Infant/Toddler Learning Development Foundations (California Dept. of ED)
Infant/Toddler Learning Development Foundations (California Dept. of ED)
Infant/Toddler
Foundations
California
Infant/Toddler
Foundations
and
Sacramento, 2009
Publishing Information
The California Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Founda
tions was developed by the Child Development Division, California
Department of Education, and WestEd Center for Child and Family
Studies. It was edited by Faye Ong, working in cooperation with
Tom Cole, Consultant, Quality Improvement Office. It was prepared
for printing by the staff of CDE Press: the cover and interior design
were created and prepared by Juan D. Sanchez; typesetting was
done by Jeannette Reyes. It was published by the Department,
1430 N Street, Sacramento, CA 95814-5901. It was distributed
under the provisions of the Library Distribution Act and Govern
ment Code Section 11096.
ISBN 978-0-8011-1693-3
Notice
The guidance in the California Infant/Toddler Learning and
Development Foundations is not binding on local educational
agencies or other entities. Except for the statutes, regulations,
and court decisions that are referenced herein, the document
is exemplary, and compliance with it is not mandatory. (See
Education Code Section 33308.5.)
Contents
of Public Instruction
Acknowledgments
vii
Introduction
ix
Social-Emotional Development
7
Language Development
43
Cognitive Development
59
Appendix: Summary of
Infant/Toddler Foundations
103
iii
A Message from the
Instruction
I
am delighted to present the care, which is critically important for
California Infant/Toddler Learning children’s social-emotional well-being
and Development Foundations, a and overall learning. With a goal of
publication I believe will contribute to ensuring that all infant/toddler pro
providing high-quality care and educa grams in California offer high-quality
tion for our youngest children. care, the California Department of
The first three years are a crucial Education collaborated with lead
time of development. Research on ing early childhood educators and
brain development indicates that the researchers to develop these learning
brains of infants and toddlers are and development foundations.
twice as active as those of adults. By The foundations focus on four
the time children reach the age of domains: social-emotional develop
three, they have become competent in ment, language development, cognitive
at least one language, formed a sense development, and perceptual and
of self, learned about basic concepts motor development. The foundations
such as cause-and-effect and quantity, provide a comprehensive understand
and developed numerous large- and ing of young children’s learning and
small-muscle skills. development during the first three
More than half of California’s years of life.
infants and toddlers are cared for in It is my hope that these foundations
child care centers, in family child care will help all California infant/toddler
homes, and by relatives or neighbors programs to offer developmentally
outside the home. Research shows that appropriate and supportive care for
good care and education contribute to our youngest children. By fostering the
children’s social-emotional, language, learning and development described
cognitive, and perceptual and motor in this publication, infant/toddler
development. High-quality infant/tod care professionals will contribute to
dler programs provide children with children’s well-being and lay the foun
caring relationships, environments, dation for children’s future success.
and materials that enrich learning
and development. Those programs also
develop partnerships with families to
connect children’s home experiences JACK O’CONNELL
with experiences in the infant/toddler State Superintendent of Public Instruction
setting. Partnerships with families are
the cornerstone of culturally sensitive
Acknowledgments
T
he following people contributed Katie Monahan, Program Assistant
to this publication or helped to Teresa Ragsdale, Program Assistant
develop the ideas:
University of California, Berkeley
Panel of Experts Berkeley Evaluation and
Marc Bornstein, National Institute of Assessment Research Center
Child Health and Human Development Stephen Moore, Center Associate
Linda Brault, Sonoma State University Director
Deborrah Bremond, Alameda County Mark Wilson, Center Director;
Children and Families Commission Professor, UC Berkeley
Vera Guttierez-Clellan, San Diego State
University California Department
Christopher Lonigan, Florida State of Education
University
Tammy Mann, Zero to Three Meredith Cathcart, Consultant,
Lucia Palacios, Los Angeles Universal Special Education Division
Preschool Tom Cole, Consultant,
Jeree Pawl, Clinical Psychologist Child Development Division
Todd Risley, University of Alaska Cecelia Fisher-Dahms, Administrator,
Ross Thompson, University of Califor Quality Improvement Office
nia, Davis Michael Jett, Former Director,
Marlene Zepeda, California State Child Development Division
University, Los Angeles Camille Maben, Director,
Child Development Division
Anthony Monreal, Deputy Super
WestEd, Center for Child
intendent, Curriculum and
and Family Studies
Instruction Branch
Content development: Mary Smithberger, Consultant,
Ron Lally, Program Codirector Child Development Division
Peter Mangione, Program Codirector Gwen Stephens, Former Assistant
Charlotte Tilson, Senior Program Director, Child Development
Associate Division
Cathy Tsao, Senior Program Associate Maria Trejo, Administrator,
Sara Webb-Schmitz, Program Associate Child Development Division
Osnat Zur, Senior Program Associate
Research assistance: Note: The names and affiliations of individuals were
Amy Schustz-Alvarez, Program current at the time of the development of this publi
Assistant cation.
ii
Introduction
T
he California Infant/Toddler children’s experiences at home with
Learning and Development their experiences in the infant/tod
Foundations represents part of dler program. These partnerships with
the California Department of Educa families are the cornerstone of cultur
tion’s (CDE’s) comprehensive effort to ally sensitive care. Connections with
strengthen young children’s learning children’s early cultural and linguistic
and development through high-quality experiences are critically important
early care and education. The founda for their social-emotional well-being,
tions describe competencies infants the development of their identity, and
and toddlers typically attain during the learning. In addition, children may
birth-to-three-year period. In order to have a special need that requires par
make developmental progress, young ticular accommodations and adapta
children need appropriate nurturing. tions. To serve all children, infant/tod
Both supportive home environments dler programs must work to provide
and high-quality early care and educa appropriate conditions for each child
tion programs can facilitate children’s and individually assist each child’s
attainment of the competencies speci movement along a pathway of healthy
fied in the foundations by providing learning and development.
safe environments and an emotionally Over 20 states have either developed
secure base for active, playful explora infant/toddler standards documents or
tion and experimentation. are in the process of doing so. Many of
During the infant/toddler years, all them have sought to align infant/tod
children depend on responsive, secure dler standards with preschool learning
relationships to develop and learn. standards. Because both infant/tod
As stated in the CDE’s Infant/Toddler dler and preschool foundations in Cali
Learning and Development Program fornia cover a broad range of learn
Guidelines (2007), high-quality pro ing and development domains, the
grams offer infants and toddlers pri term foundations is used rather than
mary relationships in small groups. standards. This term was selected to
Such programs provide personalized convey that learning across all devel
care that reflects consideration for opmental domains builds young chil
individual differences among children. dren’s readiness for school. In essence,
Programs also develop partnerships the foundations pertain to young chil
with children’s families to connect dren’s current and long-term develop
ix
x
• Problem Solving: The child’s devel tencies become differentiated and can
oping ability to engage in a pur be aligned with traditional preschool
poseful effort to reach a goal or to content domains such as mathematics
determine how something works and science. In effect, infants’ and tod
• Imitation: The child’s developing dlers’ playful exploration and experi
capacity to mirror, repeat, and mentation in the cognitive domain
practice the actions of others, represent an early manifestation of
either immediately or at a later mathematical and scientific reasoning
time and problem solving.
ment system, the foundations offer a Program for Infant/Toddler Care (the
common language for infant/toddler comprehensive approach to training
program directors, teachers, and fami collaboratively developed by the CDE
lies to reflect on children’s develop and WestEd). The foundations can
mental progress and plan experiences become a unifying element for both
that support children’s learning and preservice and in-service professional
development during the first three development efforts. For infant/tod
years of life. dler programs, directors and teachers
Professional development is another can use the foundations as a basis
key component in fostering infant/tod to reflect on children’s developmental
dler learning and development. Pro progress and to plan experiences that
fessionals now have opportunities to support children’s learning and devel
become informed: through the infant/ opment from birth to three years. The
toddler learning and development foundations are designed to provide
foundations, the CDE’s Infant/Toddler infant care teachers with knowledge
Learning and Development Program of the competencies necessary during
Guidelines, the CDE’s Desired Results the first three years of a child’s life and
Developmental Profile (DRDP), and the later on in preschool and school.
xii
References
child’s brain and stimulate the onset signs of pleasure and (2) positive social
of self-regulation (Emde 1988). Read responses to people, including the
ing and understanding babies’ gazes above-mentioned smiling, increased
and showing interest and warmth by vocalizations, and bodily activity.
gazing in return benefit the children
greatly. The Three- to Four-Month-
THE EARLY MONTHS
References
Development
S
ocial-emotional development plex social interactions, to participate
includes the child’s experience, effectively in relationships and group
expression, and management of activities, and to reap the benefits
emotions and the ability to establish of social support crucial to healthy
positive and rewarding relationships human development and functioning.
with others (Cohen and others 2005). Healthy social-emotional develop
It encompasses both intra- and inter ment for infants and toddlers unfolds
personal processes. in an interpersonal context, namely
The core features of emotional devel that of positive ongoing relationships
opment include the ability to identify with familiar, nurturing adults. Young
and understand one’s own feelings, children are particularly attuned to
to accurately read and comprehend social and emotional stimulation.
emotional states in others, to manage Even newborns appear to attend more
strong emotions and their expression to stimuli that resemble faces (John
in a constructive manner, to regu son and others 1991). They also pre
late one’s own behavior, to develop fer their mothers’ voices to the voices
empathy for others, and to establish of other women (DeCasper and Fifer
and maintain relationships. (National
1980). Through nurturance, adults
Scientific Council on the Developing
support the infants’ earliest experi
Child 2004, 2)
ences of emotion regulation (Bronson
Infants experience, express, and per 2000a; Thompson and Goodvin 2005).
ceive emotions before they fully under Responsive caregiving supports
stand them. In learning to recognize, infants in beginning to regulate their
label, manage, and communicate their emotions and to develop a sense of
emotions and to perceive and attempt predictability, safety, and responsive
to understand the emotions of others, ness in their social environments.
children build skills that connect them Early relationships are so important to
with family, peers, teachers, and the developing infants that research
community. These growing capacities experts have broadly concluded that,
help young children to become compe in the early years, “nurturing, stable
tent in negotiating increasingly com and consistent relationships are the
care environment, and planning and way these processes occur in the brain
implementing curriculum. (Barrett and others 2007). This recent
Brain research indicates that emo research strengthens the view that
tion and cognition are profoundly early childhood programs support
interrelated processes. Specifically, later positive learning outcomes in all
“recent cognitive neuroscience findings domains by maintaining a focus on
suggest that the neural mechanisms the promotion of healthy social emo
underlying emotion regulation may be tional development (National Scientific
the same as those underlying cogni Council on the Developing Child 2004;
tive processes” (Bell and Wolfe 2004, Raver 2002; Shonkoff 2004).
366). Emotion and cognition work
together, jointly informing the child’s Interactions with Adults
impressions of situations and influ Interactions with adults are a fre
encing behavior. Most learning in the quent and regular part of infants’
early years occurs in the context of daily lives. Infants as young as three
emotional supports (National Research months of age have been shown to be
Council and Institute of Medicine able to discriminate between the faces
2000). “The rich interpenetrations of of unfamiliar adults (Barrera and
emotions and cognitions establish the Maurer 1981). The foundations that
major psychic scripts for each child’s describe Interactions with Adults and
life” (Panksepp 2001). Together, emo Relationships with Adults are inter
tion and cognition contribute to atten related. They jointly give a picture of
tional processes, decision making, healthy social-emotional development
and learning (Cacioppo and Berntson that is based in a supportive social
1999). Furthermore, cognitive pro environment established by adults.
cesses, such as decision making, are Children develop the ability to both
affected by emotion (Barrett and oth
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
another child. Infants’ social interac
are established between teachers and
tions with peers increase in complexity
children in the classroom or home
from engaging in repetitive or routine
and are related to children’s develop
mental status. How teachers interact back-and-forth interactions with peers
with children is at the very heart of (for example, rolling a ball back and
early childhood education (Kontos forth) to engaging in cooperative activi
and Wilcox-Herzog 1997, 11). ties such as building a tower of blocks
together or acting out different roles
Relationships with Adults during pretend play. Through inter
Close relationships with adults actions with peers, infants explore
who provide consistent nurturance their interest in others and learn
strengthen children’s capacity to about social behavior/social interac
learn and develop. Moreover, relation tion. Interactions with peers provide
ships with parents, other family mem the context for social learning and
bers, caregivers, and teachers provide problem solving, including the experi
the key context for infants’ social- ence of social exchanges, cooperation,
emotional development. These special turn-taking, and the demonstration
relationships influence the infant’s of the beginning of empathy. Social
emerging sense of self and under interactions with peers also allow older
standing of others. Infants use rela infants to experiment with different
tionships with adults in many ways: roles in small groups and in different
for reassurance that they are safe, situations such as relating to familiar
for assistance in alleviating distress, versus unfamiliar children. As noted,
for help with emotion regulation, and the foundations called Interactions
for social approval or encouragement. with Adults, Relationships with Adults,
Establishing close relationships with Interactions with Peers, and Rela
tionships with Peers are interrelated.
0
Both the understanding and expres emotional factors play a part, seen as a
sion of emotion are influenced by cul “reflection and constituent of an inter
ture. Cultural factors affect children’s active relationship” (Messinger and
growing understanding of the meaning Fogel 2007, 329). It appears likely that
of emotions, the developing knowl the experience of positive emotions is
edge of which situations lead to which a particularly important contributor to
emotional outcomes, and their learn emotional well-being and psychologi
ing about which emotions are appro cal health (Fredrickson 2000, 2003;
priate to display in which situations Panksepp 2001).
(Thompson and Goodvin 2005). Some
cultural groups appear to express cer Empathy
tain emotions more often than other During the first three years of life,
cultural groups (Tsai, Levenson, and children begin to develop the capacity
McCoy 2006). In addition, cultural to experience the emotional or psycho
groups vary by which particular emo logical state of another person (Zahn-
tions or emotional states they value Waxler and Radke-Yarrow 1990).
(Tsai, Knutson, and Fung 2006). One The following definitions of empathy
study suggests that cultural differ are found in the research literature:
ences in exposure to particular emo
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
“knowing what another person is feel
tions through storybooks may contrib ing,” “feeling what another person is
ute to young children’s preferences for feeling,” and “responding compassion
particular emotional states (for exam ately to another’s distress” (Levenson
ple, excited or calm) (Tsai and others and Ruef 1992, 234). The concept of
2007). empathy reflects the social nature of
Young children’s expression of posi emotion, as it links the feelings of two
tive and negative emotions may play a or more people (Levenson and Ruef
significant role in their development of 1992). Since human life is relation
social relationships. Positive emotions ship-based, one vitally important func
appeal to social partners and seem tion of empathy over the life span is to
to enable relationships to form, while strengthen social bonds (Anderson and
problematic management or expression Keltner 2002). Research has shown a
of negative emotions leads to difficulty correlation between empathy and pro-
in social relationships (Denham and social behavior (Eisenberg 2000). In
Weissberg 2004). The use of emotion- particular, prosocial behaviors, such
related words appears to be associ as helping, sharing, and comforting or
ated with how likable preschoolers are showing concern for others, illustrate
considered by their peers. Children the development of empathy (Zahn-
who use emotion-related words were Waxler and others 1992) and how the
found to be better-liked by their class experience of empathy is thought to
mates (Fabes and others 2001). Infants be related to the development of moral
respond more positively to adult vocal behavior (Eisenberg 2000). Adults
izations that have a positive affective model prosocial/empathic behav
tone (Fernald 1993). Social smiling is iors for infants in various ways. For
a developmental process in which neu example, those behaviors are modeled
rophysiology and cognitive, social, and through caring interactions with oth-
ers or through providing nurturance and Rubin 2003, 3). Adults can pro
to the infant. Quann and Wien (2006, vide positive role models of emotion
28) suggest that one way to support regulation through their behavior and
the development of empathy in young through the verbal and emotional
children is to create a culture of caring support they offer children in manag
in the early childhood environment: ing their emotions. Responsiveness
“Helping children understand the feel to infants’ signals contributes to the
ings of others is an integral aspect of development of emotion regulation.
the curriculum of living together. The Adults support infants’ development
relationships among teachers, between of emotion regulation by minimizing
children and teachers, and among exposure to excessive stress, chaotic
children are fostered with warm and environments, or over- or understimu
caring interactions.” lation.
Emotion regulation skills are impor
Emotion Regulation tant in part because they play a role
The developing ability to regulate in how well children are liked by peers
emotions has received increasing and teachers and how socially compe
attention in the research literature tent they are perceived to be (National
Scientific Council on the Develop
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
actions of other people. This develop
ment includes infants’ understanding 2008).
of what to expect from others, how to
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Attend to an unfamiliar adult • Move close to the infant care • Participate in storytelling with
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
with interest but show wariness teacher and hold his hand when the infant care teacher. (30–36
or become anxious when that a visitor enters the classroom mos.; Parks 2004)
adult comes too close. (5–8 but watch the visitor with inter • Tell a teacher from the class
mos.; Parks 2004; Johnstone est. (18 mos.; Meisels and oth room next door about an
and Scherer 2000, 222) ers 2003)
upcoming birthday party.
• Take the infant care teacher’s • Bring a familiar object to an (36 mos.; Parks 2004)
hands and rock forward and adult when asked. (15–18 mos.; • Help the infant care teacher
backwards as a way of asking Parks 2004)
bring in the wheeled toys from
her to sing a favorite song. • Allow an unfamiliar adult to get the play yard at the end of the
(8 mos.; Gustafson, Green, and close only after the adult uses day.
West 1979; Kaye and Fogel an object to bridge the interac
1980) • Ask a classroom visitor her
tion, such as showing interest in
name.
• Engage in games such as pat a toy that is also interesting to
a-cake and peek-a-boo. (7–9 the child. (18 mos.; Meisels and
mos.; Coplan 1993, 3) others 2003)
• Make eye contact with a family • Watch, and then help the infant
member. care teacher as she prepares
snack.
• Vocalize to get an infant care
teacher’s attention. • Seek reassurance from the
infant care teacher when unsure
if something is safe. (10–12
mos.; Fogel 2001, 305; Dickstein
and Parke 1988; Hirshberg and
Svejda 1990)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Engage in playful, face-to-face • Engage in back-and-forth inter • Practice being a grown-up dur
interactions with an adult, such action by handing a parent an ing pretend play by dressing up
as taking turns vocalizing and object, then reaching to receive or using a play stove. (18–36
then smiling or laughing. (2–7 the object when it is handed mos.; Lerner and Dombro 2000)
mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti back. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and • Help the infant care teacher
2002, 375) Ciervo 2003) clean up after snack by putting
• Begin to protest separations
• Show—but not give—a toy to snack dishes in the dish bin.
from significant adults.
the infant care teacher. (9–12
mos.; Parks 2004)
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
6
For example, the child For example, the child For example, the child may:
may: may:
• Seek comfort from the • Run in wide circles • Feel comfortable playing on the other side
infant care teacher by around the outdoor play of the play yard away from the infant care
crying and looking for area, circling back each teacher, but cry to be picked up after falling
him. (7 mos.; Lamb, time and hug the legs of down. (24–36 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti
Bornstein, and Teti 2002, the infant care teacher 2002, 376)
372) before running off again. • Call “Mama!” from across the room while
• Cry out or follow after • Snuggle with the special playing with dolls to make sure that the moth
a parent when dropped infant care teacher when er is paying attention. (24–36 mos.; Schaffer
off at the child care feeling tired or grumpy. and Emerson 1964)
program. (6–9 mos.; • Call for a family member and look out the
• Wave at the special
Ainsworth1967, 4) window for him after being dropped off at
infant care teacher from
• Lift her arms to be picked the top of the slide to school. (24–36 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999,
up by the special infant make sure he is watch 56)
care teacher. (8 mos.; ing. • Communicate, “This is our favorite part” when
Meisels and others 2003, • Follow a parent physi reading a funny story with the infant care
17; Ainsworth 1967, 5) teacher.
cally around the room.
• Crawl toward a parent • Play away from the • Bring the grandmother’s favorite book to her
when startled by a loud and express, “One more?” to see if she will
infant care teacher and
noise. (8.5 mos.; Marvin read one more book, even though she has
then move close to
and Britner 1999, 52) just said, “We’re all done reading. Now it’s
him from time to time
• Turn excitedly and raise to check in. (12 mos.; time for nap.” (Teti 1999; 18–36 mos.; Marvin
his arms to greet a family Davies 2004, 10) and Britner 1999, 59)
member at pick-up time. • Cry and look for the special infant care
(8 mos.; Ainsworth 1967, teacher after falling.
5)
• Seek the attention of the special infant care
teacher and communicate, “Watch me!” be
fore proudly displaying a new skill.
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Hold on to a parent’s sweater
• Cry and ask for a parent after • Say, “I go to school. Mama goes
when being held. (5 mos.;
being dropped off in the morn- to work,” after being dropped off
Marvin and Britner 1999, 51;
ing. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and in the morning.
Ainsworth 1967, 1)
Ciervo 2003) • Gesture for one more hug as a
• Babble back and forth with the • Look for a smile from the parent is leaving for work.
infant care teacher. (3–6 mos.; infant care teacher when
Caufield 1995) unsure if something is safe.
(10–12 mos.; Fogel 2001, 305;
• Be more likely to smile when
Dickstein and Parke 1988;
approached by the infant care
Hirshberg and Svejda 1990)
teacher than a stranger. (3–6
mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, • Cling to a parent when feeling
50) ill. (10–11 mos.; Marvin and
Britner 1999, 52)
• Cry when an unfamiliar adult
gets too close. (7 mos.; Bronson
1972)
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Watch other children with inter • Hit another child who takes a • Communicate with peers while
est. (8 mos.; Meisels and others toy. (18 mos.; Meisels and oth digging in the sandbox together.
2003) ers 2003, 35) (29–36 mos.; Hart and Risley
1999, 124)
• Touch the eyes or hair of a peer. • Offer a book to another child,
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
(8 mos.; Meisels and others perhaps with encouragement • Act out different roles with
2003) from the infant care teacher. peers, sometimes switching in
(18 mos.; Meisels and others and out of her role. (By 36 mos.;
• Attend to a crying peer with a
2003, 35) Segal 2004, 44)
serious expression. (7 mos.;
American Academy of Pediat • Tickle another child, get tickled • Build a tall tower with one or
rics 2004, 212) back, and tickle him again. two other children. (36 mos.;
• Laugh when an older sibling (18 mos.; Meisels and others Meisels and others 2003, 70)
2003, 35)
or peer makes a funny face. • Hand a peer a block or piece of
(8 mos.; Meisels and others • Engage in reciprocal play, such railroad track when building.
2003) as run-and-chase or offer-and
receive. (12–13 mos.; Howes
1988, v; 10–12 mos.; Ross and
Goldman 1977)
• Play ball with a peer by rolling
the ball back and forth to each
other. (12–15 mos.; Parks 2004;
9–16 mos.; Frankenburg and
others 1990)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Notice other infants and chil • Engage in solitary play. (toddler; • Use gestures to communicate
dren while sitting on a parent’s Segal 2004, 38) a desire to play with a peer.
or infant care teacher’s lap. • Play a reciprocal game, such as (18–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 123)
• Cry when hearing another baby pat-a-cake, with the infant care • Refuse to let a peer have a turn
cry. (4 mos.; Meisels and others teacher and a peer. (7–11 mos.; on the swing. (24 mos.; Meisels
2003, 10) Frankenburg and othres 1990) and others 2003, 45)
• Push or bite when another child
takes a toy. (24–30 mos.; Parks
2004)
• Engage in complementary
interactions, such as feeding a
stuffed animal that another child
is holding or pulling a friend
in the wagon. (24–30 mos.;
Meisels and others 2003, 57;
Howes and Matheson 1992,
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
967)
• Join a group of children who
are together in one play space
and follow them as they move
outside. (30 mos.; Meisels and
others 2003, 57)
0
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Watch other children with inter • Play the same kind of game, • Choose to play with a sibling
est. (8 mos.; Meisels and others such as run-and-chase, with instead of a less familiar child.
2003) the same peer almost every (24–36 mos.; Dunn 1983, 795)
day. (Howes 1987, 259)
• Touch the eyes or hair of a peer. • Exhibit sadness when the favor
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
(8 mos.; Meisels and others • Choose to play in the same ite friend is not at school one
2003) area as a friend. (Howes 1987, day. (24–36 mos.; Melson and
259) Cohen 1981)
• Attend to a crying peer with a
serious expression. (7 mos.; • Seek one friend for running
American Academy of Pediat games and another for building
rics 2004, 212) with blocks. (Howes 1987)
• Laugh when an older sibling • Play “train” with one or two
or peer makes a funny face. friends for an extended period
(8 mos.; Meisels and others of time by pretending that one
2003) is driving the train and the rest
are riding.
• Try to get the attention of an
other child by smiling at him or
babbling to him (6–9 mos.; Hay,
Pederson, and Nash 1982)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Look at another child who is • Watch an older sibling play • Engage in social pretend play
lying on the blanket nearby. nearby. (12 mos.; Meisels and with one or two friends; for
(4 mos.; Meisels and others others 2003, 26) example, pretend to be a dog
2003, 10) while a friend pretends to be
• Bang blocks together next to
the owner. (24–30 mos.; Howes
• Turn toward the voice of a par a child who is doing the same
1987, 261)
ent or older sibling. (4 mos.; thing. (12 mos.; Meisels and
Meisels and others 2003, 10) others 2003, 26) • Express an interest in playing
with a particular child. (13–24
• Imitate the simple actions of a
mos.; Howes 1988, 3)
peer. (9–12 mos.; Ryalls, Gul,
and Ryalls 2000)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Respond to someone who calls • Point to or indicate parts of the • Use pronouns such as I, me,
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
her name. (5–7 mos.; Parks body when asked. (15–19 mos.; you, we, he, and she. (By
2004, 94; 9 mo.; Coplan 1993, Parks 2004) 36 mo.; American Academy of
2) Pediatrics 2004, p. 307)
• Express thoughts and feel
• Turn toward a familiar person ings by saying “no!” (18 mos.; • Say own name. (30–33 mos.;
upon hearing his name. (6–8 Meisels and others 2003) Parks 2004, 115)
mos.; Parks 2004, 94; 8 mos.; • Move excitedly when ap • Begin to make comparisons
Meisels and others 2003, 18) proached by an infant care between self and others; for
• Look at an unfamiliar adult with teacher who usually engages in example, communicate, “_____
interest but show wariness or active play. is a boy/girl like me.”
become anxious when that • Name people in the family.
adult comes too close. (5–8
mos.; Parks 2004; Johnstone • Point to pictures of friends and
and Scherer 2000, 222) say their names.
• Wave arms and kick legs when • Communicate, “Do it myself!”
a parent enters the room. when the infant care teacher
tries to help.
• Cry when the favorite infant care
teacher leaves the room. (6–10
mos.; Parks 2004)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Use hands to explore differ • Play games such as peek-a-boo • Recognize his own image in the
ent parts of the body. (4 mos.; or run-and-chase with the infant mirror and understand that it is
Kravitz, Goldenberg, and Ney care teacher. (Stern 1985, 102; himself. (Siegel 1999, 35; Lewis
hus 1978) 7–11 mos.; Frankenburg and and Brooks-Gunn 1979, 56)
others 1990)
• Examine her own hands and a • Know the names of familiar
parent’s hands. (Scaled score • Recognize familiar people, such people, such as a neighbor. (by
of 9 for 4:06–4:15 mos.;* Bayley as a neighbor or infant care end of second year; American
2006, 53) teacher from another room, in Academy of Pediatrics 2004,
addition to immediate family 270)
• Watch or listen for the infant
members. (12–18 mo.; Parks
care teacher to come to meet • Show understanding of or use
2004)
the child’s needs. (Birth–8 mos.; words such as you, me, mine,
Lerner and Dombro 2000, 42) • Use names to refer to significant he, she, it, and I. (20–24 mos.;
people; for example, “Mama” to Parks 2004, 96; 20 mos.; Bay-
refer to the mother and “Papa” ley 2006; 18–24 mos.; Lerner
to refer to the father. (11–14 and Ciervo 2003; 19 mos.; Hart
mos.; Parks 2004, 109) and Risley 1999, 61; 24–20
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Pat a musical toy to try to • Roll a toy car back and forth • Communicate, “I take care of the
make the music come on on the ground and then push bunny” after helping to feed the
again. (5–9 mos.; Parks 2004) it really hard and let go to class rabbit. (18–36 mos.; Lally
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
see what happens. (18 mos.; and others 1995, 71)
• Raise arms to be picked up by
McCarty, Clifton, and Collard
the infant care teacher. (6–9 • Finish painting a picture and hold
1999)
mos.; Fogel 2001, 274) it up to show a family member.
• Initiate a favorite game; for • Clap and bounce with joy after • Complete a difficult puzzle for
example, hold out a foot to a making a handprint with paint. the first time and clap or express,
(12–18 mos.; Sroufe 1979;
parent to start a game of “This “I’m good at puzzles.”
Lally and others 1995, 71)
Little Piggy.” (8 mos.; Meisels
and others 2003; • Squeeze a toy in different
6–9 mos.; Fogel 2001, 274) ways to hear the sounds it
makes. (Scaled score of 10
• Gesture at a book and smile
for 13:16–14:15 mos.;* Bayley
with satisfaction after the infant
care teacher gets it down from 2006)
the shelf. (8 mos.; Meisels and • Smile after walking up a steep
others 2003) incline without falling or carry
ing a bucket full of sand from
one place to another without
spilling.
• Proudly hold up a book hidden
in a stack after being asked by
the infant care teacher to find
it.
Recognition of Ability
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the
foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Try again and again to roll over, • Drop a blanket over the side of • Insist on zipping up a jacket
even though not yet able to roll the crib and wait for the infant when the infant care teacher
completely over. care teacher to pick it up. (12 tries to help. (20–28 mos.; Hart
mos.; Meisels and others 2003) and Risley 1999, 62; 24 mos.;
• Grasp, suck, or look at a teeth
Hart and Risley 1999, 122 and
ing ring. (Before 8 mos. of age; • Drop a toy truck in the water
129; 20–36 mos.; Bates 1990;
Fogel 2001, 218) table and blink in anticipation
Bullock and Lutkenhaus 1988,
of the big splash. (12 mos.;
• Shake a toy, hear it make noise, 1990; Stipek, Gralinski, and
Meisels and others 2003)
and shake it again. Kopp 1990)
• Look over a shoulder, smile
• Stop crying upon seeing the
• Point to a stack of blocks he
infant care teacher approach
at the mother, and giggle in
has made and express, “look”
a playful way while crawling
with a bottle.
to the infant care teacher.
past her, to entice her to play a
(28 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999,
game of run-and-chase. (10–14
96)
mos.; Bayley 2006)
• Communicate, “I doing this,” “I
• Turn light switch on and off
don’t do this, “ “I can do this,”
repeatedly.
or “I did this.” (25 mos.; Hart
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Exhibit wariness, cry, or turn • Show affection for a family • Hide face with hands when feel
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
away when a stranger ap member by hugging. (8–18 ing embarrassed. (Lagattuta and
proaches. (6 mos.; Lamb, mos.; Lally and others 1995; Thompson 2007)
Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 338; Greenspan and Greenspan • Use words to describe feelings;
Fogel 2001, 297; 7–8 mos.; 1985, 84) for example, “I don’t like that.”
Lewis 2000a, 277) • Express jealousy by trying to (24–36 mos.; Fogel 2001, 414;
• Be more likely to react with an crowd onto the infant care 24–36 mos.; Harris and others
ger than just distress when ac teacher’s lap when another 1989; Yuill 1984)
cidentally hurt by another child. child is already sitting there.
• Communicate, “I miss Grandma,”
(later in the first year; Lamb, (12–18 mos.; Hart and others
after talking on the phone with
Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 341) 1998)
her. (24–36 mos.; Harris and oth
• Express fear of unfamiliar • Express anger at having a ers 1989; Yuill 1984)
people by moving near a famil toy taken away by taking it • Act out different emotions dur
iar infant care teacher. (8 mos.; back out of the other child’s
ing pretend play by “crying”
Bronson 1972) hands or hitting her. (18 mos.;
when pretending to be sad and
Squires, Bricker, and Twombly
• Stop crying and snuggle after “cooing” when pretending to be
2002, 115)
being picked up by a parent. happy. (Dunn, Bretherton, and
• Show surprise when the infant • Smile directly at other children Munn 1987)
when interacting with them.
care teacher removes the blan • Express guilt after taking a toy
(18 mos.; Squires, Bricker, and
ket covering her face to start a out of another child’s cubby with
Twombly 2002, 115)
game of peek-a-boo. out permission by trying to put
• Express pride by communi it back without anyone seeing.
cating, “I did it!” (15–24 mos.; (Lagattuta and Thompson 2007)
Lewis and others 1989; Lewis
2000b)
Expression of Emotion
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the
foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months)
Foundation: Empathy
The developing ability to share in the emotional experiences of others
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around eight months of At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age,
age, children demonstrate children change their behav children understand that other
awareness of others’ feelings ior in response to the feelings people have feelings that are
by reacting to their emotional of others even though their different from their own and
expressions. actions may not always make can sometimes respond to
the other person feel better. another’s distress in a way
Children show an increased that might make that person
understanding of the reason feel better. (24–36 mos.; Hoff
for another’s distress and man 1982; 18 mos.; Thomp
may become distressed by son 1987, 135).
the other’s distress. (14 mos.;
Zahn-Waxler, Robinson, and
Emde 1992; Thompson 1987;
24 mos.; Zahn-Waxler and
Radke-Yarrow 1982, 1990)
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Stop playing and look at a child • Offer to help a crying playmate • Do a silly dance in an attempt
who is crying. (7 mos.; Ameri by bringing his own mother over. to make a crying peer smile.
can Academy of Pediatrics (13–15 mos.; Wingert and Brant (24–36 mos.; Dunn 1988)
2004, 212) 2005, 35) • Communicate, “Lucas is sad
• Laugh when an older sibling • Try to hug a crying peer. because Isabel took his cup.”
or peer makes a funny face. (8 (18 mos.; Thompson 1987, 135) (36 mos.; Harris and others
mos.; Meisels and others 2003) 1989; Yuill 1984)
• Bring her own special blanket
• Return the smile of the infant to a peer who is crying. (13–15 • Comfort a younger sibling who
care teacher. mos.; Wingert and Brant 2005, is crying by patting his back,
35) expressing “It’s okay” and of
• Grimace when another child
fering him a snack. (Denham
cries. (Older than 6 mos.; • Become upset when another
1998, 34)
Wingert and Brant 2005, 35) child throws a tantrum.
• Communicate, “Mama sad”
• Gently pat a crying peer on his
when the mother cries during
back, just like his infant care
a movie. (24–36 mos.; Dunn
teacher did earlier in the day.
1994; Harris 2000, 282).
(16 mos.; Bergman and Wilson
1984; Zahn-Waxler and others • Communicate, “Olivia’s mama
1992) is happy” and point to or
indicate the illustration in the
• Hit a child who is crying loudly.
picture book. (24 mos.; Harris
• Stop playing and look with con 2000, 282).
cerned attention at a child who
• Get an infant care teacher to
is screaming.
help a child who has fallen
• Move quickly away from a child down and is crying.
who is crying loudly.
Empathy
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the
foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Cry when hearing another baby • Stand nearby and quietly watch • Hug a crying peer. (18–24 mos.;
cry. (Younger than 6 mos; Wing a peer who has fallen down Parks 2004, 123)
ert and Brant 2005, 35) and is crying. • Become upset in the presence
• Exhibit social referencing by of those who are upset.
looking for emotional indica
tors in others’ faces, voices, or
gestures to decide what to do
when uncertain. (10–12 mos.;
Thompson 1987, 129)
• Cry upon hearing another child
cry. (12 mos.; Meisels and oth
ers 2003, 26)
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Turn away from an overstimulating • Use gestures and simple words • Reach for the mother’s hand
activity. (3–12 mos.; Rothbart, Ziaie, to express distress and seek just before she pulls a ban
and O’Boyle 1992) specific kinds of assistance dage off the child’s knee.
from the infant care teacher in
• Vocalize to get a parent’s attention. • Ask the infant care teacher to
order to calm self. (Brazelton
(6.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 126) hold him up to the window to
1992; Kopp 1989, 347) wave good-bye before the par
• Lift arms to the infant care teacher
• Use comfort objects, such as a ent leaves in the morning.
to communicate a desire to be held.
special blanket or stuffed toy, to
(7–9 mos.; Coplan 1993, 3; 5–9 mos.; • Show the substitute teacher
Parks 2004, 121) help calm down. (Kopp 1989, that she likes a back rub dur
348)
• Turn toward the infant care teacher for ing naptime by patting own
• Seek to be close to a parent back while lying on the mat.
assistance when crying. (6–9 mos.;
when upset. (Lieberman 1993)
Fogel 2001, 274) • Play quietly in a corner of the
• Play with a toy as a way to room right after drop-off, until
• Cry after her hand was accidentally
distract self from discomfort. ready to play with the other
stepped on by a peer and then hold
the hand up to the infant care teacher (12–18 mos.; Kopp 1989, 347) children.
to look at it. • Communicate, “I’m okay” after • Ask the infant care teacher to
falling down. (National Research explain what’s going to happen
• Reach toward a bottle that is up on
Council and Institute of Medi at the child’s dental appoint
the counter and vocalize when hun
cine 2000, 112) ment later in the day.
gry.
• Indicate her knee and say “boo • Communicate, “Daddy always
• Make a face of disgust to tell the
boo” after falling down and comes back” after saying
infant care teacher that he does not
gesture or ask for a bandage. good-bye to him in the morn
want any more food. (6–9 mos.;
ing.
Lerner and Ciervo 2003) • Approach the infant care
teacher for a hug and express,
• Bump head, cry, and look to infant
“Mommy work,” then point to
care teacher for comfort.
the door to communicate miss
• Suck on a thumb to make self feel ing the mother.
better.
• Look at the infant care teacher when
an unfamiliar person enters the room.
Emotion Regulation
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the
foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Suck on hands, focus on an in • Move away from something • Continue to rely on adults for
teresting toy, or move the body that is bothersome and move reassurance and help in con
in a rocking motion to calm self. toward the infant care teacher trolling feelings and behavior.
(3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 10) for comfort. (6–12 mos.; Bron (Lally and others 1995)
son 2000b, 64)
• Cry inconsolably less often than • Reenact emotional events in
in the early months. (6 mos.; • Fight back tears when a parent play to try to gain mastery over
Parks 2004, 10) leaves for the day. (12 mos.; these feelings. (Greenspan and
Bridges, Grolnick, and Con Greenspan 1985)
• Calm self by sucking on fingers
nell 1997; Parritz 1996; Sroufe
or hands. (4 mos.; Thelen and • Use words to ask for specific
Fogel 1989; 3–12 mos.; Bron 1979)
help with regulating emotions.
son 2000b, 64) • Look for a cue from the infant (Kopp 1989)
care teacher when unsure if
• Be able to inhibit some negative • Express wants and needs
something is safe. (10–12 mos.;
emotions. (Later in the first year; verbally; for example, say, “hold
Fogel 2001, 305; Dickstein and
Fox and Calkins 2000) me” to the infant care teacher
Parke 1988; Hirshberg and
• Shift attention away from a dis when feeling tired or over
Svejda 1990)
tressing event onto an object, whelmed. (30–31.5 mos.; Parks
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Explore the feel of hair by • Stop drawing on the wall when • Jump up and down on the
pulling it. (4–7 mos.; American a parent asks. (18 mos.; Meisels couch but stop jumping and
Academy of Pediatrics 2004, and others 2003) climb down when a parent
226) enters the room. (36 mos.;
• Choose one toy when the infant
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Meisels and others 2003)
• Reach for an interesting toy that care teacher asks, “Which one
another child is mouthing. do you want?” even though the • Experience difficulty (e.g., cry,
child really wants both. whine, pout) with transitions.
• Reach for another child’s bottle
that was just set down nearby. • Express “no no” while ap (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 320)
proaching something the child • Begin to share.
• Turn the head away or push the
knows she should not touch,
bottle away when finished eat • Handle transitions better when
because the infant care teacher
ing (8 mos.; Meisels and others prepared ahead of time or when
has communicated “no no” in
2003, 19). the child has some control over
the past when the child tried to what happens.
do this.
• Touch a pet gently without
• Look to the infant care teacher needing to be reminded.
to see his reaction when the
child reaches toward the light • Wait to start eating until others
switch. at the table are also ready.
• Stop reaching for the eyeglass
es on the infant care teacher’s
face when she gently says, “no
no.” (Scaled score of 10 for
7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 2006,
87; 12 mos.; Meisels and others
2003, 27)
Impulse Control
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the
foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Cry when hungry or tired. • Crawl too close to a younger • Begin to use words and dra
infant lying nearby. matic play to describe, under
• Fall asleep when tired.
stand, and control impulses
• Refrain from exploring another
and feelings. (Lally and others
baby’s hair when reminded to
be gentle. (8–10 mos.; Brazel 1995)
ton 1992, 256) • Communicate, “Mine!” and
take a doll out of the hands of a
• Look at the infant care teacher’s
face to determine whether it is peer. (23–24 mos.; Parks 2004,
all right to play with a toy on 330)
the table. (12 mos.; Meisels and • Throw a puzzle piece on the
others 2003, 25) floor after having trouble fitting
• Bite another child who takes a it in the opening. (24 mos.;
Meisels and others 2003)
toy.
• Open the playground door and
• Reach for food on a plate
run out, even after being asked
before the infant care teacher
by the infant care teacher to
offers it. (12 mos.; Meisels and
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Smile when the infant care • Gesture toward a desired toy • Name own feelings or desires,
teacher pauses, to get her to or food while reaching, making explicitly contrast them with
continue playing peek-a-boo or imperative vocal sounds, and another’s, or describe why the
pat-a-cake. looking toward the infant care child feels the way he does.
teacher.
• Squeal in anticipation of the • Describe what happens during
infant care teacher’s uncover • Seek reassurance from the infant the bedtime routine or another
ing her eyes during a game of care teacher when unsure about familiar everyday event.
peek-a-boo. something. • Move into and out of pretend
• Learn simple behaviors by imi • Vary response to different infant play roles, tell other children
tating a parent’s facial expres care teachers depending on their what they should do in their
sions, gestures, or sounds. play styles, even before they have roles, or extend the sequence
started playing; for example, (such as by asking “Wanna
• Try to get a familiar game or
get very excited upon seeing an drink?” after bringing a pre
routine started by prompting
infant care teacher who regularly tend hamburger to the table
the infant care teacher.
plays in an exciting, vigorous as a waiter).
• Quiet crying upon realizing that manner. • Help the infant care teacher
the infant care teacher is ap
proaching. • Engage in back-and-forth play search for a missing toy.
that involves turn-taking, such as • Talk about what happened
rolling a ball back and forth. during a recent past experi
• Look in the direction of the infant ence, with the assistance of
care teacher’s gesturing or point the infant care teacher.
ing. • Help the infant care teacher
• Learn more complex behaviors clean up at the end of the
through imitation, such as day by putting the toys in the
watching an older child put toys usual places.
together and then doing it.
Social Understanding
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Make imperative vocal sounds • Follow the infant care teacher’s • Vary play with different peers
to attract the infant care gaze to look at a toy. depending on their preferred play
teacher’s attention. activities.
• Hold up or gesture toward
• Participate in playful, face-to objects in order to direct the • Imitate the behavior of peers as
face interactions with an adult, infant care teacher’s attention well as adults.
such as taking turns vocaliz to them.
ing.
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
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Language Development
“T
he acquisition of language to as “parentese” or “motherese”) has
and speech seems decep qualities, notably its pitch or tone and
tively simple. Young chil sing-song-like rhythm, that distin
dren learn their mother tongue rapidly guish it from adult-directed speech
and effortlessly, from babbling at six (Cooper and others 1997). Preverbal
months of age to full sentences by the infants communicate through eye
end of three years, and follow the same contact, facial expressions, gestures,
developmental path regardless of cul and sounds. Understanding language
ture.” (Kuhl 2004, 831) precedes speaking it (Bloom and oth
As is true of human development in ers 1996). In addition, before being
infancy overall, language development able to use language effectively, infants
occurs in the context of relationships. acquire some understanding of the
Emotion and language development in social processes involved in commu
the early years are linked, as “much of nication. They learn about the social
the form and content of communica aspects of communication through
tion between infants and their care engaging in turn-taking behavior in
givers in the first year of life depends proto-conversations with their par
upon affective expression” (Bloom and ents or infant care teachers. In proto
Capatides 1987, 1513). The relation conversations, the adult usually says
ship basis of early language develop something to the preverbal infant,
ment appears right at the beginning and the infant responds by making
of life. Newborns prefer the sounds of eye contact, cooing, smiling, showing
their mothers’ voices (DeCasper and lip and tongue movements, or waving
Fifer 1980). They also prefer the lan arms. These “conversation-like” con
guage spoken by their mother during versations go back and forth between
her pregnancy (Moon, Cooper, and the adult and the infant for several
Fifer 1993). turns.
Adults typically modify their speech There is broad variability in lan
when communicating with young guage development in its pattern and
infants. Research suggests that pace (Bloom and Capatides 1987).
infant-directed speech (also referred However, the process of early language
begin to master higher levels of lan phonemic units most useful to them in
guage, such as sound-meaning corre their native language and serves as a
spondences, contrastive phonology, building block to later word acquisition
and grammatical rules—infants’ per (Kuhl 2004).
ceptual and perceptual-motor systems
For example, the child For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
may:
• Smile and look toward the • Go to the cubby when the • Look for a stuffed bear when the
door when the infant care infant care teacher says that infant care teacher asks, “Where’s
teacher says, “Daddy’s it is time to put on coats to your bear?” (24–36 mos.; Coplan
here.” (Scaled score of 10 go outside. (Scaled score of 1993, 2–3; scaled score of 10 for
for 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 10 for 17:16 to 18:15 mos.; 34:16–35:15; Bayley 2006)
2006, 87) Bayley 2006, 90; 12–18 mos.; • Get the bin of blocks when the infant
Lerner and Ciervo 2003; 12
• Wave arms and kick legs in care teacher asks what the child
mos.; Coplan 1993, 2; by 24
excitement when the infant wants to play with. (24–36 mos.;
mos.; American Academy
care teacher says, “bottle.” Coplan 1993, 2–3; scaled score of 10
of Pediatrics 2004; 12 mos.;
(8 mos.; Meisels and others for 34:16–35:15; Bayley 2006)
Coplan 1993, 2; 24 mos.;
2003, 18) • Show understanding of words such
Meisels and others 2003, 46)
• Smile when the infant care as no, not, and don’t, and utterances
• Cover up the doll when the
teacher uses baby talk and such as when the infant care teacher
infant care teacher says,
make a worried face when says, “There’s no more milk,” or
“Cover the baby with the
she uses a stern voice. “Those don’t go there.” (24–36 mos.;
blanket.” (Scaled score of 10
(8 mos.; Meisels and others Parks 2004, p. 99)
for 17:16–18:15 mos.; Bayley
2003, 18; by end of 7 mos.; • Know the names of most objects in
2006, 90; 12–18 mos.; Lerner
American Academy of Pedi the immediate environment. (By 36
and Ciervo 2003; 12 mos.;
atrics 2004) mos.; American Academy of Pediat
Coplan 1993, 2; by 24 mos.;
American Academy of Pediat rics 2004)
rics 2004) • Understand requests that include
• Go to the sink when the infant simple prepositions, such as, “Please
care teacher says that it is put your cup on the table,” or “Please
time to wash hands. (Scaled get your blanket out of your back
score of 10 for 17:16–18:15 pack.” (By 36 mos.; Coplan 1993, 2;
mos.; Bayley 2006, 90; 12–18 by 36 mos.; American Academy of
mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003; Pediatrics 2004; 24–27 mos.; Parks
12 mos.; Coplan 1993, 2; by 2004, 97)
24 mos.; American Academy • Laugh when an adult tells a silly joke
of Pediatrics 2004; 24 mos.; or makes up rhymes with nonsense
Meisels and others 2003, 46) “words.” (By 36 mos.; American
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Receptive Language
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the
foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Vocalize to get the infant care • Look at a plate of crackers, then at • Use the past tense, though not
teacher’s attention. (6.5–8 the infant care teacher, and com always correctly; for example,
mos.; Parks 2004) municate “more.” (Scaled score of “Daddy goed to work,” “She
10 for 16:16–17:15; Bayley 2006; falled down.” (27–30 mos.;
• Repeat sounds when bab
14–20 mos.; Parks 2004) Hulit and Howard 2006, 182;
bling, such as “da da da
30–36 mos.; Parks 2004;
da” or “ba ba ba ba.” (By 7 • Point to an airplane in the sky and
28 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999,
mos.; American Academy look at the infant care teacher.
95 and 129–30)
of Pediatrics 2004, 209; 6–7 (17.5–18.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 123)
mos.; Hulit and Howard 2006, • Use the possessive, though
• Use the same word to refer to
122; scaled score of 10 for not always correctly; for
similar things, such as “milk” while
7:16–8:15 on Bayley 2006, example, “That’s you car” or
indicating the pitcher, even though
106; 4–6.5 mos.; Parks 2004; “Her Megan.” (Scaled score
it is filled with juice. (18 mos.;
6 mos.; Locke 1993) of 10 for 34:16–35:15; Bayley
Meisels and others 2003, p. 37)
2006)
• Wave to the infant care • Use two words together, such as
teacher when he waves and • Use a few prepositions, such
“Daddy give.” (18 mos.; National
says, “bye-bye” as he leaves as “on” the table. (33-35.5
Research Council and Institute of
for his break. (6–9 mos.; Parks mos.; Parks 2004, p. 116)
Medicine 2000, 127)
2004, 121) • Talk about what she will do in
• Shake head “no” when offered
• Lift arms to the infant care the future, such as “I gonna
more food. (18 mos.; Meisels and
teacher to communicate a get a kitty.” (33–36 mos.; Hart
others 2003, 37)
desire to be held. (7–9 mos.; and Risley 1999, 131)
Coplan 1993, 3; 5–9 mos.; • Jabber a string of sounds into the
• Use 300–1000 words. (35+
Parks 2004, 121) toy telephone. (18 mos.; Meisels
mos.; Parks 2004, 116)
and others 2003, 37)
• Gesture “all gone” by twisting • Use the plural form of nouns,
though not always correctly;
wrists to turn hands up and down
for example, “mans,” and
when finished eating lunch. (12–19
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Expressive Language
Behaviors leading up to Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the
the foundation ( to foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months)
months)
During this period, the child During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
may: • Babble using the sounds of his • Tend to communicate about
• Squeal when excited. home language. (6–10 mos.; objects, actions, and events that
(5 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo Cheour and others 1998) are in the here and now. (12–22
2003; by 7 mos.; American mos.; Hulit and Howard 2006,
• Consistently use utterances to
Academy of Pediatrics 141)
refer to favorite objects or experi
2004, 209) ences that only familiar adults • Use some words to refer to more
• Make an angry noise when know the meaning of; for example, than one thing; for example,
another child takes a toy. “ba ba ba ba” for blanket. (9 mos.; “night-night” to refer to bedtime
(5–6 mos.; Parks 2004) Bates, Camaioni, and Volterra or to describe darkness. (12–22
1975; 12 mos.; Coplan 1993, 3; mos.; Hulit and Howard 2006,
• Make a face of disgust to
tell the infant care teacher 12 mos.; Davies 2004, 166; 9–10 132)
mos.; Hulit and Howard 2006, 123)
that she does not want • Use many new words each day.
any more food. (6–9 mos.; • Express “Mama” or “Dada” when (18–20 mos.; Coplan, 1993, 1;
Lerner and Ciervo 2003) the mother or father, respectively, 18–24 mos.; Hulit and Howard
enters the room. (10 mos.; Coplan 2006, 137)
1993, 1) • Begin to combine a few words
• Say a first word clearly enough into mini-sentences to express
that the infant care teacher can wants, needs, or interests; for
understand the word within the example, “more milk,” “big
context; for example, “gih” for doggie,” “no night-night” or “go
give, “see,” “dis” for this, “cookie,” bye-bye.” (18–20 mos.; Coplan
“doggie,” “uh oh” and “no.” (Mean 1993, 1; 24 mos.; Meisels and
age 11 mos.; Hart and Risley others 2003, 47; by 24 mos.;
1999, 56) American Academy of Pediatrics
2004, 270; 18–24 mos.; Hulit and
• Name a few familiar favorite
Howard 2006, 143; scaled score
objects. (Around 12 mos.; Coplan
of 10 for 32:16–33:15; Bayley
1993, 3; mean age 13 mos., range
2006, 114; 20.5–24 mos.; Parks
9–16 mos.; Hulit and Howard
2004, 133)
2006, 132; between 10 and 15
mos.; National Research Council • Have a vocabulary of about 80
and Institute of Medicine 2000, words. (19 mos.; Hart and Risley
127) 1999, 61)
• Change tone when babbling, so • Start adding articles before
that the child’s babbles sound nouns, such as, “a book” or “the
more and more like adult speech. cup.” (20 mos.; Hart and Risley
(By 12 mos.; American Academy 1999, 63)
of Pediatrics 2004; 7.5–12 mos.; • Use own name when referring to
Parks, 2004; 7–8 mos.; Hulit and self. (18-24 mos.; Parks 2004)
Howard 2006, 123)
• Ask questions with raised intona
• Use expressions; for example, tions at the end, such as “Doggy
“uh oh” when milk spills or when go?” (22–26 mos.; Hulit and
something falls off the table.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Put arms up above head when • Respond to the infant care • Persist in trying to get the infant
the infant care teacher says, teacher’s initiation of conver care teacher to respond by
“soooo big.” (8 mos.; Meisels sation through vocalizations repeating, speaking more loudly,
and others 2003, 19) or nonverbal communication. expanding on what the child
(12–19 mos.; Hart and Risley said, or touching the infant care
• Try to get the infant care
1999, 37) teacher. (After 30 mos.; Hart and
teacher to play peek-a-boo
Risley 1999, 38)
by hiding her face behind a • Initiate interactions with the in
blanket, uncovering her face, fant care teacher by touching, • Repeat part of what the adult just
and laughing. (8 mos.; Meisels vocalizing, or offering a toy. said in order to continue the con
and others 2003, 19) (12–19 mos.; Hart and Risley versation. (31–34 mos.; Hulit and
• Pull the infant care teacher’s 1999, 37) Howard 2006, 186; by 24 mos.;
hands away from his face American Academy of Pediatrics
• Jabber into a toy phone and
2004)
during a game of peek-a then pause, as if to listen to
boo. (Scaled score of 11 for someone on the other end. (18 • Make comments in a conversa
7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, mos.; Meisels and others 2003, tion that the other person has
106) 37) difficulty understanding; for
example, suddenly switch topics
• Try to clap hands to get the • Shake head or express “no”
or use pronouns without making
infant care teacher to continue when the infant care teacher
clear what is being talked about.
playing pat-a-cake. (8 mos.; asks if the child is ready to go
Meisels and others 2003, 19) back inside. (18 mos.; Meisels (31–34 mos.; Hulit and Howard
and others 2003, 37) 2006, 192)
• Make sounds when the infant
• Answer adults’ questions, such
care teacher is singing a song. • Respond to the infant care
as “What’s that?” and “Where
(8 mos.; Meisels and others teacher’s comment about a toy
did it go?” (31–34 mos.; Hulit and
2003, 19) with an additional, but related,
Howard 2006, 185; 24–36 mos.;
• Interact with the infant care action or comment about the
Parks 2004)
same toy; for example, make a
teacher while singing a song
barking sound when the infant • Begin to create understandable
with actions or while doing
care teacher pats a toy dog topics for a conversation partner.
finger plays. (Scaled score of
and says, “Nice doggie.” (By
11 for 8:16–9:15 mos.; Bayley • Sometimes get frustrated if the
18 mos.; Bloom, Rocissano,
2006) infant care teacher does not un
and Hood 1976) derstand what the child is trying
to communicate. (28.5–36 mos.;
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Respond with babbling when • Copy the infant care teacher in • Ask and answer simple ques
the infant care teacher asks waving “bye-bye” to a parent tions, such as “What’s that?” (19
a question. (Hart and Risley as he leaves the room. (Scaled mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 61)
1999, 55) score of 9 for 12:16–13:15 • Say, “huh?” when interacting
mos.; Bayley 2006, No. 14,
• Laugh when a parent nuzzles with the infant care teacher to
88; 8 mos.; Meisels and others
her face in the child’s belly, vo keep interaction going. (19 mos.;
2003, 19)
calizes expectantly when she Hart and Risley 1999, 62)
pulls back, and laugh when she • Purse lips after hearing and • Repeat or add on to what
nuzzles again. (3–6 mos.; Parks seeing the infant care teacher she just said if the infant care
2004, 11) make a sputtering sound with teacher does not respond right
her lips. (9 mos.; Apfel and
• Move body in a rocking motion away. (20–28 mos.; Hart and
Provence 2001)
to get the infant care teacher Risley 1999, 105)
to continue rocking. (4-5 mos.; • Repeat the last word in an • Engage in short back-and-forth
Parks 2004, 57) adult’s question in order to interactions with a family mem
continue the conversation; for
• Babble back and forth with ber by responding to comments,
example, saying “dat” after the
the infant care teacher during questions, and prompts. (20–28
infant care teacher asks, “What
diaper change. (5.5–6.5 mos.; mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 39)
Parks 2004, 125) is that?” (11–16 mos.; Hart and
Risley 1999, 83) • Respond almost immediately
after a parent finishes talking in
• Respond with “yes” or “no” order to continue the interaction.
when asked a simple question. (20–28 mos.; Hart and Risley
(11–16 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 97)
1999, 83)
• Get frustrated if the infant care
• Hold out a toy for the infant teacher does not understand
care teacher to take and then
what the child is trying to com
reach out to accept it when municate. (24–28.5 mos.; Parks
the infant care teacher offers it 2004)
back. (12–15 mos.; Parks 2004,
122) • Attempt to continue conversa
tion, even when the adult does
• Show an understanding that not understand him right away,
a conversation must build on by trying to use different words
what the other partner says; for to communicate the meaning.
example, expressing, “bear” (27–30 mos.; Hulit and Howard
when the infant care teacher
2006, 182)
points to the stuffed bear and
asks, “What’s that?” (16 mos.; • Sustain conversation about
Hart and Risley 1999, 81) one topic for one or two turns,
usually about something that
• Initiate back-and-forth interac is in the here and now. (20–28
tion with the infant care teacher
mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 107;
by babbling and then waiting 27–30 mos.; Hulit and Howard
for the infant care teacher to 2006, 182)
respond before babbling again.
• Respond verbally to adults’
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Point to or indicate an object • Attempt to turn the pages of a • Enjoy both being read to and
that he would like the infant paper book, sometimes turning looking at books by himself.
care teacher to pay attention more than one page at a time. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004)
to. (15–18 mos.; Parks 2004) • Pretend to read books to stuffed
• Look intently at photographs • Pretend to read the back of a animals by telling a story that
of classmates when the infant cereal box while sitting at the is related to the pictures and
care teacher talks about the kitchen table in the house area. turning the book around to
pictures. (8–9 mos.; Parks (15–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 27) show the picture to the stuffed
2004, 71) animals, just as the infant care
• Recognize a favorite book by
teacher does when reading to a
• Look at pictures that a par its cover. (Toddler; National
small group of children. (Ehri and
ent points to while reading a Research Council 1999, 28)
Sweet 1991, 199; 24–36 mos.;
storybook. (Scaled score of • Pull the infant care teacher Sulzby 1985)
10 for 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley by the hand to the bookshelf,
2006, 57; infants; National • Talk about the trip to the library
point, and express “book” to
Research Council 1999, 28) get the infant care teacher to and ask about the next trip. (35
mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 128)
• Hold a book and try to turn read a story. (12–18 mos.;
the pages. (Scaled score of Lerner and Ciervo 2003) • Recite much of a favorite book
10 for 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley • Point to or indicate a familiar from memory while “reading”
2006, 57) it to others or self. (36 mos.;
sign in the neighborhood.
National Research Council 1999,
28)
• Try to be careful with books.
(By 36 mos.; National Research
Council 1999, 3)
Interest in Print
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the
foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months)
During this period, the child During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
may: • Try to turn the pages of a paper • Move behind the infant care
• Chew on a board book. (Inter book, turning several pages at teacher in order to look over
national Reading Association one time. (scaled score of 10 for her shoulder at the pictures,
and the National Association 9:16–10:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, when there are several children
for the Education of Young 128) crowded around. (18–24 mos.;
Children 1998, 198; 3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 68)
• Scribble with a crayon. (Scaled
Parks 2004) score of 10 for 12:16–13:15 • Turn the pages of a book one by
mos.; Bayley 2006, 129) one. (18–24 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Smile and point to or indicate • Listen as a family member
pictures of favorite animals in a reads short picture books aloud.
book. (10–14 mos.; Parks 2004) (Scaled score of 10 for 21:15–
22:16 mos.; Bayley 2006, 67;
• Help the infant care teacher turn
27–30 mos.; Parks 2004)
a page of a book. (14–15 mos.;
Parks 2004) • Ask a question about a story; for
example, “Bear go?” while turn
• Use an open hand to pat a pic
ture while reading with a family ing from one page to the next.
(24 mos.; Meisels and others
member. (14–15 mos.; Parks
2003, 47)
2004)
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
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“Symbolic Gesturing in Normal ment of Language-Specific Phoneme
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Acredolo, L., and S. Goodwyn. 1997. “Fur Cooper, R. P., and others. 1997. “The
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2, 193–216. borhoods: The Science of Early Child
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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive Development
“T
he last two decades of members, friends, teachers, and care
infancy research have seen givers play a vital role in supporting
dramatic changes in the the cognitive development of infants by
way developmental psychologists char providing the healthy interpersonal or
acterize the earliest stages of cognitive social-emotional context in which
development. The infant, once regarded cognitive development unfolds. Caring,
as an organism driven mainly by sim responsive adults provide the base
ple sensorimotor schemes, is now seen from which infants can fully engage in
as possessing sophisticated cognitive behaviors and interactions that pro
skills and even sophisticated concepts mote learning. Such adults also serve
that guide knowledge acquisition” as a prime source of imitation.
(Madole and Oakes 1999, 263). Cultural context is important to
“What we see in the crib is the great young children’s cognitive develop
est mind that has ever existed, the ment. There is substantial variation
most powerful learning machine in in how intelligence is defined within
the universe” (Gopnik, Meltzoff, and different cultures (Sternberg and
Kuhl 1999, 1). Grigorenko 2004). As a result, dif
The term cognitive development ferent aspects of cognitive function
refers to the process of growth and ing or cognitive performance may be
change in intellectual/mental abilities more highly valued in some cultural
such as thinking, reasoning and contexts than in others. For example,
understanding. It includes the acquisi whereas processing speed is an aspect
tion and consolidation of knowledge. of intelligence that is highly valued
Infants draw on social-emotional, within the predominant Western con
language, motor, and perceptual ceptualizations of intelligence, “Ugan
experiences and abilities for cognitive dan villagers associate intelligence
development. They are attuned to with adjectives such as slow, careful,
relationships between features of and active” (Rogoff and Chavajay 1995,
objects, actions, and the physical 865.). Aspects of intelligence that have
environment. But they are particularly to do with social competence appear to
attuned to people. Parents, family be seen as more important than speed
60
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
identified as crucial in the acquisition
of cultural knowledge (Rogoff 1990) cation which deserves to be at centre
and language. Imitation by newborns stage in developmental psychology.”
has been demonstrated for adult facial
expressions (Meltzoff and Moore 1983), Memory
head movements, and tongue protru The capacity to remember allows
sions (Meltzoff and Moore 1989). “The infants and toddlers to differentiate
findings of imitation in human new between familiar and unfamiliar peo
borns highlighted predispositions to ple and objects, anticipate and partici
imitate facial and manual actions, pate in parts of personal care routines,
vocalizations and emotionally laden learn language, and come to know the
facial expressions” (Bard and Russell rules of social interaction. The infant’s
1999, 93). Infant imitation involves memory system is quite remarkable
perception and motor processes (Melt and functions at a higher level than
zoff and Moore 1999). The very early was previously believed (Howe and
capacity to imitate makes possible Courage 1993). Although age is not the
imitation games in which the adult only determinant of memory function
mirrors the child’s behavior, such as ing, as infants get older they are able
sticking out one’s tongue or matching to retain information for longer periods
the pitch of a sound the infant makes, of time (Bauer 2004). Infants exhibit
and then the infant imitates back. long-term recall well before they are
This type of interaction builds over able to articulate their past experi
time as the infant and the adult add ences verbally (Bauer 2002b).
elements and variations in their imita The emergence of memory is related
tion games. to the development of a neural net
Infants engage in both immediate work with various components (Bauer
imitation and delayed imitation. Imme 2002b). Commenting on the dif
diate imitation occurs when infants ferent forms and functions of early
observe and immediately attempt to memory development, Bauer (2002a,
copy or mimic behavior. For example, 131) states: “It is widely believed that
immediate imitation can be seen memory is not a unitary trait but
when an infant’s parent sticks out his is comprised of different systems or
tongue and the infant sticks out his processes, which serve distinct func
tongue in response. As infants develop, tions, and are characterized by funda
they are able to engage in delayed imi mentally different rules of operation.”
tation, repeating the behavior of others Bauer (2002a, 145) later adds that
at a later time after having observed recent research counters earlier sug
it. An example of delayed imitation is gestions that preschool-aged children
a child reenacting part of a parent’s demonstrate little memory capac
exercise routine, such as lifting a block ity and to speculations that younger
several times as if it were a weight. children and infants demonstrate little
Butterworth (1999, 63) sums up the or no memory capacity. Bauer (2002a,
6
145) concludes: “It is now clear that object. Whether early number sensi
from early in life, the human organism tivity is solely perceptual in nature
stores information over the long term or also numerical in nature, develop
and that the effects of prior experience mental theorists agree that it sets the
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
are apparent in behavior. In the first foundation for the later development
months of life, infants exhibit recogni of children’s understanding of number
tion memory for all manner of natural and quantity.
and artificial stimuli.” As children’s understanding and use
of language increases, they begin to
Number Sense assimilate language based on number
Number sense refers to children’s knowledge to their nonverbal knowl
concepts of numbers and the rela edge of number and quantity (Baroody
tionships among number concepts. 2004). Between 18 and 24 months of
Research findings indicate that infants age, children use relational words to
as young as five months of age are indicate “more” or “same” as well as
sensitive to number and are able to number words. They begin to count
discriminate among small sets of up aloud, typically starting with “one”
to three objects (Starkey and Cooper and continuing with a stream of num
1980; Starkey, Spelke, and Gelman ber names (Fuson 1988; Gelman and
1990). Infants demonstrate the abil Gallistel 1978), although they may
ity to quickly and accurately recognize omit some numbers and not use the
the quantity in a small set of objects conventional number list (e.g. “one,
without counting. This ability is called two, three, seven, nine, ten”). Around
subitizing. the same age, children also begin to
According to one theoretical per count small collections of objects; how
spective, infants’ abilities to discrimi ever, they may point to the same item
nate among numbers, for example, twice or say a number word without
two versus three objects, does not pointing to an object. And they begin
reflect “number knowledge.” Rather, to construct an understanding of
this early skill appears to be based on cardinality (i.e., the last number word
infants’ perceptual abilities to “see” is used when counting represents the
small arrangements of number (Cle total number of objects).
ments 2004; Carey 2001), or on their
ability to notice a change in the gen Classification
eral amount of objects they are seeing Classification refers to the infant’s
(Mix, Huttenlocher, and Levine 2002). developing ability to group, sort, cat
The alternative view is that the infant’s egorize, connect, and have expecta
early sensitivity to number is numeri tions of objects and people according
cal in nature. In other words, infants to their attributes. Three-month-olds
have a capacity to distinguish among demonstrate that they expect people to
numbers and to reason about these act differently than objects (Legerstee
numbers in numerically meaningful 1997). They also demonstrate the abil
ways (Wynn 1998; Gallistel and Gel- ity to discriminate between smiling
man 1992). In some sense, they know and frowning expressions (Barrera
that three objects are more than one and Maurer 1981). Mandler (2000)
6
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
ties or differences infants sense, such standing of other people’s feelings and
as similarities in visual appearance. beliefs (Youngblade and Dunn 1995).
Conceptual categorization has to do Outdoor environments, such as sand
with grouping based on what objects boxes (Moser 1995) or play structures,
do or how they act. According to Mare offer rich opportunities for symbolic
schal and French (2000, 59), “the play or pretending. Although outdoor
ability to categorize underlies much of play areas are often considered most
cognition.” Classification is a funda in terms of motor behavior or physical
mental skill in both problem solving activity, they also offer special oppor
and symbolic play. tunities for symbolic play (Perry 2003).
For example, children playing outside
Symbolic Play may pretend to garden or may use a
Symbolic play is a common early large wheeled toy to reenact going on a
childhood behavior also called “pre shopping trip.
tend play, make-believe play, fantasy
play . . . or imaginative play” (Gowen Attention Maintenance
1995, 75). Representational thinking Attention maintenance has been
is a core component of symbolic play. described as a form of cognitive self-
At around eight months of age, infants regulation. It refers to the infant’s
have learned the functions of common growing ability to exercise control over
objects (for example, holding a play his attention or concentration (Bron
telephone to “hear” Grandma’s voice). son 2000). Attention maintenance
By the time children are around 18 permits infants to gather information,
months of age, they use one object to to sustain learning experiences, to
stand for, or represent, another. For observe, and to problem-solve. Infants
example, an 18-month-old may pre demonstrate attention maintenance
tend a banana is a telephone. At when they attend to people, actions,
around 36 months, children engage in and things they find interesting even
make-believe play in which they repre in the presence of distractions. The
sent an object without having that ability to maintain attention/concen
object, or a concrete substitute, avail tration is an important self-regula
able. For example, they may make a tory skill related to learning. There is
“phone call” by holding their hand up significant variability in attentiveness
to their ear. even among typically developing chil
As children approach 36 months of dren (Ruff and Rothbart 1996).
age, they increasingly engage in pre
tend play in which they reenact famil Understanding of Personal
iar events. Make-believe play allows Care Routines
older infants to try to better under Personal care activities are a rou
stand social roles, engage in com tine part of the young child’s daily life.
munication with others, and revisit They also present significant opportu-
6
nities for learning in both child care personal care routines and anticipat
settings and at home. Infants’ growing ing next steps are skills related to
abilities to anticipate, understand, and the cognitive foundations of atten
participate in these routines represent tion maintenance, imitation, memory,
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Foundation: Cause-and-Effect
The developing understanding that one event brings about another
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around eight months of age, At around 18 months of age, chil At around 36 months of age,
children perform simple actions to dren combine simple actions to children demonstrate an under
make things happen, notice the cause things to happen or change standing of cause and effect by
relationships between events, and the way they interact with objects making predictions about what
notice the effects of others on the and people in order to see how it could happen and reflect upon
immediate environment. changes the outcome. what caused something to hap
pen. (California Department of
Education [CDE] 2005)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Shake a toy, hear the sound it • Try to wind the handle of a pop • Communicate, “She misses
makes, and then shake it again. up toy after not being able to her mommy” when a child
(5.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 58) open the top. (15 mos.; Brazel cries after her mother leaves in
ton 1992, 161) the morning.
• Loudly bang a spoon on the
table, notice the loud sound, • Drop different objects from vari • Make a prediction about what
and do it again. (By 7 mos.; ous heights to see how they fall will happen next in the story
American Academy of Pediatrics and to hear the noise they make when the infant care teacher
2004, 210; 8 mos.; Meisels and when they land. (12–18 mos.; asks, “What do you think will
others 2003, 21) Ginsburg and Opper 1988, 56) happen next?”
• Watch the infant care teacher • Build a tower with the big card • Answer the infant care teacher
wind up a music box and, when board blocks and kick it over to when she asks, “What do you
the music stops, touch her hand make it fall, then build it again think your mom’s going to
to get her to make it start again. and knock it down with a hand. say when you give her your
(5–9 mos.; Parks 2004, 58) (18 mos.; Meisels and others picture?”
• Splash hands in water and 2003, 37) • See a bandage on a peer’s
notice how his face gets wet. • Use a wooden spoon to bang knee and ask, “What hap
(4–10 mos.; Ginsburg and Opper on different pots and pans, pened?”
1988, 43) and notice how the infant care • Push the big green button to
teacher responds when the
• Push a button on the push- make the tape recorder play.
child hits the pans harder and
button toy and watch the figure (By 36 mos.; American Acad
makes a louder noise. (18 mos.;
pop up. (6–9 mos.; Lerner and emy of Pediatrics 2004, 308)
Ciervo 2003) Meisels and others 2003, 37)
• Walk quietly when the baby is
• Put objects into a clear con sleeping.
tainer, turn it over and watch the
objects fall out, and then fill it
up again. (8 mos.; Meisels and
others 2003, 21)
• Clap hands and then look at a
parent to get her to play pat
a-cake. (8 mos.; Meisels and
others 2003, 21)
Cause-and-Effect
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Hear a loud noise and turn head • Hold a block in each hand • Roll cars of different sizes down
in the direction of the noise. and bang the blocks together. the slide. (18–24 mos.; Lerner
(3.5–5 mos.; Parks 2004, 37) (8.5–12 mos.; Parks 2004) and Ciervo 2003)
• Explore toys with hands and • Keep turning an object around
mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, to find the side that makes it
10) work, such as the reflective
side of a mirror, or the open
• Move body in a rocking motion
side of a nesting cup. (9–12
to get the infant care teacher
mos.; Parks 2004, 65)
to continue rocking. (4–5 mos.;
Parks 2004, 57; Birth–8 mos.; • Cry and anticipate that the
Lerner and Dombro 2000) infant care teacher will come
to help. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and
• Kick legs in the crib and notice
Ciervo 2003)
that the mobile up above jiggles
with the kicking movements. • Drop an object repeatedly from
(4–5 mos.; American Academy the chair to hear it clang on the
of Pediatrics 2004, 209) floor or to get the infant care
teacher to come pick it up.
• Attend to a toy while exploring
(9–12 mos.; Parks 2004, 65)
it with the hands. (Scaled score
of 9 for 5:16–6:15 mos.; Bayley • Watch the infant care teacher
2006, 55) squeeze the toy in the water
table to make water squirt
out, then try the same action.
(Scaled score of 10 for 13:16–
14:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 61)
• Hand a toy car to a family
member after it stops moving
and the child cannot figure out
how to make it move again.
(12–15 mos.; Parks 2004, 59)
• Close eyes and turn face away
from the water table before
splashing with hands. (12 mos.;
Meisels and others 2003, 28)
• Continue to push the button on
a toy that is broken and appear
confused or frustrated when
nothing happens. (12 mos.;
Meisels and others 2003, 29)
6
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
At around eight months of At around 18 months of age, chil At around 36 months of age, children
age, children move their dren use trial and error to discover can predict how things will fit and
bodies, explore the size and how things move and fit in space. move in space without having to try
shape of objects, and ob (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 81) out every possible solution, and show
serve people and objects as understanding of words used to de
they move through space. scribe size and locations in space.
For example, the child For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
may:
• Use vision or hearing to • Go around the back of a chair to • Hand the big truck to a peer who
track the path of some get the toy car that rolled behind asks for the big one. (Scaled score
one walking by. (5.5–8 it instead of trying to follow the of 10 for 28:16–30:15 mos.; Bayley
mos.; Parks 2004, 64; car’s path by squeezing under 2006, 95)
birth–8 mos.; Lally and neath the chair. (12–18 mos.; • Use words such as big and little.
others 1995, 78–79) Parks 2004 67; 8–18 mos.; Lally (25–30 mos.; Parks 2004, 82; 36
and others 1995, 78–79)
• Watch a ball roll away mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 73)
after accidentally knock • Use two hands to pick up a big • Put together a puzzle with three to
ing it. (5.5–8 mos., Parks truck, but only one hand to pick four separate pieces. (By 36 mos.;
2004, 64) up a small one. (12–18 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics
Parks 2004, 81)
• Hold one stacking cup in 2004, 308; 30–36 mos.; Parks 2004,
each hand. (6.5–7.5 mos.; • Put a smaller nesting cup inside a 68)
Parks 2004, 50) larger cup after trying it the other • Get the serving spoon off the tray
way around. (12–18 mos.; Parks when the infant care teacher asks
• Put toys into a clear con
2004, 81)
tainer, dump them out, for the big spoon, even though
and then fill the container • Choose a large cookie off the there are small spoons on the tray.
up again. (8 mos.; Meisels plate instead of a smaller one. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 83)
and others 2003, 21) (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 81) • Stack rings onto a post with the
• Put the child-sized hat on his biggest ring on the bottom and the
head and the larger hat on the smallest ring on the top, without
infant care teacher’s head. (12–18 much trial and error. (30–36 mos.;
mos.; Parks 2004, 81) Parks 2004, 83; 24–36 mos.; En
gaging Young Children 2004, 44)
• Stack three nesting cups inside
one another, after trying some • Point to a peer’s stick when the
combinations that do not work. infant care teacher asks which stick
(12–19 mos.; Parks 2004, 82) is longer. (33–36 mos.; Parks 2004,
83; 24–36 mos.; Engaging Young
• Put one or two pegs into the peg
Children 2004, 53)
board. (14:16–15:15 mos.; Bayley
2006, 62) • Understand requests that include
simple prepositions; for example,
• Roll a ball back and forth with
“Please put your cup on the table”
the infant care teacher. (18 mos.;
or “Please get your blanket out of
Meisels and others 2003, 38)
your back pack.” (By 36 mos.; Co
• Fit pieces into a puzzle board. (18 plan 1993, 2; by 36 mos.; American
mos.; Meisels and others 2003, Academy of Pediatrics 2004; 24–36
39) mos.; Engaging Young Children
• Try to fit a piece into the shape 2004)
sorter and, when it does not fit, • Move around an obstacle when
turn it until it fits. (12–19 mos.; going from one place to another.
Parks 2004, 82) (24–36 mos.; American Academy of
Pediatrics 2004, 303)
Chart continues on next page.
6
Spatial Relationships
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Look at her own hand. (Scaled • Roll a car back and forth on the • Complete a puzzle of three
score of 9 for 4:06–4:15 mos.; floor. (6–11 mos.; Parks 2004, separate cut-out pieces, such
Bayley 2006, 53) 26) as a circle, square, and triangle.
(Scaled score of 10 for 19:16–
• Reach for a nearby toy and try • Dump toys out of a container.
20:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 66)
to grasp it. (4.5–5.5 mos.; Parks (9–11 mos.; Parks 2004, 64)
2004; scaled score of 10 for • Fit many pegs into a pegboard.
• Turn a toy to explore all sides
4:16–4:25 mos.; Bayley 2006, (Scaled score of 10 for 21:16–
to figure out how it works.
54) 22:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 68)
(9–12 mos.; Parks 2004, 65)
• Explore toys with hands and • Turn a book right-side up after
• Throw or drop a spoon or cup
mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, realizing that it is upside down.
from the table and watch as it
10) (18–24 mos.; Parks 2004)
falls. (9–12 mos.; Parks 2004,
65) • Fit four nesting cups in the
correct order, even if it takes
• Take rings off a stacking ring
a couple of tries. (19–24 mos.;
toy. (10–11 mos.; Parks 2004,
Parks 2004, 82)
65)
• Assemble a two-piece puzzle;
• Move over and between cush
for example, a picture of a flow
ions and pillows on the floor.
er cut into two pieces. (Scaled
(8–12 mos.; American Acad
score of 10 for 23:16–24:15
emy of Pediatrics 2004, 234)
mos.; Bayley 2006, 69)
• Crawl down a few carpeted
stairs. (Around 12 mos.; Ameri
can Academy of Pediatrics
2004, 234)
• See a ball roll under the couch
and then reach under the
couch. (12–13 mos.; Parks
2004, 66)
• Stack one block on top of an
other one. (12–16 mos.; Parks
2004, 66)
• Put one or two rings back onto
the post of a stacking ring toy.
(13–15 mos.; Parks 2004, 66)
• Put the circle piece of a puzzle
into the round opening, after
trying the triangle opening and
the square opening. (Scaled
score of 10 for 15:16–16:15
mos.; Bayley 2006, 63)
6
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around eight months of age, At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age, chil
children use simple actions to children use a number of ways dren solve some problems without
try to solve problems involving to solve problems: physically having to physically try out every
objects, their bodies, or other trying out possible solutions possible solution and may ask for
people. before finding one that works; help when needed. (By 36 mos.;
using objects as tools; watching American Academy of Pediatrics
someone else solve the problem 2004, 308)
and then applying the same so
lution; or gesturing or vocalizing
to someone else for help.
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Shake, bang, and squeeze • Pull the string of a pull toy to • Ignore the stick that is much too
toys repeatedly to make the get it closer even when the short to reach a desired object
sounds happen again and toy gets momentarily stuck on and choose a stick that looks as if
again. (5.5–8 mos.; Parks something. (18 mos.; Meisels it may be long enough.
2004, 58; by 12 mos.; Ameri and others 2003, 38) • Stack only the cubes with holes
can Academy of Pediatrics • Use the handle of a toy broom in them on the stacking post,
2004, 243) to dislodge a ball under the ignoring the cube-shaped blocks
• Reach for a ball as it rolls
bookshelf. (8–18 mos.; Lally without holes that got mixed into
away. (5.5–8 mos.; Parks
and others 1995, 78–79) the bin. (18–36 mos.; Lally and
2004, 64)
• Bring a small stool over to others 1995, 78–79)
• Vocalize to get the infant care reach a toy on top of a shelf, • Place the triangle piece into the
teacher’s attention. (6.5–8 having observed the infant puzzle without first needing to try
mos.; Parks 2004) care teacher do it. (8–18 mos.; it in the round or square hole. (By
Lally and others 1995, 78–79) 36 mos.; American Academy of
• Pull the string on a toy to
Pediatrics 2004, 306)
make it come closer. (8 mos.; • Look at a plate of crackers
Meisels and others 2003, 21) that is out of reach and then • Ask the infant care teacher for
• Focus on a desired toy that is at the infant care teacher, and help with the lid of a jar of paint.
communicate “more.” (Scaled (36 mos.; Meisels and others
just out of reach while repeat
score of 10 for 16:16–17:15 2003, 75)
edly reaching for it. (5–9 mos.;
mos.; Bayley 2006; 14–20
Parks 2004, 49) • Ask a peer to help move the train
mos.; Parks 2004) tracks over so that the child can
• Turn the bottle over to get the
• Hand the infant care teacher build a block tower on the floor.
nipple in his mouth.
a puzzle piece that the child is (36 mos.; Meisels and others
• Lift up a scarf to search for a having trouble with. 2003, 75)
toy that is hidden underneath.
(By 8 mos.; American Acad • Ask or gesture for the infant care
teacher to help tie the child’s
emy of Pediatrics 2004, 244)
shoelace. (36 mos.; Meisels and
others 2003, 75)
Problem Solving
Foundation: Imitation
The developing ability to mirror, repeat, and practice
the actions of others, either immediately or later
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around 8 months of age, At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age,
children imitate simple actions children imitate others’ actions children reenact multiple steps of
and expressions of others during that have more than one step and others’ actions that they have ob
interactions. imitate simple actions that they served at an earlier time. (30–36
have observed others doing at an mos.; Parks 2004, 29)
earlier time. (Parks 2004; 28)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Copy the infant care teacher’s • Imitate simple actions that she • Reenact the steps of a fam
movements when playing pat-a has observed adults doing; ily celebration that the child
cake and peek-a-boo. (Coplan for example, take a toy phone attended last weekend. (29–36
1993, 3) out of a purse and say hello as mos.; Hart and Risley 1999,
a parent does. (12–18 mos.; 118–19)
• Imitate a familiar gesture, such
Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
as clapping hands together or • Pretend to get ready for work
patting a doll’s back, after see • Pretend to sweep with a child- or school by making break
ing the infant care teacher do it. sized broom, just as a family fast, packing lunch, grabbing
(7–8 mos.; Parks 2004) member does at home. (15–18 a purse, and communicating
mos.; Parks 2004, 27) good-bye before heading out
• Notice how the infant care
the door. (30–36 mos.; Parks
teacher makes a toy work and • Rock the baby doll to sleep,
2004, 29)
then push the same button to just as a parent does with the
make it happen again. (6–9 new baby. (15–18 mos.; Parks
mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003) 2004, 27)
• Imitate using the toy ham
mer as a parent did. (18 mos.;
Meisels and others 2003, 38)
Imitation
Foundation: Memory
The developing ability to store and later retrieve
information about past experiences
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around 8 months of age, chil At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age, chil
dren recognize familiar people, children remember typical actions dren anticipate the series of steps
objects, and routines in the en of people, the location of objects, in familiar activities, events, or
vironment and show awareness and steps of routines. routines; remember characteristics
that familiar people still exist of the environment or people in it;
even when they are no longer and may briefly describe recent
physically present. past events or act them out. (24–36
mos.; Seigel 1999, 33)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Turn toward the front door • Get a blanket from the doll cra • Communicate, “Big slide” after
when hearing the doorbell ring dle because that is where baby a trip to neighborhood park.
or toward the phone when blankets are usually stored, af (24–36 mos.; Seigel 1999, 33)
hearing the phone ring. (8 ter the infant care teacher says, • Tell a parent, “Today we jumped
mos.; Meisels and others 2003, “The baby is tired. Where’s her in the puddles” when picked up
20) blanket?” (15–18 mos.; Parks from school. (Siegel 1999, 34)
2004, 67)
• Look for the father after he • Recall an event in the past, such
briefly steps out of the child • Anticipate and participate in as the time a family member
care room during drop-off in the steps of a nap routine. came to school and made a
the morning. (8 mos.; Meisels (18 mos.; Fogel 2001, 368) snack. (18–36 mos.; Siegel 1999,
and others 2003, 20) • Watch the infant care teacher 46)
placing a toy inside one of
• Identify which child is absent
three pots with lids and reach from school that day by looking
for the correct lid when the around the snack table and fig
teacher asks where the toy uring out who is missing. (18–36
went. (8–18 mos.; Lally and mos.; Lally and others 1995,
others 1995, 78–79) 78–79)
• Continue to search for an • Act out a trip to the grocery store
object even though it is hidden by getting a cart, putting food in
under something distracting, it, and paying for the food. (24
such as a soft blanket or a mos.; Bauer and Mandler 1989)
crinkly piece of paper.
• Get her pillow out of the cubby,
• See a photo of a close family in anticipation of naptime as
member and say his name or soon as lunch is finished.
hug the photo.
• Go to the cubby to get his
blanket that is inside the diaper
bag.
Memory
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Explore toys with hands and • Ask for a parent after morning • Say “meow” when the infant
mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, drop-off. (9–12 mos.; Lerner care teacher points to the picture
10) and Ciervo 2003) of the cat and asks what the cat
says. (12–24 mos.; Siegel 1999,
• Find a rattle hidden under a • Reach in the infant care
blanket when only the handle 32)
teacher’s pocket after watch
is showing. (4–6 mos.; Parks ing him hide a toy there. (11–13 • Give another child an object that
2004, 42) mos.; Parks 2004, 43) belongs to her. (12–24 mos.;
• Look toward the floor when the Siegel 1999, 32)
• Look or reach inside a con
bottle falls off table. (Scaled tainer of small toys after seeing • Remember where toys should
score of 10 for 5:06–5:15 the infant care teacher take be put away in the classroom.
mos.; Bayley 2006, 55; 8 mos.; the toys off the table and put (21–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 318)
Meisels and others 2003, 20; them in the container. (Scaled • Find a hidden toy, even when
birth–8 mos.; Lally and others score of 10 for 8:16–9:15 mos.; it is hidden under two or three
1995, 72) Bayley 2006, 57; birth–8 mos.; blankets. (By 24 mos.; American
Lally and others 1995, 78–79) Academy of Pediatrics 2004,
• Lift a scarf to search for a toy 273)
after seeing the infant care • Express “mama” when the infant
teacher hide it under the scarf. care teacher asks who packed
(By 8 mos.; American Acad the child’s snack.
emy of Pediatrics 2004, 244; 8
mos.; Kail 1990, 112)
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
At around eight months of age, At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age, children
children usually focus on one children demonstrate under show some understanding that
object or person at a time, yet standing that there are different numbers represent how many and
they may at times hold two amounts of things. demonstrate understanding of words
objects, one in each hand. that identify how much. (By 36 mos.;
American Academy of Pediatrics
2004, 308)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Hold one block in each hand, • Communicate “more” and • Pick out one object from a box or
then drop one of them when point to a bowl of apple slices. point to the picture with only one
the infant care teacher holds (18 mos.; Meisels and others of something. (Scaled score of
out a third block for the child 2003, 37) 10 for 35:16–36:15 mos.; Bayley
to hold. (6.5–7.5 mos.; Parks 2006, 97; 24–30 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Shake head “no” when offered
2004, 50) more pasta. (18 mos.; Meisels • Reach into bowl and take out two
• Watch a ball as it rolls away and others 2003, 37) pieces of pear when the infant
after hitting it with her hand. • Make a big pile of trucks and a care teacher says, “Just take two.”
(5.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 64) little pile of trucks. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Explore one toy at a time by • Use hand motions or words • Start counting with one, some
shaking, banging, or squeez to indicate “All gone” when times pointing to the same item
ing it. (5.5–8 mos.; Parks finished eating. (12–19 mos.; twice when counting, or using
2004, 58; 8 mos.; Meisels and Parks 2004, 122) numbers out of order; for example,
others 2003, 21; birth–8 mos.; “one, two, three, five, eight.” (36
Lally and others 1995, 78–79) • Put three cars in a row. mos.; Engaging Young Children
2004, 178)
• Notice when someone walks
in the room. • Use fingers to count a small
number of items. (around 36 mos.;
Coplan 1993, 3)
• Look at a plate and quickly
respond “two,” without having
to count, when the infant care
teacher asks how many pieces of
cheese there are. (36 mos.; Engag
ing Young Children 2004, 178)
• Hold up two fingers when asked,
“Show me two” or “How old are
you?” (36 mos.; Engaging Young
Children 2004, 178; by 36 mos.;
American Academy of Pediatrics
2004, 308)
• Identify “more” with collections of
up to four items, without needing
to count them. (36 mos.; Engaging
Young Children 2004, 31 and 180)
• Use more specific words to com
municate how many, such as a
little or a lot. (Hulit and Howard
2006, 186)
Number Sense
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the
foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months) foundation ( to months)
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Explore toys with hands and • Try to hold onto two toys with • Get two cups from the cupboard
mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, one hand while reaching for a when playing in the housekeep
10) third desired toy, even if not ing area with a friend. (21 mos.;
successful. (Scaled score of 9 Mix, Huttenlocher, and Levine
• Reach for second toy but may
for 10:16–11:15 mos.; Bayley 2002)
not grasp it when already hold
2006, 58; 8–10 mos.; Parks
ing one toy in the other hand. • Look at or point to the child
2004, 50)
(5–6.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 49; with one piece of apple left on
scaled score of 10 for 5:16– • Hold a block in each hand and his napkin when the infant care
6:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 55) bang them together. (8.5–12 teacher asks, “Who has just one
mos.; Parks 2004) piece of apple?” (24–30 mos.;
• Transfer a toy from one hand
Parks 2004, 74)
to the other. (5.5–7 mos.; Parks • Put several pegs into a plastic
2004) container and then dump them • Give the infant care teacher one
into a pile. (12–13 mos.; Parks cracker from a pile of many when
• Reach for, grasp, and hold
2004, 65) she asks for “one.” (25–30 mos.;
onto a toy with one hand when
Parks 2004; scaled score of 10
already holding a different
toy in the other hand. (Scaled for 28:16–30:15 mos.; Bayley
score of 10 for 6:16–7:15 mos.; 2006, 73)
Bayley 2006, 56)
• Track visually the path of a
Foundation: Classification
The developing ability to group, sort, categorize, connect, and have
expectations of objects and people according to their attributes
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around eight months of age, At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age, chil
children distinguish between children show awareness when dren group objects into multiple
familiar and unfamiliar people, objects are in some way con piles based on one attribute at a
places, and objects, and explore nected to each other, match two time, put things that are similar but
the differences between them. objects that are the same, and not identical into one group, and
(Barrera and Mauer 1981) separate a pile of objects into may label each grouping, even
two groups based on one attri though sometimes these labels are
bute. (Mandler and McDonough overgeneralized. (36 mos.; Mandler
1998) and McDonough 1993)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Explore how one toy feels and • Look at the crayons before • Identify a few colors when they
then explore how another toy choosing a color. (12–18 mos.; are named; for example, get a red
feels. Parks 2004, 77) ball from the bin of multicolored
balls when the infant care teacher
• Stare at an unfamiliar person • Choose usually to play with
asks for the red one. (Scaled
and move toward a familiar the blue ball even though there
score of 10 for 34:16–36:15 mos.;
person. is a red one just like it. (12–18
mos.; Parks 2004, 77) Bayley 2006, 97; 33 mos.+; Parks
2004, 79)
• Pick the toy car from the bin
filled with toy dishes. (15–18 • Make three piles of tangrams in
various shapes, such as a circle,
mos.; Parks 2004; 77)
square, and triangle. (30–36 mos.;
• Pack the baby doll’s blanket, Parks 2004, 79)
brush, bottle, and clothes into
• Pick two big bears from a bowl
a backpack. (15–19 mos.;
containing two big bears and two
Parks 2004, 77)
small bears, even if the big bears
• Match two identical toys; for are different colors. (Scaled score
example, find another fire of 10 for 30:16–33:15 mos.; Bay-
truck when the infant care ley 2006, 74)
teacher asks, “Can you find
• Sort primary-colored blocks into
a truck just like that one?”
three piles: a red pile, a yellow
(15–19 mos.; Parks 2004; 77)
pile, and a blue one. (33 mos.+;
• Place all toy cars on one side Parks 2004, 79; 32 mos.; Bayley
of the rug and all blocks on the 2006)
other side. (15–18 mos.; Parks
• Point to different pictures of
2004, 77)
houses in a book even though
all of the houses look different.
(30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 79)
• Put all the soft stuffed animals in
one pile and all the hard plastic
toy animals in another pile and
label the piles “soft animals” and
“hard animals.” (18–36 mos.; Lally
and others 1995, 78–79)
• Call all four-legged animals at the
farm “cows,” even though some
are actually sheep and others
horses. (18–36 mos.; Lally and
others 1995, 78–79)
Classification
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around 8 months of age, At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age, children en
children become familiar children use one object to gage in make-believe play involving several
with objects and actions represent another object and sequenced steps, assigned roles, and an
through active exploration. engage in one or two simple overall plan and sometimes pretend by
Children also build knowl actions of pretend play. imagining an object without needing the
edge of people, action, concrete object present. (30–36 mos.; Parks
objects, and ideas through 2004, 29)
observation. (Fenson and
others 1976; Rogoff and
others 2003)
For example, the child For example, the child For example, the child may:
may: may:
• Cause toys to make noise • Pretend to drink from an • Assign roles to self and others when play
by shaking, banging, and empty cup by making ing in the dramatic play area (for example,
squeezing them. (5.5–8 slurping noises and saying “I’ll be the daddy, you be the baby”), even
mos.; Parks 2004, 58; by “ah” when finished. (Segal though the child may not stay in her role
12 mos.; American Acad 2004, 39) throughout the play sequence. (30–36
emy of Pediatrics 2004, mos.; Parks 2004, 29; 24 mos.; Segal
• Begin to engage in pretend
243) 2004, 43)
play by using a play spoon
• Roll car back and forth on to stir in the kitchen area. • Line up a row of chairs and communicate,
floor. (6–11 mos.; Parks (12–18 mos.; Lerner and “All aboard! The train is leaving.” (36 mos.;
2004, 26) Ciervo 2003) Vygotsky 1978, 111)
• Pretend that the banana • Use two markers to represent people in
is a telephone by picking the dollhouse by moving them around as
it up, holding it to the ear, if they were walking. (36 mos.; Vygotsky
and saying, “Hi!” (12–18 1978, 111)
mos.; Lerner and Ciervo • Stir “cake batter” while holding an imagi
2003) nary spoon or serve an invisible burrito
• Laugh at an older brother on a plate. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 29;
when he puts a bowl on scaled score of 10 for 27:16–29:15 mos.;
his head like a hat. (12–18 Bayley 2006, 69)
mos.; Parks 2004, 317) • Communicate with self during pretend
• Imitate a few steps of adult play to describe actions to self; for ex
behavior during play; for ample, “Now I stir the soup.” (Hart and
example, pretend to feed Risley 1999, 125)
the baby doll with the toy • Plan with other children what they are
spoon and bowl. (15–18 going to pretend before starting to play;
mos.; Parks 2004, 27) for example, “Let’s play doggies!” (Segal
• Use a rectangular wooden 2004, 39; 36 mos.; Meisels and others
block as a phone. (18–24 2003, 74)
mos.; Parks 2004, 28) • Pretend to be a baby during dramatic play
because there is a new baby at home. (36
mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 73)
• Build a small town with blocks and then
use the toy fire truck to pretend to put out
a fire in the town. (By 36 mos.; American
Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 309)
Symbolic Play
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around eight months of age, At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age, chil
children pay attention to different children rely on order and pre dren sometimes demonstrate the
things and people in the environ dictability in the environment to ability to pay attention to more than
ment in specific, distinct ways. help organize their thoughts and one thing at a time.
(Bronson 2000, 64) focus attention. (Bronson 2000,
191)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Play with one toy for a few • Expect favorite songs to be • Realize, during clean-up time,
minutes before focusing on a sung the same way each time that he has put a car in the block
different toy. (6–9 mos.; Parks and protest if the infant care bin and return to put it in the
2004, 12 and 26; 8 mos.; teacher changes the words. proper place.
American Academy of Pediat • Insist on following the same • Search for and find a favorite
rics 2004, 241) bedtime routine every night. book and ask the infant care
• Focus on a desired toy that is teacher to read it.
• Nod and take the infant care
just out of reach while repeat teacher’s hand when the • Pound the play dough with a
edly reaching for it. (5–9 mos.; teacher says, “I know you are hammer while talking with a peer.
Parks 2004, 49) sad because Shanti is using
• Show momentary attention to the book right now, and you
board books with bright colors would like a turn. Shall we go
and simple shapes. to the book basket and find
• Attend to the play of other another one to read together?”
children.
• Put toy animals into a clear
container, dump them out, and
then fill the container up again.
(8 mos.; Meisels and others
2003, 21)
• Stop moving, to focus on the
infant care teacher when she
starts to interact with the child.
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Turn head away as the infant • Go to the sink when the infant • Go to the sink and wash hands
care teacher reaches with care teacher says that it is time after seeing snacks being set
a tissue to wipe the child’s to wash hands. (Scaled score of out on the table. (CDE 2005)
nose. (8 mos.; Meisels and 10 for 17:16–18:15 mos.; Bayley • Get a tissue to wipe own nose
others 2003, 20) 2006, 90; 12–18 mos.; Lerner or bring the tissue to the infant
and Ciervo 2003; 12 mos.;
• Kick legs in anticipation of a care teacher for help when the
Coplan 1993, 2; by 24 mos.;
diaper change and then quiet child feels that his nose needs
American Academy of Pediatrics
down as the parent wipes the to be wiped. (CDE 2005)
child’s bottom. (CDE 2005) 2004; 24 mos.; Meisels and
others 2003, 46) • Take a wet shirt off when need
• Pay attention to her hands as ing to put on a dry one. (36
the infant care teacher holds • Get a tissue when the infant care mos.; Meisels and others 2003,
them under running water and teacher says, “Please go get a 76)
helps rub them together with tissue. We need to wipe your
nose.” (18 mos.; Meisels and • Help set the table for lunchtime.
soap. (CDE 2005)
others 2003, 36) (36 mos.; Meisels and others
2003, 77)
• Move toward the door to the
playground after seeing the
infant care teacher put his coat
on. (18 mos.; Meisels and others
2003, 38)
• Put snack dishes in the sink and
the bib in the hamper after eat
ing.
• Have trouble settling down for a
nap until the infant care teacher
reads a story, because that is the
naptime routine. (12–18 mos.;
Parks 2004, 317)
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ment (Third edition). Englewood Cliffs, Processes and Changing Representa
NJ: Prentice Hall. tions,” Developmental Review, Vol. 19,
Gopnik, A.; A. Meltzoff; and P. K. Kuhl. No. 2, 263–96.
1999. The Scientist in the Crib: Minds, Mandler, J. M. 2000. “Perceptual and
Brains, and How Children Learn. New Conceptual Processes in Infancy,” Jour
York: William Morrow. nal of Cognition and Development, Vol.
Gowen, J. W. March, 1995. “Research in 1, No. 1, 3–36.
Review: The Early Development of Sym Mandler, J., and L. McDonough. 1993.
bolic Play,” Young Children, Vol. 50, No. “Concept Formation in Infancy,” Cogni
3, 75–84. tive Development, Vol. 8, No. 3, 291–318.
Hart, B., and T. R. Risley. 1999. The Social Mandler, J., and L. McDonough. 1998.
World of Children: Learning to Talk. “On Developing a Knowledge Base in
Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Pub Infancy,” Developmental Psychology,
lishing. Vol. 34, No. 6, 1274–88.
Howe, M., and M. Courage. 1993. “On Mangione, P. L.; J. R. Lally; and S. Signer.
Resolving the Enigma of Infantile 1992. Discoveries of Infancy: Cognitive
Amnesia,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. Development and Learning. Sacra
113, No. 2, 305–26. mento, CA: Far West Laboratory and
California Department of Education.
Mareschal, D., and R. French. 2000. Perry, J. P. May, 2003. “Making Sense of
“Mechanisms of Categorization in Outdoor Pretend Play,” Young Children,
Infancy,” Infancy, Vol. 1, No. 1, 59–76. Vol. 58, No. 3, 26–30.
Meltzoff, A. N., and M. K. Moore. 1983. Rogoff, B. 1990. Apprenticeship in Think
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
“Newborn Infants Imitate Adult Facial ing: Cognitive Development in Social
Gestures,” Child Development, Vol. 54, Context. New York: Oxford University
702–9. Press.
Meltzoff, A. N., and M. K. Moore. 1989. Rogoff, B., and P. Chavajay. 1995. “What’s
“Imitation in Newborn Infants: Explor Become of Research on the Cultural
ing the Range of Gestures Imitated and Basis of Cognitive Development?”
the Underlying Mechanisms,” Devel American Psychologist, Vol. 50, No. 10,
opmental Psychology, Vol. 25, No. 6, 859–77.
954–62. Rogoff, B., and others. 2003. “Firsthand
Meltzoff, A. N., and M. K. Moore. 1999. Learning Through Intent Participation,”
“Persons and Representation: Why Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 54,
Infant Imitation Is Important for Theo 175–203.
ries of Human Development, “ in Imita Ruff, H., and M. Rothbart. 1996. Atten
tion in Infancy: Cambridge Studies in tion in Early Development: Themes and
Cognitive and Perceptual Development. Variations. New York: Oxford University
Edited by J. Nadel and G. Butterworth. Press.
New York: Cambridge University Press. Segal, M. 2004. “The Roots and Fruits
Meisels, S. J., and others. 2003. The of Pretending,” in Children’s Play: The
Ounce Scale: Standards for the Develop Roots of Reading. Edited by E. F. Zigler,
mental Profiles (Birth–42 Months). New D. G. Singer, and S. J. Bishop-Josef.
Mix, K.; J. Huttenlocher; and S. Levine. Siegel, D.J. 1999. The Developing Mind:
2002. Quantitative Development in How Relationships and the Brain Inter
Infancy and Early Childhood. New York: act to Shape Who We Are. New York:
Oxford University Press. Guilford Press.
Moser, R. F. 1995. “Caregivers’ Corner. Starkey, P., and R. G. Cooper. 1980. “Per
Fantasy Play in the Sandbox,” Young ception of Numbers by Human Infants,”
Children, Vol. 51, No. 1, 83–84. Science, Vol. 210, No. 4473, 1033–35.
National Research Council and Institute of Starkey, P.; E. S. Spelke; and R. Gel-
Medicine. 2000. From Neurons to Neigh man. 1990. “Numerical Abstraction by
borhoods: The Science of Early Child Human Infants,” Cognition, Vol. 36, No.
hood Development. Committee on Inte 2, 97–128.
grating the Science of Early Childhood Sternberg, R. J., and E. L. Grigorenko.
Development. Edited by J. Shonkoff and 2004. “Why We Need to Explore Devel
D. Phillips. Washington, DC: National opment in Its Cultural Context,” Mer
Academies Press. rill-Palmer Quarterly, Vol. 50, No. 3,
O’Brien, M. 1997. Meeting Individual and 369–86.
Special Needs: Inclusive Child Care for Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind in Society: The
Infants and Toddlers. Baltimore, MD: Development of Higher Psychological
Paul H. Brookes Publishing. Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Parks, S. 2004. Inside HELP: Hawaii Early University Press.
Learning Profile: Administration and
Reference Manual. Palo Alto, CA: VORT
Corporation.
6
Whitehurst, G., and C. Lonigan. 1998. Youngblade, L. M., and J. Dunn. 1995.
“Child Development and Emergent Lit “Individual Differences in Young Chil
eracy,” Child Development, Vol. 69, No. dren’s Pretend Play with Mother and
3, 848–72. Sibling: Links to Relationships and
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Perceptual and
Motor Development
P
erception refers to the process late objects. Motor behaviors such as
of taking in, organizing, and reaching, touching, and grasping are
interpreting sensory information. forms of exploratory activity (Adolph
Perception is multimodal, with mul 1997).
tiple sensory inputs contributing to As infants develop increasing motor
motor responses (Bertenthal 1996). An competence, they use perceptual infor
infant’s turning his head in response mation to inform their choices about
to the visual and auditory cues of the which motor actions to take (Adolph
sight of a face and the sound of a voice and Joh 2007). For example, they may
exemplifies this type of perception. adjust their crawling or walking in
Intersensory redundancy, “the fact response to the rigidity, slipperiness,
that the senses provide overlapping or slant of surfaces (Adolph 1997).
information . . . is a cornerstone of Motor movements, including move
perceptual development” (Bahrick, ments of the eyes, arms, legs, and
Lickliter, and Flom 2004). hands, provide most of the perceptual
“Motor development refers to information infants receive (Adolph
changes in children’s ability to control and Berger 2006). Young children’s
their body’s movements, from infants’ bodies undergo remarkable changes in
first spontaneous waving and kick the early childhood years. In describ
ing movements to the adaptive control ing this development, Adolph and
of reaching, locomotion, and complex Avolio (2000, 1148) state, “Newborns
sport skills” (Adolph, Weise, and Marin are extremely top-heavy with large
2003, 134). The term motor behavior heads and torsos and short, weak
describes all movements of the body, legs. As infants grow, their body fat
including movements of the eyes (as and muscle mass are redistributed. In
in the gaze), and the infant’s develop contrast to newborns, toddlers’ bod
ing control of the head. Gross motor ies have a more cylindrical shape, and
actions include the movement of large they have a larger ratio of muscle mass
limbs or the whole body, as in walk to body fat, especially in the legs.”
ing. Fine motor behaviors include the These changes in weight, size, percent
use of fingers to grasp and manipu age of body fat, and muscle strength
0
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Look at an object in her hand, • Adjust the way he is walking de • Identify a blanket or other
mouth it, and then take it out to pending on the type of surface; familiar objects just by touching
look at it again. (6–9 mos.; Ruff for example, walking slowly on them. (30–36 mo.; Parks 2004)
and Kohler 1978) rocks and faster on pavement. • Identify a truck when she feels
(12–18 mos.; Fogel 2001, 333)
• Hear the infant care teacher’s it buried underneath the sand.
footsteps in the darkened nap • Choose to sit on her bottom (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 17)
room and turn his head to try and slide down a steep hill • Watch the lines that she makes
PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
to look for her. (6–9 mos.; Ruff rather than walk down it. (12–18 with a marker on the paper.
and Kohler 1978) mos.; Adolph, Eppler, and Gib
(Freeman 1980)
son 1993)
• Show excitement upon recog • Climb more slowly as he
nizing the color of a favorite • Sway back and forth to the beat reaches the top of the ladder.
food that is offered on a spoon. of a song while standing up.
(6–9 mos.; Reardon and Bush • Press harder on a clump of clay
• Pull hands away from the sen than on play dough.
nell 1988) sory table, which is filled with
an unfamiliar slimy substance. • Watch a family member draw
a circle and then try to do it.
• Spend a lot of time in the sand (24–36 mos.; Stiles 1995)
box, burying a hand underneath
a pile of sand. • Walk more slowly and carefully
when carrying an open cup of
• Stop pouring sand into a bucket milk than when carrying a cup
that is already full. with a lid.
Perceptual Development
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Sit on the floor, legs bent, with • Stand on one foot, alone or • Walk and run with skill, changing
one leg closer to the body than with support. (Scaled score speed and direction. (36 mos.;
the other. (8 mos.; Alexander, of 10 for 18:16–19:15 mos.; Parks 2004; by 36 mos.; Davies
Boehme, and Cupps 1993, 134) Bayley 2006, 163) 2004, 194).
• Use forearms to pull forward on • Walk sideways. (Scaled score • Kick and throw a ball, but with
the floor while on her tummy. of 10 for 18:16–19:15 mos.; little control of direction or
(Scaled score of 9 for 7:16–8:15 Bayley 2006, 163) speed. (36 mos.; Meisels and
mos.; Bayley 2006, 155) others 2003, 76)
• Push a doll stroller or play
PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
• Move from a sitting position shopping cart. (17–18.5 mos.; • Bend over to pick up a toy and
onto hands and knees. (Scaled Parks 2004) stand up without trouble. (By
score of 10 for 7:16–8:15 mos.; 36 mos.; American Academy of
• Climb onto an adult-sized
Bayley 2006, 156) Pediatrics 2004)
couch. (By 18 mos.; Apfel and
Provence 2001, 33) • Pedal a tricycle. (32–36 mos.;
Parks 2004; 36 mos.; Davies
• Run. (Scaled score of 10 for
2004, 194)
16:16–17:15 mos.; Bayley
2006, 162) • Climb up climbers and ladders.
(34–36 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Walk backward a few feet. (28–
29.5 mos.; Parks 2004; scaled
score of 10 for 34:16–35:15
mos.; Bayley 2006, #63, 167)
• Jump up with both feet at the
same time. (30–36 mos.; Parks
2004; by 30 mos.; Apfel and
Provence 2001, 33)
• Catch a medium-size ball.
(35–36+ mos.; Parks 2004)
• Walk up stairs, without holding
on, placing one foot on each
step. (30 mos.; Squires, Pot
ter, and Bricker 1999; by end of
24–36 mos., 34–36+ mos.; Parks
2004, 304; scaled score of 10
for 35:16–36:15 mos.; Bayley
2006, 64)
Gross Motor
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Reach for and grasp an object, • Hold a crayon between fingers • Use child-safe scissors in one
using one hand. (5–8 mos.; and thumb. (13–18 mos.; Slat hand to make snips in a piece
Introduction to Infant Develop er and Lewis 2002, 62; scaled of paper. (Scaled score of 10 for
ment, 2002, 62; by end of 7 score of 10 for 17:16–18:15 34:16–35:15 mos.; Bayley 2006,
mos.; American Academy of mos.; Bayley 2006, 131) 136; 28–35 mos.; Parks 2004)
Pediatrics 2004, 205; 7–8 1/2
• Scribble with big arm move • String large wooden beads onto
PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Fine Motor
• Drop a block into the wide open (Scaled score of 10 for 27:16–
111)
References
Perception and Performance, Vol. 26, No. Instrument (ITFI). Baltimore: Brookes
3, 1148–66. Publishing.
Adolph, K. E., and S. E. Berger. 2005. Bahrick, L. E.; R. Lickliter; and R. Flom.
“Physical and Motor Development,” in 2004. “Intersensory Redundancy
Developmental Science: An Advanced Guides the Development of Selective
Textbook (Fifth edition). Edited by M. H. Attention, Perception, and Cognition in
Bornstein and M. E. Lamb. Hillsdale, Infancy,” Current Directions in Psycho
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. logical Science, Vol. 13, No. 3, 99–102.
Adolph, K. E., and S. E. Berger. 2006. Bai, D. L., and B. I. Bertenthal. 1992.
“Motor Development,” in Handbook of “Locomotor Status and the Develop
Child Psychology: Volume 2: Cognition, ment of Spatial Search Skills,” Child
Perception, and Language (Sixth edi Development, Vol. 63, 215–26.
tion). Series Editors: W. Damon and R. Bayley, N. 2006. Bayley Scales of Infant
Lerner. Volume Editors: D. Kuhn and and Toddler Development (Third edi
others. New York: John Wiley and Sons. tion). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt
Adolph, K. E.; M. A. Eppler; and E. J. Assessment.
Gibson. 1993. “Crawling Versus Walk Berthier, N. E. 1996. “Learning to Reach:
ing Infants’ Perception of Affordances A Mathematical Model,” Developmental
for Locomotion over Sloping Surfaces,” Psychology, Vol. 32, No. 5, 811–23.
Child Development, Vol. 64, No. 4, Bertenthal, B. I. 1996. “Origins and Early
1158–74. Development of Perception, Action and
Adolph, K. E., and A. S. Joh. 2007. “Motor Representation,” Annual Review of Psy
Development: How Infants Get Into the chology, Vol. 47, 431–59.
Act,” in Introduction to Infant Develop Bertenthal, B. I., and S. M. Boker. 1997.
ment (Second edition). Edited by A. “New Paradigms and New Issues: A
Slater and M. Lewis. New York: Oxford Comment on Emerging Themes in the
University Press. Study of Motor Development,” Mono
Adolph, K. E.; B. Vereijken; and P. E. graphs of the Society for Research in
Shrout. 2003. “What Changes in Infant Child Development, Vol. 62, No. 3,
Walking and Why,” Child Development, 141–51.
Vol. 74, No. 2, 475–97.
0
Stiles, J. 1995. “The Early Use and Devel Thelen, E. 1994. “Three-Month-Old Infants
opment of Graphic Formulas: Two Case Can Learn Task-Specific Patterns of
Study Reports of Graphic Formula Pro Interlimb Coordination,” Psychological
duction by 2- to 3-Year Old Children,” Science, Vol. 5, No. 5, 280–85.
International Journal of Behavioral Thelen, E. 1995. “Motor Development: A
Development, Vol. 18, No. 1, 127–49. New Synthesis,” American Psychologist,
Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., and K. E. Adolph. Vol. 50, No. 2, 79–95.
2005. “Social Cognition in Infant Motor Walk, R. D., and E. J. Gibson. 1961. “A
Action,” in The Development of Social Comparative and Analytic Study of
Cognition and Communication. Edited Visual Depth Perception,” Psychological
by B. Homer and C. S. Tamis-LeMonda. Monographs, Vol. 75, No. 15.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Asso von Hofsten, C. 2007. “Action in Develop
ciates. ment,” Developmental Science, Vol. 10,
No. 1, 54–60.
PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Appendix
0
0
Each module includes DVDs, video magazines, curriculum guide(s), and a trainer’s manual.
All modules are available in English and Spanish. Additional PITC materials and new infant/
toddler items from the California Department of Education are listed on the last page of this
order form.
ModulE I
Social–Emotional Growth
and Socialization
Title Item no. Quantity Price Total
Audiovisual Materials
DVD (Each DVD includes a video magazine in the same language
as the DVD.)
First Moves (1988) 1636 $75.00 $
Los primeros pasos (1988) 1637 75.00
Flexible, Fearful, or Feisty (1990) 1638 75.00
Flexible, cauteloso, o inquieto (1990) 1639 75.00
Getting in Tune (1990) 1644 75.00
Llevar el compás (1990) 1645 75.00
Print Materials
Curriculum Guides
A Guide to Social–Emotional Growth and Socialization (1990) 0876 $18.00
Una guía para el crecimiento socioemocional y la socialización (2005) 1606 18.00
Module I Trainer’s Manual (1993) 1084 25.00
Manual pedagógico, Módulo I: El crecimiento socioemocional
y la socialización (2007) 1660 25.00
Video Magazines (In packages of 50)
First Moves - English 9960 $23.00
First Moves - Spanish 9736 23.00
Flexible, Fearful, or Feisty - English 9956 23.00
Flexible, Fearful, or Feisty - Spanish 9737 23.00
Getting in Tune - English 9957 23.00
Getting in Tune - Spanish 9738 23.00
SUBTOTAL $
Audiovisual Materials
DVD (Each DVD includes a video magazine in the same language
as the DVD.)
It’s Not Just Routine (Second edition) (2000) 1648 $75.00 $
No es sólo una rutina (Segunda edición) (2000) 1649 75.00
Respectfully Yours (1988) 1640 75.00
Con respeto (1988) 1641 75.00
Space to Grow (Second edition) (2004) 1646 75.00
Un lugar para crecer (Segunda edición) (2004) 1647 75.00
Together in Care (1992) 1632 75.00
Unidos en el corazón (1992) 1633 75.00
Print Materials
Curriculum Guides
A Guide to Routines (Second edition) (2000) 1510 $18.00
Una guía para las rutinas cotidianas del cuidado infantil
(Segunda edición) (2004) 1602 18.00
A Guide to Setting Up Environments (1990) 0879 18.00
Una guía para crear los ambientes del cuidado infantil (2006) 1614 18.00
Module II Trainer’s Manual (1993) 1076 25.00
Manual pedagógico, Módulo II: El cuidado infantil en grupo (2007) 1661 25.00
Video Magazines (In packages of 50)
It’s Not Just Routine (Second edition) - English 9724 $23.00
It’s Not Just Routine (Second edition) - Spanish 9723 23.00
Respectfully Yours - English 9958 23.00
Respectfully Yours - Spanish 9740 23.00
Space to Grow (Second edition) - English 9709 23.00
Space to Grow (Second edition) - Spanish 9710 23.00
Together in Care - English 9873 23.00
Together in Care - Spanish 9742 23.00
SUBTOTAL $
Audiovisual Materials
DVD (Each DVD includes a video magazine in the same language
as the DVD.)
The Ages of Infancy (1990) 1634 $75.00 $
Las edades de la infancia (1990) 1635 75.00
Discoveries of Infancy (1992) 1623 75.00
Descubrimientos de la infancia (1992) 1624 75.00
Early Messages (1998) 1625 75.00
El comenzar de la comunicación (1998) 1626 75.00
The Next Step (2004) 1621 75.00
El siguiente paso (2004) 1622 75.00
Print Materials
Curriculum Guides
A Guide to Cognitive Development and Learning (1995) 1055 $18.00
Una guía para el desarrollo cognitivo y el aprendizaje (2006) 1616 18.00
A Guide to Language Development and Communication (1990) 0880 18.00
Una guía para el desarrollo del lenguaje y la comunicación (2006) 1608 18.00
Module III Trainer’s Manual (1993) 1108 25.00
Manual pedagógico, Módulo III: Aprendizaje y desarrollo (2007) 1662 25.00
Video Magazines (In packages of 50)
The Ages of Infancy - English 9954 $23.00
The Ages of Infancy - Spanish 9732 23.00
Discoveries of Infancy - English 9874 23.00
Discoveries of Infancy - Spanish 9733 23.00
Early Messages - English 9747 23.00
Early Messages - Spanish 9734 23.00
The Next Step - English 9715 23.00
The Next Step - Spanish 9697 23.00
SUBTOTAL $
Audiovisual Materials
DVD (Each DVD includes a video magazine in the same language
as the DVD.)
Essential Connections (1993) 1627 $75.00 $
Relaciones indispensables (1993) 1628 75.00
Protective Urges (1996) 1630 75.00
El instinto protector (1996) 1631 75.00
Print Materials
Curriculum Guides
A Guide to Creating Partnerships with Families (1990) 0878 $18.00
Una guía para establecer relaciones de colaboración con las familias (2006) 1615 18.00
A Guide to Culturally Sensitive Care (1995) 1057 18.00
Una guía para el cuidado infantil culturalmente sensible (2006) 1617 18.00
Module IV Trainer’s Manual (1995) 1109 25.00
Manual pedagógico, Módulo IV: La cultura, la familia y los proveedores
(2007) 1663 25.00
Video Magazines (In packages of 50)
Essential Connections - English 9869 $23.00
Essential Connections - Spanish 9735 23.00
Protective Urges - English 9778 23.00
Protective Urges - Spanish 9739 23.00
SUBTOTAL $
Audiovisual Materials
DVD (includes a video magazine)
In Our Hands - English (1997) 1629 $25.00 $
Print Materials
Addendum to Trainer’s Manuals I, II, III, IV: Spanish Handouts/Transparencies
(Second edition) 1679 $25.00
The Family Child Care Supplement to Trainer’s Manuals 7096 25.00
Video Magazine (In packages of 50)
In Our Hands - English (1997) 9749 23.00
SUBTOTAL $
California residents
add sales tax.
Shipping and handling
charges (See chart.)
TOTAL $
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