Cns-Atm Resource Guide
Cns-Atm Resource Guide
Resource guide
For further support on how to get the most from this resource kit, please contact your local aviation safety
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For more detailed advice on CNS/ATM or to provide any general feedback regarding this resource kit,
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of each chapter.
ISBN 978-1-921475-46-7
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Notice: The information contained in this document was correct at the time of publishing and is subject
to change without notice. It has been prepared by CASA Aviation Safety Promotion for education
purposes only. This guide outlines foundational material—it should never be used as a replacement for
official manuals or procedures. Reference should be made to the appropriate procedures at all times
prior to the use of this information.
The Civil Aviation Safety Authority is responsible for the safety regulation of Australia’s civil aviation
operators and for the regulation of Australian-registered aircraft outside Australian territory.
1505.1970
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 1 Overview of CNS/ATM
Contents
Chapter 1 Chapter 4
Overview of CNS/ATM 5 Surveillance and ADS-B 43
Key points 40
Resources 41
3
Chapter 7 Chapter 9
Flight planning 81 Instrument flight rules operations 105
Many of these digital technologies have been around for some time. For
example, global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) receivers have been in
Australian civil aviation use since 1995.
What is new, however, is thinking of these technologies as an integrated system
of air traffic management.
In Australia, regulations mandate the fitting of CNS equipment such as
Mode S transponders and automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B)
to instrument flight rules (IFR)-operated aircraft. These are used in combination
to implement performance-based navigation (PBN).
Benefits of CNS/ATM
For pilots and operators, CNS/ATM offers significant efficiencies and
improvement in safety, particularly (but not only) for those operating under IFR.
For those involved in airspace management, such as air traffic controllers,
it means being able to process more aircraft more efficiently and safely.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 1 Overview of CNS/ATM
Limitation Effect
Radar and VHF Over oceans, aircraft are out of radar range and
have limited range use unreliable and inefficient HF radio for voice
communication.
Transmit limited Legacy technologies can be insufficient for automated
amount of systems to operate effectively.
information
Expensive Legacy technologies require large and costly
infrastructure structures on the ground, each one of which serves
only a limited area.
Benefit Effect
Global Many operators and pilots are now using a worldwide
satellite network.
High bandwidth The ability to transmit and receive large volumes
of digital data allows position reports and weather
forecasts to be transmitted automatically and
frequently, rather than relying on the limited information
of a voice transmission.
Accurate Global navigation satellite systems, such as GPS,
the Chinese BeiDou, the Russian GLONASS, and the
European Union’s Galileo have accuracies of single
metres or less when augmentation systems are used.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 1 Overview of CNS/ATM
Components of CNS/ATM
The relationship between the various components of communication,
navigation, surveillance and air traffic management systems can be
seen in the following diagram.
Navigation satellites
ADS-B IN
Radar
OUT
Surveillance
ADS-B
CPD / HF
LC
VHF
Communication satellite
AS
SB
GBAS
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 1 Overview of CNS/ATM
Communication
Radio
Voice communication using very high frequency (VHF) radio remains an
essential part of routine and emergency air to ground (and air to air)
communication. In emergency operations, voice tone and nuance provide
valuable information. Many pilots have spoken of the reassuring effect of hearing
a calm controller’s voice. However, VHF can transmit information only as fast
as a person can speak coherently, and it cannot handle multiple transmissions
on the same frequency. Technology such as controller-pilot data link
communications (CPDLC) can significantly reduce the demand for bandwidth
and time. Increasingly, routine air traffic management (ATM) air–ground
communication services will use data communications, with voice for real-time,
critical communication.
Aircraft can reply to ATC with a standard format message or in free text.
Messages from a controller normally follow a standard format, with response
required to most messages. CPDLC’s advantages include:
• reduced congestion of voice channels
• fewer communication errors
• lower workload for pilots and controllers.
Communication is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2 of this guide.
Navigation
Performance-based navigation (PBN) is the ‘N’ in CNS. PBN standards require
a particular level of navigation accuracy. Required navigation performance
(RNP) equipment must have on-board performance monitoring and alerting
systems to provide assurance the system is working properly. As with all CNS
standards, there is no specified technology. However in Australia, GNSS such
as GPS is the only practical means of performing en route, terminal and
approach operations.
PBN’s accuracy and cost advantages make it hard to justify maintaining an
extensive network of old-technology navaids, such as VHF omnidirectional
range (VORs) and non-directional beacons (NDBs). About half of these were
decommissioned in 2016, but Airservices Australia is maintaining some as a
backup navigation network (BNN). Read more about PBN and its practical
applications in Chapter 6.
Surveillance
The S in CNS stands for surveillance, such as automatic dependent
surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B). This technology uses GNSS equipment and
a transponder-like broadcaster to determine the aircraft’s height, position and
speed, and broadcasts this, along with its identity, twice per second.
Australia has had an operational ADS-B network since 2009. It uses a network
of ground stations to ‘listen’ to these aircraft broadcasts and transmit
information to ATC and to aircraft with ADS-B IN equipment. Aircraft fitted with
ADS-B IN can also receive aircraft transmissions and display them to the pilot
for situational awareness. ADS-B is seamless between countries.
In some parts of Australia, a system known as multilateration (MLAT) uses
existing aircraft transponders and a network of ground receivers as an
alternative to radar and/or ADS-B.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 1 Overview of CNS/ATM
1960s Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) had their roots in the
Cold War when the United States and Soviet Union launched the
first systems. Designed for military applications, including missile
guidance, the first-generation technology was crude.
1970s The US launched its global positioning system (GPS), and the
Soviets, GLONASS. Before long, the technology was being used
in just about every aspect of civilian life, including aviation.
1994 CASA’s predecessor, the Civil Aviation Authority, approved the
use of GPS as a supplemental IFR en route navigation aid, putting
Australia at the forefront of regulation of GNSS technology.
1998 The development of GPS non-precision approaches (NPAs) began
when a non-precision approach (NPA) for Goulburn Airport, near
Canberra, was given the green light. Fuelled by the low cost of
GNSS and safety enhancement of straight-in approaches, NPAs
proliferated and many Australian airports now have them. The first
approvals for GPS approaches were based on technical standard
order (TSO) C129 equipment, but that technology had reached its
limits by the turn of the century.
2000s Superseded by units delivering gains in accuracy, integrity and
continuity of service, the TSO C145, C146 and C196 receivers
enabled general aviation pilots to spend more time utilising data from
satellites 20,000 km above the Earth’s surface. GNSS equipment
with augmentation was designed to allow precision approaches and
automatic landing.
2002 The US introduced the first satellite-based augmentation system
(SBAS) and authorised localiser performance with vertical guidance
(LPV) approaches with decision altitudes similar to ILS Cat 1.
2004 ICAO set the global direction for PBN, establishing area navigation
(RNAV) and required navigation performance (RNP) specifications.
2007 ADS-B avionics were first used for in flight operations in Australia,
with non-complying ADS-B units disabled.
2009 Australia submitted a PBN implementation plan to ICAO and tabled
a 2010–2016 timetable for implementation of approaches with
vertical guidance.
2012 Australian rules for ICAO-standard PBN specifications published.
Australia-specific navigation specifications withdrawn from use.
2016 Mandate requiring all Australian-registered aircraft operating under
IFR to be fitted with GNSS avionics came into effect. Airservices
Australia turned off around 180 ground-based navigation aids as
part of the transition to GNSS-based navigation.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 1 Overview of CNS/ATM
Benefits
The main benefits of CNS/ATM are:
• increased aircraft capacity, especially in congested airspace
• increased schedule flexibility
• better flight path efficiency
• less disruption due to delays and diversions
• increased efficiency from reduced separation minimum.
500 ft
1000 ft
2000 ft
In-trail separation
Vertical separation
Reduced vertical separation minimums (RVSM)
above 29,000 ft = (FL290)
Within the confines of an airport control zone, the separation can be as close as
practicable as long as the aircraft remain separated. In airspace not monitored
by radar or other satellite-based navigation services, aircraft separation is
achieved by the use of procedural rules including time and estimated position.
The rules
CASA is moving towards a complete set of operating rules for private
operations, and will supplement the rules applicable to corporate/business,
air experience, aerial work and air transport operations.
For an updated list of applicable rules see the CASA website at:
www.casa.gov.au/landing-page/rules-and-regulations
Key points
• CNS brings together satellite and digital communications,
performance-based navigation (PBN) and automatic dependent
surveillance broadcast (ADS-B). The advantages of modern CNS
technologies are that they are global, high bandwidth and accurate.
• The use of satellite navigation systems where the user performs
on-board position determination from satellite information has been
adopted as global navigation satellite systems (GNSS).
• The chief air traffic management benefit of CNS is reduced aircraft
separation in IFR. Aircraft can now be operated closer together, with
no compromise to safety.
• Controller-pilot data link communications (CPDLC), used in Australia
since 1998, is a means of communication between air traffic control
(ATC) and pilot, using a data link instead of voice. Its three main
advantages include reduced congestion of voice channels, fewer
communication errors and reduced workload for pilots and controllers.
• Required navigation performance (RNP) equipment must have
on-board performance monitoring and alerting systems to provide
assurance the system is working properly.
• ADS-B uses a network of ground stations to ‘listen’ to these aircraft
broadcasts and transmit information to ATC twice per second and, if
they have ADS-B IN equipment, to the aircraft.
Resources
Further reading
CASA (2014). SMS for Aviation—A Practical Guide (2nd edition). Canberra.
CASA (2016). Communications, navigation, surveillance/air traffic
management. Retrieved April 2017 from: www.casa.gov.au/airspace/
landing-page/air-traffic-management
ICAO (2012). Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Manual.
Doc 9849 AN/457. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.icao.int/Meetings/
anconf12/Documents/Doc.%209849.pdf
References
Airservices Australia (2015). Separation standards. Retrieved April 2017
from: http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/services/how-air-traffic-control-
works/separation-standards/
CASA (2016). Bringing it all together: CNS/ATM. Flight Safety
Australia, January−February. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.
flightsafetyaustralia.com/2016/01/bringing-it-all-together-cnsatm/
CASA (2016). CASR Part 91 General operating and flight rules.
Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/casr-
part-91-general-operating-and-flight-rules
CASA (2006). Civil Aviation Advisory Publication 179A-1(1).
Navigation using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Canberra.
CASA (2015). Meet the experts: CNS/ATM. Flight Safety Australia,
January−February. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.
flightsafetyaustralia.com/2015/02/meet-the-experts-cnsatm/
CASA (2006). Overview. Global Navigation Satellite Systems. Canberra.
CASA (2017). Rules and regulations. Retrieved January 2017 from:
https://www.casa.gov.au/landing-page/rules-and-regulations
CASA (2014). Stress and the human factor. Flight Safety Australia,
July−August. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.flightsafetyaustralia.
com/2014/08/stress-and-the-human-factor/
ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) (1994). Human factors
digest no 11. Human Factors in CNS/ATM systems. Circular 249-AN/149.
Montreal, Canada.
The communications element of communication,
navigation, and surveillance in air traffic management
(CNS/ATM) is evolving with technology. Although
emerging communication technology means more
use is being made of data link communications, most
operations will still use very high frequency (VHF) and
high frequency (HF) voice communication.
SATCOM voice
In the 1990s, ICAO determined that future primary long-range communications
with aircraft would be by HF or SATCOM data link, and at the time made
no provision for satellite voice (SATVOICE). Under ICAO Standards and
Recommended Practices (SARPs), SATVOICE is not recognised as an
acceptable means of communication for air traffic services (ATS) purposes.
However, the transition to data link communications has not happened as
envisioned, and HF voice communication remains a primary means of long-
range communication.
Some countries have allowed SATVOICE to be used in lieu of a second HF
communications system, providing the aircraft installation and ground segments
of the system meet performance standards.
Status in Australia
SATVOICE is not authorised for ATS use in Australia because the Airservices
Australia communications infrastructure does not support SATVOICE operations.
However, SATVOICE in North Atlantic high level airspace (NAT HLA) is permitted
when authorised by CASA. About 3000 aircraft fly across the North Atlantic
airspace daily, with approvals to operate in the ICAO NAT region airspace based
on ICAO NAT DOC 007.
For unrestricted operations in the NAT region, operators must have fully
functioning HF communications equipment. While SATVOICE and datalink
communications are gradually being introduced into NAT operations, operators
may still need HF datalink as back-up.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 2 Communication
Operators who can demonstrate compliance with the ICAO satellite voice
guidance material (SVGM) requirements may be authorised by CASA to use
SATVOICE in the NAT HLA region. Aircraft must meet installation requirements
and operational procedures must be appropriate.
In transitioning to performance-based navigation (PBN) requirements in this
airspace by 30 January 2020, North Atlantic minimum navigation performance
specification (NAT MNPS) was redesignated as the North Atlantic high level
airspace (NAT HLA).
Operations
Aircraft operating in North Atlantic high level airspace require a CASA issued
navigation authorisation until 30 January 2020, to coincide with the transition
to PBN.
Key points
• Communication and surveillance are being transformed by the
introduction of four dimensional trajectories which allow air traffic
controllers (ATCs) to plot the precise flight path an aircraft will take
before an aircraft takes off, allowing them to map out the projected
trajectories of all flights in Australian airspace.
• CPDLC, used in Australia since 1998, is a means of communication
between ATC and pilot, using a data link instead of voice. Its main
advantages include reduced congestion of voice channels, fewer
communication errors and reduced workload for pilots and controllers.
• Aircraft operating in North Atlantic high level airspace require a CASA
issued navigation authorisation until 30 January 2020, to coincide with
the transition to PBN.
Resources
Further reading
Airservices Australia (2016). OneSKY Australia program. Retrieved April
2017 from: http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/projects/onesky-australia/
References
Airservices Australia (2013). The Importance of Accurate Position
Estimates. Safety Bulletin, 12 March. Retrieved April 2017 from:
http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/wp-content/uploads/12-March-2013-
Importance-of-accurate-position-edtimates.pdf
CASA (2016). North Atlantic high level airspace operations. Retrieved
April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/north-atlantic-
high-level-airspace-operations
CASA (2016). SATCOM voice. Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.
gov.au/standard-page/satcom-voice
ICAO (2013). Review of ADS-C/CPDLC Operations. The 2nd Meeting of
the Future Air Navigation Systems Interoperability Team-Asia (FIT-Asia/2).
28-29 March. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.icao.int/APAC/
Meetings/2013_FIT_Asia2_RASMAG18/IP04%20Use%20of%20CPDLC%20
%20ADS-C%20in%20Australia.pdf
Skybrary (2016). Navigation by Radio Aids. Retrieved April 2017 from:
http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Navigation_by_Radio_Aids
Australians have been early adopters of satellite
navigation, using it for many activities and applications
including aviation. The global nature of the technology
is suited to Australia’s large land mass and low
population density.
GNSS constellations
There are four major GNSS constellations:
• the USA’s NavStar Global Positioning System (GPS)
• the Russian Federation’s GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
• the European Union’s Galileo GNSS
• China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite System.
Up to now ICAO standards have been published for GPS and GLONASS.
Each system comprises a constellation of orbiting satellites supported
by ground stations and aircraft receivers. These orbiting systems need to
be complemented or ‘augmented’ by additional systems to produce the
performance required by certain operations.
Developments in satellite technology and its use for aircraft navigation suggest
that new satellite navigation systems will evolve in the future, each with unique
characteristics. The four major GNSS constellations are outlined in the
following table.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 3 Global navigation satellite systems
Augmentation systems
Having a way of alerting users that GNSS is underperforming is critical to the
safety of the system. GNSS avionics have software to protect integrity—the
measure of trust in the information supplied by the total system.
Integrity includes the ability of a system to provide timely warnings to the user
when the system cannot be used for the intended operation.
Aircraft based, satellite-based and ground-based augmentation systems can
ensure integrity. A number of augmentation systems can be used to improve the
navigational performance provided by the GNSS constellations.
ABAS
Aircraft-based augmentation systems (ABAS) use on-board equipment
designed to overcome performance limitations of the GNSS constellations.
Current ABAS stand-alone receivers are designed to resolve integrity
deficiencies. Highly integrated systems may use other aids such as inertial
navigation.
The two ABAS currently in use are receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
(RAIM) and the aircraft autonomous integrity monitor (AAIM).
RAIM
RAIM ensures that:
• an erroneous ranging signal from a satellite will not adversely affect the
accurate navigation of the aircraft
• the constellation geometry is good enough to provide an accurate position—
that is, the satellites are spread evenly across the sky
• if an error is detected within the constellation, pilots are notified that they
cannot rely on GNSS for navigation.
RAIM calculates the worst error that might exist in the satellite that is most
difficult to detect it in. GNSS avionics compare the navigation solutions from at
least six satellites with the solution using all satellites except one. If there is a
substantial difference between the two solutions, it is reasonable to assume an
error in one satellite.
Upon detection of an error, some avionics can continue to operate by removing
the erroneous satellite from the navigation solution—this is called fault detection
and exclusion (FDE). However, if a second satellite is detected with a faulty
ranging signal, the avionics will notify the pilot that GNSS cannot be relied upon
for navigation. If the avionics cannot remove the satellite, it has fault detection
(FD) only.
All TSO-C145, TSO-C146, and TSO-C196 GNSS receivers have FDE.
Some TSO-C129 GNSS receivers have FDE, while others have FD only.
The effect of constellation geometry depends on the phase of flight. As long as
the horizontal protection level (HPL)—the measure of how good the geometry
is—remains less than the required navigation performance (RNP) value for the
phase of flight, the operation can continue. Some examples of RNP values for
different phases of flight are:
• en route: RNP 2 (2 NM)
• terminal: RNP 1 (1 NM)
• approach: RNP 0.3 (0.3 NM)
• missed approach: RNP 1 (1 NM).
If GNSS avionics cannot provide a navigation solution with RAIM, they usually
have two other modes of operation:
• 2D or 3D navigation solution without RAIM, or
• dead reckoning (DR), or loss of navigation solution.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 3 Global navigation satellite systems
RAIM outages
RAIM outages, or holes, are times when there are too few satellites with the
appropriate spacing for integrity monitoring. This can be anticipated with RAIM
predictions from Airservices Australia at www.airservicesaustralia.com
AAIM
Aircraft autonomous integrity monitor (AAIM) uses the redundancy of position
estimates from multiple sensors, including GNSS, to provide integrity
performance that is at least equivalent to RAIM. AAIM uses inertial navigation
solutions as an integrity check of the GPS solution when RAIM is unavailable,
but GPS positioning information continues to be valid.
SBAS
Satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS) support wide-area or regional
augmentation by using additional satellite-broadcast messages—ranging,
integrity and tracking signals.
Geostationary satellites about 40,000 km above the globe are in orbits timed
with the Earth’s rotation. As the name suggests, they appear stationary with
respect to a point on the ground. These geostationary satellites are owned and
operated independently of the GNSS constellations.
Geosatellite
Remote satellite
measurement unit
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 3 Global navigation satellite systems
GBAS
Ground-based augmentation systems (GBAS) provide GPS integrity monitoring
through data obtained from the ground. They also boost the accuracy of satellite
navigation, clearing the way for GNSS precision approach and landing.
An airport ground station transmits locally relevant corrections, integrity data and
approach data to aircraft in the terminal area in the VHF band.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 3 Global navigation satellite systems
Ground-based augmentation
Ground-based systems
Navigation by radio aids includes navigation mainly by reference to indications
of bearing and distance indicated on VHF omnidirectional ranges (VOR),
distance measuring equipment (DME) and automatic direction finding (ADF)
equipment located on the aircraft. This information is derived from ground
radio beacons (VOR, DME and non-directional beacons [NDBs]) or broadcast
stations in the AM band.
Radio navigation aids and systems can be used by pilots to:
• determine aircraft position fix solely with reference to navigation aids
and systems
• intercept tracks to and from navigation aids and systems
• maintain tracks within specified tolerances
• record, assess and revise timings as required
• recognise station passage
• undertake instrument approaches.
z R1 R2 R3 R4
y
x
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 3 Global navigation satellite systems
The GPS unit displays the coordinates as latitude and longitude, or as bearing
and distance information relative to a known point. Current approvals for the
use of GPS equipment in IFR operations require GPS-derived data to be in the
WGS-84 coordinate system, or worldwide geodetic datum standard 84.
Availability
Availability is defined as the percentage of time the services of a navigation
system are accessible. It’s a function of both the physical characteristics of the
environment and the technical capabilities of the transmitter facilities.
GNSS availability is the system’s capacity to provide the number of satellites
required for position fixing within the specified coverage area. Theoretically,
at least three satellites need to be in view to determine a two-dimensional
(2D) position. In practice, four are required to establish an accurate three-
dimensional (3D) position.
As mentioned on page 35, selective availability (SA) was, until 2000, used by the
US Department of Defense to limit the accuracy of GPS to other than approved
users. It artificially created a significant clock or ephemeris error. Many early GPS
receivers were ‘hard-wired’ for SA in the expectation that civil use would need to
assume that SA was active.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 3 Global navigation satellite systems
Integrity
Integrity is the ability of a system to provide timely warnings to the user when
the equipment is unreliable for navigation purposes. The concept of integrity
includes both a failure to alarm and a false alarm.
In Australia, conventional ground-based navigation aids incorporate monitoring
equipment at the ground site. Should the equipment detect an out-of-tolerance
condition, the transmitter is shut down, and the user alerted by means of a flag
or loss of aural identification.
GNSS integrity relates to the trust that can be placed in the accuracy of the
information supplied by the total system. This includes the ability of the system
to notify the pilot if a satellite is transmitting erroneous signals.
Individual GNSS satellites are not continuously monitored, and several hours
can elapse between the onset of a failure and its detection and correction.
Without some additional integrity monitoring, a clock or ephemeris error, for
example, can have a significant effect on any navigation system using that
satellite.
RAIM is the most common form of integrity monitoring and is discussed in
more detail earlier in this chapter. Many non-aviation and non-TSO GPS
receivers do not monitor integrity and will continue to display a navigation
solution based on erroneous data.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 3 Global navigation satellite systems
Continuity
Continuity is the probability that the performance of a system, comprising all
elements needed to maintain an aircraft’s position within a defined area), will be
maintained from the beginning to the end of an operation.
How many GNSS satellites does your aircraft receiver need to ‘see’ for
various operations?
Navigation databases
RNP approaches require the use of a valid and current database.
The data on the GNSS approach extracted from the database includes other
parameters for the approach, not just the waypoint positions. This information
is used by the receiver to alter the course deviation indicator (CDI) scaling and
change the RAIM protection limits.
The approaches are coded as a series of waypoints which the receiver can
retrieve and automatically sequence during an approach. Included with the
waypoint coordinates in the database is information about the waypoint type.
This information includes whether the waypoint is a fly-over point, or a fly-by
point, and whether it is an initial, intermediate, final or missed approach point.
Under the requirements of CAO 20.91:
• the database must be valid for the current aeronautical information
regulation and control (AIRAC) cycle
• all terminal routes—standard instrument departures (SIDs), standard
terminal arrival routes (STARs) and approaches—must be loaded from
the database and may not be modified by the pilot except as provided for
in the CAO.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 3 Global navigation satellite systems
Key points
• The four major GNSS constellations are the USA’s NavStar Global
Positioning System (GPS), the Russian Federation’s GLObal NAvigation
Satellite System (GLONASS), European Union’s Galileo GNSS and
China’s BeiDou navigation satellite system.
• GNSS antennas on aircraft pick up signals generated from
constellations of satellites. It is expected that about 120 satellites will be
available once all four major systems are fully deployed by 2020.
• GNSS uses the difference in the time of travel of radio waves from at
least four satellites to fix the position of the receiver and get an accurate
value for time.
• Aviation GNSS units have software to protect integrity—the measure
of trust you can place in the information supplied by the total system.
Integrity includes the ability of a system to provide timely warnings to the
user when the system must not be used for the intended operation.
• RAIM outages, or holes, are times when there are too few satellites with
the appropriate spacing for integrity monitoring. The holes move in time
and space, so you need a new prediction from Airservices Australia
each time you fly.
• GNSS is now the primary means of navigation for all instrument flight
rules aircraft, and is supported by the backup navigation network (BNN).
Resources
Airservices Australia (2016). Navigation Rationalisation Project.
Retrieved April 2017 from: www.airservicesaustralia.com/projects/nrp/
Beidou Navigation Satellite System (2016). Service target.
Retrieved April 2017 from: http://en.beidou.gov.cn/
CASA (2006). Civil Aviation Advisory Publication 179A-1(1). Navigation
using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Canberra.
CASA (2006). Overview. Global Navigation Satellite Systems. Canberra.
CASA (2014). Performance-based Navigation. Canberra.
CASA (2016). Performance-based Navigation in Australian airspace.
Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/file/163716/
download?token=yXyFCHap
European GNSS Service Centre (2016). Constellation Information. Retrieved
April 2017 from: http://www.gsc-europa.eu/system-status/Constellation-
Information
European Space Agency (2014). Beidou General Introduction. Retrieved
April 2017 from: http://www.navipedia.net/index.php/BeiDou_General_
Introduction
Federal Aviation Administration (2014). Global SBAS Status. Retrieved April
2017 from: http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/
service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/library/briefings/media/SBAS_
Global_Status_June%202014.pdf
Federal Space Agency Information-Analytical Centre (2016). GLONASS
Constellation Status. Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.glonass-iac.ru/
en/GPS/
Li, Zhang, Ren, Fritche, Wickert and Schuh (2015). Precise positioning
with current multi-constellation Global Navigation Satellite Systems:
GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and BeiDou. Retrieved April 2017 from:
http://www.nature.com/articles/srep08328
National Coordination Office for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation,
and Timing (2015). New Civil Signals. Retrieved April 2017 from:
http://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/modernization/civilsignals/
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (2015). Current GPS Satellite Data,
April. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/sathtml/
satinfo.html
Skybray (2016). Non-precision approach. Retrieved April 2017 from:
http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Non-Precision_Approach
Skybray (2016). Precision approach. Retrieved from April 2017 from:
http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Precision_Approach
The surveillance component of CNS/ATM, GNSS-
based automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast
(ADS-B) has evolved from radar.
• What is ADS-B? 44
• Benefits of ADS-B 47
• Using ADS-B 48
• ADS-B phraseology 53
• Operations 55
• Aircraft equipment 57
• Key points 58
• Resources 59
44
CNS/ATM | Chapter 4 Surveillance and ADS-B
What is ADS-B?
ADS-B is a broadcast surveillance system in which an aircraft automatically
transmits to a ground station and other air traffic its identity, precise location,
altitude, velocity and other information. The system requires an aircraft to be
fitted with systems such as a barometric encoder and global navigation satellite
system (GNSS) equipment. While ADS-B is required only for aircraft operating
under instrument flight rules (IFR), it also offers substantial benefits for visual
flight rules (VFR) pilots.
ADS-B ground stations comprise a receiver unit, an antenna and a site monitor.
Ground stations across Australia are connected to the Airservices Australia
digital communication infrastructure and, combined with radar, provide
continent-wide, line-of-sight surveillance coverage above 30,000 ft, as well as
significant coverage at lower levels.
ADS-B uses the same transponder as, but operates independently of, the
aircraft radar and traffic collision alerting and avoidance (TCAS) systems. Most
modern Mode S secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponders are capable
of transmitting SSR and ADS-B (also termed extended squitter) data. However
Mode A/C and some older Mode S transponders do not support ADS-B.
Australia, Europe, the US, and the rest of the world have implemented ADS-B
on the Mode S frequency band of 1090 MHz—most commonly called ten-ninety
ES (extended squitter). In the USA, the FAA has deployed a redundant ADS-B
system on 978 MHz called universal access transponder (UAT) for aircraft that
operate below 18,000 feet. This system is not deployed in Australia and the
avionics will not work—when importing an aircraft from the US, ensure it has the
correct ADS-B equipment on board.
Existing radar
coverage (10,000 ft)
Existing radar
coverage (30,000 ft)
ADS-B coverage (10,000 ft)
ADS-B coverage (30,000 ft)
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 4 Surveillance and ADS-B
ADS-B OUT
An ADS-B transmitter enables the identity, position and altitude of an aircraft to
be determined and displayed to an air traffic controller. The signal is broadcast
from the aircraft approximately every half second and, provided the aircraft is
within the coverage volume of an ADS-B ground station, the data can be fed to
the ATC facility and used to provide air traffic services.
ADS-B transmission
Information includes: position, altitude,
identity, velocity vector and vertical rate.
Typically broadcast twice per second.
ATC facility
ADS-B IN
Aircraft may also be equipped with a cockpit display of traffic information
(CDTI) and associated receiver to display the broadcast positions of ADS-B
OUT aircraft. CDTI may be combined with other systems, such as moving
map navigation displays.
Aircraft fitted
with ADS-B
transmitter only
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 4 Surveillance and ADS-B
Benefits of ADS-B
Australia’s adoption of ADS-B for air traffic surveillance across the continent
outside conventional radar coverage offers a range of benefits to commercial
and general aviation pilots flying using IFR. These are:
Assistance in-flight
Aircraft fitted with ADS-B experiencing any kind of in-flight incident or emergency
will have their location more accurately pinpointed, meaning search and rescue
operators will be able to respond more rapidly, particularly in remote areas.
Controllers routinely provide pilots with navigation assistance if they lose their
position due to instrument failure, weather, or if they become incapacitated.
This availability is enhanced by the precise accuracy of ADS-B.
There are many reasons to request altitude or flight level changes during flight,
including avoiding poor weather, and reducing fuel burn and carbon dioxide
emissions by improving the efficiency of your engine. Fitting ADS-B in your
aircraft will raise the likelihood of ATC granting altitude or flight level changes
during your flight, as they will more accurately ‘see’ your position in the air in
relation to other aircraft nearby.
Using ADS-B
Before you fly with ADS-B, find out what you have to do. In most cases, this
will be very little other than entering the correct fields in the flight plan, as the
ADS-B broadcast is automatic. However, safe flight relies on you understanding
what ATC might require of you, how to handle emergencies, and how to use the
cockpit interface effectively.
ADS-B systems typically broadcast two means of identifying the transmitting
aircraft:
• the aircraft address (also known as the 24-bit code), and
• the flight identification (FLTID)—the visual equivalent of a call sign—used to
identify targets on a display and link them to their flight plans.
Aircraft address
Each aircraft has a unique aircraft address, which consists of a 24-bit code
allocated by CASA. This code is usually entered into the unit by a licensed
aviation maintenance engineer (LAME) at installation and may be expressed
in either binary or hexadecimal format. The code is on the aircraft registration
letter sent to aircraft owners by CASA. If your aircraft is not registered by
CASA, you can get a code from the aircraft registry. See the CASA website
www.casa.gov.au for more information.
The 24-bit aircraft address is safety critical information, so ensure it is correct
before flying. An incorrect address could lead to traffic collision and avoidance
systems (TCAS) on your or other aircraft not functioning correctly, to ATC
confusing your aircraft with another, or not being able to ‘see’ it at all.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 4 Surveillance and ADS-B
Flight identification
The FLTID is used in both ADS-B and Mode S secondary surveillance radar
(SSR) technology. Up to seven characters long, it is usually set in airline aircraft
by the flight crew via a cockpit interface. It enables air traffic controllers to
identify an aircraft on a display and to correlate a radar or ADS-B track with the
flight plan data.
Aircraft identification is critical information, so enter it carefully; punching in the
wrong characters could lead to ATC confusing your aircraft with another. It is
important that the identification exactly matches the aircraft identification (ACID)
entered in the flight notification.
Air traffic control might ask you to change your FLTID if possible, so you must
know if you can do so and how (see below). They might also ask you to stop
transmitting an ADS-B signal because they have detected an error, such as
altimeter failure, in your equipment. If you cannot do this, notify ATC immediately.
(See ADS-B phraseology on page 53 for more detail.)
Intuitive correlation between an aircraft’s flight identification and radio call sign
enhances situational awareness and communication. Airline aircraft will use the
three-letter ICAO airline code used in flight plans, not the two-letter IATA codes.
ALT
SB
A typical field 10b flight plan entry for an ADS-B equipped aircraft
will be: (Field 10a content)/EB1.
An aircraft address code is not usually needed on flight plans. However, if ATC
has approved the use of a FLTID different from the ACID, the aircraft address will
be needed to correlate the flight plan to the aircraft. Enter the aircraft address in
item 18 of the flight notification as hexadecimal code (e.g. CODE/7C81CB).
Hexadecimal code is complex and non-intuitive, and easy to enter incorrectly, so
use it only when necessary and check it carefully. If you lodge flight notification
by radio, tell air traffic services the aircraft FLTID if it differs from the call sign.
How the FLTID must exactly match aircraft in your ATS flight plan
INIT
CO RTE FROM/TO
YBBN-YSSY YBBN/YSSY
ALTN RTE ALTN
YSCB
FLTID
ABC123
LATáâ LONG
2723 ON 15306.0E
COST INDEX
75 WIND >
CRZ FL/TEMP TROP O
FL360 /-50˚ 34000
FLTID entered in FMS/MCDU must exactly match ACID in ATS flight plan
(FPL-ABC123-IS
-B734/M-SDHIRWZ/C
-YBBN0735
-M074F360 DCT LAV H62 CORKY H39 SY DCT
-YSSY0106
-REG/VHAUS PER/B RMK/ADSB NAV/
GPSNAVSATPHONE)
If you enter ACID or FLTID codes incorrectly, ATC might not be able to see
your aircraft, or might confuse it with another. You could also affect other
systems, such as TCAS. The codes are flight critical information, so enter
them carefully.
ADS-B transmitters must not send spurious information. If ATC instructs
you to stop transmitting, you must turn off your ADS-B transmitter* and
not turn it on again before it has been checked, and if necessary, repaired
or reset.
* Many ADS-B installations share controls with the SSR transponder, so you cannot
operate the two systems independently. If you cannot comply with a particular
instruction, advise ATC and ask for alternative instructions.
ADS-B phraseology
Specific and generic radio phraseology is used for ADS-B and radar services.
You should use specific phraseology when it is necessary to differentiate
between radar and ADS-B. The ADS-B equivalent of ‘squawk’ is ‘transmit’ and
ADS-B is pronounced ‘ay-dee-ess-bee’ over the radio.
Otherwise, you can use generic phraseology when it is not necessary to
differentiate between a service provided by radar and one provided by ADS-B.
In many of these cases, no change to existing phraseology is required. For
example, ‘identified’ and the various vectoring instructions apply to either
technology.
The following table lists some examples, but users should check the AIP for the
current terminology.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 4 Surveillance and ADS-B
* Some older ADS-B installations may not provide for entry of FLTID, transmission of Ident,
or isolation of pressure altitude by the pilot. Such systems are no longer compliant with
CAOs. Some ADS-B installations may share controls with the SSR transponder, so that
you cannot operate the two systems independently. If you cannot comply with a particular
instruction, advise ATC and ask for other instructions.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 4 Surveillance and ADS-B
Operations
Emergency codes
The method for notifying ATC of an emergency depends on the type of
equipment carried and the surveillance coverage available, so make sure you
know which equipment is on board. Does the aircraft have an ADS-B emergency
function? Or an on/off switch only? Is it linked to the transponder, so that
squawking 7600 also sends an ADS-B communications failure message?
Selection of an emergency transponder code, e.g. 7600, automatically
generates an emergency indication in the ADS-B message. However, many
transponders transmit only a generic ADS-B emergency indication. That means
the specific type of emergency, such as communications failure, may not
be conveyed to controllers in an ADS-B environment. Some general aviation
installations may not broadcast any form of ADS-B emergency indication.
Radar or ADS-B?
You may not always know which surveillance system is being used and how
you are being controlled. You may be told only that you have been ‘identified’,
but it may not be clear whether you have been identified with radar, ADS-B or
both. Unless ATC uses specific phraseology, use both ADS-B and transponder
equipment to give the controller the best surveillance picture.
Aircraft equipment
In Australia, ADS-B is transmitted on the 1090 MHz extended squitter datalink,
also known as ‘Ten Ninety’. Standards for the extended squitter avionics are
defined in Civil Aviation Order 20:18. CASA has also published Australian TSOs
C1004 and C1005.
ADS-B equipment can have various pilot interfaces, ranging from a simple on/off
switch for the transmitter to a pilot control interface with advanced features, such
as a cockpit display of traffic information.
It may also be combined with other systems, such as a secondary surveillance
radar (SSR) transponder, traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) or
multifunction display (MFD). In most aircraft installations, the SSR transponder
control module in the cockpit also controls the ADS-B transmitter; operating the
SSR system will also operate the ADS-B system.
International variations
A number of states around the world are implementing ADS-B. While
harmonised as much as possible, there are some differences in equipment
requirements and fitment. For example, the USA requires either DO260B (also
accepted by Australia) or universal access transceiver (UAT) technology, which
is not used in Australia.
Anyone importing a GA category aircraft from the United States should make
sure the ADS-B fitted is the 1090MHz system, not the UAT system. Anyone who
has imported an IFR aircraft since February 2014 should make sure it is ADS-B
and Mode S capable.
Key points
• ADS-B avionics broadcast identification, position, altitude, velocity and
other data automatically about every half second, with air-to-ground
and air-to-air applications.
• Aircraft fitted with ADS-B experiencing any kind of in-flight incident
or emergency will have their location more accurately pinpointed,
meaning search and rescue operators will be able to respond more
rapidly, particularly in remote areas.
• Operators who meet the Australian requirements for ADS-B operations
must indicate ADS-B capability in the flight notification (ATS flight plan)
of all approved ADS-B equipped aircraft when planning to operate in
Australian airspace.
• If the ADS-B transmitter and SSR transponder are combined, switching
ADS-B off may also make the aircraft invisible to SSR and TCAS.
• GNSS provides the positioning information for ADS-B, so if you turn
the GNSS receiver off, your aircraft will become invisible to ADS-B
surveillance.
• In most aircraft installations, the SSR transponder control module in
the cockpit also controls the ADS-B transmitter; operating the SSR
system will also operate the ADS-B system.
Resources
Further reading
Australian Government (2014). Civil Aviation Order 20.18 Aircraft
equipment—basic operational requirements. Retrieved April 2017
from: https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2014L01743
CASA (2012). ADS-B. Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/
sites/g/files/net351/f/_assets/main/pilots/download/ads-b.pdf
CASA (2015). AC 21-45 Airworthiness approval of airborne automatic
dependent surveillance broadcast equipment. Retrieved April 2017
from: https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net351/f/_assets/main/
rules/1998casr/021/021c45.pdf
CASA (2015). Space-based ADS-B a step closer. Flight Safety
Australia, November–December. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.
flightsafetyaustralia.com/2015/11/space-based-ads-b-a-step-closer/
References
Airservices Australia (2013). Automatic Dependent Surveillance
Broadcast (ADS-B) Flight Operations Information Package. Retrieved April
2017 from: http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/wp-content/uploads/UAP_
Flight_Ops_Info_Package_V4.0.pdf
Air Transport Action Group (2016). Retrieved January 2017 from:
http://aviationbenefits.org/case-studies/space-based-navigation/
CASA (2014). Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast. Canberra.
CASA (2015). ATC notes—ADS-B benefits for general aviation.
Flight Safety Australia, September–October. Retrieved April 2017 from:
http://www.flightsafetyaustralia.com/2015/09/atc-notes-ads-b-benefits-
for-general-aviation/
Integrated systems, training requirements and data
management are providing operators and pilots with a
more complex operating environment.
• Receiver standards 62
• Safety first with avionics 63
• Navigational data 64
• Equipment failures 65
• Pre-flight requirements checklist 66
• Key points 67
• Resources 67
62
CNS/ATM | Chapter 5 Aircraft equipment
Receiver standards
Aircraft equipment certified for different operations is measured against a
technical standard. These standards are developed by regulators across the
globe including:
• US Federal Aviation Administration as a technical standard order (TSO)
• European Aviation Safety Agency as a European technical standard order
(ETSO)
• CASA as an Australian technical standard order (ATSO).
Pilots can identify the TSO status of GPS equipment by referring to the
compliance stamp on the receiver, or by referring to the operating handbook in
the aircraft. Reference to a manufacturer’s model number is not a guarantee of
TSO certification.
Non-TSO
Non-TSO GPS receivers do not have to meet any regulatory standards for power
supply, installation, lighting, database, integrity monitoring or performance. For
example, many hand-held units not identified as suitable for aviation purposes
are unable to operate when the aircraft groundspeed exceeds 99 knots.
Navigation information from non-TSO equipment should be treated with extra
care until verified by another source.
Day VFR
CASA does not prescribe any required equipment standards and both panel-
mount and hand-held equipment may be used for day VFR operations. Non-
TSO equipment can be used to supplement visual navigation under VFR.
Night VFR
For night VFR operations you can also use a non-TSO receiver to supplement
visual navigation, but such equipment cannot be used to meet alternate
aerodrome, mandatory aircraft equipment, or flight crew qualification
requirements.
IFR
A non-TSO receiver does not meet any of the requirements for IFR navigation.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 5 Aircraft equipment
Advice Risk
P Use appropriate Hand-held and panel-mount VFR equipment
standard avionics does not ensure the integrity and reliability
equipment needed for IFR and some night VFR
applications.
O
Don’t rely on a backup The backup battery may also fail, so additional
battery to give a redundancies should be employed. Pilots
navigation solution should continue to use and practise navigation
following an electrical skills by running a basic plot at all times.
failure
O Resist the urge to fly The risk of becoming lost is small when using
into marginal weather GNSS, but the risk of controlled flight into
when navigating VFR terrain or obstacles increases in low visibility.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 5 Aircraft equipment
Navigational data
Data integrity
A significant number of data errors in general applications occur as a result of
human error during manual data entry. Whenever possible, navaid and waypoint
positions should be derived from a commercially prepared aviation database
which cannot be modified by the operator or crew.
In some situations, it may be necessary to create ‘user’ waypoints by manual
entry. In this situation, pilots are responsible for the integrity of the data and must
follow CASA’s directions for cross-checking. Manually entered data must not be
used for navigation below the lowest safe altitude (LSALT) or minimum sector
altitude (MSA), unless specifically authorised by CASA.
Stored user waypoints and stored flight plans are considered manually entered
data and must be checked prior to use.
Database currency
Many VFR databases do not have an expiry date, as the VFR equipment
is intended only to supplement visual navigation using current charts and
documents.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 5 Aircraft equipment
All IFR databases have an expiry date, as data currency (integrity) is critical to
safe navigation without visual reference.
The principal requirements relating to GNSS navigation data are:
• GNSS navigation requires a current database appropriate to the operation
• only data from a current database should be used for IFR flight.
Equipment failures
Potential operating failures for GNSS units
Although very unlikely to occur, potential errors include:
• GNSS constellation failure—pilots can revert to use of ground-based
navaids
• single satellite failure within a constellation failure—if FDE is functioning,
the GNSS unit should locate a new satellite. If no FDE is operating,
revert to ground-based navaids
• electrical failure or distortion in screen display—reboot device.
Commercial operators will have a second GNSS unit fitted, which will likely
still be operational.
Common installation problems for ADS-B transponders
Over the past years the following installation faults have repeatedly occurred.
It is strongly recommended that the LAME use an ADS-B capable transponder
test set.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 5 Aircraft equipment
Fault Advice
Incorrect setting of ‘SIL’ value Needs to be 2 (10E-5) or 3 (10E-7).
for DO260A/B transponders
Incorrect 24-bit address Ensure ICAO 24-bit address matches
the CASA-assigned code.
Incorrect Flight ID Domestic aircraft should not include
‘VH’ unless on international flight leg.
Not ‘N’ as can easily be entered for a
common GA transponder.
Incorrect software version in GPS Regularly update software and
or transponder navigation database.
NUC or NIC set to 0 NUC or NIC should not be 0, because
it indicates the data has no integrity.
Non-compliant ADS-B transponder It MUST be disabled.
installed
Key points
• For day VFR operations, CASA does not prescribe any required
equipment standards and both ‘panel-mount’ and ‘hand-held’
equipment may be used. Non-TSO equipment can be used to
supplement visual navigation under VFR.
• For night VFR operations you can also use a non-TSO receiver to
supplement visual navigation, but such equipment cannot be used to
meet alternate aerodrome, mandatory aircraft equipment or flight crew
qualification requirements.
• Portable receivers and related cables should be positioned carefully in
the cockpit to avoid the potential for electromagnetic interference (EMI),
and to avoid interfering with aircraft controls.
• For IFR operations, GNSS navigation data must be drawn from a
current database appropriate to the operation and only data from
a current validated database may be used for navigation below the
LSALT or MSA.
Resources
Further reading
CASA (2012). QF32 and the black swan. Flight Safety Australia, September–
October. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.flightsafetyaustralia.
com/2016/03/qf32-and-the-black-swan/
References
CASA (2006). Civil Aviation Advisory Publication 179A-1(1). Navigation
using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Canberra.
CASA (2014). GPS guides to distraction. Flight Safety Australia, November–
December. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.flightsafetyaustralia.
com/2014/11/gps-guides-to-distraction/
CASA (2014). Performance-Based Navigation. Canberra.
CASA (2015). Advisory Circular 91.U-01 Navigation authorisations.
Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net351/f/_
assets/main/rules/1998casr/091/091uc01.pdf
• What is PBN? 70
• What does performance mean? 70
• Specifications 70
• Benefits of PBN 72
• How PBN provides more flexibility
than conventional navigation 75
• Instrument approaches 75
• Enabling legislation 77
• Key points 78
• Resources 79
70
CNS/ATM | Chapter 6 Performance-based navigation
What is PBN?
Performance-based navigation (PBN) is the internationally recognised regulatory
framework for implementing area navigation, with an emphasis on GNSS as the
enabling technology.
PBN includes the definition of navigation specifications in terms of the
accuracy, integrity, continuity and functionality required for various types
of operations. It uses on-board equipment such as global navigation satellite
systems (GNSS) receivers, stand-alone navigators, and integrated navigation
systems.
PBN is absolute navigation—the aircraft determines its current latitude and
longitude, and where it is in relation to the intended flight path. As long as the
aircraft has a means of determining its current position, it can operate anywhere
within coverage of the relevant GNSS system.
This contrasts with traditional relative navigation, based largely on fixed ground-
based navigation aids which guide aircraft along published routes via waypoints
defined by the aids.
Specifications
PBN encompasses two types of navigation specifications:
• RNAV (area navigation), and
• RNP (required navigation performance).
The difference between the two specifications is that on-board performance
monitoring and alerting is required for RNP but not for RNAV. RNAV requires
independent performance monitoring of an aircraft’s position.
RNP has parallel lateral performance requirements and can be supported by a
variety of technologies. In Australia, RNP operations require GNSS but can be
supplemented by inertial systems.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 6 Performance-based navigation
Narrower
protected
Current Waypoints areas
ground
NAVAIDs
Seamless
vertical path
Curved
paths
RNAV
The RNAV family of navigation specifications were created by ICAO to
consolidate the disparate approvals developed by countries around the world,
including:
• US RNAV Type A & B
• European B-RNAV and P-RNAV
• Australian AUSEP and GPS OCEANIC
While it remains possible to operate using RNAV based on DME/DME, DME/
VOR or inertial navigation systems, Australia lacks the substantial infrastructure
required to do so. For this reason, GNSS will be the basis of navigation for
most aircraft.
RNAV defines fixes by name, latitude and longitude. These area navigation fixes
allow planning of routes which are less dependent on the location of navaids.
RNP
In an aircraft using a stand-alone GNSS, the functionality requirements of RNP
are achieved through the use of receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
(RAIM).
Integrated area navigation systems employ several sources of information, such
as inertial and GNSS, to provide highly accurate navigation. They use aircraft
autonomous integrity monitoring that are equivalent to RAIM.
Further information on augmentation systems is available in Chapter 3.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 6 Performance-based navigation
RNAV specifications, except oceanic and remote RNAV 10 (RNP 10), are not
implemented or used in Australian airspace.
Navigation specifications
Benefits of PBN
Performance-based navigation allows pilots, operators and air traffic control to
make the best use of advances in navigation technology and brings increased
safety, efficiency and environmental benefits.
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) says that PBN helps
the aviation community by reducing congestion, helping to maintain reliable
all-weather operations at even the most challenging airports, conserving
fuel, protecting the environment, and reducing the impact of aircraft noise.
The benefits can be seen in the table below.
Benefit Development
Reduced separation As the skies become busier, PBN allows the
standards for all most efficient use of available airspace, through
phases of flight appropriately managed reductions in separation
standards during the en route, approach and landing
phases. Australia’s airways system can handle more
aircraft and do this more safely within time and
airspace constraints.
PBN and GNSS ICAO data shows that straight-in approaches are
allow straight-in 25 times safer than circling approaches. Adding
approaches vertical guidance to the approach brings a further
safety gain.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 6 Performance-based navigation
Desired path
Estimated position
True position
Leg types
A leg type describes the desired path proceeding, following, or between
waypoints on a procedure. Tracks are intercepted to and from stations and
waypoints with reference to navigation aids/systems using ground-based and
satellite-based navigational systems.
Leg types are identified by a two-letter code that describes the path
(e.g. heading, course, track, etc.) and the termination point (e.g. the path
terminates at an altitude, distance, fix, etc.). Leg types used for procedure
design are included in the aircraft navigation database, but not normally
provided on the procedure chart. The path and terminator concept defines
that every leg of a procedure has a termination point and some kind of path
into that termination point.
Instrument approaches
ICAO has introduced a method of classifying instrument approaches—
Type A and Type B. Details are contained in ICAO Annex 6 Part 1 Chapter 4.
Approaches are then flown using either a two dimensional (2D) or a three
dimensional (3D) methodology.
2D approaches
Two dimensional approaches use lateral guidance only. Examples are NDB,
VOR, localiser (LLZ) or GNSS (required navigation performance—RNP).
With 2D approaches it is the pilot’s responsibility to adhere to all step-down
altitudes and use the minimum descent altitude (MDA) procedure.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 6 Performance-based navigation
Approach Description
RNP APCH–LNAV The superseded RNAV/GNSS approach (APCH) is
replaced by the new RNP APCH lateral navigation
(LNAV) approach definition.
The aircraft must be equipped with an appropriately
authorised TSO-C129 sensor or navigator, a TSO-C145
GNSS sensor, or a TSO-C146 stand-alone GNSS
system. This equipment must been installed correctly
as described in CASA Advisory Circular 21-36.
LP Localiser performance (LP) uses satellite-based
augmentation (SBAS)-provided lateral guidance to
tolerance similar to ILS LOC.
LNAV+V Modern GNSS receivers may have the capability
to present an ‘advisory’ vertical profile for the final
segment. These are often called LNAV+V. This profile
is generated by the receiver and is not based on an
underlying approach design. While using this form of
guidance, pilots are responsible for any step-down
altitudes and must use the MDA procedure.
3D approaches
Three dimensional approaches use both lateral and vertical guidance, with the
vertical profile provided by the guidance system. A decision altitude (DA)
minimum procedure is used.
Instrument landing systems (ILS), microwave landing systems (MLS) and
ground-based GNSS augmentation landing systems (GLS) can provide
Cat I, II or III level of minimums.
There are several types of RNP APCH with 3D vertical guidance, and they differ
in the way in which they source their vertical guidance information.
Approach plates
A single instrument approach plate may contain a mix of 2D and 3D
approaches. Care must be taken to ensure that correct piloting procedure is
used including recognition of the type of minimums presented.
Enabling legislation
Civil Aviation Order (CAO) 20.18 (Aircraft equipment—basic operational
requirements), deals with the equipment required for PBN and ADS-B and
affects all IFR operators in Australia.
Civil Aviation Order (CAO) 20.91 (Instructions and Directions for Performance-
based Navigation) allows for this equipment to be used for PBN, both in
Australia and overseas.
CAO 20.91 contains deeming provisions which mean that:
• aircraft equipped with stand-alone GNSS systems with aircraft flight manual
entries for RNP 1, RNP 2, or RNP APCH-LNAV, or installed in accordance
with CASA advisory circular 21-36, and flown by suitably qualified pilots,
meet the equivalent PBN requirements
• aircraft equipped with integrated avionics systems using GNSS only for
area navigation are also covered by the deeming provisions.
Aircraft with flight management systems (FMS), such as some newer commuter/
regional aircraft, will need to obtain navigation authorisations from CASA.
The PBN standards also provide for IFR helicopter-specific operations, such
as in metropolitan areas and for offshore support.
CAO 20.91 and its associated advisory circular provide operating instructions
and airworthiness requirements for IFR pilots flying aircraft using PBN.
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Navigation databases
Since navigation under PBN relies on area navigation, the aircraft navigation
system must carry a navigation database. Under the requirements of the CAO:
• the database must be valid for the current AIRAC cycle (refer to AIP GEN 3.1
for further information)
• all terminal routes (SIDs, STARs and approaches) must be loaded from the
database and may not be modified by the pilot except as provided for in
CAO 20.91.
Aircraft equipment
Information on aircraft equipment is available in Chapter 5.
Key points
• PBN has two requirements—the pilot must be suitably trained and
qualified and the aircraft must be appropriately equipped.
• The introduction of PBN allows pilots, operators and air traffic control
to make the best use of recent advances in navigation technology, and
brings increased safety, efficiency and environmental benefits.
• The difference between the RNAV and RNP navigation specifications is
that on-board performance monitoring and alerting is required for RNP
but not for RNAV operations.
• Area navigation operates by first determining the aircraft’s present
position in terms of latitude and longitude, and then where this position
is in relation to the intended flight path.
• In Australia, if you have a GNSS-equipped aircraft approved for IFR
operations, you do not need to make any changes.
Resources
Further reading
CASA (2010). Harmonising navigation: Performance-based navigation—
global harmonisation. Flight Safety Australia, January–February. Retrieved
April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net351/f/_assets/
main/lib91211/jan-feb10.pdf
CASA (2011). Mixed Blessings: The dangers of GPS reliance. Flight Safety
Australia, January–February. Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.
gov.au/sites/g/files/net351/f/_assets/main/lib100059/jan-feb11.pdf
CASA (2011). Global harmony: Performance-based navigation standards
are being aligned across the world. Flight Safety Australia, September–
October. Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/files/
net351/f/_assets/main/lib100059/sep-oct11.pdf
ICAO (2013). Performance-based navigation manual.
ICAO (2016). PBN ikit. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.icao.int/safety/
pbn/sitepages/pbn%20ikit.aspx
References
Australian Government (2014). Civil Aviation Order 20.91 Instructions
and directions for performance-based navigation. Retrieved April 2017
from: https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2014L01703
CASA (2014) Advisory Circular 21-36—Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(GNSS) Equipment: Airworthiness Guidelines. Retrieved April 2017 from
https://www.casa.gov.au/files/021c36pdf
CASA (2010). PBN Implementation Plan. Retrieved April 2017
from: https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net351/f/_assets/main/media/
pbn-plan.pdf
CASA (2014). Performance-based navigation. Canberra.
FAA (2016). Section 2. Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation
Performance (RNP). Retrieved April 2017 from: http://tfmlearning.fly.faa.
gov/publications/atpubs/aim/Chap1/aim0102.html#eZak?234mweb
Metroplex Environmental (2017). Glossary. Retrieved April 2017 from:
http://www.metroplexenvironmental.com/terms.html
NASA (2006). Human Factors Considerations for Performance-Based
Navigation. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/
casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20070003553.pdf
An important aspect of any flight away from home
base is thorough flight planning. Having a well
thought-out plan before you get airborne will help you
enjoy the flight, arrive refreshed and return alive.
Some EFB products display nearby traffic, derived either from a portable
ADS-B IN receiver carried on board or uploaded from the provider’s ground
system, in which case the traffic displayed may be limited to aircraft that use the
same EFB provider. The ability of EFBs to provide a range of information to and
from aircraft is expected to continue to improve in future. Pilots should contact
their EFB service provider for information about specific current capabilities.
Screens
The screen size and resolution needs to display information in a manner
comparable with the paper aeronautical charts and data it is intended to
replace.
The recommended minimum size of the screen is about 200 mm measured
diagonally across the active viewing area.. If the intent of the installation is to
display charts and maps, the device should be suitably sized to display the
image without excessive scrolling.
Minimum size of
screen approx
200
(diagonal)
mm
Mounting devices
EFBs which use temporary mounts that attach to the aircraft, such as suction
mounts and Velcro pads, are regarded as class 1 devices and must be stowed
during take-off and landing. They should also be stowed during periods of
turbulence.
Temporary mounts are not considered to be airworthy and may constitute
a hazard on the flight deck in certain circumstances. The equipment, when
mounted and/or installed, must not present a safety-related risk or associated
hazard to any flight crew member. EFBs attached to kneeboard holders do not
need to be stowed.
The mounted EFB must not obstruct:
• external vision
• physical access to aircraft displays or controls, or
• visual access to aircraft displays or controls.
The required cabling for an EFB should be a sufficient length to prevent damage
or hazards.
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Pilots need to consider stowage for EFBs which are not mounted to the
aircraft or to a kneeboard. They must be designed and used in a way which
prevents the device from jamming flight controls, damaging flight compartment
equipment or injuring flight crew members.
All EFB mounts attached to the aircraft structure will require airworthiness
approval. See Subpart 21.M of the Civil Aviation Safety Regulations 1998.
Software
The operator should ensure the operating system and programs meet the
intended function. Unauthorised modification of any database or the loading of
any new or additional software is not permitted unless the software complies
with the manufacturer’s specifications.
Information provided to the pilot needs to be a true and accurate representation
of the charts or documents they replace.
GNSS prediction
Before planning to use GNSS for IFR approaches, get a RAIM prediction from
the Airservices Australia briefing website. RAIM outages are predicted at
1400 UTC each day and when new satellite outage information is received.
RAIM predictions are based on satellite geometry, equipment RAIM capability
(fault detection or fault detection and exclusion) and certification status
(C129 or C146).
BUTLER (YBUT)
GPS RAIM PREDICTION 071401 YBUT
TSO-C129 (AND EQUIVALENT) FAULT DETECTION
03080610 TIL 03080615
03090606 TIL 03090611
03100602 TIL 03100607
GPS RAIM FD UNAVBL FOR NPA
TSO-C146A (AND EQUIVALENT) FAULT DETECTION ONLY
NO GPS RAIM FD OUTAGES
FAULT DETECTION AND EXCLUSION 03080610 TIL 03080613
GPS RAIM FDE UNAVBL FOR NPA
Alternate routes
While in the preliminary flight-planning phase, you should make provision for at
least one other safe alternate route—a plan B. In planning this route, take the
same level of care as you do with your primary route. Having a well-researched
plan B takes a lot of pressure off if the weather deteriorates and you have to
use it.
IFR
The approvals for use of GPS under IFR in the AIP specify that GPS may
be used to satisfy any of the IFR requirements for provision of an alternate
aerodrome provided that it is certified to TSO-C145a or C146a, and a valid
prediction of approach FDE availability is used. This applies to the requirements
for navaids at both the destination and the alternate aerodrome.
When using a TSO-C129 receiver, or a C146a receiver with a prediction that FDE
will not be available, and the forecast weather is below the alternate weather
minimums, the alternate must be suitable for visual approach or an instrument
approach using ground-based navigation aids.
The following table gives examples of alternate requirements for aircraft fitted
with TSO GNSS receivers with and without fault detection and exclusion (FDE).
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Operation: CHTR/AWK/PVT
Onboard Weather at Approaches Alternate Alternate
navaids destination at destination required? requirements
1 TSO Above RNP APCH No None
C146 or alternate LNAV
later GPS minimums VOR
(FDE
available) NDB
1 ADF
1 VOR
Operation: AWK/PVT
Onboard Weather at Approaches Alternate Alternate
navaids destination at destination required? requirements
1 TSO Above RNP APCH Yes—due Must have an
GPS alternate LNAV navaids NDB and/or
(no FDE minimums VOR IAL and
available) forecast weather
1 ADF above alternate
minimums, or
1 VOR
By day only,
have no IAL
and forecast
weather better
than LSALT +
500 ft and
8 km visibility
Night VFR
When both pilot and aircraft meet the AIP requirements, a pilot may not need to
provide for an alternate aerodrome to a ‘no-aid’ destination under night VFR.
AIP requires that the pilot provides for an alternate within one hour’s flight time of
the destination unless:
• the destination is served by a radio navigation aid (NDB or VOR) and the
aircraft is fitted with the appropriate radio navigation system capable of
using the aid, or
• the aircraft is fitted with a GNSS receiver appropriate for an aircraft operated
at night under VFR and the pilot is appropriately qualified.
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Key points
• If you fail to plan, you are planning to fail. As technology becomes more
and more sophisticated, it is critical to plan your flights carefully.
• The roll of CNS technology needs to be considered in all phases of
flight. When assisted by technology—seen with the adoption of GNSS
and ADS-B—even experienced pilots can forget important steps.
• Establish key details beforehand, then get the most up-to-date weather
and NOTAMs.
• Electronic flight bags (EFBs) can electronically store and retrieve
documents required for flight operations, such as maps, charts, the
flight crew operations manual, minimum equipment lists and other
control documents.
• There are generally three sources of RAIM prediction available to civil
aviation users: TSO receivers, the NAIPS website and NOTAMs.
• While in the preliminary flight-planning phase, you should make
provision for at least one other safe alternative route—a plan B.
Resources
Further reading
Airservices Australia (2016). OneSKY Australia program. Retrieved April
2017 from: http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/projects/onesky-australia/
CASA (2016). What does an EFB do? Retrieved April 2017 from: https://
www.casa.gov.au/regulations-and-policy/standard-page/what-does-efb-do
References
CASA (2006). Civil Aviation Advisory Publication 179A-1(1). Navigation
using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Canberra.
CASA (2009). Focus on flight planning. Flight Safety Australia, March–April.
Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net351/f/_
assets/main/lib91122/22-26.pdf
CASA (2010). Flight planning kit.
CASA (2014). Dry but not high. Flight Safety Australia, September–October.
Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.flightsafetyaustralia.com/2014/09/
dry-but-not-high/
CASA (2014). Global aviation growth and safety. Flight Safety Australia,
November–December. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.
flightsafetyaustralia.com/2014/11/global-aviation-growth-and-safety/
CASA (2015). Tablets of wisdom. Flight Safety Australia, November–
December. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.flightsafetyaustralia.
com/2015/11/tablets-of-wisdom/
CASA (2017). What you need to know about EFBs. Retrieved April 2017
from: https://www.casa.gov.au/regulations-and-policy/standard-page/what-
you-need-know-about-efbs
The original goals of human factors (HF) were
to optimise human and system efficiency and
effectiveness. As such, the term human factors,
refers to the many issues whether personal, social,
environment or organisational that affect how
people perform tasks in their work and non-work
environments. Within aviation, HF has been focused
predominantly on error reduction, either through
engineering in safety and efficiencies or through
training and monitoring (checklists).
Influences on people
Interaction
A number of factors influence the way that people interact with technology
associated with CMS/ATM, such as GPS receivers, ADS-B transponders and
cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI) units.
The ‘dirty dozen’ concept, originally designed in the 1990s to improve human
performance in maintenance, refers to the most common factors which influence
people to make mistakes. In the CNS/ATM context some of the ‘dirty dozen’
provide guidance on how to get the best of from the technology while avoiding
the pitfalls.
Communication
Most human communication is obtained visually, with 55 per cent from body
language, 38 per cent through tone and pitch and only seven per cent the actual
words. People normally remember about 20 per cent of what they hear if all
they have is sound, which is why aviation radio procedures require readback of
essential information such as frequencies, turning instructions and radar codes.
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Complacency
Just as using cruise control in a car doesn’t mean that you can travel at a
constant speed regardless of other traffic, so there is no such thing as a routine
flight. Your GPS may have worked well last time—but what if there’s an in-flight
power failure, or it’s a different model this time?
As noted previously, ADS-B assists pilots through providing information, but
what if there is more information than the system can provide? An over-reliance
on the system to inform may lead to complacency with visual scans. Remember,
if you only look for one thing, you may miss important signals because your
perception is biased by your expectations and information filtering.
Furthermore, the displays of many GPS units are quite small, with the potential
for display reading errors. Warnings such as RAIM are often indicated by small
symbols or lights and if the screen is being dimmed by bright light the washout
can limit what is actually seen.
A last comment on over-reliance is the old adage ‘use it or lose it’. Drivers in a
simulator who follow satellite navigation instructions find it more difficult to work
out where they have been than those who use maps. Instructed drivers also fail
to notice that they have been led past the same point twice.
Roger McKinlay, the former president of the Royal Institute of Navigation in the
UK suggests that our natural sense of navigation diminishes over time if we
constantly outsource the responsibility to machines.
And skills need be practised. For example, flight planning and map-reading
skills are likely to deteriorate for VFR pilots who routinely rely on the direct-to
function on a GPS as their primary means of navigation.
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Current knowledge
If dependency increases on ‘outsourced’ knowledge systems, than there is
potential for any changes to the systems and procedures to be left to the device
to update, rather than on the operator to keep current. The good practice of
asking others, rather than assuming the automation is up-to-date, may lapse.
To ensure correct procedures are followed, always use checklists and avoid
working from memory.
For IFR pilots familiar with ground-based navigation aids, there will be some
significant differences in an RNAV environment. These include the display of
distance to the next waypoint, cross-track error measured in distance rather than
degrees, and absence of slant range. This means that some old rules of thumb
and situational awareness techniques may no longer apply. Be absolutely clear
about the minimum descent requirements for the approach segment you are in.
A lack of equipment standardisation may cause problems when pilots move
between aircraft. For example some CDTIs allow traffic on the ground to be
filtered out while others don’t.
An ADS-B OUT interface in the cockpit will not display traffic or terrain, but may
let the pilot enter the FLTID.
GNSS units have different modes of operation, including ‘go-to direct’, ‘nav’,
‘waypoint’, ‘alerts’ and ‘system status’, and the function inputs mean different
things in different modes. Some equipment does not display the mode, which
means pilots need to remember which one they are in.
Distraction
Distraction is anything which draws a person’s attention away from the task at
hand. It’s also the main cause of forgetting things. There is a tendency, when
returning to a task after being distracted, to think we are further ahead than we
actually are.
Concentrating on only one thing while flying can be dangerous, leading to loss
of situational awareness and control. Using interactive equipment can capture
your attention for longer than you think.
For example, it’s easy to become fixated trying to find a function hidden deep in
the menu structure of a GPS. Familiarise yourself with the technology and do as
much preparation as possible, such as entering the waypoints for alternates on
the ground to cut the in-flight workload.
GNSS can distract pilots from other tasks, such as monitoring other instruments
and scanning for traffic. It can also lull pilots into a false sense of security.
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Teamwork
This is particularly, but not only, applicable to multi-crew operations. For
example, it’s important to make sure that the information which goes into the
GPS and ADS-B units is checked and double-checked, both for accuracy and
for common sense. Accidents have happened because crews faithfully input
data which was incorrect or ambiguous.
Fatigue
Fatigue is a natural physiological reaction to prolonged physical and/or mental
stress. After 17 hours of wakefulness, you are functioning as if you had an
equivalent blood alcohol level of 0.05 per cent. After 24 hours the level increases
to 0.1 per cent. The more fatigued you are, the lower your cognitive processing
speed and memory capacity, which detract from your ability to concentrate and
make you more easily distracted.
An area near the front of the brain responsible for logical reasoning and complex
thought seems particularly vulnerable to sleep deprivation. This may be why
people typically have such a hard time recognising their own fatigue and level of
impairment. We tend to underestimate our level of fatigue and overestimate our
ability to cope with it. Don’t be pressured into flying if you are fatigued.
Stress
Stress can have many causes, and can result in a pilot being less attentive,
or making a decision without considering all the information available. It can
cause a narrowing of attention, or tunnel vision, making information-gathering
(scanning) scattered and poorly organised.
Acute stress from too much work (overload) can be bad for situational
awareness. But so can too little stress, or underload.
If a lot of information needs to be prioritised quickly, situational awareness
will ultimately suffer. Real-time demands, such as dealing with an in-flight
emergency, can cause acute stress to our senses, mental processing and body.
Conversely, during periods of low workload such as in long-haul flying, reduced
vigilance may affect your motivation to actively find out what is going on around
you. Automation in the cockpit can leave a pilot with little to do, and the lack of
stimulation can lead to complacency.
Chronic stress is cumulative, and the result of life events such as family
relations, finances, illness, bereavement or divorce can mean our threshold
of reaction to demands and pressure at work is lowered. We may over-react
inappropriately, too often and too easily.
Norms
Norms are unwritten rules or behaviors, dictated and followed by the majority of
a group. They can be positive or negative, but most have not been designed to
meet all circumstances. Don’t feel pressured into doing something a particular
way just because ‘that’s the way it’s done around here’.
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The following extracts from reports of occurrences around the world show
the potential for human error in the use of GNSS equipment is.
• ‘Due to a discrepancy between the flight plan stored in the GPS unit
and the submitted flight plan, the aircraft tracked via a waypoint that
was not on the flight plan.’
• ‘The accident report of a collision between two aircraft stated that the
pilot of one of the aircraft became preoccupied with programming
his GPS unit and ran into the other aircraft, the pilot of which was
practising ground reference manoeuvres at the time.’
• ‘The pilot of an aircraft, which was destroyed when it struck trees on
departure from an airport, told the investigator that his hand-held GPS
receiver had fallen from the instrument panel during the take-off roll
and jammed the flight controls.’
• ‘The pilot was using a GPS receiver to navigate when, about
10 minutes before arrival, the receiver batteries failed. Becoming
disoriented, the pilot then used up the remaining fuel trying to locate
the airport, eventually making a forced landing into a parking lot.’
Situational awareness
The complexity of aviation operations means that there is potential for even
small errors to cause serious problems. A key to avoiding them is to understand
the consequences of particular actions.
Safe use of GPS in aviation requires:
• sound theoretical knowledge
• operational proficiency with the equipment
• awareness of both system and human vulnerabilities
• standardisation of systems and procedures wherever possible.
Cockpit ergonomics
Many aircraft have been fitted with GNSS receivers some years after the aircraft
was designed and built. As a result, displays are not necessarily in the ideal
location in the cockpit, although IFR installations require the displays to be in
the pilot’s field of view. Reflected sunlight can cause problems with both screen
displays and annunciator lights and pilots should ensure familiarity with the
illumination of the particular receiver installation before night flight.
Many GNSS receivers are coupled to the horizontal situation indicator (HSI)
or the primary navigation display. Mode awareness is critical with these
installations as different switching and logic arrangements are used to display
data from GNSS, VOR, ILS and other sources. Pilots should also be aware of the
attentional dominance of the HSI when navigating by a system not displayed on
the HSI, and avoid this configuration where possible.
Design should:
• make it easy to determine what actions are possible at any moment
• make things visible, including the conceptual model of the system, the
alternative actions, and the results of actions
• make it easy to evaluate the current state of the system
• follow natural mappings between intentions and the required actions;
between actions and the resulting effect; and between the information
that is visible and the interpretation of the system state.
Airmanship tips
A lack of mode awareness is a common hazard in computerised flight systems.
You must be able to recognise the correct mode of operation for each phase of
flight, particularly during instrument approach.
• Ensure you are familiar with the operating procedures before using the GPS
in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).
• Check the receiver operation, the database validity and your approach chart
before flight.
• Make sure the receiver is set up with the required navigation settings—
distances in nautical miles, QNH in hectopascals etc. Also check the CDI
scaling for en route operation.
• Ensure the GPS is included in your instrument scan but avoid fixating on
the receiver.
• Review the functions of the GPS receiver before each flight by entering the
complete flight plan, including the instrument approach procedure to your
destination.
• Do a confidence check of all tracks and distances.
• As you become more familiar with the unit, guard against complacency, and
use all navigation information available to cross-check GPS information.
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Key points
• GPS can deliver gains in reliability, accuracy and system monitoring
ability, but training and system familiarity is essential.
• The lack of standardisation of equipment can cause problems when
pilots move between aircraft with different displays.
• You might lose situational awareness if you are struggling with a GPS
in flight, such as flicking through manuals or cycling through controls.
• The amount of information humans can deal with at any one time
is limited and at times, particularly in the IFR environment during
high workload phases of flight, it is possible to exceed individual
processing capacity.
• Modern challenges in the human machine interface include cockpit
design, which covers how to present information to the pilot; and
automation design, covering the question of who should do what, in
dividing the task of flying between humans and computers.
• A lack of mode awareness is a common hazard in computerised flight
systems. You must be able to recognise the correct mode of operation
for each phase of flight, particularly during instrument approach.
Resources
Further reading
CASA (1998). Situation awareness. Flight Safety Australia, November–
December. Retrieved May 2016 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/
files/net351/f/_assets/main/fsa/1998/nov/sit_awre.pdf
CASA (2015). Design for living—why human machine interface matters.
Flight Safety Australia, May–June. Retrieved May 2016 from: http://www.
flightsafetyaustralia.com/2015/05/design-for-living-why-human-machine-
interface-matters/
CASA (2015). HMI +ATC: A grounded understanding. Flight
Safety Australia, May–June. Retrieved May 2016 from: http://www.
flightsafetyaustralia.com/2015/05/hmi-atc-a-grounded-understanding/
References
CASA (2006). A dark side to GPS? Flight Safety Australia, November–
December. Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/
files/net351/f/_assets/main/fsa/2006/dec/34-37.pdf
CASA (2006). Civil Aviation Advisory Publication 179A-1(1). Navigation
using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Canberra.
CASA (2006). Overview. Global Navigation Satellite Systems. Canberra.
CASA (2006). Instructor notes. Global Navigation Satellite Systems.
Canberra.
CASA (2014). The error of our ways. Flight Safety Australia, September–
October. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.flightsafetyaustralia.
com/2014/10/the-error-of-our-ways/
Dockrill, P. (2016). Over-Reliance on GPS Could See Us Lose Our Sense
of Navigation, Expert Warns, Science Alert. Retrieved April 2017 from:
http://www.sciencealert.com/over-reliance-on-gps-could-see-us-lose-our-
sense-of-navigation-expert-warns
Harvard University Get Sleep website retrieved April 2017 from
http://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/need-sleep/
Schwartz, D. (2008). ‘10 clues to loss of Situational Awareness’.
Flight Safety International. Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.
bjarnefjeldsenden.com/old/Aviation/sitaware.html
In February 2016, GNSS became mandatory for all
aircraft flying IFR. This chapter explores the transition
to performance-based navigation and how GNSS
is used in IFR operations through a number of area
navigation (RNAV) applications, providing guidance
on operating safely and addressing common issues.
GNSS may also be used in VFR operations—see
Chapter 10.
IFR RNAV
Pilots flying IFR in Australian domestic airspace may use GPS for position
fixing and long-range navigation in accordance with Airservices Australia’s
Aeronautical Information Package (AIP). This applies to operations on
designated RNAV routes, application of RNAV-based LSALT, deriving distance
information for en route navigation, traffic information and air traffic control
(ATC) separation. ATC may apply RNAV-based separation standards to aircraft
meeting the requirement for IFR RNAV.
Position fix (PF) is determined with reference to navigation aid and systems
using ground-based and/or satellite-based navigational systems.
GPS may also be used as a navigation aid to determine distance information for
standard instrument departures (SIDs), standard terminal arrival routes (STARs)
and instrument approach procedures where the use of GPS is specified on the
instrument approach and landing (IAL) chart. GPS may be used to meet the IFR
requirements for radio navigation systems specified in Airservices Australia’s AIP
Part 1-General (GEN) 1.5.
If your GNSS performance degrades to the point at which an alert is raised, or
you have any other cause to doubt GNSS information integrity, you should stop
using GNSS and carry out appropriate navaid failure procedures.
Metering Final
Take-off Departure Cruise descent approach Landing
GNSS arrivals
Although classed as instrument approach procedures, GNSS arrivals and DME
or GNSS arrivals (DGA) are included in the RNP 1 application and approval.
Additional competency and recent qualifications apply to flying DGA.
For these procedures, the destination navaid (VOR or NDB) nominated on the
approach chart must be used to provide primary track guidance during the
arrival procedure and the distance information must be based on the ‘reference
waypoint’ navaid nominated on the chart.
5 nm radius 5 nm WPT
WPT 5 nm 5 nm radius
For other routes and route segments, the obstacle clearance to be considered
must be within an area of 5 nm surrounding, and including, an area defined
by lines drawn from the departure point not less than 15 degrees each side of
the nominal track to a maximum of 7 nm, thence paralleling track to abeam the
destination and converging by a semicircle of 7 nm centred on the destination.
Naming conventions
The approach name is based on airport identification and the runway used
for alignment, or in some cases the direction of the approach in relation to
the airport.
In general, waypoint names use the first three letters to identify the aerodrome,
the next letter to identify the compass quadrant from which the approach is
flown, and the final letter for the approach waypoint.
For example, the Runway 24 GNSS approach for Paraburdoo, WA (YPBO) uses
‘PBO’ as the first three letters, and ‘E’ as the fourth letter, of all waypoints.
Vertical navigation
GNSS does not provide accurate altitude guidance and all altitudes must be
obtained from the aircraft altimeter. At runways where visual approach slope
indicators are not provided, pilots should take extra care to maintain the correct
approach angle at runways where visual slope indicators are not provided.
A distance altitude scale is usually provided on the approach plate to give a 3°
approach profile, and a corresponding altitude may be included on the profile
view at selected points.
Approach design
Intermediate approach
waypoint
70°
5 nm 5 nm 5 nm
70°
Initial approach Final Missed Missed
waypoint approach approach approach
waypoint point turning point
(if required)
Oceanic RNAV
CASA may issue an approval for an operator to use GNSS as an en-route
navigation aid in oceanic and remote areas outside the boundaries of Australian
domestic airspace. The oceanic RNAV approval is based on FAA Notice 8110.60
and designed for operations over the high seas and in remote areas such as
Antarctica.
Equipment requirements
The GPS equipment requirements include dual installations of FDE-capable
receivers to ensure adequate redundancy and navigation performance.
Installations in Australian registered aircraft must be approved and equipment
capable of carrying out an appropriate en route RAIM prediction analysis for the
route to be flown must use avionics manufacturer-specified software.
Operational requirements
You must operate GPS navigation equipment in accordance with the operating
instructions and any additional requirements specified in the approved aircraft
flight manual or flight manual supplement. These instructions must be carried
on-board the aircraft.
In addition to GPS, aircraft must also be equipped with serviceable radio
navigation systems as specified at GEN1.5 Section 2, or the operator’s minimum
equipment list.
Before each flight, you must do an appropriate en route GPS prediction analysis,
using the software provided by the GPS manufacturer. For this analysis, you
must use the following parameters or equivalents:
• the route or airspace RNP, where published, or
• a centreline space of 20 nm for flight in classes A, C, D & E airspace or
50 nm for flight in OCA, and
• for Australian operators, a record of the GPS prediction analysis must be
retained as required by the instrument of approval.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 9 Instrument flight rules operations
Key points
• GNSS must not be used as navigation reference for flight below the
lowest safe altitude (LSALT) or minimum safe altitude (MSA), except as
specified in IFR applications or as authorised by CASA.
• Pilots operating under IFR may use GPS in lieu of dead reckoning (DR)
navigation techniques for that part of the flight that is outside the rated
coverage of terrestrial navigation aids.
• Pilots operating in Australian domestic airspace under IFR may
use GPS for RNAV—position fixing and long range navigation—
in accordance with Airservices Australia’s AIP en route (ENR)
documentation.
• Pilots operating under IFR may use GPS as an approach navigation
aid to determine distance and track information for RNAV(GNSS) non-
precision approach procedures.
• CASA may issue an approval for an operator to use GNSS as an
en-route navigation aid in oceanic and remote areas outside the
boundaries of Australian domestic airspace.
Resources
Further reading
Airservices Australia (2014). AIP Australia Part 1 General (GEN). Retrieved
April 2017 from: https://www.airservicesaustralia.com/aip/current/aip/
general.pdf
Airservices Australia (2016). AIP Australia Part 2 En route (ENR). Retrieved
April 2017 from: https://www.airservicesaustralia.com/aip/current/aip/
enroute.pdf
CASA (2000). Civil Aviation Advisory Publication Private IFR rating.
Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/files/5131pdf
CASA (2015). Instrument ratings. Retrieved April 2017 from:
https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/instrument-ratings
CASA (2016). The Part 61 Manual of Standards. Retrieved April 2017
from: https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/part-61-manual-standards
References
Airservices Australia (2015). What is an instrument landing system?
Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/projects/
gold-coast-ils/what-is-an-instrument-landing-system/
Australian Government (2014). Instrument number CASA 80/14
Instructions—use of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Retrieved
April 2017 from: https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2014L00431
CASA (2006). Civil Aviation Advisory Publication 179A-1(1). Navigation
using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Canberra.
CASA (2015). Advisory Circular 91.U-01 Navigation authorisations.
Retrieved April 2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net351/f/_
assets/main/rules/1998casr/091/091uc01.pdf
CASA (2016). Flight Crew Licensing Procedures Manual. Retrieved April
2017 from: https://www.casa.gov.au/manuals-and-forms/standard-page/
flight-crew-licensing-procedures-manual
Skybrary (2014) Instrument Landing System. Retrieved April 2017 from:
http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Instrument_Landing_System_(ILS)
Not sure whether you’re ready to apply for the
instrument rating exam but still want to use GNSS
and ADS-B when you fly? The good news is GNSS
may be used in visual flight rules (VFR) operations for
visual navigation and night VFR—you will just need to
demonstrate competency in GNSS use in night VFR
operations.
Visual navigation
VFR pilots may use GNSS to supplement map reading and other visual
navigation techniques. This is not an approval to replace visual navigation
techniques with GNSS.
Blind faith in GNSS has been blamed for a sharp rise in the number of violations
of controlled and restricted airspace by VFR aircraft. You should also be aware
of the human factors and technical standards issues associated with different
types of receivers and installations.
At night
As well as using GNSS to supplement visual navigation, you can train and
obtain qualifications to use GNSS equipment for night VFR navigation in
Australian domestic airspace.
If your GNSS performance degrades to the point at which an alert is raised, or
you have any other cause to doubt GNSS information integrity, you should stop
using GNSS and carry out appropriate navaid failure procedures.
Night VFR
In addition to the use of GNSS to supplement visual navigation, pilots may
undertake training and become qualified to use GNSS equipment as a night
VFR navigation aid in Australian domestic airspace.
The following descriptions provide a general summary for educational purposes.
Refer to AIP for full details of the approvals.
RNAV approval
GNSS may be used under VFR at night as a navigation aid and RNAV system
for the following purposes:
• position fixing
• operations on designated RNAV routes and application of RNAV-
based LSALT
• deriving distance information for en route navigation, traffic information
and ATC separation
• meeting the night VFR requirements for carriage of radio navigation
systems and alternate aerodromes.
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CNS/ATM | Chapter 10 Visual flight rules operations
Alternate aerodromes
GNSS equipment may be used to satisfy the navigation aid aspects of night VFR
alternate aerodrome requirements.
VFR qualifications
Day VFR operations
There are no GNSS qualifications issued for the use of GPS as a supplement to
visual navigation. Pilots should review the competency requirements of the day
VFR syllabus in regard to the use of navigation aids.
Key points
• GPS may be used in visual flight rules (VFR) operations for visual
navigation and night VFR—you will just need to demonstrate
competency in GNSS use in night VFR operations.
• Under VFR you cannot fly in cloud and must also stay a specified
distance away from cloud, regardless of supplementary GNSS
guidance available.
• ‘Blind’ faith in GNSS is often blamed for a sharp rise in the number of
violations of controlled and restricted airspace by VFR aircraft.
Resources
Further reading
CASA (2016). 178 seconds to live—VFR into IMC. Retrieved April 2017
from: http://www.flightsafetyaustralia.com/2016/01/178-seconds-to-live-
vfr-into-imc/
References
Airservices Australia (2016). Mode S transponders, ADS-B and VFR aircraft.
Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/projects/
ads-b/mode-s-transponders-ads-b-and-vfr-aircraft/
Australian National Airline College (2014). VFR Versus IFR Explained.
Retrieved April 2017 from: http://www.flying-school.com/vfr-versus-ifr-
explained/
CASA (2006). Civil Aviation Advisory Publication 179A-1(1). Navigation
using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Canberra.
Skybrary (2015). Using GNSS as a VFR Navigation Tool. Retrieved April
2017 from: http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Using_GNSS_as_a_VFR_
Navigation_Tool
APPENDICES
• Abbreviations 124
• Definitions 126
• Rules and information 128
124
CNS/ATM | Appendices
Abbreviations
AAIM Aircraft autonomous integrity CDI Course deviation indicator
monitor CDTI Cockpit display of traffic
ABAS Aircraft-based augmentation information
system CPDLC Controller to pilot data link
ACID Aircraft identification communication
ADC Air data computer DA Decision altitude
ADS Automatic dependent DB Database or data block
surveillance DME Distance measuring
ADS-B Automatic dependent equipment
surveillance-broadcast DOD US Department of Defense
ADS-C Automatic dependent EGNOS European geostationary
surveillance-contract navigation overlay service
AFCS Automatic flight control system ERSA En route supplement Australia
AFM Aircraft flight manual ESIR Electronic safety incident
AFMS Aircraft flight manual report
supplement FAA Federal Aviation
AIP Aeronautical Information Administration
Package FAR Federal aviation regulation
AIRAC Aeronautical information FD Fault detection
regulation and control FDE Fault detection and exclusion
AIS Aeronautical information FDR Flight data record
services
FIR Flight information region
AMM Aircraft maintenance manual
FLTID Flight identification
AP Autopilot
FMS Flight management system
APCH Approach
FTE Flight technical error
AR Authorisation required
GBAS Ground-based augmentation
ASECNA Agency for security of aerial system
navigation in Africa
GEO Geostationary Earth orbit
ATC Air traffic control
GLONASS Global orbiting navigation
ATIS Automatic terminal information satellite system
service
GNSS Global navigation satellite
ATS Air traffic services system
AWIB Aerodrome weather GPS Global positioning system
information broadcast
GRAS Ground-based regional
BARO Barometric augmentation systems
Baro-VNAV Barometric vertical navigation IATA International Air Transport
BNN Backup navigation network Association
B-RNAV Basic area navigation ICAO International Civil Aviation
CAAP Civil Aviation Advisory Organization
Publication IFR Instrument flight rules
CAO Civil Aviation Order ILS Instrument landing system
CASA Civil Aviation Safety Authority IMC Instrument meteorological
CDFA Continuous descent final conditions
approach
125
CNS/ATM | Appendices
Definitions
Airspace: an area, route or procedure (the designated environment) in respect
of which all, or any, of the following requirements must be satisfied, before an
aircraft to which an order applies, is able to use it:
• navigation specifications (RNAV or RNP) applicable in the designated
environment, for which the aircraft must hold an authorisation or approval
• aircraft navigation equipment requirements that the aircraft must satisfy
• aircraft navigation system functional and performance requirements that the
aircraft must satisfy
• aircraft navigation equipment installation requirements that the aircraft must
satisfy.
Almanac: a crude set of parameters used to approximate the orbits of satellites
in the GNSS constellation.
Alternate means of navigation: the use of information from an area navigation
system in lieu of that from conventional navigation aids and navigation
equipment that is installed, operational and compatible with conventional
navigation aids.
Augmentation systems: GNSS supplemental systems used to augment
core satellite constellation signals to meet safety and reliability requirements.
These systems may include ranging, integrity or differential elements in any
combination. There are three categories of augmentation systems:
• aircraft-based augmentation systems (ABAS)
• ground-based augmentation systems (GBAS)
• satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS).
Automatic direction finder (ADF): equipment on the aircraft that detects a
non-directional beacon’s (NDB) signal and the NDB transmitter.
Availability: the proportion of time the system is to be used for navigation
during which the aircraft gets reliable navigation information.
CNS/ATM: airspace capacity is determined by the combined capabilities of the
communications, navigation, surveillance and air traffic management systems
(CNS/ATM) in place. These include ground- and aircraft-based systems and
requirements vary according to the airspace being considered.
Coarse/acquisition code (C/A code): a satellite-unique sequence of binary
pulses transmitted by a GPS satellite and available to all users of the system.
Also known as the civilian code.
Continuity of service: the capability of the system to perform its function
without unscheduled interruptions during the intended operation.
Continuous descent final approach (CDFA): a technique, consistent with
stabilised approach procedures, for flying the final approach segment of a
non-precision approach (NPA) procedure as a constant descent, without
level-off, from an altitude at, or above, the final approach fix altitude to a point
approximately 15 m (50 ft) height above the landing runway threshold or the
point where the flare manoeuvre should begin for the type of aircraft flown.
127
CNS/ATM | Appendices
CASA
Aviation safety rules are contained in the:
• Civil Aviation Act 1988
• Civil Aviation Regulations 1988 (CAR)
• Civil Aviation Safety Regulations 1998 (CASR) and associated legislative
instruments.
Links to the act and regulations are available at https://www.casa.gov.au/
landing-page/rules-and-regulations
Airservices Australia
The Aeronautical Information Package (AIP) can be downloaded from the
Airservices Australia website at www.ariservicesaustralia.com.au/aip/aip.asp
It includes:
• The AIP book
• AIP supplements and aeronautical information circulars (AIC)
• Departure and approach procedures (DAP)
• Designated airspace handbook (DAH)
• En route supplement Australia (ERSA)
Civil Aviation Safety Authority
GPO Box 2005
Canberra ACT 2601
p. 131 757 (local call)
e. [email protected]
w. www.casa.gov.au/cnsatm