Part IV

Noise
 Noise
• Unwanted form of energy tending to interfere with
the proper & easy reception & reproduction of
wanted signals.
• Noise affects sensitivity of Receivers by placing a
limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified.

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 Thermal (or) White (or)
Johnson noise
• Noise generated in resistance or resistive component of any
impedance is random and is due to the rapid and rapid motion of
the electrons.
• Noise power generated by a resistor is directly proportional to
o Absolute temp.
o Bandwidth over which noise is measured.

Pn α TB
= KTB
Pn = KTB

Where K  Boltzman constant =1.38x10-23 J/K

T  Absolute temperature =273oK
B  BW of interest.
Pn max noise power o/p of a resistor.
• All formulas referring to random noise are applicable only to the rms
value of such noise not to its instantaneous value, which is quiet
unpredictable.
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
 Equivalent circuit of a
resistor as a noise generator
R RL

Vn

• From the fig , we can find the resistors equivalent noise

voltage Vn.
• Let ‘RL’ be noiseless & receive maximum noise power
generated by ‘R’.
• Under these conditions of maximum power transfer,
RL=R, then
Pn = v2/RL = (Vn/2)2/RL=Vn2/4RL=Vn2/4R

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 Equivalent circuit of a
resistor as a noise generator
Vn2 = 4RPn = 4RKTB
Vn = 𝟒𝑹𝑲𝑻𝑩

• Square of the rms voltage is independent of the

frequency at which it is measured.
• It is random and evenly distributed over the
frequency spectrum.

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 Resistors in Series
• R1 & R2 R1 Rs
• En12=4R1KTB
En12 En2
• En22=4R2KTB
R2

• Rs = R1+R2 in fig En22

• En2=4RsKTB.
• En2=4RsKTB = 4(R1+R2)KTB = 4R1KTB+4R2KTB
• = En12+En22

En= 𝑬𝟐𝒏𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐𝒏𝟐

• i.e, the resultant noise voltage squared is equal to
the sum of the squared of the individual noise
voltages.
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
 Resistors in Parallel

Rp
In12 In22 In2
G1 G2 GP
En2

• For 2 resistors in parallel.

• Two conductance's in parallel can be replaced by a
single conductance.
Gp=G1+G2
In2=4GpKTB
=4(G1+G2)KTB
=4 G1 KTB+4G2KTB
=In12+ In22
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
 Resistors in Parallel
• Any number of resistor’s in parallel
In2=4(G1+G2+G3+………)KTB
i.e 1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+…………
& En2=4RpKTB

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

• Two resistors of 20KΩ and 50KΩ are at room
temperature. For a Bandwidth of 100KHz, calculate
the thermal noise voltage generated by a) each
resistor b) two resistors in series c) two resistors in
parallel.
T = 290K
K = 1.38 x 10-23J/K
B = 100KHz
En1= 5.66μV
En2= 8.95μV
Ens= 10.59μV
Enp= 4.78μV

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 Signal to Noise Ratio
• SNR or S/N = signal power/noise power
=Ps/Pn = (Vs2/R)/(Vn2/R)
=(Vs/Vn)2

• This equation applies whenever the resistance

across which the noise is developed is the same as
the resistance across which the signal is developed.

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 SNR of a cascade
(Tandem) connection
• In an analog telephone system, it is usually
necessary to insert amplifier called repeaters to
make up for the loss in the telephone cables.

LG=1 LG=1

G G G
Ps Ps Ps
Ps Pn1 Pn1 + Pn2 Pn1 + Pn2 + …. Pnm

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 Tandem Connection of
Repeaters
• If the power loss of a line section is ‘L’ then the amplifier
power gain ‘G’ is chosen so that LG=1
• A long line is divided into near enough identical sections
and each repeater adds its own noise, so the noise
accumulates with the signal as it travels along the system.
• Let the input signal power is Ps  at this point noise is
negligible.
• After travelling along the first section of the line, the signal
is attenuated by a factor ‘L’.
• At the Output of the 1st repeater signal power is again Ps ,
since the gain G exactly compensates for the loss ‘L’.
• The noise at the output of the 1st repeater is Pn1, and
consists of the noise added by the line section and
amplifier  called as the first link of the system.
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
• As the signal progresses along the links, signal power
at the output of each repeater is Ps because LG=1
for each link, but the noise powers are additive and
the total noise power at the output of the mth is
given by
Pn=Pn1+ Pn2+ Pn3+…………+ Pnm
• If the links are identical, such that each link
contributes Pn, the total noise power becomes
Pnm=mPn.
• The overall SNR at the o/p is
SNR dB = 10log10 Ps/ Pn1+ Pn2+ …………+ Pnm
= 10log10 Ps/ mPn
= 10log10 Ps/ Pn - 10log10m
=(S/N) dB - m dB
 
SNR of any link. No of links.
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
 Noise Factor
• F of an amplifier in terms of SNR is
F = available S/N power ratio at the i/p
available S/N power ratio at the o/p
Where SNR = Signal power/Noise power
• F = Psi/ Pni x Pno/ Pso
o Temperature of the i/p source is defined at room
temperature
o SNR at o/p will always be less than i/p, therefore any
amplifier or network will add noise.
o F is a measure of amount of noise added.
o F will be greater than unity.
o F is frequency dependent in many case.
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
• Available power gain ‘G’ is
G = Pso/ Psi
F = Pno/ GPni
Pno= FGPni

• We know that,
Pni = KTB
Pno = FGKTB
• Pno is  by F over what it would have been if the
amplifier has been noiseless.

(S/N)in=Psi/Pni
(S/N)in=Psi/KTB
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
 Noise Factor

Psi ‘Ideal’ Pso = GPsi

Noiseless
Amplifier
Pni = KTB Gain, G Pno = GKTB

Psi Noisy
Pso = GPsi
Amplifier
Gains ‘G’
Noise
Pni = KTB Factor ‘F’ Pno = FGKTB

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 F in terms of Rn
• Output SNR is given by
SNRo/p=vs2/[4(R + Rn)KTB]
• Here both signal and noise will be amplified by the same
amount and noise of the amplifier is taken into account
by Rn.
• Available i/p SNR is
SNRi/p=vs2/(4RKTB)
F = (SNR)i/p/ (SNR)o/p
= (R+ Rn)/ R
• If Rn = 0, then F=1

• F in dB, is called Noise figure.

• Noise figure = F dB = 10log10F
• If Rn = 0, Noise figure would be ‘0’ dB .
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
• The noise figure of an amplifier is 7dB. Calculate the
output signal to noise ratio when the input signal to
noise ratio is 35dB.
Answer: Output signal to noise ratio = 28dB

• Calculate the noise factor of an attenuator that has

an insertion loss of 6dB.
Answer: 4

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 Amplifier i/p Noise in
terms of F
Noisy
Amplifier
Gains ‘G’
Pni = KToBn Noise Pno = FGKToBn
Factor ‘F’

• Total noise referred to the i/p can be given by

Pni=Pno/G.
• WKT, Pno= FGKTB,
G= Pno/ Pni
Pni (total)=FKTB
• Amplifier contributes
Pna=FKTB-KTB
Pna=(F-1)KTB.
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
 Amplifiers in cascade
Noisy Noisy
Amplifier 1 Amplifier 2
Pno
Gains ‘G1’ Gains ‘G2’
Pni Noise Noise
= KTB Factor ‘F1’ Factor ‘F2’

• Noise i/p to Amp1=F1KTB

• Noise i/p to Amp2 = G1 times F1KTB+contribution
from amp2 itself.
= G1 F1KTB+( F2-1)KTB

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 Amplifiers in cascade
• O/p noise power from amp2= G2 times the i/p noise
power to Amp2.
Pno = G2{ G1 F1KTB+( F2-1)KTB}
= G2 G1 F1KTB+ G2( F2-1)KTB.
• Overall gain, G= G1 G2
F = Pno/G Pni
= Pno/G1 G2 Pni
• Substitute Pni& Pno in F,
F = G2 G1 F1KTB+ G2( F2-1)KTB/ G1 G2KTB
F = F1+ (F2-1/ G1)
• For additional amplifiers.
F = F1+ (F2-1/ G1)+ (F3-1/ G2G1)+……
• This is Fril’s Formula.
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
• A mixer stage has a noise figure of 20dB and this is
preceded by an amplifier that has a noise figure of
9dB and an available power gain of 15dB.
Calculate the overall noise figure referred to the
input.
Answer: F = 11.07
Noise Figure = 10.44dB

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University

 Noise temperature
• Equivalent noise temperature finds
greatest use at microwave frequencies in
connection with the noise at the receiver
input.
• This is one way of representing noise by
means of equivalent noise temperature.
• This noise arises from 3 main sources.
o i/p amplifier
o connections to the antenna
o antenna itself.
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
Equivalent noise temperature
of amplifier input
• We know that,
Pna = (F-1)KTB
• Pna amplifier noise power contributed by itself.
• Pna can be written as KTeB
KTeB = (F-1)KTB
Te = (F-1)T
Te/T = F-1
• Te is just an alternative measure for ‘F’.
• We know that, Fril’s formula is
F = F1+ F2-1/ G1+ F3-1/ G2G1+……
• Subtracting 1 from both sides.
F -1 = (F1-1)+ F2-1/ G1+ F3-1/ G2G1+……
Te/T = Te1/T + [(Te2/T)/ G1]+ [(Te3/T)/ G2 G1]+…………..
Te = Te1 + (Te2/ G1) + (Te3/ G2 G1) + …………..
Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University
• A receiver that has a noise figure of 12dB and it is
fed by a low noise amplifier that has a gain of 50dB
and a noise temperature of 90K. Calculate the
noise temperature of the receiver and the overall
noise temperature of the receiving system.
Answer: Te = 4306K
Overall Noise Temperature = 90K

Lakshmanan. M, APS/SENSE VIT University