9th Chemistry

STATE COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING
TELANGANA, HYDERABAD.
ACADEMIC YEAR : 2020 – 21, LEVEL - 2
CLASS: X MEDIUM : English SUBJECT : Physical Sciences

CHAPTER : Chemical Equations
TOPIC / CONCEPT : Interpreting a chemical equations
WORKSHEET NO : 15
Key concepts Interpreting a chemical equation
Learning outcomes
 Children can interpret information from a balanced chemical equation.
INTRODUCTION
● We have learnt a little information from a balanced chemical equation like physical state, temperature etc.
In previous class.
Interpreting a balanced chemical equation
i. A chemical equation gives information about the reactants and products through their symbols and formulae.
ii. It gives the ratio of molecules of reactants and products.
iii. As molecular masses are expressed in ‘Unified Masses’ (U), the relative masses of reactants and products are known
from the equation.
iv. If the masses are expressed in grams then the equation also gives the molar ratios of reactants and products.
v. If gases are involved, we can equate their masses to their volumes and calculate the volumes or those gases liberated at
given condition of temperature and pressure using molar mass and molar volume relationship.
vi. Using molar mass and Avagadro’s number we can calculate the number of molecules and atoms of different substances
from the equation.
● Now let's learn all the information that can be known from a balanced chemical equation.
Sunlight
Ex. 6CO2+ 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
1. Reactants - Carbon dioxide (CO2), Water (H2O)
2. Products – Glucose (C6H12O6), Oxygen (O2 )
3. Physical State :
1. CO2 - Gas
2. H2O - Liquid
3. C6H12O6 - Solid
4. O2 - Gas
4. Oxygen gas is liberated in this reaction.
5. In presence of sun light, chlorophyll acts as catalyst.
6. 6 moles of carbon dioxide reacts with 6 moles of water to form 1 mole of glucose and 6 moles of oxygen
gas.
7. 6 x 44 gm CO2 reacts with 6 x 18 gm of H2O to form 180 gm of C6H12O6 and 6 x 32 gm of oxygen.
8. 6 x 22.4 lit of CO2 reacts with 6 x 18 gm of H2O to form 180 gm of C6H12O6 and 6 x 22.4 lit. of oxygen
(STP)
9. No. Of molecules in 6 x 44 gm of CO2 gas is = 6 x 6.022 x 10 23
No. Of molecules in 6 x 18 gm of H2O is = 6 x 6.022 x 10 23
No. Of molecules in 180 gm of C6H12O6 is = 6.022 x 10 23
No. Of molecules in 6 x 32 gm of O2 gas is = 6 x 6.022 x 10 23
Try to write all information interpreted by the following equations.
1. Zn(s) + H2SO4 (l) ZnSO4 (l)+ H2 (g) + Q
2. Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + NaCl(aq)

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
Calculate the number of hydrogen molecules participated in above reaction?
2. 2 C(s) + O2 CO2g) + Q
Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide liberated at STP .
3. 2AgCl(s) Ag(s) + Cl2g)
Calculate the number of moles of chlorine gas liberated.
4. Zn.(s)+ 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2g) + Q
State all the information provided by the above balanced chemical equation.
TOPIC / CONCEPT : Mass – Mass relationship.
WORKSHEET NO : 16
Key concepts Mass – Mass relationship based on balanced chemical equation.
Learning outcomes
 Children can calculate numberical problems of mass – mass relationship based on balanced
on chemical equations.
INTRODUCTION
● A balanced chemical equation gives information of relative masses of reactants and products.
● We can learn the following relationships using chemiocal equation.
➢ Mass – Mass relationship
➢ Mass – Volume relationship
➢ Volume – Volume relationship
➢ Mass – Volume – molecule number relatioship
To understand these relation ships, Let’s revise the following concepts learnt in previous class.
 STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ( S.T.P ) :
0O or 273K is standard temperature and standard pressure = 1 Bar = 76 cm of Hg = 76 mm of Hg

 MOLE :
12
Substance having particles or sub-particles in equal number with atoms of 12gm of C Isotope is
known as ‘ ONE MOLE ’.
 MOLAR MASS:
Mass of 1 mole of substance expressed in grams is called molar mass.
 AVAGADRO NUMBER (N):
No. of particles in one mole of a substance is called Avagadro’s Number. This is denoted by N.
It is always constant. N = 6.022 X 10 23.
 GRAM MOLAR VOLUME :
One mole of any gas, at S.T.P, occupies a volume of 22.4 lit. This is called gram molar volume (G.M.V)
Mass – Mass relationship:
Ex (1): Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) Al2O3 + Fe (l)
[ Atom is masses Al = 27U , Fe = 56U , and O = 16U ]
With the above equation, Calculate the amount of alluminium required to obtain 1120 kg of Iron.
Sol: 2Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) Al2O3 + 2Fe (l)
2 X Al + [ 2 X Fe + 3 X O ] [ 2 X Al + 3 X O ] + 2 X Fe
2 X 27 + [ 2 X 56 + 3 X 16 ] [ 2 X 27 + 3 X 16 ] + 2 X 56
54 U + 160 U 102 U + 112 U
54 gm + 160 gm 102 gm + 112 gm
As per balanced equation,
Amount of Al required to obtain 112 gm of Iron = 54 gm
Amount of Al required to obtain 1120 kg of Iron = ?

10
54 X 1120 X 1000
Amount of Al =
112
1
= 540 X 1000 gm
= 540 kg
Similarly, solve the following.
➢ Calculate the mass of hydrogen (H2) liberated when 230 gm of Sodium reacts with excess of water at S.T.P.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What do you mean by Gram Molar Volume ?
2. C + O2 CO2
(12gm) (32 gm) (44 gm )
If 6 gm of carbon burns completely, How much mass of carbon di – oxide is liberated.
3. CaCO3 CaO + CO2

(100 gm) (56 gm) (44 gm )
In this reaction, How much CO2 is liberated if 10 gm of calcium carbonate is heated ?
4. How much carbon – di – oxide is liberated when 50 gm of calcium carbonate reacts with excess of
hydrochloric acid.
[ Ca = 40 U , C = 12U , O = 16 U , H = 1 U , Cl = 35.5 U ]
CaCO3 (S) + 2 HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
5. STP refers to [ ]
A) 0oc temperature and 76 cm pressure

B) 273K temperature and 76 mm pressure
C) 27oc temperature and 1 Bar pressure
D) A and B
6. Mass of 0.5 mole of H2 gas = ……. [ ]
A) 2 gm
B) 1 gm
C) 0.2 gm
D) 0.1 gm
7. No. of molecules in 1 mole of a substance is ……… [ ]
A) 6.022 X 10 23
B) 6.022 X 10 22
C) 3.011 X 10 22
D) 3.011 X 10 23
8. 2H2 + O2 2H2O [ ]
(4 gm) (32 gm) (36 gm )
Mass of water formed when 2gm of hydrogen reacts is ….
A) 18 gm
B) 36 gm
C) 9 gm
D) 72 gm
TOPIC / CONCEPT : Mass – Volume, Mass -Molecule number,
Volume – Volume relationships WORKSHEET NO : 17
Key concepts Finding Mass – Volume, Mass – Molecule number , Volume – Volume relationships
based on balanced chemical equation.
Learning outcomes
 Children can do calculations of mass – volume, volume – volume, mass – volume – molecule number
relationships based on balanced on chemical equations.
@@@
● Calculate volume of hydrogen gas liberated when 230 gm of sodium reacts with excess of water at STP. Also
find the mass and molecule numer of hydrogen.
[ At. Mass of Na = 23U, At. Mass of O = 16U, At. Mass of H = 1U ]
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
2 mol. of Na + 2 mol. of H2O 2 mol. of NaOH + 1 mol. of H2
2 X Na + 2[2XH+1XO] 2 [ Na + O + H ] + 2XH
2 X 23 + 2 [ 2 X 1 + 1 X 16 ] 2 [ 23 + 16 + 1 ] + 2X1
46 U + 36 U 80 U + 2U
46 gm + 36 gm 80 gm + 2 gm
Mass – Mass relationship : As per equation mass of H2 liberated when 46 gm of Na reacts with excess water = 2 gm
10 1
230 X 2
Mass of H2 liberated when 230 gm of Na reacts with excess water = = 10 gm
46
23
1
Mass – Volume relationship
Volume of 2 gm of H2 at STP = 22.4 lit
22.4 X 10
Volume of 10 gm of H2 at STP = = 112 lit.
2
Mass – Molecule number relationship
➢ No. of molecules in 2 gm of H2 gas = 6.022 X 10 23
No. of molecules in 10 gm of H2 gas = ?
=
6.022X10 23 X 10 = 5 X 6.022 X 10 23 molecule = 5 N
2
Volume – Volume relationship
● Ex: At STP , 44.8 lit. of oxygen is available for combustion of carbon. What volume of carbon-di-oxide is
liberated during the reaction. [ C = 12 U , O = 16 U ]
Sol: C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + Q
1 mol. of C + 1 mol. of O2 1 mol. of CO2
Volume of oxygen participated in reaction = 44.8 gm
No. of moles of oxygen participated in reaction = ?
44.8
= = 2 mol.
22.4
Volume of 1 mole of O2 gas at S.T.P = 22.4 lit
As per equation,
Number of moles of CO2 liberated for 1 mol. of Oxygen = 1 mol.
Number of moles of CO2 liberated for 2 mol. of Oxygen = 2 mol.
Volume of CO2 liberated for 44.8 lit of Oxygen = 44.8 lit
Solve the following problem :
● 50 gm of calcium carbonate is treated excess hydro chloric acid. Calculate the volume and
number of molecules of carbon-di-oxide liberated in this reaction.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What is the volume of 2 gm of H2 gas at S.T.P ?
2. What is the number of molecules present in 1 mole of a gas ?
∆
3. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(100 gm) (56 gm) (44 gm )

In the above reaction, What is the volume of CO2 is liberated when 50 gm of calcium carbonate is heated ?
4. What is the volume of oxygen liberated when 49 gm of potassium chlorate is decomposed at S.T.P.
[ K = 49 U , Cl = 35.5 U , O = 16 U ]
∆
2KClO3 (S) 2KCl (s) + 3O2 (g)
5. Volume of 4.4 gm of CO2 gas at STP is... [ ]
A) 22.4 lit
B) 2.24 lit
C) 11.2 lit
D) 1.12 lit
6. No. of molecules present in of 0.5 mole of O2 is = ……. [ ]
A) 6.022 X 10 23
B) 3.011 X 10 23
C) 3.011 X 10 22
D) 6.022 X 10 22
7. No. of moles of 11.2 lit of hydrogen at S.T.P…. [ ]

A) 1 mole
B) 2 mole
C) ½ mole
D) ¼ mole
8. No. of molecules present in 11.2 lit of Oxygen at S.T.P… [ ]
A) 6.022 X 10 23
B) 6.022 X 10 22
C) 3.011 X 10 22
D) 3.011 X 10 23
TELANGANA, HYDERABAD
ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-21
LEVEL - 2
CLASS: 10 MEDIUM : ENGLISH SUBJECT: PHYSICAL
SCIENCE
Lesson : Acids – Bases -Salts Work sheet No:18
Topic: Introduction , Response of various substances with indicators.
Key Words : Acid, Base, Natural indicators, Synthetic indicators and olfactory indicators.
Learning Outcomes :
 Children can give examples for acids, bases, natural indicators, synthetic indicators and olfactory
indicators
 Children can explain the process of preparation of olfactory indicator.
 Children can explain the changes in color when indicators or added to acids, bases.
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Acids and Bases :
 In class VII you learn about acids, bases and salts.

 Acids are sour to taste and turn blue litmus to red.
 Bases are soapy to touch and turn red litmus to blue.
 There are two types of indicators to detect the nature of the solution for acidity or basicity.
1. Natural Indicators: Litmus, extracts of red cabbage, turmeric solution, extracts of colored petals
of some flowers contain dye molecules.
2. Synthetic Indicators: Methyl orange, Phenolphthalein.
.
Note : Read ,understand and perform activity 1
By this activity you can observe that.

 HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, CH3COOH turn blue litmus to red. So, you can conclude that they are acids.
They do not show any change in red litmus and phenolphthalein.
They turn methyl orange to red colored solution.
 NaOH, KOH, Mg(OH) 2 , NH4OH, Ca(OH)2 turn red litmus to blue .So you can conclude that they
are bases .They turn phenolphthalein solution to pink color.They turn methyl orange solution to
yellow color.
Note: Read, understand and perform activity 2
.
 You can make an olfactory indicator using a clean cloth and finely chopped onions.
 Smell of this indicator turns to fried onion smell when acid is added to it.
 Smell of this indicator will disappear when base is added to it.
 You can make these olfactory indicators with vanilla essence, clove oil.
Assessment
1. Give examples for acids, bases?

2. Give two examples for each natural and synthetic indicators?
3. Explain the process of preparation of olfactory indicator using onion and a clean cloth.
4. The substance among the following which turns blue litmus to red. ( )
A) NaOH B) KOH C) Mg(OH) 2 D) CH3COOH
5. Correct statement of the following with respect to NaOH ( )
A) Turns red plates to blue B) Terms methyl orange to yellow

C) A and B are correct D) Neither A nor B are correct
6. 1 – HCl Does not change the color of phenolphthalein ( )
2 - NaOH changes methyl orange to red color.
A) Both 1, 2 are true B) Both 1, 2 are false C) 1 is true and 2 is false D) 1 is false and 2 is true.
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.
LEVEL - 2
CLASS: 10 MEDIUM : ENGLISH SUBJECT: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Topic: Reaction of acids and bases with metals. , Neutralization reaction.
Key Words : Acid, Base, Salt, Neutralization.
Learning Outcomes :
 Children can explain the relations of acids and bases with metals with examples.
 Children can explain neutralization reaction with an example
Reaction of Acids with metals:

.
Note: Read, understand and perform lab activity
 If you bring burning candle near the

gas filled bubbles in this activity, you
will notice that the gas evolved burns
with a pop sound indicating
Hydrogen.
 The chemical reaction of the above activity is

2 HCl + Zn ZnCl2 + H2
(Acid) + (Metal ) ( Salt ) + (Hydrogen gas )
 Repeat the above experiment with some other acids like H2SO4 , HNO3
 From the above activities you can conclude that Hydrogen gas is evolved when acid reacts with
metal.
Reaction of Bases with metals:
. : Read, understand and perform activity 3

Note
 In this activity also you will notice that evolved gas is Hydrogen(H2).
 The reaction of the above activity is
2 NaOH + Zn Na2ZnO2 + H2
( Base ) + ( Metal ) (Salt) + (Hydrogen gas )
*However, such reactions are not possible with all metals.

Neutralization reaction:

Note
 The reaction occurring between acid and base in the above activity can be written as
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
* The reaction of an acid with a base to give a salt and water is known as a neutralization reaction.
* A neutralization reaction can be written as.
Base + Acid Salt + Water.
Assessment
1. Explain the reaction of acids with metals with an example.

2. Explain the reaction of bases with metals with an example.
3. Explain neutralization reaction with an example.
4. Acid + Metal Salt + _______________ ( )
A) Water B) Base C) Oxygen D) Hydrogen

5. Acid + Base _______________ + Water ( )
A) Salt B) Oxygen C) Hydrogen D) Water

6. ______________ + Metal Salt + Hydrogen ( )
A) Acid B) Some Bases C) A and B D) Non metal
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.
LEVEL - 2
CLASS: 10 MEDIUM : ENGLISH SUBJECT: PHYSICAL
SCIENCE
Topic : 1. Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates.
2.Reaction of acids and bases with Metal and Non-Metal oxides.
Key Words : Acid, Base, Metal carbonate, Metal Hydrogen carbonate, Metal oxide, Non-metal oxide.
Learning Outcomes:
 Children can explain the reaction between acid and metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates
with examples.
 Children can explain the reaction of acid with metal oxide with an example.
 Children can explain the reaction between base non-metal oxides with an example.
Reaction of Acids with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates:

Note: Read, understand and perform activity 4
If you allow the gas produced (in this activity) in

each case through lime water, you can observe
that lime water turns to white color indicating
carbon dioxide gas.
 The chemical reaction of the above activity is

Na2CO3 + 2 HCl 2 NaCl + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
Action of CO2 on lime water

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
(White precipitate)
From above activities you can conclude that the reaction of metal carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates with acids give a corresponding salt, carbon dioxide and water.
➢ We can write generalized form of these chemical reactions as shown below.
Metal carbonate + acid salt + carbon dioxide + water

Metal hydrogen carbonate + acid salt + carbon dioxide + water
Reaction of Acids with metal oxides:

Note
 By this activity we can write the general reaction between a metal oxide and an acid as
Metal oxide + Acid Salt + Water
➢ This reaction is similar to the reaction of a base with acid.
➢ Thus we can conclude that the metal oxides are basic in nature like metal hydroxides.
Reaction of base with non-metal oxides :

 If a base reacts with a non-metal oxide, than salt and water will be produced. we can write a general
relation for this as
Non-metal oxide + Base Salt + Water
The reaction is similar to the reaction of an acid with base. We can conclude that non- metal oxides
are acidic in nature.
.
Assessment
1. Explain the reaction of acids with metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates with an example
for each.
2. Explain the reaction between acid and metal oxide with an example.
3. Explain the reaction between base and non-metal oxide with an example.
.
4. The gas evolved in the reactions between acid and metal carbonates or metal
hydrogen carbonates. ( )
A) Oxygen B) Hydrogen C) Carbon dioxide D) Carbon monoxide
5. Metal oxide + __________ Salt + water ( )
A) Acid B) Base C) Salt D) Water

6. Non-metal oxide + __________ Salt + water ( )
A) Acid B) Base C) Salt D) Water.
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LEVEL - 2
Lesson: Acids – Bases -Salts Work sheet No: 21
Topic : 1. What do Acids have in common? 2. What do bases have in common?

-
Key Words : Hydrogen ion (H+), Hydroxide ion (OH ), Cation, Anion.
Learning Outcomes:
 Children can give the reason for the flow of electric current through acid solutions, alkali solutions..
 Children can explain the ions present in acid solutions, alkali solutions.
What do Acids have in common? :

Note: Read, understand and perform the activity 7
Precaution : Get, elders advise, you are dealing with

230v alternate current.
 In this activity, you will notice that the bulb glows only in acid solutions but not in glucose and
alcohol solutions.
 Glowing of bulb indicates that there is flow of electric current through the solution.
 Acid solutions have ions and the movement of these ions in solutions helps for flow of electric
current the solutions.
 Acid solutions have ions and the movement of these ions in solution helps for flow of electric current
through the solution.
 The positive ion (cation) present in HCl solution is H+.
 This suggests that acids produce hydrogen ions in solution, which are responsible for their acidic
properties.
 In glucose and alcohol solution the bulb did not glow, indicating the absence of H+ ions in these
solutions.
 The acidity of acids is attributed to the H+ ions produced by them in solutions.

What do Bases have in common? :
. : Repeat the activity 7 using alkalis such as NaOH, Ca(OH)2 solutions etc.,
Note
instead of acid solutions.
 You will notice the electric current pass through these alkali solutions also.
 Ions present in alkalis are negative ions (anions).
 They are [OH-] ions.
 We can conclude that bases produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in solutions.
Assessment
1. What do acids have in common?

2. What do bases have in common?
3. Explain the experimental procedure to find the presence of ions in the acids, bases.
4. The common ion in acid solutions. ( )
A) H+ B) [OH-] C) Cl- D) Na+
5. The common ion in Alkali solutions. ( )

A) H+ B) [OH-] C) Cl -
D) Na +
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LEVEL - 2
Topic : 1. Do acids produce ions only in aqueous solution?
Key Words: Hydrogen ion (H+), Hydronium ion (H3O+), Hydroxide ion(OH-)
Learning Outcomes:
 Children can explain the process of dissociation of acids in the presence of water, with equations.
 Explain the process of giving OH- ions when a base is dissolved in water, with an example.
Do acids produce ions only in aqueous solution? :

 Chemical equation for the reaction in this activity is

2 NaCl + H2SO4 2 HCl + Na2SO4
 The gas evolved in this activity is HCl gas (Hydrogen Chloride)
 If we test this gas with dry blue litmus paper there will be no colour change.
 If we test this gas with wet blue litmus paper turns in to red colour.
 We can understand that HCl gas is not an acid, but HCl aqueous solution is an acid.
 The HCl gas evolved dissociates in presence of water to produce hydrogen ions.
 In the absence of water dissociation of HCl molecules do not occur.
 The dissociation of HCl in water is shown as

HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-
 Hydrogen ions (H+) cannot exist as bare ions. They associate with water molecules and exist as
hydronium (H3O+).
H+ + H2O H3O+
 Acids give H3O+ (or H+) ion in water.
What happens when a base is dissolved in water?
 On dissolving bases in water produces hydroxide (OH-) ions.

 Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
NaOH H2O Na+ + OH-
KOH H2O K+ + OH-
Assessment
1. What happens if an acid is dissolved in water? Explain with an example.
2. What happens if a base is dissolved in water? Explain with an example.
3. Dissociation of acid in presence of water gives. ( )
A) H+ ions B) OH- ions C) H3O+ ions D) A or C
4. Dissociation of base in presence of water gives. ( )
A) H+ ions B) OH- ions C) H3O+ ions D) A or C
------------------------------- * * * * * ------------------------------
LEVEL - 2
Topic : 1. Mixing of acid or base with water, 2. strength of acid or base.
Key Words: Concentrated acid, concentrated base, dilution, diluted acid, diluted base, strong acid,
strong base, weak acid, weak base, universal indicator.
Learning Outcomes:
 Children can explain the correct process diluting an acid.

 Can explain what is a strong acid or base.
What do you observe when water is mixed with acid or base:

 The process of dissolving an acid or base in water is an

exothermic process.
 Care must be taken while mixing concentrated acid with water.
 The acid must always be added slowly to water with constant
stirring.
 If water is added to a concentrated acid, the heat generated may
cause the mixture to splash out and cause burns.
 The glass container may also break due to excessive local
heating.
 Look out for the warning sign on the can of concentrated acid and
on the bottle of sodium hydroxide pellets.
 Mixing an acid or base with water result in decrease in the
concentration of ions (H3O+ / OH-) per unit value.
 Such a process is called dilution and the acid or base is
said to be diluted.
Strength of acid or base:
 If we allow electric current to pass through diluted CH3COOH (acetic acid) and diluted HCl
(Hydrochloric acid) separately as in activity 7 we will notice that bulb glows brightly in HCl solution
while the intensity of the bulb is low in acetic acid solution.
 This indicates that there are more ions (H3O+ ions) in HCl solution than acetic acid solution.
 Therefore HCl is strong acid. Where as acetic acid has fewer H3O+ ions and hence it is weak acid. .
 If we carry out the above experiment by taking bases like diluted NaOH (sodium hydroxide) and
diluted NH4OH (Ammonium hydroxide), we will notice that NaOH is strong base and NH4OH is weak
base.
 The universal indicator can also be used to know the strength of acid or base.
 The universal indicator shows different colors at different concentrations of hydrogen ions in a
solution.
Assessment
1. What may happen if we add water to a concentrated acid? State the reason.
2. Explain the correct procedure of diluting an acid.
3. What do you mean by a strong acid or base? Explain in your own words.
4. 1. Diluting a concentrated acid is an exothermic reaction.

2. Diluting a concentrated base is an exothermic reaction. ( )
A) Statement 1 is correct and 2 is wrong. B) Statement 1 is wrong and 2 is correct.

C) Both statements 1 and 2 are correct. D) Both statements 1 and 2 are wrong.
5. Strong acid among the following. ( )
A) NaOH B) CH3COOH C) HCl D) NH4OH

6. Weak acid among the following. ( )

7. Strong base among the following. ( )

8. Weak base among the following. ( )
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READINESS PROGRAMME LEVEL - 2
Name of the Chapter : Acids, Bases and Salts
TOPIC / CONCEPT : PH Value, Neutral Solution
WORKSHEET NO : 24
Key concepts PH value, Neutral solution.
Learning outcomes
 Children can tell the range of PH values for acids, bases and neutral solutions.
 Children can identify acids, bases and neutral solutions by testing with PH paper.
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PH SCALE:
A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is called PH scale.
PH value of a solution is simply a number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a solution.
The PH of neutral solutions is 7.
Values less than 7 on the PH scale represent an acidic solution.
PH value of a solution above 7 represents a basic solution.
As the PH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents a decrease in H3O+ ion concentration or an increase in
OH- ion concentration in the solution.
TESTING OF PH VALUES OF SOLUTIONS
NOTE: Read, Understand and perform Activity - 11
Observe the colour of PH paper after touching it with a solution taken.
Compare the colour with the colours in figure given in this worksheet. Identify approximate PH value.
You will notice that all types of fruits juices, vegitable juices are acidic in nature.
Some salt solutions are acidic in nature and some are basic.
The strength of acid or base depends on the concentration of H3O+ ions or OH- ions produced in solution.
HCl and CH3COOH of some concentration will produce different concentration of hydrogen ions.
Acids that give more H3O+ ions are said to be strong. Acids that give fewer H3O+ ions are said to be weak.
Bases that give more OH- ions are said to be strong. Bases that give fewer OH- ions are said to be weak.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Write the range of PH values of acids, bases and neutral solutions?
2. Give two examples for each acidic, basic and neutral solutions.
3. The PH value of a neutral solution [ ]
A) 0 B) 6 C) 7 D) 14
4. Strong acid among the solutions given below [ ]
A) Solution with PH =1
B) Solution with PH =4
C) Solution with PH =7
D) Solution with PH = 14
5. Weak base among the solutions given below [ ]
TOPIC / CONCEPT : Daily life applications of PH
WORKSHEET NO : 25
Key concepts Acid rain, tooth decay, antacid.
Learning outcomes
 Children can explain the impact of acid rains.

 Children can state the remedy for tooth decay.
 Children can state the remedy for indigestion problem.
 Children can can state the reason for the pain due to honey – bee sting. They can state the remedy for this.
 Children can explain the process of testing the PH of soil.
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IMPORTANCE OF PH IN EVERYDAY LIFE
1. ACID RAIN :
 When PH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.
 Acid rain lowers the PH of water sources like rivers, the survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes
difficult.
2. TOOTH DECAY :
 Tooth decay starts when the PH of the mouth is lower than 5.5.
 Tooth enamel, the hardest substance of the body is corroded when the PH in the mouth is bvelow 5.5.
 Using tooth pastes, which are generally basic neutralise the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
3. PH IN OUR DIGESTIVE SYSTEM :
 Our stomach produces Hcl to digest the food.
 During indigestion the stomach produce too much Hcl and this causes paid and irritation.
 To get rid of this pain, people use bases called antacids like milk of magnesia, a mild base ( Magnesium
Hydroxide ).
4. PH OF THE SOIL :
 Plants require a specific PH range for their healthy growth.
 We can easily test the PH of the soil in an agriculture land.
NOTE: READ, UNDERSTAND AND PERFORM ACTIVITY NO.13
 If the PH of soil is very low farmers would treat the soil of their fields with quick like or calcium carbonate.
5. SELF DEFENSE BY ANIMALS AND PLANTS THROUGH CHEMICAL WAR FARE:
 Honey – bee sting leaves an acid in our body which causes pain and irritation.
 Use of a mild base like baking soda on the stung area gives relief.
 Stinging hair of leaves of nettle plant, inject methanoic acid ( Formic acid ) causing burning pain.
 A traditional remedy for this is rubbing the area with the leaf of the dock plant.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What is the impact of acid rain ? Explain in your own words.
2. What do you do to prevent tooth decay ?
3. State the remedy to get rid of the pain due to indigestion problem.
4. Explain the process of testing the PH value of the soil.
5. What should be the PH value of our mouth to prevent tooth decay ? [ ]
A) 1 B) 5 C) <5.5 D) >5.5
6. When will the rain is treated as acid rain [ ]
A) When the PH of rain water is 7

B) When the PH of rain water is <5.6
C) When the PH of rain water is >5.6
D) When the PH of rain water is 14
TOPIC / CONCEPT : Family of salts
WORKSHEET NO : 26
Key concepts Family of salts, Acidic salt, basic salt, Neutral salt.
Learning outcomes
 Children can explain the family of salts with an example.

 Children can state the reason for the formation of acidic salt and basic salt.
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You know that salt forms in the neutralization reaction between acid and base.
FAMILY OF SALTS:
We can identify the acid and base from which a salt is obtained.
Salts having the same positive or negative radicals belong to a family.
For example, NaCl and Na2SO4 belong to the family of Sodium (Na) salts.
Similarly, NaCl and Kcl belong to the family of chloride (Cl) salts.
PH OF SALTS:
● You will find some salts with acidic nature, some salts with basic nature and some are neutral.
● We can identify the acid and base used to form a salt.
● Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral and the PH value is 7.
● The salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic and the PH value is less than 7.
● The salts of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature and the PH value is more than 7.
● If the acid and base both are weak, the PH of the salt depends on the relative strengths of acid and base.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Give an example for a family of salts.
2. Why some salts are acidic in nature and some are basic ? State the reason.
3. The salt formed due to strong acid and strong base [ ]
A) Acidic salt B) Basic salt C) Neutral salt D) Can’t say
4. The salt formed due to strong acid and weak base [ ]
5. The salt formed due to weak acid and strong base [ ]
6. The salt formed due to weak acid and weak base [ ]

1. Write the range of PH values of acids, bases and neutral solutions?
2. Give two examples for each acidic, basic and neutral solutions.
3. The PH value of a neutral solution [ ]
A) 0 B) 6 C) 7 D) 14
4. Strong acid among the solutions given below [ ]
5. Weak base among the solutions given below [ ]
TOPIC / CONCEPT : Common Salts
WORKSHEET NO : 27
Key concepts Common salts, rock salt, brine, sodium hydroxide, bleaching powder,
chloro – alkali process
Learning outcomes
 Children can explain chloro – alkali process with chemical equation.

 Children can explain the process of preperation of bleaching powder with chemical equation.
 Children states the uses of bleaching powder.
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You know that salt forms in the neutralization reaction between acid and base.
CHEMICALS FROM COMMON SALT:
Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced by the neutralization of acid with base.
Sodium chloride is known as table salt or common salt.
Sodium chloride is the predominant component in sea water.
Deposits of solid are also found in several parts of the world. This is called rock salt.
The common salt is an important raw material for various materials of daily use such as sodium hydroxide,
bleaching powder, baking soda, washing soda and many more.

SODIUM HYDROXIDE FROM COMMON SALT:
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride ( called Brine ), it decomposes to
form sodium hydroxide.
The process is called the chloro – alkali process – because of the products formed chloro for chlorine and
alkali for sodium hydroxide.
2 NaCl + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + Cl2 + H2
BLEACHIN POWDER FROM COMMON SALT:

You know that chlorine gas is produced during the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride (Brine).
This chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of bleacing powder.
Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime [ Ca(OH)2 ].
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 CaoCl2 + H2O
USES OF BLEACHIN POWDER:

 It is used for bleaching cotton an linen in the textile industryt, for bleaching wood pulp in paper industry,
and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
 Used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries.
 Used for disingecting drinking water to make it free of germs
 Used as a reagent in the preparation of chloroform.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. State the sources of common salt.
2. Name any two material which can be produced using common salt.
3. Explain chloro – alkali process with chemical equation.
4. Why the preperation of NaOH from NaCl is called chloro – alkali process?
5. How is bleaching powder manufactured ? Explain with chemical equation.
6. Write any two uses of bleaching powder.
7. Complete the equation of chloro – alkali process.. [ ]
2 NaCl + 2 H2O 2 NaOH +…………………..+ H2
A) HCl B) HOCl C) Cl2 D) NaCl
8. Raw material for the materials like sodium hydroxide, bleaching powder is [ ]
A) Acid B) Base C) Common salt D) Water

TOPIC / CONCEPT : Family of salts and its uses
WORKSHEET NO : 28
Key concepts Baking soda ( NaHCO3 ), Washing soda ( Na2CO3.10H2O ), Recrystallisation.
Learning outcomes
 Children can explain the process of preparation of Baking soda and write the equation for the chemical
reaction.
 Children can explain the process of preparation of Washing soda and write the equation for the chemical
reaction.
 Children states the uses of Baking soda, washing soda.
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BAKING SODA FROM COMMON SALT:
Baking soda is some times added for faster cooking.
The chemical name of Baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate ( NaHCO3 ).
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Baking soda is a mild non – corrosive base.
The following reaction takes place when it is heated during cooking.

Heat
2 NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
USES OF BAKING SODA :
Baking powder mainly contains baking soda. It produces CO2 which rises through bubling dough into cake
or bread.
Baking soda is also an ingrediant in antacids. Being alkaline, it neutralizes excess acid in the stomach and
provides relief.
It is also used as soda – acid in fire extinguishers
It acts as mild antiseptic.
WASHING SODA FROM COMMON SALT:
Sodium carbonate [ Na2CO3 ] can be obtained by heating baking soda.
Recrystallisation of Na2CO3 gives washing soda ( Na2CO3.10H2O )
Na2CO3 +. 10H2O Na2CO3.10H2O
Washing sooda is also a basic salt.
USES OF WASHING SODA :
 Washing soda ( Na2CO3 ) is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
 It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as boirax.
 Sodium carbonate can be used as cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
 It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Explain the process of preparation of baking soda, and write the chemical equation.
2. Write the chemical equation for the reaction takes place when baking soda is heated during cooking.
3. Explain the process of preparation of washing soda, and write the chemical equation.
4. Write any two uses of baking soda.
5. Write any two uses of washing soda.
6. The chemical name of backing soda… [ ]
A) Sodium chloride B) Sodium hydroxide
C) Sodium hydrogen carbonate D) Sodium carbonate
7. The chemical formula of washing soda… [ ]
A) NaHCO3 B) Na2CO3 C) Na2CO3.10H2O D) NaCl
8. An ingredient in antacids… [ ]
A) Sodium hydroxide B) Baking soda
C) Washing soda D) Bleaching powder

TOPIC / CONCEPT : Water of crystallisation
WORKSHEET NO : 29
Key concepts Water of crystallisation, Gypsum, plaster of paris.
Learning outcomes
 Children can explain water of crystallisation in their own words.

 Explains the process of removing water of crystallisation.
 States the difference between gypsum and plaster of paris.
 States the uses of plaster of paris.
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REMOVING WATER OF CRYSTALLISATION :
Copper sulphate crystals which seem to be dry contain the water of
crystallisation.
When these crystals are heated, water present in crystals is evaporated
and the salt turns white.
When the crystals are moistened with water, the blue colour
reappears.
Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of salt.
Chemical formula of hydrated copper sulphate is CuSO4.5H2O.
You know that one formula unit of washing soda contains 10 molecules of water. ( Na2CO3.10H2O )
PLASTER OF PARIS (CaSO4.½ H2O) :
➔ On careful heating of gypsum ( CaSO4.2 H2O ) at 373 K it loses water molecules partiallyt to
become calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4.½ H2O)
➔ This is called plaster of paris.
➔ Doctors use plaster of paris as plaster of supporting fractured bones in the right position.
➔ Plaster of paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it sets into hard solid mass due to the
formation of gypsum.
CaSO4.½ H2O + ½ H2O CaSO4.2H2O
➔ Two formula units of CaSO4 share one molecule of water. That is why the formula of plaster of
paris is CaSO4.½ H2O.
➔ Plaster of paris is used for making toys, materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Explain water of crystallisation in your own words.
2. Explain the process of removing water of crystallisation.
3. State the difference between Gypsum and Plaster of paris.
4. Write any two uses of plaster of paris.
5. Identify plaster of paris in the following… [ ]
A) CaSO4.½ H2O B) CaSO4.2 H2O
C) CuSO4.5 H2O D) Na2CO4.10 H2O
6. Colour of hydrate copper sulphate crystals.. [ ]
A) White B) Blue C) Red D) Black
7. The material which doctors use for supporting factured bones in the right position.. [ ]
A) Gypsum B) Plaster of paris
C) Copper sulphate D) Hydrated Copper sulphate

Key Concepts: Centre of curvature, Pole, Radius of curvature, Principal Axis, Denser medium, Rarer medium.

Learning Outcomes :
❖ Describes the image of an object seen through empty cylindrical shaped transparent vessels such as a glass
tumbler.
❖ Differentiates between the images of an Object seen through empty glass tumbler and glass tumbler filled
with water.
❖ Draws ray diagrams to show the path of light when light ray travels from one medium to another medium.
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CONTENT :
● You know that when light travels from one medium into another medium, it bends at the surface separating
the two media.
● Does it happen only at the plane surface ? Does it also happen at curved surfaces ?
Do Activity - 1 and note your observations.

● In the first case, when the vessel is empty, the image of an arrow is diminished.
● The reason is, light from the arrow refracts at the curved interface, moves through the glass and enters into
air then it again undergoes refraction on the opposite curved surface of the vessel and comes out into air.
● In this way light travels through two media and comes out of the vessel and forms a diminished image.
● In the second case, when the vessel is filled with water, there is a curved interface between air and water.
● We assume that the refractive indices of both water and glass are the same.
● Thus, light from the arrow enters through the curved surface, moves through water, comes out of the glass
and forms an inverted image.
● From the above activity, we conclude that refraction takes place at curved surfaces in the same way as we
have seen refraction at plane surfaces.
*** Are the laws of refraction valid for curved surfaces ?
Let us find out.
● Consider a curved surface separating two different media as shown in figure.
● The centre of the sphere, of which the curved surface is a part, is called the
centre of curvature. It is denoted by letter C.
● Any line drawn from the centre of curvature to a point on the curved surface
becomes normal to the curved surface at that point.
● The direction of the normal changes from one point to another point on the curved surface.
● The centre of the curved surface is called the pole (P) of the curved surface.
● The line that joins the centre of curvature and the pole is called principal axis.
As in the case of plane surfaces,

● A ray will bend towards the normal if it travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium.
● A ray will bend away from the normal if it travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium.

SELF ASSESSMENT

1. Draw the curved surface and mark centre of curvature, pole and principal axis.
2. Can you draw two normals from one point on the curved surface ? Explain.
3. Draw a diagram to show that normals drawn at different points on the curved surface are in different
directions.
4. State the similarities in the method of refraction at plane surface and refraction at curved surface in the form
of table.
5. Choose the correct answer. [ ]
a. The shape of the object appears to be inverted when seen through an empty cylindrical shaped glass
beaker
b. The shape of the object appears to be inverted when seen through a cylindrical shaped glass beaker
filled with water.
A) a is true B) b is true C) Both a and b are true D) Both a and b are false.
6. Identify the shape of this object when seen through an empty cylindrical glass beaker.
[ ]
A) B) C) D)
7. Imagine the shape of this object when seen through cylindrical glass beaker filled
with water. Draw it.

Key words : Focus.
Learning outcomes :
★ Applies snell’s law to the concept of refraction at curved surfaces.
★ Draws ray diagrams to show the refracted light ray, when the incident light ray parallel to the principal axis
separating the two media.
★ Identifies the difference, when light travels from one medium to another medium and undergoes refraction
at convex or concave surfaces.
★ Finds focus for curved surfaces.
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CONCEPT :
❖ Refraction of a light ray that travels along the principal axis / a light ray that travels through the centre of
curvature.
According to snell’s law,
❖ The ray which travels along the normal drawn to the surface does not
deviate from its path. Hence both rays mentioned in the adjacent figure.,
travel along the normal and hence do not deviate.

Refraction of a light ray travelling parallel to principal axis and incident on curved surface :
CASE (1) :
A ray travelling parallel to the principal axis strikes a convex surface and
passes from a rarer medium to denser medium the refracted ray reaches a particular
point on the principal axis.
CASE (2) :
A ray travelling parallel to the principal axis strikes a convex surface and
passes from a denser medium to rarer medium (see adjacent figure). The refracted ray
moves away from the principal axis. When you extend the refracted ray backwards, it
intersects the principal axis at some point.
CASE (3) :
A ray travelling parallel to the principal axis strikes a concave surface and
passes from a denser medium to rarer medium ( see adjacent figure). The refracted
ray reaches a particular point on the principal axis.
CASE (4) :
A ray travelling parallel to the principal axis strikes a concave surface and
passes from a rarer medium to denser medium ( see adjacent figure ). The refracted
ray moves away from the principal axis. When you extend the refracted ray
backwards, it intersects the principal axis at some point.
FOCUS :
The point where refracted ray intersects the axis in all the above cases is called the focal point.
*** In case of concave and convex mirrors, the focus is the midpoint between the pole and center of curvature.
In any situation focus does not change. But in case of lenses made of transparent material, the focus changes
depending upon the medium surrounding the lens. The point where refracted ray intersect the principal axis is
called focal point.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Draw ray diagrams to show the process of refraction of light at different curved surfaces.
2. Draw ray diagrams to show the situation when an incident light ray at a transparent curved surface does not
bend after refraction.
3. A light ray parallel to the principal axis, when incident on a transparent curved surface, undergoes
refraction and the point where the refracted light ray intersects the principal axis is called [ ]
A)Pole B) Centre of curvature
C) Focus D) Midpoint between pole and centre of curvature
4. Identify the false statement, for an incident light ray parallel to the principal axis.
i) Travels from rarer medium to denser medium through a concave surface, after refraction bends
towards principal axis and intersects the principal axis.
ii) Travels from denser medium to rarer medium through a convex surface, after refraction bends
away from principal axis and when produced backward intersects the principal axis at a point.
A) (i) is false B) (ii) is true
C) (i) is true D) Both A, B are true.
5. The centre of the curved surface is called…………… [ ]
A) Centre of curvature B) Pole
C) Focus D) Midpoint of radius of curvature

Learning outcomes :
❖ Draws ray diagrams to who the image formation, when light rays from an object fall opn curved surface.
❖ Explain the terms of curved surface formula.
❖ Deduces formula for refraction at plane surfaces using the curved surface formula.
❖ Solves the problems using curved surface formula..
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CONTENT :
Observe adjacent figure..
Consider a curved surface separating two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 .
( n1 is considered as rarer medium and n2 is considered as denser medium)
★ A point object is placed on the principal axis at point O
★ Two incident light rays from object O fall on curved surface, undergo refraction as shown in figure.
★ Image of the point object formed at I.
★ In figure PO is the object distance which we denote as u, PI is the image distance which we denote as v, PC
is the radius of curvature which we denote as R , n1 , n2 are refractive indices of two media.
★ The relation between these quantities is given by,

★ (See pages 60,61,62 of the 10th class English medium book for
derivation)
★ According to sign convention, we have PO = -u, PI = v మ య PC = R , Substituting these values in
above equation, we get
This equation is called curved surface
formula.
Sign conventions :
❖ All distances are measured from the pole.
❖ Distances measured along the direction of the incident light rayt are taken as positive.
❖ Distances measured opposite to the direction of the incident light ray are taken as negative.
❖ The heights measured vertically above from the points on the axis are taken as positive.
❖ The heights measured vertically down from the points on the axis are taken as negative.
Can you find formula for refraction at plane surfaces….?
Curved surface formula can be used for plane surfaces…..

In the case of a plane surface, radius of curvature R approaches infinity. Hence 1 / R becomes zero.
Substituting this in curved surface formula, we get formula for plane surfaces.

➡

Let us solve some problems using the above formulae.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Write the curved surface formula and explain the terms in it?
2. Write 3 sign conventions used for refraction through lenses.
3. A man standing near a water body, observes a rock immersed inside the water. Can he see the rock in its
actual position. Explain with the help of a diagram.
4. A glass is half - filled with water. Diagram shows how long the spoon
appears to our eyes. Is it correct ? Otherwise draw the correct diagram.
5. If a bird flying in the sky looks vertically down and sees a fish in water. How does the fish appear to the
bird ? [ ]
A) At its actual position B) farther away than its actual distance
C) Closer than its actual distance D) Can not be seen
6. Formula for refraction at plane surface [ ]
A) n1u = n2v B) n1n2 =

u v
C) n1v = n2u D) n1/n2 = v / u
7. A man inside the water sees a fish in water. Will the fish appear to man in its actual position ? Will the man
appear to fish in his actual position ? Imagine the situation and answer.

LEARNING OUTCOMES :
★ Finds solutions to the problems using curved surface formula.
★ Explains the term lens in his/her own words.
★ Differentiates between convex and concave lens.
★ Classifies various types of lenses.
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CONTENT :

By observing the above example, we conclude that image distance V is independent of the refractive
index of the material of the sphere. That means, the apparent position of the dot is the same as its actual
position for a sphere of any material.
LENSES :
A lens is formed when a transparent material is bounded by two surfaces of which one (or ) both
surfaces are spherical.
That is a lens is bounded by at least one curved surface.

TYPES OF LENSES ;
Lenses can be of various tyupes. Some typical lenses along with their names are shown in the figure
below.
● A lens may have two spherical surfaces bulging outwards. See fig.6(a). It is thick at the middle as
compared to edges. Such a lens is called Double convex lens.
● A lens bounded by a plane surface on one side and spherical surface on the other side is called plano -
convex lens, See fig.6(b). It is thick at the middle as compared to edges.
● A lens bounded by a concave surface on one side and convex surface on the other side is called a
concavo-convex lens. See fig.6(c)
● A lens bounded by two spherical surfaces curved inwards is called Bi-concave lens. See fig.6(d). It is
thin at the middle and thicker at the edges.
● A lens bounded by a plane surface on one side and concave surface on the other side is called
plano-concave lens. See fig.6(e).
● A lens bounded by a convex surface on one side and a concave surface on the other side is called
convexo - concave lens. See fig.6(f).
● Bi - convex, plano - convex, concavo - convex lenses are thick in the middle and thinner at the edges.
These lenses are called converging lenses. The reason is when parallel beams of light rays are incident
on these lenses, refraction takes place and refracted light rays meet at a point.
● Bi - concave, plano-concave, convexo-concave lenses are thin at the middle and thicker at the edges.
These lenses are called diverging lenses. The reason is, when parallel beam of light rays are incident
on these lenses, refraction takes place and refracted light rays appear to diverge and when produced
backward meet at a point.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. A transparent sphere of radius 6ch is kept in air. An object is placed at 12 cm distance from
the surface of the sphere and its real image is formed at the same distance from the second
surface of the sphere. Find the refractive index of the material of the sphere ? ( Ans: 1.5)
2. Mohan tells “When we take two similar transparent spheres made of different material having
a small, opaque dot at its centre, we find the dot appears to be at different positions for two
different spheres when observed from outside” Is he correct ? Justify your answer.
3. An object is placed at 4cm distance from the surface of a transparent sphere made of material
of refractive index 2.5, and the real image of the object is formed at the same distance from the
second surface of the sphere. Find the diameter of the sphere? ( Ans 12 cm)
4. A light ray parallel to the principal axis is incident on Bi - convex lens. Show the process of
refraction with the help of ray - diagram.
5. Match the following and choose the correct pair. [ ]
1) Lens which is thick at the middle and thin at the edges. a) Bi - convex lens
2) Lens which is bound by two spherical surfaces bent towards b) Concavo - convex lens
the same, Thin at the middle and thicker at the edges. c) Convexo - concave lens
A) 1-a, 2-b B) 1-a,2-c C) 1-b, 2-c D) 1-b,2-a
6. From below mentioned lenses, which one is not a converging lens ? [ ]
A) Bi - convex lens B) Concavo convex lens

C) Plano convex lens D) convexo concave lens
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
● Describes the new terms used in the case of lenses.
● Identifies the focal point of the lens and measures focal length.
● Explains the process of Image formation by lenses.
● Draws ray diagrams to show behaviour of light rays when they are incident on a lens.
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CONTENT :
➽Let us learn the terminology used in the case of lenses.
Consider a double convex lens as shown in the adjacent figure.
★ Each curved surface of a lens is part of a sphere.
★ The centre of the sphere which contains the part of the curved
surface is called centre of curvature. It is denoted by letter C.
★ If a lens contains two curved surfaces then their centres of curvature are denoted as C1 and C2
★ The distance between the centre of curvature and curved surface is called radius of curvature R.
Radii of curvature are represented by R1 and R2.
★ The line joining the points C1 and

C2 is
called principal axis.
★ The midpoint of a thin lens is called the optic centre of a lens.
FOCAL POINT, FOCAL LENGTH OF THE LENS :
The process of refraction in case of a parallel beam of light incident on a lens is shown in below figure.

❖ A parallel beam of light incident on a lens converges to a point as shown in the first figure.
❖ A parallel beam of light incident on a lens, after refraction seems to emanate from a point on the principal
axis as shown in the second figure.
❖ The point of convergence (or) the point from which rays seem to emanate is called focal point or focus (F)
❖ Every lens has two focal points.
❖ The distance between the focal point and optic centre is called the focal length of lens denoted by ‘f’.
For drawing ray diagrams related to lenses, we represent convex lens with a symbol and concave lens with a
symbol .
How does the lens form an image ?
To know the formation of an image by lenses, let us see the behaviour of light rays when they meet a lens.
hile drawing ray diagrams, we consider the lens as a single surface element because we assume that the
NOTE : W
thickness of the lens is very small and show the net refraction at only one of the surfaces.
Bhhaviour of certain light rays when they are incident on lens :
Situation - I : Ray passing along principal axis:
From the above figures we conclude that, Any ray passing along the principal axis is undeviated.
The points C1, C2 are not centre of curvatures. They are the points at ‘2f’ distances from the optic centre.

Situation - II : Ray passing through the optic centre :
From the above figures we conclude that, Any ray passing through the optic centre is also undeviated.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Explain the process of identifying the focus of a diverging lens, with the help of ray diagram.
2. Draw a Bi-concave lens and mark the important terms in it.
3. Complete the following figures.
4. A Bi-Convex lens is made from two spheres of different radii, focus is marked from both spherical surfaces
and focal length is measured on both sides. Will focal length be equal on both sides? Imagine and write an
answer.
5. The line joining the two centres of curvature of a lens is called ... [ ]
A) Optic centre B) Principal axis C) Focus D) Focal length
6. Any ray passing through the optic centre of the lens…. [ ]
A) Will take a path parallel to the principal axis after refraction.

B) Passes through focus after refraction.
C) Passes through the centre of curvature.
D) is undeviated, after refraction.
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
● Draws ray diagrams to explain the behaviour of light rays travelling parallel to the principal Axis and
incident on a lens.
● Draws ray diagrams to explain the behaviour of light rays passing through focus and incident on the lens.
● Identifies a point on a focal plane, where parallel rays, maing an angle with principal axis, fall on a lens and
may converge or appear to diverge. Draws ray diagrams.
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CONTENT:-
We know that light rays passing along the principal axis and light rays passing through the optic centre are
undeviated after refraction.
Let us know the behaviour of certain light rays when they are incident on a lens.
SITUATION : 3 Rays travelling parallel to the principal axis:

From the above figures, we conclude that light rays passing parallel to the principal axis converge at the focus or
appear to diverge from the focus.
SITUATION : 4 Ray passing through focus:
From the above figures, we conclude that the light rays passing through the focus will take a path parallel to
principal axs after refraction. Light rays obey the principle of least time.

What happens when parallel rays of light fall on a lens making
some angle with the principal axis?

Before knowing about such light rays, let us define a focal plane.

FOCAL PLANE : - Focal plane is the plane perpendicular to the
principal axis at the focus.

When parallel rays, making an angle with principal axis, fall on a lens, the rays converge at a point or
appear to diverge from a point lying on a focal plane.

Observe the following figures.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What do you mean by the term Focal plane? write in your own words.
2. How do you identify the focal point of a Bi-concave lens? Explain with the help of a ray diagram.
3. Explain the behaviour of light rays passing through focus and incident on Bi-convex lenses.
4. Complete the figure/
5. Focal plane is the plane… [ ]
A) at focus B) Parallel to principal axis
C) Perpendicular to the principal axis at the focus
D) Making a small angle with the principal axis at the focus.
6. Generally, the lens used in Microscopes are [ ]
A) Bi-convex lens
B) Bi-concave lens
C) Concavo convex
D) Convexo concave
LEVEL - 2
CLASS: 10 MEDIUM: ENGLISH SUBJECT: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lesson: Refraction of light at curved surfaces Work sheet No: 36
Concept:
1. Rules to draw Ray diagrams for image formation by lenses.
2. Image formation by a convex lens for various positions of object and to describe the nature of image
formed.
Learning Outcomes:
 Explains the rules for drawing Ray diagrams for image formation by lenses
 Draws ray diagram to explain image formation by a convex lens when the object is at infinity.
 Describes the nature of image formed by convex lens when an object is placed beyond the centre of curvature
on the principal axis and when an object is placed at the centre of curvature draws Ray diagrams.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
Rules to draw Ray diagrams for image formation by lenses:
 Select a point on the object placed at a point on the principal axis.

 Draw two rays choosing from ray passing along the principal axis /Ray passing through the optic centre /
ray parallel to principal axis / ray passing through focus.
 Extend both rays to intersect at a point. This point gives position of the image.
 Length of this normal represents the size of the image.
Let us observe the following diagrams
Situation 1:- Object at infinity

The rays falling on the lens from an object at infinity are parallel to
the principal axis. See figure 8 (a).
They coverage to the focal point. So, a point sized image is formed
at the focal point.
Situation II: Object placed beyond the centre of curvature on
the principal axis:
In figure 13, we notice that when object is placed beyond the
centre of the curvature (C2) a real, inverted and diminished image
is formed on the principal axis between the points F1 and C1
Situation III: Object placed at the centre of the curvature:
When an object is placed at the centre of the curvature (C2) on
the principal axis, we will get an image at (C1) which is the real,
inverted and of the same size as that of object. See figure 14
Assessment
1. Mention the rules to draw ray diagrams for image formation by lenses.
2. Describe the nature of an image formed by an object placed beyond the centre of curvature on the
principal axis of a convex lens.
3. Draw a ray diagram and write the characteristics of an image formed when an object is placed at
centre of curvature of a convex lens.
4. Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation by a convex lens, when an object is placed beyond
the centre of curvature on the principal axis with the help of incident light ray parallel to the principal
axis and light ray passing through focus.
5. If an object is placed beyond the centre of curvature on the principal axis of a convex lens, then the
height of an image formed, when compared to the height of an object is. ( )
A) Small B) bigger C) Equal D)Point size image is formed
6. Which characteristics of an image are not true, when an object is placed beyond the centre of
curvature on the principal axis of a convex lens? ( )
A) Inverted image B) Real image C) Diminished image D) Equal size image
------------------------------- * * * * * ------------------------------
LEVEL - 2
Concept
Image formation by a convex lens for various positions of the object and to study the characteristics of the
images formed.
Learning Outcomes:
 Explains image formation by a convex lens for various positions of the object with the help of ray
diagrams.
 Describes the characteristics of the images formed
 Differentiate between the images formed by convex lens and concave lens.
Content
 We have learnt about the characteristics of the image formation when the object is placed at
infinity, beyond centre of curvature and at centre of curvature of a bi-convex lens.
Let us now some more situations

Situation 4:- Object placed between the centre of curvature and focal point:
When an object is placed between centre of curvature (C2) and focus (F2), we will get an image which is
the real inverted and magnified the image will form beyond C. See figure 15.
Situation 5:- Object located at the focal point:
When an object is placed at the focus (F2) the image will be at infinity. See figure 16. As the image is
formed at infinite distance, we cannot discuss the size and nature of the image.
Situation 6:-Object placed between focal point and optic centre:
If we place an object between focus and optic centre, we will get an image which is virtual, erect and
magnified. From the ray diagram shown in figure 17, you will notice that image is formed on the same
side of the lens. From the above situation of image formation, we understand two things.
 As the image formed is virtual, we can see it with our eyes. In all other cases the images is real which
we can't see with our eyes but can be viewed if the image is captured on the screen
 A magnified virtual image is formed on the same side of the lens, where the object is placed thus the
image you are seeing through a lens is not real, it is a virtual image of the object.
When the object is placed at a distance less than the focal length of the lens, we get a virtual magnified
image. This particular behavior of convex lens helps to construct a microscope, which gives magnified
image of a small object.
Let us draw ray diagram for an object placed between C1 and F1 for a concave lens.
From figure 18, we observe that a virtual, erect and diminished image is formed between optic centre and
focus (F1)
 Try to draw ray diagrams for other position of object for concave lens, as you have done in case of
convex lens. You will notice that irrespective of the position of object, on the principal axis, you will
get same characteristics of the image as shown in figure 18 for all cases.
Assessment
1) Write similarities/differences between the images formed by convex lens and concave lens?
2) Prepare a label to show the characteristics of an image formed when the object is placed at different
positions on the principal axis of a convex lens?
3) When you place an object at the focal point of a concave lens, what will be the characteristics of image
formed imagines and write.
4) Draw ray diagrams for an object placed beyond the centre of curvature (C1) and object placed at the
centre of curvature (C1) on the principal axis of a concave lens.
5) Choose the correct answer ( )
i convex lens can form both real and virtual images.
ii. Concave lens can form only virtual images.
A.) i) is true ii) is false B) i) is true ii) is true C).i) is false ii) is true D) i) is false ii) is false
6) The position of an object to obtain a virtual image using a convex lens should be ( )
A) At Infinity B) at centre of curvature
C) Centre of between centre of curvature and focus D) between focus and optic centre
------------------------------- * * * * * -----------------------
LEVEL - 2
Concept: Problem solving ray diagrams.
Learning Outcomes:
 Draws refracted light ray for any given incident light ray on convex or concave lens.
………………………………………………………………………………………
Content:
Example:
Draw a ray diagram to locate the position of image when a point sources is placed on optical axis MN of
a convex lens, in such a way that it is beyond focal point F 2. See figure E(4)
Solution:
Draw a perpendicular line to principal axis passing through the focus F 1. This line represents focal plane.
 Draw a ray from point source (S) in any direction to meet lens at point P 1
 Now draw another line parallel to sp1 such that it passes through optic centre P
 Extend this line till it intersects the focal plane at F 0.
 Now draw a line passing from point P 1 to pass through the point F0, such that it meets principal axis
at a point I
 I is the point image for the point source (S)
Example:
Complete the ray diagrams to show the paths of rays after refraction through the lenses shown in the
figure E 5 (a) and E5 (b)?
Solution:
1. In figure E 5 (a), we see a convex lens. So, following the steps mentioned in the above example, we
get the path of light rays after refraction as shown in figure E 5(c)
2. In figure E5 (b), we see a concave lens.

 Draw a perpendicular line to the principal axis passing through the focus F 1 .This line represents
the focal plane
 Now, draw a line parallel to the given incident light ray, such that it passes through optic centre
and extend it backward to meet the focal plane.
 Now the given incident light ray will appear to diverge from the same point on focal plane.
 Thus, you can draw reflected light ray as shown in figure E5(d)
fig-E5(d)
ASSESSMENT
1. As shown in figure below, if an object O is placed on the principal axis of a concave lens, find the
position of the image formed with the help of ray diagram .write down the steps involved in the method.
O F1 F2
2. Complete the following figures by drawing refracted light rays.
P
F2 P F1 F1 F2
3. Complete the following figures by drawing refracted light rays.

(ii)
(i)
F1 F2 F2 F1
F2 F1
4. For concave lens the focal plane is represented by a line drawn perpendicular to the principal Axis at a
point ( )
A) Optic centre B) Focal point towards the object C) Centre of curvature towards the object
D) Focal point on the other side of the object.
………………………………*****……………………………………………
LEVEL - 2
CLASS: 10 MEDIUM :ENGLISH
ENGLISH SUBJECT: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Concept:
1. Observing the types of images obtained in the ray diagrams of convex lens by performing a lab
activity.
2. Measuring the object distance and image distance from the lens.
3. Lens formula:
Learning Outcomes:
 Proves that characteristics
stics of images formed through rray
ay diagrams are correct by performing an activity.
 Solves problems using lens formula.
………………………………………………………………………….........................
…………………………………………………………………………
Content:
Perform the lab activity from the above activity
activity, we observe the following points.
 We cannot get an image on the screen for every object distance.
 To get an image, the object distance should be greater than the focal length of the lens.
 When we do not get an image on the screen screen, you can see the image with your eye directly through
the lens.
 You will see a magnified image on the same side where we kept the object.
 This is the virtual image of the object which we cannot capture on the screen.
 This virtual image is formed between fo focus and optic centre. Thuss the image distance in this case
is less than the focal length of the lens.
 Could you find focal length of the lens from the values of object distance (u) and image distance
(v) recorded in table 1
Relation between u, v and f
Observe the figure 19
From the figure,

Object distance PO = u
Image distance PI = v
Focal length PF1 = PF2 = f
= -
This equation is called lens formula. It can be used for any lens while using this equation we should use
sign convention
Assessment
1. Write the lens formula and explain the terms in it

2. An object is placed at a distance of 20cm from a convex lens, its image is formed on the screen at a
distance of 60 cm from the lens. find the focal length of the lens .
3. An object is placed at a distance of 60 cm from a concave lens of focal length 30 cm. find the image
distance and writes the characteristics of the image formed.
4. Describe the changes in the images formed as you put an object at a point beyond centre of curvature
and then move it towards the convex lens.
5. Mention the material required and writes the procedure to perform the lab activity for observing
different types of images for various positions of objects formed by convex lens.
6. For an object placed in front of a convex lens whose radius of curvature is 20cm, the image is formed
at a distance of 20 cm from the lens .The height of the image is
A. Smaller than the object. B. Bigger than the object.

C. Same size as the object D. Cannot say about the size of the image
LEVEL - 2
CLASS: 10 MEDIUM :ENGLISH SUBJECT: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
1.Magnification
Concept
Learning Outcomes:
 outcomes solves problems using lens formula and magnification formula
…………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………….........................
Content:
Let
et us discuss the size of the image formed by a lens
OI
F1 I
ho
F2 P hi
u v I I
fig-20
Fig.20
Observe object OOI and image IIIi in figure 20

I I
∆ OO P , ∆ II P , are similar(AAA similar
similarity)
= => =
Substituting the values as per sign convention we get

get,
=
Magnification m = =
Using lens formula and magnification formula letus solve some problems.
Example:
An electrical lamp and a screen are placed on the , in a line at a distance of 1 m
In what positions of convex lens of focal length of f= 21 cm will the the image of lamp be sharp?
Solution:
The distance between the lamp and the screen is 100 cm and` x’ be the distance between the lamp and the lens
from figure E(6) we have
u =- x
v=100-x
f=21
By substituting these in lens fomula
= -
We get
= +
After solving this equation,we get
X2-70x-30x+2100
X(x-70)-30(x-70)=0
⇒x(x-70)-30(x-70)=0
c(x-700 (x-30)=0
∴x=70 or30
We can place the bulb at adistance of 70cm or 30cm to get a sharp image
Example:
An object of height 2cm is placed on the principal axis at a distance of 45cm from aconvex lens of focal
length 15cm .find the position and the height of the image formed.
Solution:
Given, object distance u=-45
Focal length f=15cm
Image distance v=?
By substituting these in lens formula
= -
= -( )
⇒ = +
⇒ = - = =
∴v= = 22.5 cm.
Magnification =
u = 45 cm
v = 22.5 cm
ho = 2 cm
Substituting these values oin magnification formula, we get

.
=
.
hi = = -1 cm
∴Height of image hi=-1cm(-ve sign indicates the image is inverted)
Assessment
1. Write magnification formula and explain the terms in it.

2. An object of height 3 cm is placed on the principal axis at a distance of 40 cm from a convex lens of focal
length 20 cm. Find image distance and height of the image. Write characteristics of the image.
3. An object of height 2 cm is placed in front of a converging lens of focal length 20cm. An image is formed
at a distance of 30 cm from the lens .Find the object distance and height of the . Write characteristics
of the image
4. An object of height 1.5 cm is placed at a distance of 45 cm from the convex lens, the real image is
formed at a distance of 30 cm from the lens .Find the height of the image formed.
5. magnification (m) in case of virtual image formed by a convex lens will be
A) Greater than +1 B)+1 C)-1 D) < -1

LEVEL - 2
Concept: 1. Factors on which focal length of the lens depends

2. Lens maker's formula.
LEARNING OUT COMES:
 Proves that the focal length of lens depends up on the surrounding medium in which it is kept by
performing an experiment
 Explains the terms in lens Makers formula
 Solves problems using lens maker's formula
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONTENT:
Let us see on what factors the focal length of the lens depends
Perform activity 2
From the above activity we observe that focal length of lens in water has increased when compared to
focal length of the lens in air.
Thus we conclude that, the focal length of the lens depends upon the surrounding medium in which it is
kept
Lens maker's formula
- )
n – Refractive index of lens in the air
f – Focal length of the lens
R1, R2 – radii of the curvature
Note: If the refractive index of the convex lens is more than the refractive index of the surrounding
medium then it is behaves like a converging lens. If the refractive index of the convex lens is less
than the refractive index of the surrounding medium then it behaves like a diverging lens.
Example: Air bubble in water behaves like a diverging lens
Let us see an example for lens maker formula
Example
What is the focal length of double concave lens kept in air with two spherical surfaces of radii R 1 =30 cm
and R2 = 60 cm. Take refractive index of lens as n = 1.5
Solution
From figure E (7), using sign convention we get
R1 = 30cm
R2=60cm
n=1.5
Using lens maker's formula,
- )
- )
Solving this, we get

f = - 40 cm
Here minus indicates that the lens is divergent
ASSESMENT:
1. Write the procedure and the precautions to be taken in an experiment to verify that focal length of
lens depends on the surrounding medium.
2. Write the lens maker's formula and explain the terms in it.
3. When can a converging lens act as a diverging lens? Explain.
4. Find the radii of curvature of a concavo- convex convergent lens made of glass with the refractive
index n = 1.5 having focal length of 20% one of the radii of curvature is double the other
5. Find the refractive index of the glass which is symmetrical convergent lens if its focal length is equal
to the radius of curvature of its surface (note): A symmetrical convergent lens is the one that has
both radii of curvature equal)
6. Which of the following is the lens maker's formula ( )
A) + )
B) - )
C) - )
D) + )
7. Focal length of the Plano - convex lens is ______when its radius of curvature of the surface is R and n is
the refractive index of the lens ( )
A) f=r B) f= C) f= D) f=
…………………………………..*****………………………………………..
Class: 10 Medium: English Subject: Physical Science
Lesson: Human Eye – Colorful World Work sheet No: 42
Topic : Least distance of distinct vision, angle of vision
Learning Outcomes:
 finds least distance of distinct vision for any e person by performing an activity
 Gives reasons for variations in least distance of distinct vision from person to person
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Content:
The human eye function on the principle of sensation of vision. Let us do the following
activities to know about some interacting facts about our vision.
Activity 1.
Take a text book and hold it with your hands in front of you at a certain distance. Now try to read the
contents on the page. Slowly move the book towards your eye till it is very close to your eyes.
What changes do you notice?
You may see that printed letters on the page of the textbook appear blurred or you feel strain in the
eye.
Now slowly more the book backwards to a position where you can see clear printed letters without
straining your eye. Ask your friend to measure the distance between your eye and textbook at this
position. Note down its value.
Repeat the activity with other friends and note down the distance is for distinct vision in each case.
Find the average of all these distances of clear vision.
Least distance of distinct vision

The minimum distance of an object from your eyes to see it comfortably and distinctly is called least
distance of distinct vision.
For a healthy person the least distance of distinct vision is about 25cm. This varies from person to
person and with age.
Engage (say below 10 years) the muscles around the eye strong and flexible and can bear more
strain. Therefore the least distance of distinct vision that this age is as close as 7 to 8 CM.
In old age the muscles cannot sustain more strain. The least distance of distant vision shifts to a
larger value say about 1to 2 meters are even more.
Are you able to see the top and bottom of an object placed distance of about 25 cm from your eye I
respect you of its shape.?
Find out by performing an activity 2 give a name page number 82 in your textbook
By doing activity to learn the following things

The rays coming from the extreme ends of an object from an angle at the eye.
If this angle is above 60 degree then we can see e only the path of the object.
2. Angle of vision
The maximum angle which is able to see the whole object is called angle of vision.
The angle of vision for a healthy human being is about 60 degree
It varies from person to person with age.
Assessment
1. What what do you mean by least distance of distinct vision? Write in your own words.
2. What do you mean by angle of vision? write in your own words.
3. There is a large variation seen in the values of least distance of distinct vision in case of in children and
old age people. give reason
4. Write the procedure to find the angle of vision
5. For healthy adult the value of least distance of distinct vision is ( )
A) 20cm B) 25cm C) 15cm D) 30cm
6. Healthy human being the value of angle of vision is ( )

A) 60 degree B) 25 degree C) 30 degree D) 20 degree
7. For children below 10 years of age the least distance of distinct vision will be ( )
A) 25cm B) 1 to 2 m C ) 7 cm to 8 cm D)20 cm
8. For old age people the least distance of distinct vision will be ( )
A) 25cm B) 1 mt to 2 mt. C) 7 cm to 8 cm D). 20 cm
-*************
Class : 10 Medium : English Subject : Physical Science

Lesson : Human Eye – Colorful World Work sheet No : 43
Topic : Structure of Human eye
Learning Outcomes
 Describes the structure of human eye.

 Explains the function of Iris and ciliary muscles an human eye.
Content : To know the reason for the variation of values of least distance of distinct vision and
angle of vision with person and age ,we need to understand the structure of eye and its
functioning.
The human eye is one of the most important sense organs. It enables as to use the
object and colors around us.
 The eyeball is nearly spherical in shape.

 The front portion is more sharply curved and is covered by a transparent protective membrane called
the cornea.
 Behind the cornea, there is a place filled with a liquid called aqueous humor.
 Behind this aqueous humor, there is crystalline lens which is responsible for the image formation.
 Between the aqueous humor and the lens, we have a muscular diaphragm called Iris.
 Iris has a small hole in it called pupil.
 Iris is the colored part that we see in an eye.
 The pupil appears black because any light falling on it goes into the eye and there is almost no
chance of light coming back to the outside.
 Iris helps in controlling the amount of light entering the eye through pupil.
 In low light condition the Iris makes the pupil to expand .so that more light is allowed to go in and in
the case of bright light condition, it makes the pupil contract and there by prevent the excess light not
to go into eye. Thus, Iris enables pupil to act as a variable aperture for entry light into the eye.
 The lens is hard in the middle and gradually becomes soft towards the outer edge.
 The ciliary muscles are attached to eye lens.
 The ciliary muscles help to the eye. Lens to change its focal length by changing the radii of curvature
of the eye lens.
 The light that enters the eye forms an image on the retina. It covers the rear part of the eye-ball.
 The distance between the lens and retina is about 2.5 cm.
 The eye lens forms a real and inverted image of an object on the retina.
 The retina is a delicate membrane, which contains about 125 million receptors called rods and cones
which receive the light signal.
 Cones can identify the color.
 Rods can identify the intensity of the light.
 These signals are transmitted to the brain through about 1 million optic nerve fibers.
 The brain interprets these signals and finally processes the information so that we perceive the object
in terms of its shape, size and color.
Assessment
1. Which part of the Human eye is called pupil?
2. What is the function of rods present in the retina?
3. What is the function of iris inhuman eye?
4. Describe briefly the structure of human eye with the help of neat labeled diagram.
5. The distance between eye-lens and retina is ( )

A) 2.5 cm B) 25cm C) 2 cm D) 20cm
6. ------------------ helps the eye-lens to change its focal length. ( )
A) Iris B) Ciliary muscles C) pupil D) Cornea

7. Cones can _____________ ( )
A) change focal length of the eye lens B) Identify the color

C) Identify the intensity of the light D) controls the amount of light entering the eye
8. ------------------ helps in controlling the amount of light entering the eye. ( )
A) pupil B) Ciliary muscles C) Iris D) Cornea
-*************
LEVEL - 2
Lesson: Human eye and colorful world Work sheet No: 44
1. Accommodation of lens
Concept
Learning Outcomes:
 Explains the relationship between the accommodation of lens and the ability of eye lens to see
objects placed at various positions in front of eye
…………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………….........................
Content:
 Generally, when we use a convex lens, if focal length is constant, whenever there is change in
object distance, there will be a chance in image distance. In case of eye lens, for any position of
object in front of the eye, the image is formed on retina at distance of 205 cm from eye lens. i.e.
for different positions of object, the image distance is fixed and is about 2.5 cm . This is possible
only when there is change in focal length of eyeye lens.
 The focal length of the lens depends on the material by which it has made and radii of curvature
(Thickness) of lens
 Eye lens is able to change its shape and hence there will be a change in radii of curvature. Thus
,it cais possible to cha
change focal length of eye lens to get same image distance for various
positions of object in front of eye
 The sillier muscle to which eye lens is attached helps the eye lens is attached helps the eye lens
to change its focal length by changing the radii of curvature
urvature of the eye lens
Case 1:
When the image is focused on a distance object , the ciliary muscles are relaxed so that the focal length of eye
lens has its maximum value which is equal to its distance from the retina .The parallel rays coming into the eye
are then focused on to the retina and we see the objects
clearly.
u= - ∞; v = 2.5 cm (image distance which is equalto distance between eye-lens and retina)
using the formula 1/f = 1/v – 1/u
1/f max = 1/ 2.5 + 1/ ∞
1/f max =1/2.5+0
f max = 2.5 cm
Maximum focal length of eye lens is 2.5 cm
Case 2:
When the eye is focused on a closer object (not less than 25 cm, which is the least distance of distinct vision).
The ciliary muscles are strained and length of the eye lens decreases. The ciliary muscles adjust the focal length
in such a way that the image is formed on retina and we see the object clearly.
Consider an object placed at a distance of 25 cm from our eye. In this situation, eye has
minimum focal length
Here u = - 25 cm; v = 2.5 cm
Using the formula 1/f = 1/v – 1/u
1/f min = 1/ 2.5 + 1/ 25
1/f min = 11/ 25
f min = 25 /11 = 2.27 cm
Minimum focal length of eye lens is 2.27 cm
Note: ciliary muscles cannot strain beyond a limit and hence if the object is brought too close to
eyes , the focal length cannot be adjusted to form an image on retina . Thus there should be a
minimum distance for distinct vision of object which is equal to 25 cm (Least Distance of distinct
vision)
Assessment
1. What do you understand by Accommodation of lens .Write in your own words
2. To Have maximum focal length for an eye lens , at what distance should an object be placed in front
of an eye
3. Explain the situation for an eye lens to have minimum focal length
4. Find the Value of maximum focal length of eye lens mathematically
5. The Maximum focal length of eye lens is ( )

A) 2.5 cm B)2.27 cm C)25 cm D) A and B
6. The minimum focal length of eye lens is … ( )

A) 2.5 cm B) 2.27 cm C ) 25 cm D) A and B
7. The distance between eye lens and retina is ( )

8. If the focal length of the eye lens has minimum value, then the object distance will be ( )
-----------------------------------------------------------******--------------------------------- ------------------------
LEVEL - 2
Lesson: Human eye and colorful world Work sheet No: 45
1. Accommodation defects of eye lens ,Myopia

Concept
Learning Outcomes:
 Explains the common defects of vision arising due to accommodation defects of the eye lens
 Gives reason for type of defect in vision called Myopia
………………………………………………………………………….........................
Content:
Human eye helps us to see carious objects around us by adjusting the focal length of eye lens between 2.27cm
to 2.5 cm and forming a clear image on retina. Sometimes the eye may gradually lose its ability for
accommodation the person cannot see an object clearly and comfortably.The vision becomes blurred due to
accommodation defect of the lens.There are mainly three types of defect vision.
They are
(i) Myopia
(ii) Hypermetropia
(iii) Presbyopia
Myopia:
 Some people cannot see objects at long distances but can see nearby objects clearly. This type of
defect in vision is called “Myopia “
 It is also called “Nearsightedness”
 For these People the maximum focal length of eye lens is less than 2.5 cm
 In such cases the rays coming from distant objects , after refraction through the eye-lens, forms
an image in front of the retina as shown in fig 5(a) and 5(b)
 A healthy person can see objects at all distances more than 25 cm clearly but a person
with myopia can see objects clearly up to a certain distance
 Let the extreme point from where an object appears clearly to a person with myopia be
“M”
Far point (M) :

 The point of maximum distance at which the eye lens can form an image on the retina is
called far point
 If the object is at M or in between M and point of least distance of distinct vision (L) ,
the eye lens can form an image on retina .This point (M) is called far point
 In general, a healthy person (with no eye defects) can see clerly closer objects (at a distance more than
least distinct vision) and farther objects (as far as objects at infinite distance)
 When the objects is at infinite
 When the object is at least distance of distinct vision

Assessment
1. How many types of defects of vision are there due to accommodation defects of eye lens? What are they?
2. Explain the eye defect Myopia?
3. Give reasons for getting the eye- defect Myopia
4. A person suffering from Myopia, cannot see the farther objects . Show with the help of diagram, Objects at
what distance they cannot see clearly
5. A person having a defect in vision, Myopia ( )
A) cannot see objects beyond far point clearly
B) Can see objects placed between far point and least distance of distinct vision
C) can see clearly an object placed at far point
D) All the above
6. A healthy person ( )
A) can see clearly an object at least distance of distinct vision
B) can see clearly an object at infinity
C ) Can see clearly any object placed between infinity and least distance of distinct vision
D) All the above
7. The maximum distance that a person having Myopia can see ( )
A) up to a distance of far point
B) least distance of distinct vision
C ) Distance between the points M and L
D) All the above
8. For a person having Myopia, the image of an object at infinity ( )
A) will form on Retina
B) will form behind the Retina
C ) will form in front of the retina
D) A and B
--------------------------------------------------------------*****----------------------------------------------------------------
Lesson: HUMAN EYE – COLORFUL WORLD Work sheet No : 36
Concept: Correction of Myopia, Finding Focal length of Bi-concave lens used for
correcting Myopia.
Learning Outcomes:
 Gives reasons for the use of Bi-concave les for correcting Myopia.
 Explains the method of finding focal length of Bi-concave lens use for correcting Myopia.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
Content
What can we do to correct Myopia?
 People with this defect Myopia cannot see objects beyond far point.
 The eye lens can form clear image on the retina , when an object is placed between far point and
point of least distance of distinct vision.
 Using a lens , if we are able to bring the image of the object kept beyond far point, between the
far point ( M ) and the point of least distance of distinct vision ( L ) , this image acts as an
object for the eye lens.
 This can be made possible by the use of Bi-concave lens.
Image :
Now let us know how to decide the focal length of the lens to be used to correct Myopia.
In general, for an object at infinity, the Bi-concave lens forms virtual image at its focus.
For this reason, to correct one’s Myopia we select a Bi-concave lens which forms an image at
the far point from an object at infinity.
This image acts like an object for the eye lens. Hence the final image is formed on the retina.
Let us find the focal length of this Bi-concave lens mathematically.

Here Object distance is ( ) = - α
Image distance ( ) = -D (Distance of Far Point)
Let ‘f’ be the focal length of Bi-concave lens.
Using the lens formula
= –
= +  =  [ f = -D]
Here ‘f’ is negative showing that it is concave lens.
Example :
A Person is unable to see objects beyond 4 m distinctly. What should be the focal length of Bi-
concave lens that must be used to correct his Myopia.
Solution :
Using sign convention

= - ∞ ; v = -4 m
Substituting in lens formula,
= –
= –
= +
= f = -4mts.
f = -4
To correct Myopia, one should use Bi- concave lens of focal length equal to Maximum distance up
to which he can see clearly.
Assessment
1. Where will the image of an object be formed by the lens used for correcting Myopia ?
2. What characteristics a lens must have, to be used for correcting Myopia ?
3. Draw a ray diagram showing correction of Myopia?
4. How can you decide the focal length of the lens to be used to correct Myopia ? Deduce Mathematically?
5. The lens used to correct Myopia ________ ( )
a) Bi-convex lens b) Bi-concave lens c) Bi-focal lens d) a & b.
6. Keeping in view Myopia, chose the correct answer from the following. ( )
a) F = -D b) f = +D c) f = 1/-D d) f = 1/+D
7. A person suffering from Myopia, uses a lens whose focal length is – 4 m. ( )
a) (-)sign indicates Bi-focal lens b) (-) sing indicates Bi-convex lens
c. (-) sign indicates Bi-concave lens d) a & b
8. The lens used for correcting Myopia ( )
a) Forms real image b) forms virtual image c) forms the other side of the lens you see the image
is formed before the object d) a & b.
------------------------------- * * * * * ------------------------------
Class : 10 Medium : English Subject : Physical Science

Lesson : Human Eye – Colorful World Work sheet No : 47
TOPIC: Hypermetropia
Learning Outcomes :
Gives reasons for type of defect in vision called Hypermetropia.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Content: For a healthy person , the maximum focal length of the eye lens will be 25 cm and minimum
focal length of the eye lens will be 2.27 cm. Such person can see far objects as well as near objects clearly
and distinctly.
If the minimum focal length of the eye lens is greater than 2.27 cm , then it would mean that ciliary muscles
are unable to adjust focal length to form an image on the retina. Ciliary muscles cannot strain beyond a limit
to decrease the focal length of eye lens. In this situation , the objects at near distance cannot be seen. This
type of defect in vision is called Hypermetropia.
Hypermetropia
Hypermetropia is also known as farsightedness.
A person with hypermetropia can see far objects clearly and distinctly but cannot see objects at near
distance.
In Hypermetropia, the rays coming from a nearby object after refraction at eye lens, forms an image
beyond the retina as shown in figure 6 (a).
Figure 6 (a)
Let the point of least distance at which the eye lens forms a clear image on the retina for a person with
Hypermetropia be ‘H’ . See figure 6 (b)
If an object is at ‘H’ or beyond ‘H’ , the eye can form its image on retina . See Figure 6 (a) and 6 ( c)
If the object is between ‘ H’ and point of least distance of distinct vision ‘L’ , then it cannot form an image.
See figure 6 (a)
Figure 6 (a)
Near Point :
The point of minimum distance at which the eye lens can form an image on the retina is called near point
‘H’. The people with defect of hypermetropia cannot see objects placed between the near point ‘H’ and the
point of least distance of distinct vision ‘L’ .
Assessment
1. What is hypermetropia? Write in your own words.
2. Draw a ray – diagram to show objects placed at what distance from an eye can be seen by a person
suffering from hypermetropia
3. Give reasons for getting a defect in vision called hypermetropia.
4. Draw a ray diagrams to show objects placed at what distance from an eye cannot be seen by a person
suffering from hypermetropia.
5. A person with hypermetropia can see clearly _________ ( )

A) Objects placed between H L B) Objects placed beyond H
B) Objects placed at H D). B & C
6. For a person with hypermetropia, the image of an object placed at 25 cm distance from the eye
( )
A) forms on retina B) forms behind retina C) forms in front of retina D) A & C
------------------------------- * * * * * ------------------------------
Lesson : HUMAN EYE – COLORFUL WORLD Work sheet No : 48
Topic : Correction of Hypermetropia, finding focal length of bi-convex lens used for correcting
Hypermetropia.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Gives reasons for the use of Bi-convex lens for correcting Hypermetropia.
 Explains the method of finding focal length of Bi-convex lens used for correcting
Hypermetropia.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
Content
What can we do to correct Hypermetropia ?

o The people with the defect of Hypermetropia, cannot see the objects placed between near
point (H) and the Point of Least distance of distinct dision (L).
o Eye lens can form a clear image on the retina when any object is placed beyond the near
point.
o To correct the defect of Hypermetropia , we need to use a lens which forms an image of an
object beyond the near point, when the object is between near point (H) and least distance of
distinct vision ( L ) this image acts as an object for the eye lens.
o This is possible only when a double convex lens is used.
How can we decide the focal length of convex lens used ?

To find the focal length of the lens, let us consider the object is at the point of least disatance of distinct
vision ( L ) .
Then the defect of vision, hypermetropia is corrected when the image of the object at (L) is found at the
near point ( H ) by using a by-convex lens as shown in figure 6(d).
This image acts as object for eye lens. Hence final image is formed at retina.
Here object distance ( u) = -25 cm
Image distance (v) = -d ( distance of near point )
Let ‘f’ be the focal length of biconvex lens.
Using lens formula ,
‘f ‘ is measured in cm
We know that d >25 cm, then ‘f’ becomes Positive.
That is we need to use biconvex lens to correct the defect of hypermetropia.
Eg : A person can see only objects placed beyond 33.33 cm from the eye clearly.
Name the type of defect in vision , the person is suffering from . What should be the focal length of the lens
that must be used to correct the defect in vision ?
Solution : -
Since the person cannot see objects placed at a distance less than 33.33 cm from the eye, he must be suffering
from hypermetropia. Biconvex lens can be used to correct his defective vision.
Let ‘f’ be the focal length of biconvex lens.
Distance of near point ‘d’ = 33.33 cm
f = +100cm
Positive sign indicates Bi-convex lens.
Assessment
1. Where will the image of an object be formed by the lens used for correcting Hypermetropia ?
2. What characteristics a lens must have, to be used for correcting Hypermetropia ?
3. Draw a ray diagram showing correction of Hypermetropia ?
4. How can you decide the focal length of the lens to be used to correct Hypermetropia ? Deduce
Mathematically ?
5. The lens used to correct Hypermetropia ________ ( )
a) Bi-convex lens b) Bi-concave lens c) Bi-focal lens d) a & b.
6. Keeping in view Hypermetropia, chose the correct answer from the following. ( )
a.
b.
c.
d.
7. A person suffering from Hypermetropia, uses a lens whose focal length is +100 m. ( )
a) (+)sign indicates Bi-focal lens b) (+) sign indicates Bi-convex lens
c. (+) sign indicates Bi-concave lens d) a & c
8. Biconvex lens used for correcting Hypermetropia ( )
a) Forms real image
b) b) forms virtual image
c) forms image behind the object when seen form the other side of the lens
d) b & c.
------------------------------- * * * * * ------------------------------
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
● Gives reasons for getting vision defect presbyopia, explains the type of lens to be used for correcting
presbyopia.
● Determines the type of lens and finds its focal length based on the value of power of lens.
@@@
Presbyopia: -
★ Presbyopia is a vision defect when the ability of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with
ageing.
★ For most people the near point gradually recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby objects
clearly and distinctly.
★ This happens due to gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.
This effect can be seen in aged people.
★ Sometimes a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia with ageing. This type of
defect is known as presbyopia.

★ To correct this type of defect of vision, we need Bi-focal lenses, which are formed using both convex
and concave lenses.
★ Its upper portion consists of the concave lens and lower portion consists of the convex lens.
If you go to an eye hospital, to get tested for vision defects, the doctor gives you a prescription
that contains some information regarding the type of lens indicating their power, to be used to
correct vision.
The power of a lens determines the type of lens to be used and its focal length.
POWER OF LENS : -
The degree of convergence or divergence of light rats that can be achieved by a lens is expressed in
terms of its power.
The reciprocal of focal length is called power of lens. Let ‘f’ be the focal length of lens,
Power of lens
The unit of power is ‘DIOPTRE’. It is denoted by a letter D..
Ex : - 1) Doctor advised to use +2D lens. What is its focal length ? Mention the type of lens.
Given, Power of lens, P = + 2D
using
The lens has focal length + 50 cm. ‘+’ sign of focal length indicates Bi-convex lens. Hence, the
person is suffering from Hypermetropia.
Ex : - 2) Doctor advised to use -4D lens. What is its focal length ? Mention the type of lens.
Given, Power of lens,
The lens has focal length -25 cm. ‘-’ sign indicates Bi-concave lens.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. In which group of people, do we generally see the vision defect Presbyopia ?
2. What do you mean by power of lens ? Write in your own words.
3. A person is suffering from both Myopia and hypermetropia. What type of lens should be used to
correct his defect? Describe the lens to be used.
4. Sita goes to an eye hospital and gets tested for vision defects. The Doctor prescribes her the use of -3D
lens. What type of defect in vision sita is suffering from? Mention the type of lens and find the focal
length of the lens prescribed by the doctor.

5. The unit of power is [ ]
A) Metre B) Dioptre
C) Centimetre D) A and C
6. P = + 2D , indicates the type of lens [ ]
A) Bi-convex lens
B) Bi-concave lens
C) Bi-focal lens
D) A and B
7. Power of lens p = [ ]
8. P = - 2D , indicates the type of lens [ ]

A) Bi-convex lens
E) Bi-concave lens
F) Bi-focal lens
G) A and B
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
● Defines angle of prism, Angle of incidence, Incident ray, Angle of deviation, Emergent ray, Angle of
emergence of a prism with the help of diagram.
@@@
PRISM : -
A prism is a transparent medium reparation from the surrounding medium by at least two
plane surfaces which are inclined at a certain angle in such a way that, light incident on one of the
plane surfaces emerges from the other plane surface.
★ To understand the behaviour of light when it is incident on the plane of a prism and passes into the
prism, we need to define certain terms associated with prisms.

★ Consider a triangular glass prism. It contains two triangular bases and three rectangular plane
lateral surfaces. These lateral surfaces are inclined to each other.
★ Let us consider that triangle PQR represents the outline of the prism where it rests on its triangular
base.
★ Let us assume that a light ray is incident on the plane surface PQ of a prism at M, as shown in above
figure.
★ Draw a perpendicular to the surface at M. It becomes a normal to that surface.
★ The angle between the incident ray and normal is called angle of incidence (i1).
★ The ray is refracted at M. It moves through the prism and meets the other plane surface at N and
finally comes out of the prism.
★ The ray which comes out of the surface PR at N is called emergent ray.
★ Draw a perpendicular to PR at point N.
★ The angle between the emergent ray and normal is called angle of emergence (i2).
★ The angle between the plane surfaces PQ and PR is called the angle of prism or refracting angle of
prism (A).
★ The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray is called angle of deviation (d).
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What do you mean by Angle of prism? write in your own words.
2. Explain Angle of incidence and Angle of emergence.
3. Show the angle of deviation diagrammatically?
4. In the given figure,
the Angle of prism is represented by [ ]
A) i1
B) i2
C) A
D) d
6. In the given figure,
the Angle of deviation is represented by [ ]
A) i1
B) i2
C) A
D) d
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
● Find the refractive index of a given prism.
@@@
To study the refraction of light through a triangular prism, do an activity given in page
number 92 of your textbook.
Repeat the above activity for various angles of incidence [ i = 30o,40o,50o….] and find the
corresponding angles of deviation and angles of emergence. Note them in Table-1
★ In the above table observe the values of angles of incidence (i1) and angles of deviation (d)
★ You will notice that the angle of deviation decreases first and then increases with increase in angle of
incidence.
★ Draw a graph, taking angle of incidence (i1) along X- axis and angle of deviation (d) along Y-axis
using a suitable scale, markl points on a graph paper for every pair of angles. Join the points to
obtain a smooth curve..
★ Draw a tangent line to the curve, parallel to X-axis, at the lowest point of the graph.
★ The point where this live cuts the Y-axis gives the angle of minimum deviation. It is denoted by D.
★ Draw a parallel line to the Y-axis through the point where the tangent touches the graph. This line
meets the X-axis at a point showing angle of incidence corresponding to the minimum deviation.
★ With this angle of incidence, repeat the above activity and find corresponding angles of emergence.
★ You will notice that angle of incidence will be equal to angle of emergence (i1= i2) in this case.
★ We can find the refractive index of a prism, by substituting the values of Angle of Prism (A) and
angle of minimum deviation (D) in the below equation.
Refractive index of a prism

Example: A prism with an angle A = 60o produces an angle of minimum deviation of 30o. Find a refractive
index of material of the prism.
Solution:
Thus, the refractive index of the given prism n =

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. How do you find the angle of deviation ?
2. List the material required to perform the lab activity for finding the refractive index of a prism?
3. A prism with angle A = 60o produces an angle of minimum deviation of 30o. Find the refractive
index of material of the prism.
4. How do you find experimentally the refractive index of material of a prism?
5. At angle of minimum deviation, [ ]
A) i1= i2 B) i1= d
C) i2 =
d D) i1 > i2
6. Angles to be taken along the X, Y-axes for the graph to determine the
angle of minimum deviation [ ]
A) i1 along
X-axis, i2 along Y-axis
B) i2 along
X-axis, i1 along Y-axis
C) i1 along X-axis, d along Y-axis
D) d along X-axis, i1 along Y-axis
7. If A is angle of prism and D is angle of minimum deviation, the refractive index n = ? [ ]
8. The relation between angle of incidence and angle of deviation is [ ]
A) Angle of deviation increases with increase in angle of incidence.

B) Angle of deviation decreases with increase in angle of incidence.
C) Angle of deviation decreases first and then increases with increase in angle of incidence.
D) Angle of deviation increases first and then decreases with decrease in angle of incidence.
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
● Gives reason for greater deviation of violet colour than red colour, during the process of dispersion of
light.
● Explains the phenomena of dispersion of light.
@@@
Do activity 3 and activity 4 on page no. 95 given in your textbook.

❖ By doing activity 3, you will observe that white light is splitting into certain different colours.
❖ By doing activity 4 also, you will observe white light falling on a mirror partially immersed in water,
split into different colours. In this activity, the arrangement of mirror in water behaves like a prism.
❖ In activity 3, you will also observe that red light is less deviated than blue light.
❖ Let us know the reason for this
★ Light is an electromagnetic wave.
★ According to waves, light can be thought of as a wave propagating in all directions.
DISPERSION OF LIGHT:
The splitting of white light in different colours (VIBGYOR) is called dispersion.
FREQUENCY:
The frequency of light is the property of the source and it is equal to the number of waves leaving the
source per second.

★ The frequency of light does not change with medium.
★ Hence frequency doesn’t change due to refraction.
★ Thus coloured light passing through any transparent medium retains its colour.
★ Each colour corresponds to a particular frequency.
★ While refraction occurs at the interface, the number of waves that are incident on the interface in a
second must be equal to the number of waves passing through any point taken in another medium.
★ This means that the frequency of the light wave remains unaltered while its wavelength changes
depending on the medium through which it passes.
★ We know that the relation between the speed of wave (v), wave length (λ), and frequency (𝝂) is
v = 𝝂λ
★ For refraction at any interface, the speed of wave (v) is proportional to wavelength (λ).
★ Speed of the wave increases with increase in wavelength of light and vice versa.
★ We noticed that white light passes through a prism, it splits into seven colours.
★ Refractive index is the ratio of speeds in vacuum and in the medium.
★ Refractive index decreases with an increase in wavelength.
★ If we compare the wavelengths of seven colours in VIBGYOR, red colour has the longest wavelength
and violet colour has the shortest wavelength.
★ The refractive index of red is low hence it suffers low deviation.
★ As violet colour has the shortest wavelength, its refractive index is high and hence it suffers more
deviation.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Explain dispersion of light in your own words.
2. List out the materials required to do an activity using plane mirrors, to show splitting of white light
into seven colours.
3. Write an activity showing splitting of white light into various colours using a prism.
4. Write the precautions to be taken in the activity, using a plane mirror to show dispersion of light.
5. Which of the following quantities does not change during refraction? [ ]
A) Wavelength B) Frequency C) Speed of light D) All the above
6. The number of waves leaving the source per second is called [ ]
A) Frequency B) Wavelength C) Speed of light D)All the above
7. Choose the correct answer. [ ]
A) Red colour has more wavelength, violet colour has less wavelength
B) Red colour has more speed, violet colour has less speed.
C) Red colour hasless refractive index, violet colour has more refractive index.
D) All the above.
8. The relation between speed of wave (v), wave length (λ), and frequency (𝝂) is [ ]
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
● Explains the method of formation of Rainbow.

@@@
Rainbow is a good example of dispersion of light. Sometimes when it rains, we can see a
rainbow in the sky. Can we create a rainbow artificially?
Do activity 5 given in page no.98 of your textbook and observe the results.
➔ You can see various colours on the wall.
➔ Are the sun rays coming back to your eyes from the wall or from water drops?
Let us find out.
➔ The beautiful colours of the rainbow are due to dispersion of the sunlight by millions of tiny
water droplets.
➔ Let us consider the case of individual water drop.

➔ The rays of sunlight enter the drop near its top surface.
➔ At this first refraction, the white light is dispersed into its spectrum of colours, violet being deviated
the most and red the least.
➔ Reaching the opposite side of the drop, each colour is reflected back into the drop because of total
internal reflection.
➔ Arriving at the first surface of the drop, each colour is again refracted into air.
➔ At the second refraction the angle between red and violet rays further increases when compared to
the angle between those at first refraction.
➔ The angle between the incoming and outgoing rays can be anything between 0o and about 42o We
observe bright rainbows when the angle between incoming and outgoing rays is near the maximum
angle of 42o.
➔ The red colour will be seen when the angle between a beam of sunlight and light sent back by a drop
is 42o.
➔ The colour violet will be seen when the angle between a sunbeam and light sent back by a drop is 40o.
➔ If you look at an angle between 40o and 42o you will observe the remaining colours of VIBGYOR.
➔ Although each drop disperses a full spectrum of colours, an observer is in a position to see only a
single colour from any one drop depending upon its position.
➔ If violet light from a single drop reaches the eye of an observer, red light from the same drop can’t
reach his eye. See the figure.

➔ A rainbow is not the flat two dimensional arc as it appears to us.
➔ The rainbow you see is actually a three dimensional cone with the tip at your eye as shown in figure.
➔ All the drops that disperse the light towards you lie in the shape of the cone - a cone of different
layers.
➔ The drops that disperse red colour to your eye are on the outermost layer of the cone.
➔ Similarly, the violet colour cone becomes the innermost cone. Remaining colour cones can be seen
between red colour cone and violet colour cone.
➔ Thus, the light dispersed by the raindrops appears as a bow.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Give reason for the formation of the rainbow.
2. Mention the order of colours you see in a rainbow.
3. What happens to the rays of sunlight on entering the water drop? Show with the help of diagrams.
4. Explain the formation of Rainbow.
5. The colour red will be seen when the angle between a beam of sunlight and light sent back
by a drop is [ ]
A) 0o B) 40o C) 42o D) 20o
6. The colour violet will be seen when the angle between a beam of sunlight and light sent back
by a drop [ ]
is
A) 0o B) 40o C) 42o D) 20o
7. Each drop disperses 7 colours of spectrum but an observer can see [ ]
B) 7 B) 2 C) 1 D) 3
8. The sequence of phenomena that occurs inside the water drop during dispersion of sunlight
[ ]
A) Refraction, Total internal reflection, Refraction
B) Total internal reflection, Refraction
C) Refraction, Total internal reflection
D) Total internal reflection, Refraction, Reflection.

LEARNING OUTCOMES :
● Gives reason for appearance of blue colour of the sky.

● Gives reasons for the appearance of red colour of sun during sunrise and sunset.
● Explains the phenomenon of light scattering.
@@@
➢ Atoms or molecules which are exposed to light absorb light energy and emit some part of the light
energy in different directions.
➢ The effect of light on a molecule or an atom depends on the size of atom or molecule.
➢ If the size of an atom or molecule is small, it will be affected by higher frequency light.
➢ If the size of an atom or molecule is a bit, it will be affected by lower frequency light.
➢ Let us consider that a certain frequency of light is incident on an atom.
➢ This atom or molecule responds to the light whenever the size of the atom or molecule is comparable
to the wavelength of light.
➢ If this condition is satisfied, the atom absorbs light and vibrates.
➢ Due to these vibrations, the atom re-emits a certain fraction of absorbed energy in all directions with
different intensities.
➢ The re-emitted light is called scattered light.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT:
The process of re-emission of absorbed light in all directions with different intensities by atoms or
molecules is called scattering of light..
➔ The atoms or molecules are called scattering centres.
➔ The angle between the incident light and a direction in which intensity of scattered light is observed is
called angle of scattering.
➔ The intensity of scattered light varies with angle of scattering.
➔ The intensity is maximum at 90° angle of scattering.
➔ For an angle of scattering less than 90° or more than 90°, the intensity of scattered light decreases.
REASON FOR THE BLUE COLOUR OF THE SKY :
★ Our atmosphere contains different types of molecules and atoms. The reason for blue sky is
due to the molecules N2 and O2. The sizes of these molecules are comparable to the wavelength
of blue light. These molecules act as scattering centres for scattering of blue light.
★ When you look at the sky in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the sun rays, you can
see a clear blue colour of the sky.
★ If opur angle of view is changed, the intensity of blue colour also changes.
★ On a hot day, due to rise in temperature water vapour enters into the atmosphere which leads
to abundant presence of water molecules in the atmosphere.
★ The size of water molecules is greater than the size of N2 and O2.Thus, water molecules act as a
scattering centre for other frequencies which are lower than the frequency of blue light.
★ Hence, on a hot day, all such colours of other frequencies reach your eye and the sky appears
white.
REASON FOR APPEARANCE OF RED COLOUR OF SUN
DURING SUNRISE AND AT SUNSET:
● The light from the sun needs to travel more distance in the atmosphere during sunrise and sunset to
reach your eye. In morning and evening times, during sunrise and sunset, except red colour light all
colours scatter more and vanish before they reach you.
● Since scattering of red light is very small, it reaches you. As a result the sun appears red in colour
during sunrise and sunset.
● During noon hours, the distance to be travelled by the sun rays in the atmosphere is less than that
compared to morning and evening hours. Therefore all colours reach your eye without much
scattering. Hence the sun appears white during noon hours.
● Do Activity 6, to demonstrate scattering of light and observe the results. Refer Activity 6 in page
no.101 of your textbook.
● Due to chemical reaction between Hypo and sulphuric acid, sulphur precipitates.
● At the beginning, the size of grains is small and almost comparable to the wavelength of blue light.
Hence they appear blue in the beginning.
● As the reaction progresses, the size of sulphur gains increases due to precipitation.
● As the size of grains increases, their size becomes comparable to wavelengths of other colours. As a
result of this, they act as scattering centres for other colours and hence they appear white in colour.
● Thus, sulphur grains appear blue in colour at the beginning and slowly their colour becomes white as
their size increases.
● The reason for this is scattering of light.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. The sun appears white during noon hours. Give reason
2. What is the angle of scattering? write in your own words.
3. If the phenomenon of scattering of light were not there, then how would the sky appear. Imagine
and write the answer.
4. The intensity of blue colour is not uniform throughout the sky. Give reason based on the concept of
scattering of light.
5. The chemicals required to demonstrate scattering of light experimentally [ ]
A) Sodium thiosulphate and sulphuric acid
B) Sodium chloride and sulphuric acid
C) Sodium chloride and Hydrochloric acid
D) Sodium thiosulphate and Hydrochloric acid
6. The molecules responsible for blue colour of the sky [ ]
A) Water molecules B) N2, O2 molecules C) CO2 molecules D) A and C
7. The process of re-emission of absorbed light in all directions with different intensities by atoms or
molecules are called ….. of light. [ ]
B) Reflection of light B) Dispersion of light C) Scattering of light D) Refraction of light
8. The intensity of scattered light is maximum, when angle of scattering is [ ]
A) Less than 90o
B) More than 90o
C) Equal to 90o
D) A and B
STATE COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH & TRAINING
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2020-21, LEVEL-2
Class: X Medium: English Subject: physical science
Name of the lesson: Structure of atom
Name of the topic/concept: Wave nature of light. WORKSHEET: 55
CONCEPTS:
1. Wave nature of light.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains the wave nature of light.
2. The student gives reasons why visible light is claimed as an electromagnetic wave.
INTRODUCTION:
➢ We discussed the existence of subatomic particles in the previous class. You might have
acquired fundamental ideas about various atomic models proposed by J.J. Thomson,
Rutherford and Neils Bohr.
Activity-1: Try to prepare a new model of an atom by taking advice from your teacher. You can
also discuss among your friends. During this process some questions may arise in your mind …..
1. Can subatomic particles be arranged in any other way?
2. Do all atoms have the same subatomic particles?
3. Why is an atom of one element different from an atom of other element?
4. How are the electrons distributed in the space of an atom?
To answer them, we need to understand Nature of light.
SPECTRUM:
➢ You might have observed the formation of a rainbow. There are seven colours in a
rainbow namely; violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
➢ We can find the colours spreading continuously. We can also find the intensity of each
colour varies from one point to another.
➢ This is a familiar example of visible spectrum. The range of wavelengths covering red
colour to violet colour is called the visible spectrum.
➢ Each colour in a rainbow is characterized by a specified wavelength from red (higher

wavelength) to violet (shorter wavelength).
➢ The human naked eye is sensitive to these colours (wave lengths) causing vision.
WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT:
➢ According to wave theory of light, light can be thought as a wave propagating in all
directions from source.
➢ Light can travel in vacuum unlike mechanical waves.
➢ This is possible because of periodic variation in the magnitude of electric and magnetic
fields associated with it.
➢ The vibrating electric charge creates a change in the electric field. The change in electric
field causes a change in magnetic field.
➢ These fields are perpendicular to each other and both are at right angles to the direction of
propagation of light. These oscillating fields propagate to form a wave.
➢ So visible light is claimed as an electromagnetic wave. The speed of light (denoted by c)
in vacuum is 3 X 108 m/s.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.
➢ Electromagnetic wave is characterized by wavelength (λ) and frequency (ν).
➢ The wave length (λ) of a wave is the distance from one wave peak to the successive one.
➢ The frequency (ν) of a wave is the number of wave peaks pass by a given point per unit
time.
➢ The relation between wavelength and frequency is,
λ α 1/ν or c= ν λ
➢ Where c is the speed of light.
➢ Electromagnetic waves can have a wide variety of frequencies.
➢ The entire range of electromagnetic wave frequencies is known as the electromagnetic
spectrum.
ASSESSMENT:
I. Answer the following questions
1. Explain the wave nature of light.
2. Rainbow is an example of continuous spectrum. Explain
3. What do you mean by wavelength, frequency of a wave?
II. Choose the correct answer
1. The speed of light in vaccum is
A) 3 X 108 km s-1 B) 3 X 1010 m s-1
C) 3 X 1010 km s-1 D) 3 X 108 m s-1
2. The number of wave peaks pass by a given point per unit time is
A) Wavelength B) Frequency
C) Speed of light D) Spectrum
Name of the topic/concept: Electromagnetic spectrum WORKSHEET: 56
CONCEPTS:
1. Electromagnetic spectrum.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains the concept of the electromagnetic spectrum.
2. The student explains Planck’s proposal and its significance.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM:
➢ Electromagnetic waves can have a wide variety of wavelengths .The entire range of
wavelengths is known as the electromagnetic spectrum .
➢ The electromagnetic spectrum consists of a continuous range of wavelengths. This
ranges from gamma rays to radio waves. Here Gamma rays are of shorter wavelength
whereas radio waves are of longer wavelength.
➢ There are several waves in the electromagnetic spectrum. Namely radio waves,
microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, UV rays, X-rays and gamma rays.
➢ But our eyes are sensitive only to visible light.
Let us recall an incident we generally come across.
➢ When an iron rod is heated, some of the heat energy is emitted as light.
➢ Initially the emitted light is red in colour (Lower energy corresponding to higher
wavelength ).
➢ As the rod is heated further, it starts glowing in colours namely orange, yellow, blue
(higher energy corresponding to lower wavelength).
➢ The rod may even turn white (all visible wavelengths) if the temperature is high
enough.
➢ That means the energy emitted from a material body increases with increase in heat
energy.
➢ we may not observe other colours meanwhile one colour is emitted. Because when the
temperature is high enough all colours are emitted but due to high intensity of one
emitted colour others cannot be observed.
➢ It is believed (about instance mentioned above) previously that energy is emitted
continuously
➢ A famous scientist Max planck disputed with the continuous energy tradition of
electromagnetic energy.
➢ He assumed that the energy is always emitted in multiples of hν. For example, 1hν
2hν, 3hν,........ nhν.
➢ That means the energy ‘E’ for a certain frequency ‘ν’ (of the radiation absorbed or
emitted) can be represented by the equation,
E=hν
Here, h is Planck’s constant and h=6.626 X 10-34 Js
The significance of Planck’s proposal
➢ electromagnetic energy can be gained or lost in discrete values (1hν 2hν, 3hν,........
nhν). But not in a continuous manner.
➢ Emission or absorption of light spectrum is a collection or group of wavelengths.
ACTIVITY-2:
➢ Take a pinch of cupric chloride in a watch glass and make a paste with concentrated
hydrochloric acid.
➢ Take this paste on a platinum loop and introduce it into a non-luminous flame.
➢ As a result cupric chloride produces a green colour flame.
➢ If we carry out similar activity with strontium chloride it produces a crimson red
colour flame.
➢ Similarly sodium vapours produce yellow light in street lamps.
➢ Scientists found that each element emits its own characteristic colour.
➢ These colours correspond to certain discrete wavelengths of light and are called line
spectra.
➢ The lines in atomic spectra can be used to identify unknown atoms, just like
fingerprints are used to identify people. .
ASSESSMENT:
I) Answer the following questions
1. Explain electromagnetic spectrum.
2. Write down the significance of Planck's proposal.
II) Choose the correct answer
1. The value of planck’s constant
A) 6.626 X 10-34 J/s. B) 6.626 X 10-27 Js.
C) 6.626 X 10-34 Js. D) 6.626 X 10-27 J/s.
2. The electromagnetic wave of shortest wavelength among given below
A) X-rays. B) UV rays.
C) Gamma rays. D) Hulk rays.
Name of the topic/concept: Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom WORKSHEET: 57
CONCEPTS:
1. Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom and its limitations.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains proposals of Bohr's model of hydrogen atom.
2. The student explains the limitations of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom.
INTRODUCTION:
➢ The atomic model proposed by Rutherford could not explain the
reason for stability of atoms.
➢ To overcome this, Niels Bohr came up with a thought that
electrons can be found only in certain energy levels or regions
around the nucleus.
➢ Let us try to understand Bohr’s model by using line spectra of
hydrogen.
BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM:
The proposals are,
➢ Electrons in an atom occupy stationary orbits (states) of fixed energy at different
distances from the nucleus.
➢ When an electron jumps from a lower energy state (ground state) to higher energy states
(excited state) it absorbs energy.
➢ Energy is emitted when such a jump occurs from higher energy state to lower energy
state.
➢ The energies of an electron in an atom can have only certain values E1 E2 E3… that means
the energy is quantized.
➢ The states corresponding to these energies are called stationary states and the possible
values of the energy are called energy levels.
➢ The lowest energy state of an electron in an atom is known as its ground state.The
electron moves to a higher energy level whenever it gains energy. Such a higher energy
level is called as excited stage.
➢ The electron loses the energy and gets back to its ground state and energy is emitted in
the form of electromagnetic radiation if the wavelength is within the visible region it is
visible as an emission line.
Bohr’s model is successful model as far as line spectra of hydrogen
Spectrum of hydrogen
LIMITATIONS OF BOHR’S MODEL:
➢ The line spectrum of an hydrogen atom , when observed through a high resolution
spectroscope, appears as a group of finer lines. Bohr’s model failed to account for
splitting of line spectra.
ASSESSMENT:
I) Answer the following questions
1. Write down the proposals of Bohr’s atomic model.
2. Write down the limitations of Bohr model.
3. Explain the following terms.
A) Ground state B) Excited state.
II) Choose the correct answer.
1. The lowest energy state of electron is called as
A) Excited stage B) Energy state
C) Ground state D) Mid state
2. Bohr’s model explains line spectra of
A) Hydrogen B) Helium
C) Oxygen D) Nitrogen
Name of the topic/concept: Bohr -Sommerfeld model of atom. WORKSHEET: 58
CONCEPTS:
1. Bohr -Sommerfeld model of atom.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains proposals of the Bohr-Sommerfeld model of atom.
INTRODUCTION:
➢ Bohr's model might be successful to explain all the line spectra of hydrogen atom but
failed to account for splitting of line spectra.
➢ Sommerfeld made an attempt to account for the structure of line spectra which is also
known as fine spectra.
➢ Let us try to understand how Sommerfeld modified Bohr's model.
SOMMERFELD MODIFICATIONS TO BOHR’S MODEL :
➢ He added elliptical orbits to circular orbits proposed by Bohr. The elliptical orbits exist in
atoms such that the nucleus of the atom is at one of the principal foci of them.
➢ He was guided by the factthat,“Periodic motion under the influence of a central force
will lead to elliptical orbits with the force at one of the foci.”
➢ He retained first orbit as it is. It is represented byn=1 and l=0.
➢ He added one elliptical orbit to Bohr's second orbit. Bohr's second orbit is represented by
n=2, l=0and elliptical orbit is represented byl=1.
➢ He also added two elliptical orbits to Bohr's third orbit. Bohr's third orbit is represented
byn=3, l=0 and two elliptical orbits are represented byl=1, l=2.
➢ He added the elliptical orbits in a similar way to other orbits. For example, n=4
LIMITATIONS OF BOHR-SOMMERFELD’S MODEL:

➢ The Bohr-Sommerfeld model does not provide a satisfactory picture of the structure of
atoms in general.
➢ This model failed to account for the atomic spectra of atoms more than one electron.
ASSESSMENT:
I) Answer the following questions.
1. What are the modifications made by Sommerfeld to Bohr's model?
2. Draw all orbits for n=3 and mention the values of ‘l’?
1. ‘l’ values for n=2.
A) 0,1 B)1,2
C) 2,3 D) 1,1
2. According to sommerfeld the nucleus exists at
A) at focus B) at center
C) on the orbit D) outside the orbit
Name of the lesson: Structure of atom.
Name of the topic/concept: Quantum mechanical model of atom. WORKSHEET: 59
CONCEPTS:
1. Quantum mechanical model of atom.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains proposals of the Quantum mechanical model of atoms.
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF AN ATOM:
➢ Bohr atomic model has contributed to its best to know more about the structure of atoms.
Sommerfeld made a tremendous attempt to explain fine spectra.
➢ But they seem to have restricted electrons that revolve in orbits.
➢ The shortcomings of these models and following questions were at discussions.
1) Why is the electron in an atom restricted to revolve around the nucleus at a certain
distance?
2) Do the electrons really follow defined paths around the nucleus?
3) Is it possible to find the exact position of the electron?
4) What is the velocity of the electron?
➢ Some scientific investigations were going on at the same time.These were about to
address them.
➢ If the electron revolves around the nucleus in defined paths or orbits then the exact
position of the electron at various times would be known.Moreover electrons are invisible
to naked eye.
➢ We have to take the help of suitable light (of shorter wavelength) to find the position and
velocity of the electron.
➢ This light interacts with the electron and disturbs the motion of it. Hence the position and
the velocity cannot be measured accurately at a time.
➢ So now it is clear that electrons do not follow a definite path in an atom. It is also not
possible to pinpoint an electron in an atom.
➢ Under these circumstances Erwin Schrodinger developed a model of an atom to
understand the properties of electrons.
It is known as the quantum mechanical model of atom. According to this model of an atom,
➢ The electrons are thought to exist in a particular region of space around the nucleus at a
given instant of time instead of in orbits as proposed by Bohr.
➢ The region of space around the nucleus where the probability of finding the electron is
maximum is called an orbital.
➢ In a given space around the nucleus certain orbitals can only exist.
ASSESSMENT:
1. What is an orbital? How is it different from Bohr's orbit?
2. Explain the circumstances that lead to the development of the quantum mechanical model
of atom?
1. The region of space around the nucleus where the probability of finding the electron is
maximum is
A)Orbit B)orbital
C)shell D)field
Name of the topic/concept: Quantum numbers-I WORKSHEET: 60
CONCEPTS:
1. Principal Quantum number.
2. Angular-momentum quantum number.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains quantum numbers.
2. The student differentiates the principal quantum number and angular quantum number.
QUANTUM NUMBERS:
➢ According to the quantum mechanical model of atom,the electrons exist in a particular
region of space around the nucleus at an instant of time. This region of space is called an
orbital.
➢ Each electron in an atom is described by a set of three numbers. These numbers are called
quantum numbers and denoted by n, l, ml.
➢ These indicate the probability of finding the electron in the space around the nucleus.
They describe the space around the nucleus where electrons are found and their energies.
➢ There are different quantum numbers as given below,
1) The principal quantum number(n)
2) The angular- momentum quantum number ( l )
3) The magnetic quantum number ( ml )
4) The spin quantum number(ms )
We now discuss the significance of quantum numbers .
THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n):
➢ This is related to the size and energy of the main shell. It is denoted by ‘n’.
➢ Main shells are represented by K,L,M,...... and ‘n’ has positive integer values of
1,2,3,........
➢ The shells become bigger and of higher energy as the value of ‘n’ is increased. The
bigger the shell, the farther it is from the nucleus.
THE ANGULAR- MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER(l):

➢ This is related to the shape of a particular subshell in the space around the nucleus . it is
denoted by ‘l’.
➢ ‘l’ has integer values from 0 to n-1 for each value of ‘n’. Each ‘l’ value represents one
subshell.
➢ The subshells are generally designated by s, p, d,..... And ‘l’ values for them are given in
the table.
➢ For example,
1) When n=1, the shell is K-shell and there is only one subshell with l=0.it is
designated by ‘1s’ orbital.
2) When n=2, the shell is L-shell and there are two subshells with l=0 and l=1. They
are designated by ‘2s’ ,’2p’ orbitals respectively.
ASSESSMENT:
1. Explain the significance of principal quantum number and angular-momentum quantum
numbers in predicting the position of an electron in an atom.
2. Which electronic shell is of higher energy in K and L?
3. Differentiate the principal quantum number from the angular-momentum quantum
number.
1. The value of ‘n’ for M-shell
A) 3 B) 2
C) 1 D) 0
2. The ‘l’ values for n=4
A) 0,1,2 ,3 B) 1,2,3,4
C) 1,2,3 D) 2,3,4
Name of the topic/concept: Quantum numbers-II WORKSHEET: 61
CONCEPTS:
1. The magnetic quantum number
2. The spin quantum number.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains quantum numbers.
2. The student differentiates the magnetic quantum number and spin quantum number.
QUANTUM NUMBERS:
➢ We have discussed two quantum numbers namely, the principal quantum number and the
angular-momentum quantum number earlier.
➢ The principal quantum number (n) describes the size and energy of the main shell
meanwhile the angular-momentum quantum number ( l ) represents the subshell.
➢ Now we try to learn about the remaining quantum numbers.
1) The magnetic quantum number.
2) The spin quantum number
THE MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml):
➢ The magnetic quantum number describes the orientation of the orbital in space relative to
the other orbitals in the atom. It is denoted by ml .
➢ It has integer values between -l and l including zero where ‘l’ represents
angular-momentum quantum number.
➢ Thus for a certain value of ‘l’ there are ( 2l+1) integer values of ‘ml’.
-l, (-l+1), …..-1, 0, 1,.....(+l+1), l.
➢ When l=0, (2l+1)=1 and there is only one value (0) of ml,
thus we have only one orbital i.e. s-orbital. s-orbital is spherical in shape.
➢ When l=1, (2l+1)=3, that means ml has three values, namely, -1,0, and 1 or three
p- orbitals, with different orientations along x, y, z axes. These are labelled as pX, pY, and
pz. p-orbital is dumbbell-shaped.
➢ When l=2, (2l+1)=5, that means ml has five values, namely,-2, -1,0, 1, and 2 or five
, dyz , dxz
d-orbitals, with different orientations along x, y, z axes. These are labelled as dxy
, dx2-y2 , and dz2 . d-orbital is double dumbbell-shaped.
➢ The number of ‘ml ’ values indicates the number of orbitals in subshell with a particular
‘l’ value.
➢ Orbitals in the subshell (belonging to the same shell) possess the same energy. These are
called degenerated orbitals.
➢ Each subshell holds a maximum of twice as many electrons as the number of orbitals in
the subshell.
THE SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (mS):

➢ To account the behaviour of electrons , an additional quantum number is introduced.

➢ This represents the property of the electron . it is denoted by ‘ms ’.

➢ This quantum number refers to the two possible orientations of the spin of an
electron,one clockwise and the other anticlockwise spin.
➢ These are represented by +½ and -½ .
➢ The importance of the spin quantum number is seen when electrons occupy specific
orbitals in multy-electron atoms.
ASSESSMENT:
1. Explain the values of magnetic quantum numbers for a given value of l’ with an
example.
2. Differentiate the magnetic quantum number from the spin quantum number.
1. The maximum number of electrons that can occupy f-subshell
A) 2 B) 6
C) 14 D) 10
2. Number of orbitals in d-subshell
A) 3 B) 1
C) 5 D) 7
Name of the topic/concept: Electronic configuration WORKSHEET: 62
CONCEPTS:
1. Electronic configuration.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains electronic configuration in their own words.
2. The student can tell the names of the rules useful to describe the electronic configuration.
INTRODUCTION:
➢ We have discussed various models of atoms and quantum numbers so far.
➢ Atomic models provided information about the place where the nucleus exists ,about the
region of space where electrons are found.
➢ Quantum numbers gave an idea of shells, subshells which are occupied by electrons and
their energy levels in the atom.
➢ Now we try to understand how electrons are distributed in the atom.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION:
➢ The distribution of electrons in shells,subshells and orbital in an atom is known as
electronic configuration.
➢ The shorthand notation nl ,consists of the principal energy level (‘n’ value), the letter
x
representing sub energy level ( ‘l’ value), and the number of electrons ( x ) in the subshell
(written as a superscript) , is used to show electronic configuration.
➢ Let us consider the hydrogen ( H ) atom to understand the arrangement of electrons, as it
contains only one electron.
➢ The electronic configuration of hydrogen is‘1s1’. This means there exists one electron in
s-orbital in K-shell(n=1).
➢ The electronic configuration can also be represented by showing the spin of the electron.
➢ For the electron in H ,as we have seen, the set of quantum numbers is:
n=1,l=0,ml =0,m
s=½
or -½ .
➢ We must know the electronic configuration of the atom for multi-electron atoms.
➢ The distribution of electrons in various atomic orbitals provides an understanding of the
electronic behaviour of the atom and, in turn, its reactivity.
➢ We need to know three principles to describe the electronic configuration for more than
one electron in an atom. Those are the Pauli exclusion principle, Aufbau principle and
Hund’s rule. We discuss them later.
ASSESSMENT:
1. Explain the electronic configuration in your own words.
2. Name the three principles useful in describing electronic configuration of more electrons
in an atom.
1. The letter/set of letters which represents the number of electrons in notation nl x is
A) n B) x
C) l D) nl x
2. The letter/set of letters which represents the subshell in notation nl x i s
A) n B) x
C) l D) nl x
Name of the topic/concept: Aufbau principle. WORKSHEET: 63
CONCEPTS:
1. The Aufbau principle.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains the Aufbau principle with an example.
2. The student can communicate the filling order of atomic orbitals with a neat diagram.
INTRODUCTION:
➢ We know that electronic configuration is nothing but distribution of electrons in shells
and subshells.
➢ We also know that three rules are to be followed to describe the electronic configuration
for multi-electron atoms.
➢ We now discuss one important principle to be well aware of in order to describe
electronic configuration, popularly known as the Aufbau principle.
➢ The German word ‘Aufbau’ means ‘building up’.
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE:
➢ We know that as we pass from one element to another one of the next higher atomic
number, one electron is added every time to the atom.
➢ We also know that the maximum number of electrons in any shell is ‘2n2’, where ‘n’ is
the principal quantum number.
➢ The maximum number of electrons in a subshell is equal to 2(2l+1) where l=0,1,2,3….
➢ Thus these subshells s,p,d and f can have a maximum of 2,6,10, and 14 electrons
respectively.
➢ The electronic configuration in the ground state can be built up by placing electrons in
the lowest energy orbitals available until the total number of electrons (equal to the
atomic number) are added. This is called the Aufbau principle.
➢ Thus orbitals are filled in the order of increasing energy.
Two general rules help us to predict electronic configurations.
1. Electrons are assigned to orbitals in order of increasing value of (n+l).
2. For subshells with the same value of (n+l), electrons are assigned first to the
subshell with lower ‘n’ value.
➢ The following diagram shows the increasing value of (n+l). This is known as
Moeller chart and it provides the filling order of atomic orbitals.
➢ Ascending order of energies of various atomic orbitals is given below:

1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<4d<5p<6s<4f<5d<6p<7s<5f<6d<7p<8s……
➢ The electronic configuration of some elements in the increasing order of their atomic
numbers (Z) is given below.
ASSESSMENT:
1. Explain the aufbau principle.
2. Draw the moeller chart.
3. Explain the reason why an electron occupies 6s first instead if 4f.
1. What is the lower energy orbital among given orbitals.
A) 3d B) 4s
C) 4p D) 5s
2. Which of the values is taken into consideration to assign electrons to orbitals.
A) n B) l
C) n+l D) n-l
Name of the topic/concept: The Pauli exclusion principle, Hund’s rule WORKSHEET: 64
CONCEPTS:
1. The Pauli exclusion principle.
2. Hund’s rule.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student explains the Pauli exclusion principle with an example.
2. The student explains Hund's rule with an example.
INTRODUCTION:
➢ We have discussed the Aufbau principle which is essential to describe the electronic
configuration.
➢ According to this rule, the electronic configuration in the ground state can be built up by
placing electrons in the lowest energy orbitals available until the total number of
electrons (equal to the atomic number) are added.
➢ Let us learn another two namely,
1) The pauli exclusion principle,
2) Hund's rule.
THE PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE:
➢ The Pauli exclusion principle states that, “No two electrons of the same atom can have all
four quantum numbers the same”.
➢ Let us consider the helium (He) atom. Helium atom has two electrons.
➢ The first electron occupies ‘1s’ orbital. The second electron joins the first one in the
‘1s’ orbital so the electron configuration of the ground state of ‘He’ is ‘1s 2’.
➢ According to principle, the two electrons should not have the same quantum numbers.
➢ Hence ‘ms’ must be different even though n,l, and ml are the same for two electrons of
helium. Moreover the spins must be paired in the helium atom.
➢ Electrons with paired spins are denoted by ‘↑↓’ .One electron has ms=+½, the other has
ms=-½
. They have antiparallel spins.
➢ The major consequence of the exclusion principle involves orbital occupancy. Since only
two values of ms are allowed, an orbital can hold only two electrons and they must have
opposite spins.
➢ Hence,the electronic configuration of helium atom is:
HUND'S RULE :
➢ According to this rule electron pairing in orbitals starts only when all available empty
orbitals of the same energy (degenerate orbitals) are singly occupied.
➢ Let’s try to understand with an example.The electronic configuration of Boron ‘B’(Z=5)
is 1s2 2s2 2p1 and of Carbon ‘C’ (Z=6) is 1s2 2s2 2p2.
➢ The first four go into the 1s a nd 2s orbitals. The next two electrons in carbon go into
separate 2p orbitals with both electrons having the same spin.
➢ Note that the unpaired electrons in the 2p orbitals are shown with parallel spins.
ACTIVITY 3:
➢ Complete the electronic configuration of elements given in the following table.
ASSESSMENT:
1. Explain the Pauli exclusion principle.
2. Explain the Hund's rule with suitable examples.
1. The rule/principle that talks about pairing of electrons in degenerate orbitals.
A) Configuration rule B) Exclusion principle
C) Hund's rule D) Aufbau principle.
2. The statement “No two electrons of the same atom can have all four quantum numbers
the same”. Is known as
A) Configuration rule B) Exclusion principle
C) Hund's rule D) Aufbau principle.
LEVEL - 2
Class: X Medium: English Subject: Physical Sciences
Topic/Concept: Classification of Elements-The Periodic Table/Dobereiner’s Triads Work sheet No:65
Concepts Identified:
 Dobereiner’s Triads
Learning outcomes:
 Explains Dobereiner’s Law of Triads.
 Gives examples related to Dobereiner’s Triads.
 Applies the average formula to check the triads.
Introduction:
 Look at the adjacent figure.
Do you know why he arranged the fruits in that way?
 It is easy
to identify the same kind of fruits.
to tell the rate according to their size and type.
If he don’t arrange them in a particular manner, it is
difficult to him and also us to select the needy fruits. So
they should be classified.
From this example we understand that for any system involving several things, a particular order of
arrangement of those things is essential.
In the same way it is applicable to the known chemical elements
Robert Boyle (1661) defined an element as any substance that cannot be decomposed
into a further simple substance by a physical or chemical change.
 At his time, only 13 elements were known.

 Today, including synthetic elements, there are more than 115 elements.
 To study the elements easily, classification of elements is necessary.
 From the earliest times, scientists have been trying to classify the available elements on the basis
of their properties.
The first scientist to classify the elements was Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner
Dobereiner’s Law of Triads:

Dobereiner was the first to classify elements into some groups having sets of three elements
each, called triads.
When the elements were arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights, the relative
atomic weight of the middle element in each triad was close to the average(or arithmetic
mean) of atomic weights of the other two elements.
Activity:1(Given in the Text Book)
Observe the following table.
Elements in each row represent a triad.
In the first row we will
find that the atomic weight of
sodium (Na) is equal to the
average of relative atomic
weights of Li and K.
Now you find average
atomic weights of the first
and third elements in each
row and compare it with the
atomic weight of the middle
element.
By this activity we conclude that the atomic weight of the middle element in each triad is close to the
average (or arithmetic mean) of atomic weights of the other two elements.
 Dobereiner’s attempts encouraged others to classify the known elements.
 Each theory was true for some elements but failed for the remaining ones.
 But they become the stepping stones for the modern periodic law.
 And first of these steps was laid by Dobereiner. So we should honor him for this purpose.
Limitations:
 All the known elements could not be arranged in the form of triads
 For very low mass or for very high mass elements, the law was not holding good.
Assessment
I. Explain “Dobereiner’s Law of triads”
II. N, P and As have similar properties. Check whether the average of atomic masses of N(14) and
As(74.9) is equal to the atomic mass of P(31). Could we call it as a Dobereiner triad? Why? Give
reason.
III. See the elements and their atomic masses (given in brackets). Classify them as Dobereiner’s triads.
Ba(137.3) Br(79.9) Ca(40.1) Cl(35.5) I(126.9) Sr(87.6)
IV. Choose the correct answer
1. In which order do we need to put Barium, Calcium & Strontium for Dobereiner's Triads to apply? ( )
a) calcium, strontium, barium b) barium, strontium, calcium
c) calcium, barium, strontium d) strontium, barium, calcium
2. Identify the group which is not a Dobereiner triad ( )
a. Li, Na, K b. Be, Mg, Cr c. Ca, Sr, Ba d. Cl, Br, I
3. On what basis were the elements arranged in Dobereiner's triads? ( )
a) atomic number b) atomic mass c) number of protons d) number of electrons
4. Given that A, B, C is a triad. Atomic masses of A and C are 32,125 respectively. Then what is the
atomic mass of B is? a) 157 b) 93 c)78.5 d)75.5 ( )
5. If two elements of a Dobereiner triad are Ca and Sr, then the third element of the triad is: ( )
a) Cs b) Mg c) Ba d) Na
LEVEL - 2
Lesson:Classification of Elements-The Periodic Table Work sheet No: 66
 Newlands’ law of Octaves
Learning outcomes:
 Explains Newlands’ law of Octaves.
 Gives the reasons for rejection of Newlands’ law of Octaves.
Introduction:
We have already known that the first scientist to classify the elements was Dobereiner
According to him, When the elements were arranged in the order of increasing atomic
weights, the relative atomic weight of the middle element in each triad was close to the
average(or arithmetic mean) of atomic weights of the other two elements.
 But he could identify only a few such triads and so the law could not gain importance.
 The law failed for very low mass or for very high mass elements.
The attempts of Dobereiner encouraged other chemists to correlate the properties of
elements with their atomic weights.
Newlands’ law of Octaves:

After Dobereiner, John Newland, A British Chemist proposed another way of
classification called “The law of octaves” in 1865.
 He arranged all the known elements in increasing order of their atomic Weights.
 He found that in this arrangement, the first and eighth elements are similar in
their chemical and physical properties.
 There is a periodicity in elements when they are arranged in increasing order of
their atomic weights.
 Every eighth element starting from a given element resembles in its properties to that of the
starting element. Elements with similar chemical properties are to be present along a horizontal
row. This is called as “Newlands law of octaves”
 The law of octaves was also similar to musical notes.
Limitations:
 Newlands periodic table was restricted to only 56 elements and did not leave any room for new
elements
 There are instances of two elements fitted into the same slot, e.g.Cobalt and Nickel.
 Certain elements, totally dissimilar in their properties, were fitted into the same group.
Assessment
I. Explain “Newlands’ law of Octaves”

II. What are the limitations of Newlands law of octaves?
III. A and B are two elements having similar properties and obey Newland’s law of octaves.
How many elements are there in-between A and B? Why? Give reason.
IV. State two reasons for rejecting law of octaves.
V. How many elements were known during the time of Newlands? How did he arrange the elements?
VI. Choose the correct answer
1. Newlands classification is called ( )
a) Musical Law b) Law of Octaves c) Periodic Law d) Atomic Mass Law
2. Newlands periodic table was restricted to only ( )
a) 8 elements b) 40 elements c) 56 elements d) 65 elements
3. Newlands classification is based on ( )
a) Atomic number b) atomic mass c) Protons d) electrons
4. The first element in Newlands’ table is: ( )
a) Cs b) Mg c) Ba d) H
5. According to Newlands, The properties of “Ni” are similar to the properties of ….. ( )
a) Co b) Mn c) Ba d) He
ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-21, LEVEL - 2
Name of the Chapter:Classification of Elements-The Periodic Table
Name of the Topic/Concept:Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table Work sheet No: 67
Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table
Learning outcomes:
Explains salient features of Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table.
Explains limitations of Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table.
Introduction:
We have already known Dobereiner’s and Newland’s

classifications of elements.
Dobereiner
According to them, “There is a periodicity in elements when they are Newland
arranged in increasing order of their atomic weights.”
But both the classifications were rejected.
With the discovery of more and more elements, remembering the elements and their properties were
burden some for scientists.
They started gathering information about the elements and classifying them.
In 1869, after the rejection of Newlands Octave Law, Mendeleeff’s Periodic table came
into the picture.
Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table:

After John Newland, Mendeleeff, A Russian Chemist proposed another
way of classification by proposing “The Periodic Law” in 1869.
Mendeleeff arranged the elements based on their atomic weights.
He observed that when the elements were arranged in increasing order of
their atomic weights, there was a periodic recurrence in their physical and
chemical properties.
Mendeleeff formulated a Periodic Law. The law states that ‘The physical Monument of
Mendeleev in
and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their St. Petersburg
atomic weights ’.
Salient features and achievements of the Mendeleeff’s periodic table
Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows called
‘periods’.
Groups and Sub
groups: In this,
there are 8 groups.
Each group is
divided into two
sub-groups ‘A’ and
‘B’.
Elements present in
a given vertical
column (group)
have similar
properties.
Periods: In this, there are 7 periods. Elements in a period differ in their properties from one another.
Predicting the properties of missing elements: He predicted that some elements were missing and left
blank spaces at the appropriate places in the table.
He predicted the properties of these new additional elements in advance purely depending on his table.
The predicted properties of elements namely Eka-boron, Eka-aluminium and eka-silicon were almost
same as those of Scandium, Gallium and Germanium respectively which were discovered later.
Correction of atomic weights: This table helped in correcting the atomic masses of some elements like,
Beryllium, Indium and Gold.
Anomalous series: The anomalous series contained elements with more atomic weights like
‘Te’ (127.6 U) placed before the elements with less atomic weights like ‘I’ (126.9 U).
Limitations:
Anomalous pair of elements: Certain elements of highest atomic weights precede those with lower
atomic weights.
For example, tellurium (atomic weight 127.6) precedes iodine (atomic weight 126.9).
Dissimilar elements placed together: Elements with dissimilar properties were placed in same group as
sub-group A and sub-group B.
Alkali metals like Li, Na, K etc., of IA group have little resemblance with coinage metals like Cu, Ag,
Au of IB group.
Cl is of VII A group and ‘Mn’ is of VII B, but chlorine is a non metal, where as manganese is a metal.
Assessment
I. Write the salient features of Mendeleeff’s periodic table.

II. State the “Mendeleeff’s Periodic Law”
III. What are the limitations of Mendeleeff’s periodic table?
IV. Which property of atoms was used by Mendeleeff to classify the elements?
V. Mendeleeff’s periodic table had some blank spaces in it. What do they signify?
VI. In the Mendeleeff’s periodic table, where were chemically similar elements placed, in a group or in
a period?
VII. Choose the correct answer
1. NO. of groups in Mendeleeff’s periodic table. ( )
a) 8 b) 7 c) 2 d) 10
2. Mendeleeff’s periodic table is based on ( )
a) Atomic number b) atomic mass c) Protons d) electrons
3. In Mendeleev’s Periodic Table, gaps were left for the elements to be discovered later. Which of the
following elements found a place in the Periodic Table later? ( )
a) Chlorine b) Silicon c) Oxygen d) Germanium
4. The properties of eka-aluminium predicted by Mendeleev are the same as the properties of later
discovered element: ( )
a) Scandium b) Germanium c) Gallium d) Aluminium
Name of the Topic/Concept:Modern Periodic Table - Introduction Work sheet No: 68
Modern Periodic Table - Introduction
Learning outcomes:
Explains Modern Periodic Law.
Explains the various blocks of Modern Periodic Table.
Introduction:
We have already known the Mendeleeff’s Classifications of elements.
According to him, ‘The physical and chemical properties of the elements
are periodic functions of their atomic weights.’
The Modern periodic table of elements is based on Mendeleev’s Dimitri Mendeleeff
observations.
It is the extension of the original Mendeleeff’s periodic table known as
short form of the table and this modern table is called the long form of the periodic
table
The only difference is instead of being arranged by atomic weights, the modern table is
arranged by atomic number (Z).
Modern Periodic Table:
Henry Moseley, in 1913, found that atomic number is more
fundamental property of an element than its atomic weight.
Atomic number helps in arranging the elements
according to their electronic configuration as it is indirectly
equal to the number of electrons of a neutral atom.
Atomic number of an element is equal to the number
Henry Moseley
of protons in an atom of the element since number of protons
equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
So, Atomic number of an element (Z) = Number of protons present in the atom = number of
electrons present in the neutral atom.
This atomic number concept forced the periodic law to be changed.
The periodic law is changed from atomic weight concept to atomic number concept and now it is
called the modern periodic law.
The Modern periodic law states that “the properties of the elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers.”
This law may be stated as “The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic functions
of the electronic configurations of their atoms.”
Positions of elements in the Modern Periodic Table
The modern
periodic table has
18 vertical columns
known as groups
and 7 horizontal
rows known as
periods.
The elements
with similar outer
shell (valence shell)
electronic
configurations in
their atoms are in the same column called group.
Depending on the differentiating electron’s sub-shell, the elements are classified as ‘s’ ‘p’, ‘d’ and
‘f’ block elements.
Let us observe the electronic configurations of the following elements. The last coming electron is
underlined.
Sodium: 11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Aluminium : 13Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Scandium : 21Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
Cerium : 58Ce 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 5d1 4f2
Sodium (Na) gets its differentiating electron into 3s level. Therefore ‘Na’ is an s-block element.
Aluminium (Al) gets its differentiating electron into ‘p’ sub shell and it is a p-block element.
Scandium (Sc) gets its differentiating electron into‘d’ sub shell. Therefore it is a d-block element.
Cerium (Ce) gets its new coming electron into ‘f’ sub shell; hence it is an f-block element.
Assessment
I.State the “Modern Periodic Law”

II.What are “s” block elements in the ‘Modern periodic table’?
III.Which property of atoms was used in Modern periodic table to classify the elements?
IV. What are ‘groups’ and ‘periods’ in the ‘periodic table’?
V. How does the electronic configuration of an atom of an element relate to its position in the modern
periodic table? Explain with an example.
1. The electronic configurations of an element is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. It belongs to ( )
a) S-block b) p-block c) d-block d) f-block
2. Number of groups in the Modern periodic table is ( )
a) 16 b) 8 c) 7 d) 18
3. The modern periodic table is based on ( )
a) Atomic number b) atomic weight c) neutrons d) No. of valence electrons
4. Which of the following statement (s) about the Modern Periodic Table are incorrect? ( )
i) The elements in the Modern Periodic Table are arranged on the basis of their decreasing atomic number
ii) The elements in the Modern Periodic Table are arranged on the basis of their increasing atomic weights
iii) The elements in the Modern Periodic Table are arranged on the basis of their decreasing atomic weights
iv) The elements in the Modern Periodic Table are arranged on the basis of their increasing atomic number
a) (i) only b) (i), (ii) and (iii) c) (i), (ii) and (iv) d) (iv) only
Name of the Topic/Concept:Modern Periodic Table - Groups Work sheet No: 69
Modern Periodic Table - Groups
Learning outcomes:
Explains about the groups in the Modern Periodic table.
Explains the element families in the periodic table.
Introduction:
Moseley
We have already known the Modern periodic law and the
classification of elements based on this law given by Moseley in 1913 .
According to him, ‘The physical and chemical properties of the elements
are periodic functions of the electronic configurations of their atoms.’
We know that the modern periodic table has 18 vertical columns known as
groups and 7 horizontal rows known as periods.
Depending on the differentiating electron’s sub-shell, the elements are
classified as ‘s’ ‘p’, ‘d’ and ‘f’ block elements.
Now let us understand about the groups in detail…..
Groups:
There are eighteen
groups in long form
of periodic table.
The elements
with similar outer
shell (valence shell)
electronic
configurations in their
atoms are in the
group.
They are
represented by using
Roman numeral I through VIII with letters A and B in traditional notation.
According to latest recommendation of the IUPAC, these groups are represented by Arabic numerals 1
through 18 with no A and B designations.
We use the latest system with the traditional heading following in parenthesis.
Ex: Group 2 (II A); Group 16 (VI A)
Group of elements is also called element family or chemical family.
For example Group 1 (IA) has from Li to Fr with outer shell electronic configuration ns 1 and is called
Alkali metal family.
Let us do the activity-2 given in the Text book for better understanding ……
Activity:2
Some main group elements of s-block and p-block have family names as given in the following table.
Observe the long form of the periodic table and complete the table with proper information.
Assessment
I. How many groups are there in the ‘Modern periodic table’?

II. Write the elements present in the Boron family.
III. Write the name of the element family for the following groups.
Group VIA, Group VIIA, Group IA
IV. Write the names of the elements belongs to Group 18.
V. Choose the correct answer
1. The Valence shell configuration of an element family is “ns1”. Then the name of the family is ( )
a) Nitrogen family b) Boron family c) Alkali metal family d) Halogen family
2. The valency of Boron family is ( )
a) 3 b) 4 c) 5 d) 2
3. The Valence shell configuration of Group IIA is ( )
a) ns1 b) ns2 c) np2 d) np3
Name of the Topic/Concept:Modern Periodic Table - Periods Work sheet No: 70
Modern Periodic Table - Periods
Learning outcomes:
Explains about the Periods in the Modern Periodic table.
Introduction:
We have already known about the groups in the Modern periodic table Proposed by Moseley.
We know that the modern periodic table has 18 vertical columns known as groups and 7 horizontal rows
known as periods.
The elements with similar outer shell (valence shell) electronic configurations in their atoms are in the
group.
Now let us understand about the periods in detail…..
Periods:
The horizontal
rows in the periodic
table are called
periods.
There are seven
periods in the modern
periodic table.
These periods are
represented by Arabic
numerals 1 to 7.
The number of
main shells present in
the atom of particular element decides to which period it belongs. For example, hydrogen (H) and helium
(He) atoms contain only one main shell (K). Therefore they belong to period-1.
The number of elements in period depends on how electrons are filled into various shells. Each period
starts with a new main shell ‘s’ sub shell and ends when the main shell is filled with respect to the ‘s’ and
‘p’sub shells (except the first period).
The first period starts with K-shell. The first main shell (K) contains only one sub-shell, the (1s). This
first period contains only two elements.
Second period starts with the 2nd main shell (L). Eight types of configurations are possible in this shell
(L) like 2s1 and 2s2 and 2p1 to 2p6. L-shell has two sub shells, namely, 2s and 2p. This second period
contains 8 elements Li, Be, B, C, N O, F and Ne in the order given.
Third period starts with third main shell (M). This shell (M) has 3 sub shells, namely, 3s, 3p and 3d, but
while electrons are being filled into the shell ‘3d’ gets electrons only after ‘4s’ is filled. Therefore, the 3 rd
period contains again 8 elements, which includes two s-block elements (Na, Mg) and six p-block elements
(Al to Ar).
Fourth period starts with fourth main shell (N). This shell (N) has four sub-shells namely 4s, 4p, 4d and
4f and this fourth period contains 18 elements.
Again the fifth period contains 18 elements i.e. from 37Rb to 54Xe.
There are thirty two elements in the Sixth period from 55Cs to 86Rn.
‘4f’ elements are called Lanthanoids or lanthanides.
There are thirty two elements in the Seventh period from 87Fr to 118Og.
The 5f elements are called Actinoids or as Actinides. They are from 90Th to 103Lr.
The f-block elements known as lanthanides and actinides are shown separately at the bottom of the
periodic table.
Assessment
I. How many Periods are there in the ‘Modern periodic table’?

II. Write the elements present in the 2nd period.
III. Write the names of the first and last elements belong to 5th period.
IV. Which block elements are called Lanthanides and actinides?
1. s-block elements in the 3rd period are ( )
a) Na, Mg b) Rb, Xe. c) Ca, Mg d) Cs, Rn
2. The Number of elements in the second period ( )
a) 2 b) 18 c) 8 d) 32
3. The Valence electron configuration of ‘Be’ is ( )
a) 2s1 b) 2s2 c) 2p2 d) 2p3
Name of the Topic/Concept:Modern Periodic Table – Metals and non Metals Work sheet No: 71
Modern Periodic Table - Metals and non Metals
Learning outcomes:
Gives examples for Metals and non Metals.
Introduction:
We have already known about the groups and periods in the Modern periodic table Proposed
by Moseley.
known as periods.
Now let us understand about Metals, Semi Metals and non Metals in detail…..
Metals and non Metals:
The elements
with three or less
electrons in the outer
shell are considered
to be metals and those
with five or more
electrons in the outer
shell are considered
to be non metals.
We may find some
exceptions to this. ‘d’
block elements (3rd
group to 12th group) are metals and they are also known as transition metals and the metallic character of d-
block elements decreases gradually from left to right in periodic table.
Lanthanoids and actinoids actually belong to 3rd group (III B) which is within the transition elements:
hence they are called the inner transition elements.
Metalloids or semi-metals are elements which have properties that are intermediate between the
properties of metals and non metals.
They possess properties like metals but brittle like non metals. They are generally semi conductors.
Eg: B, Si, As, Ge.
All elements in s-block are metals, whereas in p-block (except 18 th group) there are metals, non metals
and metalloids.
In the periodic table you will notice a staircase like separation.
The elements to the left of this separation are metals and to the right are non-metals.
The elements on staircase (or) very near to it like B, Si, As, Ge etc., are metalloids.
Assessment
I. Give two examples each for Metals and non Metals

II. Which block elements are called transition metals?
III. Write three examples of semi conductors.
IV. Name the block which contains only metals?
1. Metalloid among the following is ( )
a) Na b) Xe. c) As d) Rn
2. Inner transition elements belongs to ( )
a) s-block b) p-block c) d-block d) f-block
3. The elements to the left of the staircase like separation in the modern periodic table are ( )
a) Metals b) Non Metals c) Metalloids d) Semi conductors
Name of the Topic/Concept:Modern Periodic Table – Valence Work sheet No: 72
Modern Periodic Table - Valence
Learning outcomes:
Explains about the valency of an element in their own words.
Explains about the valency of an element with respect to hydrogen and oxygen.
Explains the trends of valence in Groups and in periods
Introduction:
by Moseley.
known as periods.
And also we know that the modern periodic table is organized on the basis of the electronic
configuration of the atoms of the elements. Physical and chemical properties of elements are related to
their electronic configurations particularly the outer most shell configurations.
The atoms of the elements in a group possess similar electronic configurations.
And the electronic configuration of valence shell of any two elements in a given period is not same.
Now let us understand about valence and its trend in Groups and in Periods in detail…..
Valence and its trend in Groups and in Periods:
The Valence (or)
valency of an element
was defined as the
combining power of
an element with
respect to hydrogen,
oxygen or indirectly
any other element
through hydrogen and
oxygen.
Valence of an element with respect to hydrogen is the number of hydrogen atoms with which one atom
of that element chemically combines.
Valence of an element with respect to oxygen is twice the number of oxygen atoms with which one
atom of that element combines.
In general, the valence of an element with respect to hydrogen is its traditional group number. That
means the valence of Group IA elements is 1 and Group IIA is 2.
If the element is in the group V or above, its valence is 8– group number.
For example, chlorine valence is 8-7 = 1.
In general, each period starts with valency 1 for 1st group elements, increases upto 4 with respect to the
group number and then decreases from 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 to zero in the following groups (This is applicable
only for main group elements i.e., ‘s’ and ‘p’ block elements with respect to hydrogen.)
Now a days the valence of an elment is generally taken as the number of valence shell (outer most shell)
electrons in its atom.
Assessment
I. Write about the trends of valence in Groups and in periods.

II. What is the Valence of an element with respect to oxygen?
III. What is the valence of Group VIA elements?
IV. Why does nitrogen have valence 3?
1. The element which is having valency 2 is ( )
a) Na b) Xe. c) Mg d) Rn
2. The valency of Group IA is ( )
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 1
3. The valency of Neon is ( )
a) 2 b) 3 c) 0 d) 5
Name of the Topic/Concept:Modern Periodic Table – Atomic radius Work sheet No: 73
Modern Periodic Table - Atomic radius
Learning outcomes:
Explains Atomic radius in their own words.
Explains the trends of Atomic radius in Groups and in periods
Explains about the atomic radius of cation and anion.
Introduction:
by Moseley.
known as periods.
We have already known about the valence and its trend in groups and periods.
Now let us understand about Atomic radius and its trends in the periodic table in
detail…..
Atomic radius and its trend in the Modern Periodic Table:
Atomic radius of an element may be difined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus of the atom to
its outermost shell.
Atomic radius of an element is not possible to measure in its isolated state.
However, we can measure the distance between the nuclei of adjacent atoms in a solid. From this we
can estimate the size of the atom by assigning half of this distance to the radius of
each atom.
Another way of estimating the size of an atom is to measure the
distance between the two atoms in covalent molecules.
The size of a chlorine atom is estimated by measuring the length of the
covalent bond between two chlorine atoms in a Cl2 molecule. Half of this
distance is taken as atomic radius which is called as the covalent radius of chlorine atom.
Atomic radius is measured in ‘pm’ (pico meter) units. 1 pm = 10-12m
Variation of atomic radii in group:
Atomic radii increase from top to bottom in a group
(column) of the periodic table. As we go down in a group,
the atomic number of the element increases.
As the number of shells in a group from top to bottom
increases, the distance between the nucleus and the outer shell
of the atom increases.
Hence the atomic size increases with atomic number when
we go down the group.
Variation of atomic radii in Period:
Atomic radii of elements decrease across a period from left to right.
As we go to right, electrons enter into the same main shell or even inner shell in case of ‘d’ block and
‘f’ block elements.
Therefore, there should be no change in distance between nucleus and outer shell but nuclear charge
increases because of the increase in the atomic number of elements in period.
Hence, the nuclear attraction on the outer shell electrons increases.As a result the size of the atom
decreases.
Do the atom of an element and its ion have same size?
Example -1: Assume that sodium (Na) atom has lost an electron and formed a cation of sodium (Na+).
As proton number is more than electrons in it, the nucleus of Na + ion attracts outer shell electrons with
strong nuclear force.
As a result the Na+ ion shrinks in size. Therefore, the size of Na+ ion is less than ‘Na’ atom.
The size of any positive ion is less than the size of its neutral atom.
Example – 2: Assume that chlorine (Cl) atom has gained an electron to form anion of chlorine (Cl –) i.e.
chloride ion.
As the number of electrons is more than the number of protons in it, the nuclear attraction is less in Cl –
ion when compared with chlorine atom. Therefore the size of the chlorine (Cl) atom is less size than Cl- ion.
The size of any negetive ion is more than the size of its neutral atom.
Assessment
I. What is atomic radius? Explain in your own words
II. Why does the atomic radius increase going down a group? Explain with the reason.
III. Do Al and Al+ have same size? Why?
IV. Choose the correct answer
1. Which has the maximum atomic radius? ( )
a) 13Al b) 14Si c) 15P d) 12Mg
2. Which one of the following indicates the correct order of atomic size of 2nd period elements? ( )
A) Be > F > C > Ne B) Be < C < F < Ne C) Be > C > F > Ne D) F < Ne < Be < C
Name of the Chapter: Classification of Elements-The Periodic Table
Name of the Topic: Modern Periodic Table – Ionization Energy & Electron Affinity Work sheet No: 74
Modern Periodic Table - Ionization Energy & Electron Affinity
Learning outcomes:
Explains Ionization Energy & Electron Affinity in their own words.
Explains the factors which influence the Ionization Energy & Electron Affinity of an atom.
Introduction:
We have already known about the Atomic radius and its trends in the Modern periodic table
Proposed by Moseley.
Now let us understand about Ionization Energy and its trends in the periodic table in
detail…..
Ionization Energy and its trend in the Modern Periodic Table:
The energy required to remove an electron from the outer most orbit or shell of a neutral gaseous atom
is called ionization energy.
The energy required to remove the first electron is called its first ionization energy.
The energy required to remove an electron from uni-positive ion of the element is called the 2 nd
ionization energy of that element and so on.
M(g) + IE1 → M+(g) + e- (IE1= first ionization energy)
M+(g) + IE2 → M+2(g) + e- (IE2= second ionization energy)
Ionization energy is expressed in kJ/mol
Ionization energy is also called the ionization potential but when we use the term ionization potential, it
is better to write the unit eV/atom.
The factors which influence the ionization energy:
Nuclear charge: More the nuclear charge more is
the ionization energy.
Screening effect or sheilding effect: More the
screening effect, less is the ionization energy.
Penetration power of the orbitals: orbitals belonging to the same main shell have diffrent piercing
power towards the nucleus, for examle 4s>4p>4d>4f in the penetration.
There fore, it is easier to remove 4f electron than 4s. Between 4Be 1s2 2s2 and 5B 1s2 2s2 2p1, the element
B has less ionization energy due to less penetration power of ‘2p’ compared to‘2s’.
Stable configuration: it is easier to remove one electron from 8O (1s22s22p4) than 7N (1s22s22p3). This is
because, 7N has stable half filled configuration.
Atomic radius: More the atomic radius, less is the ionization energy.
Variation of ionization energy in a group and in a period:
Ionization energy decreases as we go down in a group and generally increases from left to right in
a period.
Electron affinity and its trends in the Modern Periodic Table:
The electron affinity of an element is
defined as the energy liberated when an
electron is added to its neutral gaseous atom.
Electron affinity of an element is also called
electron gain enthalpy of that element.
Electron gain enthalpy values decrease as
we go down in a group, but increase along a
period from left to right.
Metals have very low electron gain enthalpy values and alkaline earth metals have even positive values.
All the factors which influence the ionization energy would also influence the electron gain enthalpy.
Assessment
I. What is Ionization energy? Explain in your own words

II. Write the factors which influence the Electron affinity? Explain with the reason.
III. Write the units to measure the Ionization energy.
IV. Ionization energy increases from left to right in a period. But 8O is having less ionization energy than
7N why? Give reason.
V. Arrange the following elements in the descending order of Ionization energy.
Na, K, Rb, Cs, Li
1. Out of Mg and Al which has higher ionization energy? ( )
A) Mg B) Al C) Both have same D) None
2. Which of the following elements has the lowest ionization energy? ( )
A) Be B) C C) F D) Ne
3. Which of the given atoms has the highest electron affinity?
A) Ca B) Ra C) Sr D) Be
4. Which of the following is correct about general trends regarding electron affinity? ( )
A) Electron affinity increases down a group and decreases across a period.
B) Electron affinity increases from bottom to top and decreases from left to right.
C) Electron affinity increases from bottom to top and increases from left to right.
D) Electron affinity decreases from bottom to top and decreases from left to right

9th Chemistry

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9th Chemistry

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STATE COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING

CLASS: X MEDIUM : English SUBJECT : Physical Sciences

Key concepts Interpreting a chemical equation

 Children can interpret information from a balanced chemical equation.

Interpreting a balanced chemical equation

ii. It gives the ratio of molecules of reactants and products.

1. Reactants - Carbon dioxide (CO2), Water (H2O)

2. Products – Glucose (C6H12O6), Oxygen (O2 )

4. Oxygen gas is liberated in this reaction.

5. In presence of sun light, chlorophyll acts as catalyst.

7. 6 x 44 gm CO2 reacts with 6 x 18 gm of H2O to form 180 gm of C6H12O6 and 6 x 32 gm of oxygen.

9. No. Of molecules in 6 x 44 gm of CO2 gas is = 6 x 6.022 x 10 23

No. Of molecules in 6 x 18 gm of H2O is = 6 x 6.022 x 10 23

No. Of molecules in 180 gm of C6H12O6 is = 6.022 x 10 23

No. Of molecules in 6 x 32 gm of O2 gas is = 6 x 6.022 x 10 23

Try to write all information interpreted by the following equations.

1. Zn(s) + H2SO4 (l) ZnSO4 (l)+ H2 (g) + Q

2. Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + NaCl(aq)

1. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

Calculate the number of hydrogen molecules participated in above reaction?

Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide liberated at STP .

3. 2AgCl(s) Ag(s) + Cl2g)

Calculate the number of moles of chlorine gas liberated.

4. Zn.(s)+ 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2g) + Q

Key concepts Mass – Mass relationship based on balanced chemical equation.

● We can learn the following relationships using chemiocal equation.

➢ Mass – Mass relationship

➢ Mass – Volume relationship

➢ Volume – Volume relationship

➢ Mass – Volume – molecule number relatioship

 STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ( S.T.P ) :

0O or 273K is standard temperature and standard pressure = 1 Bar = 76 cm of Hg = 76 mm of Hg

known as ‘ ONE MOLE ’.

Mass of 1 mole of substance expressed in grams is called molar mass.

 AVAGADRO NUMBER (N):

It is always constant. N = 6.022 X 10 23.

 GRAM MOLAR VOLUME :

Mass – Mass relationship:

Ex (1): Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) Al2O3 + Fe (l)

[ Atom is masses Al = 27U , Fe = 56U , and O = 16U ]

Sol: 2Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) Al2O3 + 2Fe (l)

54 U + 160 U 102 U + 112 U

54 gm + 160 gm 102 gm + 112 gm

As per balanced equation,

Amount of Al required to obtain 112 gm of Iron = 54 gm

Amount of Al required to obtain 1120 kg of Iron = ?

Similarly, solve the following.

1. What do you mean by Gram Molar Volume ?

3. CaCO3 CaO + CO2

A) 0oc temperature and 76 cm pressure

6. Mass of 0.5 mole of H2 gas = ……. [ ]

7. No. of molecules in 1 mole of a substance is ……… [ ]

Mass of water formed when 2gm of hydrogen reacts is ….

find the mass and molecule numer of hydrogen.

[ At. Mass of Na = 23U, At. Mass of O = 16U, At. Mass of H = 1U ]

2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

2 mol. of Na + 2 mol. of H2O 2 mol. of NaOH + 1 mol. of H2

Volume of 2 gm of H2 at STP = 22.4 lit

Mass – Molecule number relationship

➢ No. of molecules in 2 gm of H2 gas = 6.022 X 10 23

No. of molecules in 10 gm of H2 gas = ?

liberated during the reaction. [ C = 12 U , O = 16 U ]

Sol: C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + Q