiq.
Even though he was unsuccessful in maintaining law and order
throughout the Islamic State, he was complimented for his love and
activities in the advancement of knowledge. Several famous scholars
and poets were born during his time. He even held special council in
his palace to discuss and debate matters related with religion and
state affairs.
Death of Al-Watsiq and the end of the Abbasites' golden era
Caliph Harun Al-Watsiq died on the 24th Dzulhijjah 232 A.H

(11th August 847 A.D), he was 36 years old and ruled for 5 years 8
months and 6 days. The glorious era of the Abbasites ended with his
death and it was the beginning of the downfall and collapse for the
Dynasty due to the influence of the Turkish slaves. Even though
there were 26 more caliphs after him but their glory and grandeur
subsided steadily until the fall of Baghdad into the Mongol's hands.
QUESTIONS
88
1. What was the state's domestic condition during the time of Al-
Mu'tashim?
2. What was the consequence of giving priority to the Turks? What

was their attitude towards the masses?
3. Why did Al-Mu'tashim distance himself from Arabian and

Persian commanders?
4. What was Al-Mu'tashim reason for attacking the Byzantines?

Which region was conquered by him?
5. How long did Al-Mu'tashim rule? Who was his successor?
6. Why did some quarters demand for Al-Watsiq resignation? Yet

why was his reign complimented by some?
7. When did Al-Watsiq pass away? How long did he rule? Why
did the Abbasites Dynasty falter with his death?
FACTORS LEADING TO THE COLLAPSE OF THE ABBASITES

CALIPHATE
Among the reasons behind its downfall were the weakness of

the latter caliphs and the abundance of wealth that surrounded the
caliph and his relatives, other reasons were:
1. Giving preference to the Persians over the Arabs
The Abbasites gave important posts in the state ministries, either

civil or military, to the Persians. They were appointed as prime
minister, commander of the army, governors, judges etc. This causes
the Arabs to hate them and distances themselves from them.
2. Hostilities towards the Alawiyyin
Their hostilities towards the Alawiyyin who have a lot of

followers further angered the Arabs.
The Abbasites hostile approach only causes them further loss,
they forgot that their empire stands due to the help and assistance of
the Alawiyyin in toppling the Umayyah's power.
The feud between these two big families, Abbasites and
Alawiyyin, resulted in chaos and rebellions in every corner of the
Muslim lands.
3. Religious disputes
89
Some of the caliphs such as Al-Makmun, Al-Mu'tashim and Al-
Watsiq were influenced by innovations (bid'ah), disputes between
the fiqh school of thought and philosophical ideologies. These
sowed the seed of discord and dissension, splitting the Muslims into
various sects and groups. This causes for the scholars to distance
themselves from them.
4. Fragility of the administrative system
Some of the caliphs were weak in their rulings, such as

appointing two crown princes, as done by the caliphs of the
Umayyah Dynasty. This resulted in never ending disputes and feuds
among the caliph's inner circle.
5. The Turkish's catastrophe
Some of the caliphs trusted the Turks blindly and did not realize
their desire to seize the caliphate. This all started during Al-
Mu'tashim's caliphate.
The danger posed by the Turks was so grave that several caliphs
became victims to their power play. The main pillars of the
Abbasites Caliphate collapsed because of them. Chaos was
everywhere, whereas the caliph became a puppet in the hands of the
Turkish commanders. Hostilities between the military and the
masses happened frequently. Rivalries between the Turkish
commanders further aggravated the caliphate's conditions.
The weak central government in Baghdad gave the governors
opportunities to break free from the central administration. They
established their own kingdoms until there were several smaller
kingdoms within the caliphate.
The fate of Baghdad
Tha caliphate was at its weakest and Baghdad could not stand
the attack of Holako's forces. Baghdad which was once the center of
knowledge and the glory of Islam, built by Caliph Ja'far five
centuries before surrendered after being surrounded for 50 days.
Caliph Al-Mu'tashim, the last caliph of the Abbasites, his family
and the nobles of Baghdad was killed by Holako's soldiers. Most of
the city's population was slaughtered like animals. They pillaged the
city and did cruel and terrible things.
All of the palace's wealth and the state's treasury were looted by
them. Palaces and beautiful buildings, schools, breathtaking
mosques were damaged by them. Books of knowledge were thrown
90
into the Tigris River, turning the water black from its ink. Fires
broke out everywhere until it burnt the whole city. This tragic event
lasted for 40 days. Baghdad was turned into a heap of rubbles.
The great Abbasites Dynasty meets its tragic end with the death
of Al-Mu'tashim and the fall of Baghdad, its glory buried beneath the
burning rubbles of Baghdad, beneath the ruins of its once glorious
buildings and palaces.
There were 37 caliphs of the Abbasites that ruled from the 13th
Rabi'ul Awwal 132 A.H (30th October 749 A.D) until the fall of
Baghdad on the 20th Muharram 656 A.H (27th January 1258 A.D).
There were 15 more caliphs from the remnants of the Abbasites
Dynasty that ruled Egypt after the fall of Baghdad, but they were
merely symbols, The Mamaluks acknowledges their rules but they
did not have actual power.
QUESTIONS
1. State the factors that led to the fall of the Abbasites!
2. What was the calamity caused by the Turks on the Abbasites

Dynasty?
3. Explain briefly about the fall of Baghdad!
4. Explain about the cruelness of Holako's forces during their

invasion of Baghdad!
5. How many caliphs were there that ruled from the beginning of
the Dynasty until its tragic end? State 5 caliphs from them!
91
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I: THE ISLAMIC PERIOD

- Birth of Prophet Muhammad pbuh
- Commissioning to Prophethood
- Pressures from the prominent Quraishites
- First Hegira
- Hegira to Medina
- The light of Islam in Medina
- Defending Medina
- Wars to defend Islam
- The Farewell Pilgrimage
- Death of the Prophet pbuh
- Prophet's attributes and manners
CHAPTER II: THE RIGHTEOUS CALIPHS

- Abu Bakr As-Siddiq (11-13 A.H = 632-634 A.D)
- Umar bin Al-Khattab (13-23 A.H = 634-644 A.D)
- Utsman bin Al-'Affan (23-35 A.H = 644-656 A.D)
- Ali bin Abi Talib (35-40 A.H = 656-661 A.D)
92
CHAPTER III : THE UMAYYAH CALIPHATE (40-132 A.H = 660-750
A.D)
- Mu'awiyah bin Abi Sufyan (40-60 A.H = 660-680 A.D)
- Yazid bin Mu'awiyah (60-63 A.H = 680-683 A.D)
- Mu'awiyah bin Yazid (64 A.H = 683 A.D)
- Marwan bin Hakam (64-65 A.H = 683-685 A.D)
- Abdul Malik bin Marwan (65-86 A.H = 685-705 A.D)
- Al-Walid bin Abdul Malik (86-96 A.H = 705-715 A.D)
- Sulaiman bin Abdil Malik (96-99 A.H = 715-717 A.D)
- Umar bin Abdil Aziz (99-101 A.H = 717-720 A.D)
- Yazid bin Abdil Malik (101-105 A.H = 720-724 A.D)
- Hisyam bin Abdil Malik (105-125 A.H = 724-743 A.D)
- Umayyah Caliphate before its downfall
- Factors behind the collapse of the Umayyah Caliphate
CHAPTER IV: ABBASITES CALIPHATE

- Abu Al-Abbas As-Safah (132-136 A.H = 749-754 A.D)
- Abu Ja'far Al-Manshur (136-158 A.H = 754-775 A.D)
- Al-Mahdi (158-169 A.H = 775-785 A.D)
- Musa Al-Hadi (169-170 A.H = 785-786 A.D)
- Harun Ar-Rasyid (170-193 A.H = 786-809 A.D)
- Al-Amin and Al-Makmun (193-218 A.H = 809-833 A.D)
- Al-Mu'tashim and Al-Watsiq (218-232 A.H = 833-847 A.D)
- Factors behind the collapse of the Abbasites Caliphate
93
‫‪94‬‬

The History of Islam

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The History of Islam

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Chapter 1

The Islamic Period

BIRTH OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD PBUH

The Birth of Muhammad pbuh

The Prophetic Family

He came from a poor but respected and honored family. His

Our Prophet Muhammad pbuh was brought up by his

With the passing of his grandfather, Our Prophet worked as a

THE COMMISSIONING OF MUHAMMAD TO PROPHETHOOD

The First Revelation

Even when Muhammad pbuh was still a child he always keeps

‫ ا ْق َر ْأ َو َرب َُّك اأْل َ ْك َر ُم‬, ‫ق‬ َ ‫ق اإْل ِ ْن َس‬

َ ‫ َعلَّ َم اإْل ِ ْن َس‬, ‫الَّ ِذى َعلَّ َم بِ ْالقَلَ ِم‬

The Second Revelation

The Revelation paused for a few days, then the second

Apprehension from the prominent Quraishites

The hostilities shown towards Muhammad would not have

THE FIRST HEGIRA

The Migration to Abyssinia (Ethiopia)

When the pressures and persecutions on the Prophet and his

HEGIRA TO MEDINA (MADINAH)

The Inhabitants of Yathrib Embraces Islam

The time for pilgrimage to Mecca gave the Prophet the

Yathrib became Medina Al-Munawwarah

With the migration of the Prophet to Yathrib, its name was

THE LIGHT OF ISLAM IN MEDINA

The Muhajirun and the Ansar as the Defenders of Islam

With the spread of Islam to all corners of Medina, its defenders

After the Prophet had established the administrations of Medina

WARS TO DEFEND ISLAM

There were numerous battles between the polytheists that

Ghazwa Badr Al-Kubra

This battle happened during the month of Ramadhan in the

The Consequences of Ghazwa Badr

The Muslim's army was made up of approximately 316 soldiers

This battle took place near the Uhud mountain, south-east of

After Ghazwa Uhud some of the Jewish tribes in Medina

The Hudaibiya Treaty

The failure of the Confederates in Ghazwa Ahzab had a big

Propagating Islam to the kings beyond Arabia

The Propagation of Islam was not confined to the Arabian

‫ان َعلَى َع ْب ِد ِه لِيَ ُك ْو َن لِ ْل َعالَ ِمي َْن نَ ِذ ْيرًا‬

ً‫اس َكافَّة‬ َّ ‫أَالَ إِنِّي لَ َرس ُْو ُل هللاِ إِلَ ْي ُك ْم َخا‬

The Prophet predicted the death of the Persian Emperor

The Prophet's message calling the kings and ameers to Islam

The Battle of Mu'tah

Khalid Received the Title Saifullah

During the battle of Mu'tah the Prophet was informed by Divine

The Conquest of Mecca (Fathul Makkah)

The citizens of Mecca signed a peace treaty with the Prophet in 6

Destroying the Idols

When the citizens of Mecca heard about the movement of the

Even though the Prophet entered Mecca as a commander of a

THE FAREWELL PILGRIMAGE

In 10 A.H, the Prophet set off with 100,000 Muslims to perform

‫ْت لَ ُك ُم اإْل ِ ْسالَ َم ِد ْينًا‬ ُ ‫ت لَ ُك ْم ِد ْينَ ُك ْم َوأَ ْت َم ْم‬

This pilgrimage was known as Hajj Wada' (the Farewell

DEATH OF THE PROPHET PBUH

THE PROPHET'S ATTRIBUTES AND MANNERS

The Prophet pbuh combined both perfection of creation and

ٍ ُ‫ك لَ َعلَى ُخل‬

2. Who brought up the Prophet when he was young?

3. What was the first Revelation brought down by Gabriel?