University of Okara

UNIVERSITY OF OKARA
Student Name: Aqsa Siddique

Roll No. F-19 1031
Section: F-19 BS chemistry 4th semester Morning
Instructor: Dr. Hussain ullah
Assignment: Analytical Chemistry
DEPARTMENT: CHEMISTRY
Assignment
Part(a)
How Chi squared test is used in Analytical chemistry to
accept or reject the results?
Answer:
“A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a test that measures how a model compares to actual observed data.
The data used in calculating a chi-square statistic must be random, raw, mutually exclusive,
drawn from independent variables, and drawn from a large enough sample.”
For example, the results of tossing a fair coin meet these criteria.
Rejection and acceptation:
 If your chi-square calculated value is greater than the chi-square critical value, then

you “reject” your null hypothesis. If your chi-square calculated value is less than the chi-
square critical value, then you "accept" your null hypothesis.
 In other words, for a Chi-square test, a p-value that is less than or equal to your
significance level indicates there is sufficient evidence to conclude that the observed
distribution is not the same as the expected distribution. You can conclude that a
relationship exists between the categorical variables.
 Like any statistical hypothesis test, the Chi-square test has both two types of hypothesis:
1. Null hypothesis: There are no relationships between the categorical variables. If you
know the value of one variable, it does not help you predict the value of another variable.
2. Alternative hypothesis: There are relationships between the categorical variables.
Knowing the value of one variable does help you predict the value of another variable.
 The Formula for Chi-Square Is

2
x =∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
c
where:
c=Degrees of freedom
O=Observed value(s)
E=Expected value(s)
Example:
A random sample of 395 people were surveyed and each person was asked to report the highest
education level they obtained. The data that resulted from the survey is summarized in the
following table:
High School Bachelors Masters Ph.d.
Female 60 54 46 41
Male 40 44 53 57
Total 100 98 99 98
Question: Are gender and education level dependent or independent at 5% level of significance?
Solution:
Here's the table of expected counts:
High School Bachelors Masters Ph.d.

Female 50.886 49.868 50.377 49.868
Male 49.114 48.132 48.623 48.132
Total 100 98 99 98
So, working this out, put the values in formula:
x 2c =∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
χ2 = (60−50.886)250.886+⋯+(57−48.132)248.132
X2 = 8.006
Hence, the Chi square test rejects the result because the critical value of χ2 with 3 degree of
freedom is 7.815 and 8.006 > 7.815, and conclude that the education level depends on gender at
a 5% level of significance.
Significance in analytical chemistry:
 A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a measure of the difference between the observed and

expected frequencies of the outcomes of a set of events or variables.
 χ2 depends on the size of the difference between actual and observed values, the degrees
of freedom, and the samples size.
 χ2 can be used to test whether two variables are related or independent from one another
or to test the goodness-of-fit between an observed distribution and a theoretical
distribution of frequencies.
Part(b)
How T-test is used in Analytical chemistry to accept or reject
the results?
Answer:
Definition:
“A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant difference
between the means of two groups, which may be related in certain features. “
Method of rejection and acceptation:

 If the absolute value of the t-value is greater than the critical value, you “reject” the null
hypothesis. If the absolute value of the t-value is less than the critical value, you
“accept” the null hypothesis.
 To determine whether to reject the null hypothesis using the t-value, compare the t-value
to the critical value. The critical value is tα/2, n–p-1, where α is the significance level, n is the
number of observations in your sample, and p is the number of predictors.
 If the absolute value of the t-value is greater than the critical value, you reject the null
hypothesis. If the absolute value of the t-value is less than the critical value, you fail to
reject the null hypothesis.
One-sample t-test:
To test the hypothesis that eating fish makes one smarter, a random sample of 12 persons
take a fish oil supplement for one year and then are given an IQ test. Here are the results:
116 111 101 120 99 94 106 115 107 101 110 92
Test using the following hypotheses, report the test statistic with the P-value, then
summarize your conclusion.
H0: μ = 100
Ha: μ > 100
Answer:
Hypotheses:
H0: μ = 100 (no effect -- eating fish does not help increase the mean IQ)
Ha: μ > 100 (effect -- eating fish helps increase the mean IQ)
Test statistic: From the data, we obtain that x́=106
And S x =8.83 then we get,
X́−µ°
t=
Sx
√n
106−100 6
t= = =2.35
8.83 2.55
√12
P-value:
Because n = 12, we use the t distribution with df = 11 to find the probability.
According to Table D, for t = 2.35 for df = 11, the probability is between 0.01 and 0.02.
Since this is a one-sided (upper-tail) test, P-value is between 0.01 and 0.02.
Conclusion: Since values between 0.01 and 0.02 are < 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis
at the significance level 0.05, and conclude that the fish oil supplement did make a
significant increase in the IQ mean.
Significance in Analytical Chemistry:
 The t-test is one of many tests used for the purpose of hypothesis testing in statistics.
 Calculating a t-test requires three key data values. They include the difference between
the mean values from each data set (called the mean difference), the standard deviation of
each group, and the number of data values of each group.
 There are several different types of t-test that can be performed depending on the data
and type of analysis required.

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University of Okara

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UNIVERSITY OF OKARA

Student Name: Aqsa Siddique

Rejection and acceptation:

 If your chi-square calculated value is greater than the chi-square critical value, then

 The Formula for Chi-Square Is

High School Bachelors Masters Ph.d.

Significance in analytical chemistry:

 A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a measure of the difference between the observed and

Method of rejection and acceptation:

116 111 101 120 99 94 106 115 107 101 110 92

Ha: μ > 100

Test statistic: From the data, we obtain that x́=106

And S x =8.83 then we get,

Because n = 12, we use the t distribution with df = 11 to find the probability.

Significance in Analytical Chemistry:

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