ECU development Hardware development 329

Thermography EMC tests

Thermographic pictures of the printed-circuit Tests conducted in an EMC test cell or EMC
board show the buildup of heat by the com- test chamber (Fig. 3) check the behavior of
ponents during operation (Fig. 2). The differ- the ECU for electromagnetic irradiation and
ent temperature ranges are shown on the film radiation. Tests are performed both on the
in different colors. It is therefore possible to installed ECU (vehicle tests) and in the labo-
identify components which become too hot. ratory (e.g., stripline procedure).
The findings made here influence the change
list from the B- to the C-specimen. Layout On the negative side, vehicle tests can only
changes (e.g., heat through hole plating) can be carried out when the vehicle and the elec-
be used to reduce the buildup of heat. tronics are already at an advanced stage of
development. The possibilities for interven-
Electromagnetic testing tion in the event of unsatisfactory EMC be-
The electromagnetic fields generated on the havior are therefore extremely limited at this
printed-circuit board can be sampled with stage. For this reason, early laboratory tests
a magnetic-field probe (Fig. 1e). The results are very important, because these allows
are then evaluated on a PC. Different field tests at an early stage with the hardware
strengths are identified by different colors. specimens.
If necessary, layout changes must be made
and additional components provided which The EMC tests are carried out at different
prevent electromagnetic fields from being frequencies and different electrical field
radiated. strengths. The output signals (e.g., ignition
signals, injection signals) are analyzed to as-
These tests are also carried out as early as on certain their immunity to interference from
the B-specimen so that the necessary changes irradiation and their radiation behavior.
can be taken into account in the C-specimen.

3 Vehicle in an EMC test chamber

æ SAE0911Y
330 ECU development Function development

Function development Component packages

For every class of sensors and actuators, a
Highly exacting demands regarding driver generally applicable interface with a physical
convenience and fuel consumption are placed representation is created. Higher-level control
on modern motor-vehicle engines. functions connect to this interface without
In order that these demands can be met eco- knowledge of the way in which the compo-
nomically at the same time as compliance nent is structured and leave the detailed han-
with increasingly strict emission-control dling of special component properties to the
legislation, the prime requirement is for lower function level, the so-called component
optimized coordination between the engine package. The latter provides for optimum in-
management system and the entire drivetrain, teraction between the mechanical component
numerous sensors and actuators and the – i.e. the sensor or actuator –, the processing
fault-diagnosis functions for them. or control hardware and the hardware-related
As, in contrast with earlier solutions, direct software. In addition to essential functions
mechanical adjustment of the actuators in re- such as protection against excessive tempera-
sponse to changes in ambient conditions is tures or operating voltages, this is also where
not possible, the engine electronic control the correction of nonlinear characteristics
unit– and therefore the control software run- and conversion into the selected physically
ning on it – is the only link between the sen- based component-package interface format
sors and the actuators. Consequently, the fuel take place. It means, for example, that the
consumption characteristics of a vehicle are changeover from a pneumatic to an electric
determined to a great extent by the algo- actuator can be implemented without alter-
rithms implemented on the engine-manage- ing the higher-level control functions.
ment system and the quality of them. This concept is the basic requirement
It is the purpose of function development for the use of similar components of differing
to provide these algorithms. generations and manufacturers, with minor
consequences for the overall system.
Requirements placed on functions
Modularity Development process
Modern control systems have to be modular Requirement
in terms of the structure of their functions When new requirements emerge in relation
and hardware in order to manage the enor- to a customer or platform project, for exam-
mous variety of engine-configuration para- ple with regard to the use of new compo-
meters, such as number of cylinders, fuel- nents, a possible solution has to be found
injection method, sensors used and type of and the functions that are affected have to
exhaust-gas system. A hierarchical structure be identified. When doing so, the existing
divided into subsystems (air system, fuel sys- function structure should be retained as far
tem, exhaust-gas system) with stable inter- as possible in order that the interfaces, and
faces enables parallel and therefore rapid de- therefore the interaction with other func-
velopment which, at the rate of innovation in tions, are not endangered. Once the necessary
today’s automotive industry, is becoming an algorithms are known and capable of imple-
increasingly important consideration. mentation on the ECU, an estimate is pro-
duced of the amount of development work,
the cost and the completion date. Following
discussions with internal and external clients,
the project is commissioned by the customer
and a definite delivery deadline agreed.
 ECU development Function development 331

Concept Function test

If the available algorithms are inadequate for On completion, all new software modules are
performing the required task and if the task is integrated in a program version for a specific
sufficiently significant, a new development vehicle project. Only then can the system be
process is initiated involving basic calibration tested under real conditions on the vehicle.
and testing on the vehicle or engine test This test involves three stages:
bench. The resulting concept is tested for  The function developer checks that the
conformity with physical principles, absence specifications and the software implemen-
of conflicts, capability of implementation tation are consistent with one another
in the available engine-management system  The function developer compares the im-
and anticipated applicability in the process plemented solution with the customer/
of a concept review involving representatives project requirements
from Function Development, System Devel-  In the course of initial commissioning,
opment and Application. Function Development and Application
jointly assess whether the chosen solution
Function definition is adequately applicable and also usable for
There then follows the implementation of the other projects
concept by the creation and specification
of each function. After offline simulation of These tests can lead to more or less extensive
critical components using measured vehicle modifications to the selected solution. How-
data, these functions are entered as function ever, the aim is always to identify errors as
definitions in a central database together with early as possible in the development process
the associated documentation which encom- in order to manage their impact on deadlines,
passes the written descriptions and applica- costs and quality within acceptable limits.
tion instructions.
Function reviews with other function Program version delivery
developers prevent the repetition of known After the testing stage, the functions are deliv-
errors. ered to the customer in the form of a pro-
gram version. In the case of new concepts or
Encoding extensive modifications, the function devel-
Next, the software developers convert the oper and the Application department assist
functions into program code either by auto- the customer with commissioning by present-
matic code generation or manually in the case ing the selected concept and discussing the
of critical functions. As with function re- calibration procedure on the engine test
views, a code review minimizes error bench or in the course of summer or winter
frequency. trials.
332 ECU development Software development

Software development Software quality

Most innovations in automotive technology
From Assembler . . . today are based on the use of electronics.
When the first microcontrollers were used In the past, the software was seen as an
in control units, the programs they used re- “appendage” to the hardware. Over time,
quired only 4 kilobytes of space or even less. however, the importance of the software has
At that time, it was all the memory that was steadily grown. With the increasing complex-
available. For this reason, the programs had ity of microcontroller-controlled electronic
to be written in a space-saving language. systems, the quality of the software became
The most commonly used programming lan- a central pillar of software development –
guage was Assembler. The commands in this because problems caused by imperfections
language are mnemonics. They generally cor- in the software damage the image of a manu-
respond directly to the instructions in the facturer and drive up warranty-claim costs.
microcontroller’s machine code. However,
Assembler programs are generally difficult to Software process improvement
read and maintain. The model used for improving processes in
Over the course of time, the capacity of software development is CMM (Capability
memory chips grew larger and larger, and the Maturity Model). It provides a framework
range of functions performed by the engine- for highlighting the elements of an effective
management system became more and more software-development process. It describes
complex. The expanding variety of functions an evolutionary path from a disorganized
made software modularization unavoidable. to a perfected, disciplined process and
The ECU program is divided into modules, supports:
each of which incorporates a specific group of  Characterization of the degree of process
functions (e.g. lambda closed-loop control, maturity
idle-speed control). Of course, these modules  Definition of targets for process improve-
have to be usable not just for one particular ment and
project but for large numbers of similar pro-  Setting of priorities for action to be taken
jects. For this reason, defined interfaces for
the input and output variables of the func- Distributed development
tions are important. At this point, assembly Bosch develops software not only in Germany
language is reaching the limits of its capabili- but at a number of locations around the
ties. world. The same development process is ap-
plied throughout this international develop-
. . . to high-level programming language ment network. Consequently, the same high
For the demands faced by present-day soft- standards of software quality are produced by
ware developers, high-level programming Bosch worldwide.
languages are indispensable. The entire soft-
ware for an engine-management system is Software sharing
nowadays written in a high-level language – As a result of software modularization and
the preferred choice being the C program- the use of defined interfaces, “external” soft-
ming language. Programming in a high-level ware modules can also be incorporated in
language ensures: the ECU programs. This means that a vehicle
 Updatability of the software manufacturer can use its own software for
 Modularity different vehicle models. The software then
 Interchangeability of software packages becomes a “distinguishing factor” on the
 Independence of the software from the competitive marketplace.
microcontroller used in the control unit
 ECU development Software development 333

Creating program code Linker

The basis for software development are the Once all the modules that make up the
function definitions that are produced by the overall program have been created and com-
function developers. These documents de- piled, all the object-code modules can be
scribe the ECU functions (e.g. lambda closed- combined to form an executable program.
loop control) that are to be converted into a This job is performed by a linker. The linker
program by the software developers and then makes use of a file in which all the modules
combined into an executable ECU program. to be linked are listed. The file also details the
memory addresses for the data and program
Creating source code memories. So all the relative addresses quoted
For every function, a separate module – a in the object-code modules can be replaced
component of the overall program – is pro- by absolute addresses.
duced. The source code for the modules is The result of the linking process is a ma-
written on a PC using a text editor (Fig. 1). chine-code program capable of running on
The source code essentially contains the the target system – the electronic control
actual program instructions as well as docu- unit.
mentation that facilitates the “readability”
of the program (for program upgrading). Module archiving
Software is subject to a rapid process of
Compiler change. So that program versions supplied
Once created, the source code has to be trans- to customers can be reliably reproduced, it is
lated into machine code so that it can be un- essential to archive the modules. Archiving
derstood by the microcontroller. This involves programs allow the tracking of every modifi-
the use of a compiler. It produces “object cation down to each individual module.
code” which contains relative rather than For each archived program version, all the
absolute memory addresses. modules used can be listed and retrieved.

1 From FDEF to programmed ECU Testing station

The program code produced by the linker has
to be tested in the laboratory before the ECU
programmed with this code can be used on a
+
vehicle. First of all, the new modules have to
be individually tested in every detail. After
this, the ability of all the modules to operate
perfectly in combination with one another
has to be thoroughly tested.
The tests are carried out on a testing sta-
tion which is made up of a diverse range of
testing equipment (Fig. 2 overleaf).

:10000000927A654CF5
:100010005349612D22
:1000200037C3699285
:10003000AB746CC7CD
:1000400073916F4351
:10005000C2BA657DF5
æ SAE0938E
334 ECU development Software development

ECU with emulator module The LabCar also emulates the connections
A specially constructed laboratory version of with all of the actuators controlled by the
the ECU is used for laboratory tests. It differs control unit. One of the most important
from the production version by virtue of is the electronic throttle-valve device since
an IC socket in place of the permanently sol- feedback from this device is continuously
dered Flash-EPROM. Plugged into this socket monitored by the ECU. Without the throttle-
is an emulator module which simulates the valve link, it is not possible to operate the
EPROM by means of a RAM. vehicle.
This makes it possible to modify data and The immobilizer also has to be connected
program code “online”. The control opera- to the ECU in order to allow vehicle opera-
tions are performed on a PC. tion. The electrical signals are simulated.
The LabCar thus provides the means for
LabCar simulating the vehicle for the purposes of
In a real operating environment, the control testing the ECU program.
unit receives input signals from sensors and
desired-value generators. It then produces Connection adaptor
output signals to control the physical actua- In the wiring harness which connects the
tors on the vehicle. The sensor signals are LabCar to the ECU, there is a connection
simulated in a laboratory environment. adaptor. Every lead in the wiring harness
The necessary signal generators (e.g. in- is plugged into a socket on the connection
ductive speed sensor) or hardware circuits adaptor. This means this every signal travel-
(e.g. resistor sequence for simulating the ing to or from the control unit is accessible
temperature sensor) are accommodated for testing purposes (e.g. tracking the voltage
in a “black box” known as the LabCar. curve of a control signal using an oscillo-
scope).
Fig. 2
11 LabCar
2 Software testing station
12 TRS 4.22 interface
13 INCA VME
(calibration tool)
3
14 Throttle device 1
(electronic throttle 2
control)
15 Immobilizer
7
16 Connection adaptor
17 K-line (serial 8
1-wire interface)
18 Engine ECU with
emulator module
19 Serial interface 4 6
(RS232)
10 Parallel interface 5
(Centronics link 9
cable with additional
fiber-optic cores)
11 PC (engine model, 10 11 13
LabCar control)
12 Serial interface
(RS232) 12
æ SAE0939Y

13 PC (testing
computer, auxiliary
computer for control
of automatic testing)
 ECU development Software development 335

Emulator mode Trigger conditions (e.g. reaching a specific ad-

The control unit (with microcontroller dress, storage of a specific value in a memory
socket) has an emulator plugged into it. cell) can be set on the logic analyzer. When
The emulator replaces the ECU’s microcon- the trigger condition has been met, the pro-
troller. The ECU program then runs on the gram sequence can be retraced.
emulator.
The program code is loaded to the emula- The emulator and the logic analyzer offer
tor from a PC. The emulator is also con- similar capabilities. The advantage of the
trolled from this PC. This means that: logic analyzer is that it does not interfere with
 The program can be started from a specific the program sequence (real time) and can
memory address therefore be used in a real operating
 “Breakpoints” can be set (so this the environment on the vehicle.
program stops at defined points)
 The program sequence can be retraced Automatic test
from the breakpoint and the memory The LabCar testing station not only provides
contents can be read and modified at the means for manual testing of ECU pro-
each individual stage grams, it also offers the facility for substan-
 Trigger conditions can be defined and the tially reducing testing times, particularly
program sequence can be analyzed before where repeat tests are concerned, by using an
and after the trigger point automatic testing sequence. For such pur-
 Internal signals and registers (processor poses, the ECU is operated in a closed-loop
registers) that otherwise would not be control circuit. At present, there are four dif-
accessible can be read ferent tests that can be used:
 In single-step mode, program sequences 1. The most frequently used plausibility test is
can be processed one step at a time and the a “rough check” of the most important
processing sequence tracked ECU functions. It performs an electrical
 Data and program code can be modified in and physical check on all input variables,
order to manipulate the program sequence and tests fuel injection and ignition, throt-
for testing purposes tle-valve response, and maximum runtime
load on the ECU.
The ability to set trigger conditions and 2. The OBD (On-Board Diagnosis) test
record results makes it possible to analyze the checks out the most important ECU diag-
program run in relation to specific input sig- nostic functions and fault management
nals. As a result, every branch of the program by means of fault simulation.
can be tested against the function definitions. 3. The CAN test checks communication sig-
nals with reference to range of values and
Logic analyzer reference signal.
Another means of tracking the program 4. The start/stop test analyzes fuel-injection
sequence is provided by the logic analyzer. and ignition response to ECU start-and-
It is connected via an adaptor in such a way stop processes. Among other things, this
that it can “listen in” to data traffic on the ad- involves varying the battery voltage.
dress and data buses. In this way, it can record
the program sequence and also track read-
and-write access to the external data memory.
However, access to the data memory inte-
grated in the microcontroller is not possible.
336 ECU development Application-related adaptation

Application-related Parameter definition

The next stage involves adapting the elec-
adaptation tronic control system – the Motronic – to
So that a car is able to meet the driver’s the engine. This is the function of applica-
expectations, extensive development work is tion-specific adaptation. Application-spe-
required, particularly in respect of the engine. cific adaptation means adapting an engine
As a rule, the vehicle manufacturer will to suit a particular vehicle.
center the development of a new vehicle
around a basic engine. The most important The ECU program consists of the program
operating parameters for this engine are itself plus a large amount of data. The pro-
known quantities, such as: gram meets the requirements set out in the
 Compression ratio and specifications document (function frame-
 Valve timing (on engines with variable work), but the data still has to be adapted
valve timing, this can be altered while the to the particular engine and vehicle-model
engine is running) variant.
In the adaptation phase, all data – also re-
The engine peripherals have to be modified ferred to as parameters – has to be adjusted
to meet installation space constraints. to achieve optimum efficiency of operation.
This applies in particular to: The main evaluation criteria include:
 The air-intake system and  Low-emission exhaust gas (compliance
 The exhaust-gas system with prevailing emission standards)
 High torque and power output
Other important aspects (e.g. fitting loca-  Low fuel consumption and
tion of knock sensors) have to be defined  High level of user-friendliness
in consultation with the Application depart-
ment at Bosch.

1 Calibration tools

Fig. 1
1 Engine ECU
2 MAC
(compact testing
4 5
and calibration tool)
3 Laptop computer
4 Lambda Scan
(test interface for
1
broadband lambda
æ SAE0940Y

sensors)
5 Thermo Scan
(test interface for
temperature sensors)
 ECU development Application-related adaptation 337

The aim of adaptation is to ensure that the Calibration tools

objectives outlined above are achieved as A large part of the adaptation work is car-
fully as possible, i.e. the best possible com- ried out using PC-based calibration tools.
promise is reached between competing Such programs allow developers to modify
demands. the engine-management software. One such
To this end, there is a data record with up calibration tool is the INCA (Integrated
to 5500 “labels” that are capable of adjust- Calibration and Acquisition System) pro-
ment. These labels are subdivided into: gram. INCA is an integrated suite of several
 Individual parameter values tools. It is made up of the following compo-
(e.g. temperature thresholds at nents:
which specific functions are activated)  The Core System incorporates all mea-
 Data curves (e.g. engine speed surement and adjustment functions
vs. temperature curve for threshold  The Offline Tools (standard specification)
at which a function is activated, tempera- comprise the software for analyzis of mea-
ture vs. ignition-timing curve) and sured data and management of adjust-
 Data maps (e.g. ignition timing as ment data, and the programming tool
a function of engine load and speed) for the Flash-EPROM

Initially, work has to be carried out on the The ECU used for adaptation purposes has
engine test bench. In this basic adaptation an emulator module instead of the program
phase, parameters such as the ignition-timing memory (EPROM) which emulates the
map are defined. When basic adaptation has ECU’s EPROM and RAM. The INCA system
established the foundation for the initial vehi- has access to the data in these memories.
cle trials, all parameters that affect engine This memory emulator represents the
response and dynamic characteristics are most powerful ECU interface currently
adapted. This work is for the greater part available for connecting calibration tools.
performed with the engine fitted in the
vehicle. A simpler method of linking calibration
tools (laptop) to the ECU is offered by the
The scope for optimization on Motronic MAC (compact testing and calibration de-
systems has become so extensive and com- vice). It connects via the K-line of the diag-
plex that many of the functions are now nosis interface or – if present – the emulator
only possible with the aid of automated module (Fig. 1).
optimization methods and powerful tools.
The use and function of the calibration tools
can be illustrated by the description below
of a typical calibration process (Fig. 2 over-
leaf).
338 ECU development Application-related adaptation

Software calibration process 2 Stages of calibration process

Defining the desired characteristics
The desired characteristics (e.g. dynamic Defining the desired
response, noise output, exhaust-gas compo- characteristics
sition) are defined by the engine manufac-
turer and the (exhaust-gas emissions) legis-
lation. The aim of calibration is to alter the
characteristics of the engine to meet these Preparations
requirements. This requires testing on the
engine test bench and in the vehicle.

Preparations Establishing and documenting

the actual system responses
Special engine ECUs with emulator modules
are used for calibration. Compared with
the ECUs used on production models, they
allow parameters that are fixed for normal Identifying possibilities
operation to be altered. An important aspect for manipulation
of preparations is choosing and setting up
the appropriate hardware and/or software
interface.
Additional testing equipment (e.g. tem-
perature sensors, flow meters) permit de-
tecting other physical variables for special Alteration of various
parameters
tests using INCA hardware components
such as:
 Thermo Scan (for measuring tempera-
tures)
Observing
 Lambda Scan (for measuring exhaust-gas
the changes
oxygen content)
 Baro Scan (for measuring pressures) and
 A/D Scan (for other analog signals)

Determining and documenting the actual Analyzing

system responses measured data
The detection of specific measured data is
carried out using the INCA kernel system.
The information concerned can be displayed
on screen and analyzed in the form of nu- Documenting the modified
parameters
merical values or graphs (Fig. 3).
The measured data can not only be
viewed after the measurements have been
taken but while measurement is still in Programming additional
progress. In this way, engine response to control units
changes (e.g. in the exhaust-gas recirculation
rate) can be investigated. The data can also
æ SAE0929E

be recorded for subsequent analyzis of tran-

sient processes (e.g. engine starting). Full production clearance
 ECU development Application-related adaptation 339

Identifying possibilities for manipulation because several people will be involved

With the help of the ECU software docu- in the process of engine optimization at
mentation (function framework), it is possi- different times.
ble to identify which parameters are best
suited to altering system response in the Documenting the modified parameters
manner desired. The changes to the parameters are also com-
pared and documented. This is done with
Altering selected parameters the offline tool ADM (Application Data
The parameters stored in the ECU software Manager), sometimes also called CDM
can be displayed as numerical values (in (Calibration Data Manager).
tables) or as graphs (curves) on the PC and The calibration data obtained by various
altered. Each time an alteration is made, technicians is compared and merged into
system response is observed. a single data record.

All parameters can be altered while the Programming additional control units
engine is running so that the impacts are The new parameter settings obtained can
immediately observable and measurable. also be used on other engine ECUs for fur-
In the case of short-lived or transient ther calibration. This requires reprogram-
processes (e.g. engine starting), it is effec- ming of the Flash-EPROMs in the ECUs.
tively impossible to alter the parameters This is carried out using the INCA kernel
while the process is in progress. In such system tool PROF (Programming of
cases, therefore, the process has to be Flash-EPROM).
recorded during the course of a test. The
measured data is saved to file and then Depending on the extent of the calibration
the parameters that are to be altered are and design innovations, multiple looping of
identified by analyzing the recorded data. the steps described above may take place.
Further tests are performed in order
to evaluate the success of the adjustments
made or to learn more about the process.

Analyzing measured
data 3 Software calibration monitor (example)

Analyzis and documen-

tation of the measured
data is performed with
the aid of the offline
tool MDA (Measure
Data Analyzer). This
stage of the calibration
process involves com-
paring and document-
ing system response
before and after para-
meter alteration. Such
documentation encom-
æ SAE0930Y

passes improvements as
well as problems and
malfunctions. Docu-
mentation is important
340 ECU development Application-related adaptation

Example of calibration the risk of the component failing over the

Exhaust-gas temperature control life of the vehicle. It means that the fault-
The following aspects play an essential role diagnosis function for the component is
in operating a modern gasoline engine: not required either.
 Exhaust-gas emissions
 Fuel consumption and Other adjustments
 Thermal stresses on engine components Safety-related adaptation
As well as the functions that determine
In order to minimize the stresses to which emission levels, performance and user-
the engine is subjected, a low exhaust-gas friendliness, there are also numerous safety
temperature has to be aimed at (e.g. peak functions that require adaptation (e.g. re-
temperature below 1050 °C and continuous sponse to failure of a sensor or actuator).
temperature below 970 °C). This is a partic- Such safety functions are primarily in-
ularly important consideration in the case tended to restore the vehicle to a safe operat-
of turbocharged engines because the tur- ing condition for the driver and/or to ensure
bocharger has to be protected against the safe operation of the engine (e.g. to pre-
thermal damage. vent engine damage).
The exhaust-gas temperature can be re-
duced by enriching the air-fuel mixture by Communication
manipulating the optimization parameters, The engine ECU is normally part of a net-
for example. Unfortunately, the negative side work of several ECUs. The exchange of data
of enriching the mixture is that both fuel between vehicle, transmission, and other
consumption and exhaust-gas emissions systems takes place via a data bus (usually a
(CO and HC) are raised. This means that CAN). Correct interaction between the vari-
the mixture need only be enriched by the ous ECUs involved cannot be fully tested and
absolute minimum amount required. optimized until they are installed in the vehi-
Engine operation generally follows a cle, as the process of basic configuration on
dynamic pattern, which is why the exhaust- the engine test bench usually involves only
gas temperature is subject to fluctuations. the engine-management module on its own.
Therefore, a physical model to take account
of heat capacities, heat transfer and response A typical example of the interaction between
times is required to determine exhaust-gas two vehicle ECUs is the process of changing
temperature. Such complex models can gen- gear with an automatic transmission. The
erally only be configured with the aid of op- transmission ECU sends a request via the
timization tools. This involves performing data bus to reduce engine torque at the opti-
tests under all relevant operating conditions mum point in the gear shifting operation.
in which all essential input and output vari- The engine ECU then initiates actions inde-
ables are recorded. In the case of exhaust-gas pendently of the driver to reduce engine
temperature control, the optimizer then torque output and thus facilitate a smooth
adapts the optimization parameters until the and judder-free gear change. The data that
modeled temperature matches the measured result in torque reduction has to be adapted.
temperature as closely as possible. The accu-
racy of the modeled temperature is equiva- Electromagnetic compatibility
lent to that achieved with a temperature sen- The large number of electronic vehicle sys-
sor if the choice of parameters is appropriate. tems and the wide use of other electronic
The advantages are obvious – the temper- communications equipment (e.g. radio tele-
ature sensor, sensor wire and installation po- phones, two-way radios, GPS navigation
sition layout can be dispensed with on the systems) make it necessary to optimize the
production model. In addition, this removes Electro-Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) of
 ECU development Application-related adaptation 341

the engine ECU and all its connecting leads jective judgement of the test driver and long
in terms of both immunity to external inter- experience play an important part in such
ference and of emission of interference sig- tests. Temperature itself can easily be simu-
nals. A large proportion of this optimization lated on a test bench, but using a chassis
work is carried out during the development dynamometer to assess a vehicle’s response
of ECUs and the sensors concerned, of when pulling away, for example, is very diffi-
course. However, the dimensioning (e.g. cult compared to making the judgement un-
length of cable runs, type of shielding) and der real driving conditions.
routing of the wiring harnesses in the actual In addition, road tests generally involve
vehicle has a major impact on immunity longer distances and several vehicles. This
to and creation of interference. As a result, enables testing of calibration parameters
testing and, if necessary, optimization of across the spread of the vehicles tested and,
the complete vehicle inside an EMC room therefore, allows wider conclusions to be
is absolutely essential. drawn than with calibration based on a
single test subject.
Fault diagnosis Another essential aspect is the impact of
Due to legal requirements, the capabilities variations in fuel grade from one part of the
demanded of fault-diagnosis systems are world to another. The chief effect of such
very extensive. The engine ECU constantly variations in fuel grade is on the engine’s
checks that the signals from all connected starting characteristics and warm-up phase.
sensors and actuators are within specified Vehicle manufacturers go to great lengths to
limits. It also tests for loose contacts, short ensure this a vehicle will run properly on all
circuits to ground or to the battery terminal, the fuels on the market.
and for plausibility with other signals. The
signal range limits and plausibility criteria Cold-weather trials
must be defined by the application devel- Cold-weather trials cover the temperature
oper. These limits must firstly be sufficiently range from approx. 0 °C to – 30 °C. Preferred
broad to ensure that extreme conditions locations for cold-weather trials are places
(e.g. hot or cold weather, high altitudes) do such as northern Sweden and Canada. The
not produce false diagnoses, but secondly, primary function is to assess starting and
sufficiently narrow to provide adequate sen- pulling away.
sitivity to real faults. In addition, fault re- During the starting sequence, every indi-
sponse procedures must be defined to spec- vidual combustion process is analyzed and
ify whether and in what way the engine may the appropriate parameters optimized where
continue to be operated if a specific fault is necessary. Correct configuration of parame-
detected. Finally, detected faults have to be ters for every individual injection sequence
stored in a fault memory so that service is a decisive factor in engine start time and
technicians can quickly locate and rectify smooth increase of engine speed from
the problem. starter speed to idle speed. Even a single im-
perfect combustion process with resulting
Testing under extreme climatic reduced torque development during the
conditions startup phase is perceived as a deficiency –
Testing procedures include trials under ex- even by inexperienced customers.
treme climatic conditions that are normally
only encountered under exceptional circum-
stances during the service life of the vehicle.
The conditions that are encountered during
these trials can only be simulated to a lim-
ited degree on a test bench because the sub-
342 ECU development Application-related adaptation

Hot-weather trials Altitude trials

Hot-weather trials cover the temperature Altitude trials involve testing at altitudes
range from approx. + 15 °C to + 40 °C. between 0 and approx. 4000 meters. It is not
These trials are carried out at locations such only the absolute altitude that is of impor-
as southern France, Spain, Italy, the U.S., tance to the tests but, in many cases, a rapid
South Africa and Australia. Despite the great change in altitude within a short space of
distances involved and the corresponding time. Altitude trials are generally carried out
high cost of equipment transportation, in combination with hot or cold-weather
South Africa and Australia are of interest trials.
because they offer hot-weather conditions Once again, an important component
during the European winter. Due to the ever is testing the start characteristics. Other as-
increasing demands to shorten development pects examined include mixture adaptation,
times, such possibilities have to be consid- tank ventilation, knock control and a range
ered. of diagnostic functions.

Hot-weather trials test such things as hot

starting, tank ventilation, tank leakage detec-
tion, knock control, exhaust-gas tempera-
ture control and a wide variety of diagnostic
functions.

4 Recording cold-starting response in the cold room

æ UMS0697-1Y
 ECU development Quality management 343

Quality management The following types of FMEA are distin-

guished:
Quality assurance measures accompany  Design FMEA: assessment of the design of
the entire development process, and sub- systems for compliance with the specifica-
sequently the production process as well. tions. It also tests how the system reacts in
Only in that way can consistent quality of the the event of design faults
end product be guaranteed. The quality re-  Process FMEA: assessment of the produc-
quirements placed on safety-related systems tion process
(e. g. ABS) are particularly strict.  System FMEA: assessment of the interac-
tion of system components
Quality assurance systems
All elements of a quality management system FMEA assessments are based on theoretical
and all quality assurance measures have to be principles and practical experience.
systematically planned. The various tasks, au-
thorities and responsibilities are defined in Example: a direction indicator fails. The
writing in the quality management hand- effects in terms of road safety are serious. The
book. International standards such as ISO likelihood of discovery by the driver is small,
9001 to 9004 are also adopted. however, since the indicator is not visible
from inside the vehicle. As a means of making
In order to regularly monitor all elements of a the fault obvious, the rate at which the indi-
quality management system, quality audits cators flash must be made to change if an in-
are carried out. Their purpose is to assess the dicator fails. The higher flashing rate is dis-
extent to which the requirements of the qual- cernible both visually on the instrument clus-
ity management system are being followed ter and audibly. As a result of this modifica-
and the effectiveness with which the quality tion, the effect of the fault can be reduced.
requirements and objectives are being met.
Review
Quality assessment The review is an effective quality assurance
On completion of specific stages in the devel- tool in software development in particular.
opment process, all information available up Reviewers check the compliance of the work
to that point about quality and reliability is produced with the applicable requirements
subjected to a quality assessment and any and objectives.
necessary remedial action initiated.
The review can be usefully employed as
FMEA a means of checking progress made even
FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects Analyzis) is at early stages of the development process.
an analytical method for identifying potential Its aim is to identify and eliminate any faults
weaknesses and assessing their significance. at as early a point as possible.
Systematic optimisation results in risk and
fault cost reduction and leads to improved re-
liability. FMEA is suitable for analyzing the
types of fault occurring on system compo-
nents and their effects on the system as a
whole. The effect of a fault can be described
by a causal chain from point of origin (e.g.
sensor) to system (e.g. vehicle).
344 Index

▶ Index

AAS diode 167 alternation 37

ABB 228 alternative fuels 29, 30
ABC 228 altitude trials 342
abnormal operating states 194 ambient pressure 244
AC 232 AMR sensors 237
ACA 232 analog input signals 254
accelerator-pedal module 32, 35 angle-of-rotation sensor 34
accelerator-pedal sensors 33 application-related adaptation 336
accessory control 232 application specific integrated circuit 257
accessory control air condition 232 AS 228
accessory control electrical machines 233 ASIC 257
accessory control steering 233 A-specimen 326
accessory control thermal management 233 ATC 228
ACE 233 auto-ignition 194, 195
ACS 233 automatic test 335
ACT 233 AVC 228
activation arc suppression 167
active heating 278 Ba(NO3)2 273
active speed sensors 236 bag mini diluter 300
actuator diagnosis 325 barium oxide, BaO 273
actuator triggering 214 barium nitrate 273
adaptation of spark plugs 190 barrier effect 84
ADC 228 battery ignition systems over the year 146
additive ignition-angle corrections 155 battery ignition 136, 143
additives 28 Benz Motor Cariage 54
adjustable camshaft 38 Benz, Carl Friedrich 5
adjustments 340 bifuel-motronic 222
AIC 228 bifuel-motronic fuel system 124
air channel 215 bifuel-motronic system 223
air conditioner 320 bill of materials 327
air consumption 14 BMD 300
air mass 97 BOBD 307
air system 215, 228 boiling curve 27
air system boost control 228 boost-pressure control 42
air system brake booster 228 Bosch battery ignition 137
air system determination of charge 228 Bosch, Robert 6
air system intake manifold control 228 brake-booster vacuum control 222
air system throttle control 228 brake-fluid pressure sensor 246
air system valve control 228 breaker-triggered transistorized ignition 148
air/fuel mixture 97 broad-band lambda oxygen sensor 252
air/fuel ratio 10, 264 brush carburetor 53
aircraft carburetors 56 B-specimen 326
aircraft engine 56 burner system 279
air-flow 104
air-gab concept 185 CAE 177
air-gab spark 186 calibration tools 336, 337
air-mass readings 241 calibration 340
air-temperature sensor 235 calorific value 25
alcohol fuels 30 camshaft 36
α/n system 15 camshaft phase adjustment 36

K. Reif (Ed.), Gasoline Engine Management, Bosch Professional Automotive Information,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03964-6, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
 Index 345

camshaft-lobe control 37 combustion knock 22, 194, 195

camshaft sensors 238 combustion-miss detection 314, 315
canister-purge valve 80 combustion of the air/fuel mixture 260
capacitance 175 combustion process 111, 113
capacitive load 168 communication 232, 258
CARB legislation 286 communication security access 232
carbon dioxide 261 communication user interface 232
carbon monoxide 262 communication vehicle interface 232
carbon particle 263 compact coil 166
carburetor 50, 52 compact ignition coil 170
catalytic converters 268 compact-ignition-coil design 170
competition spark plug 202
catalytic-converter concepts 269 compiler 333
catalytic-converter configurations 276 component packages 330
catalytic-converter diagnosis 312, 313 compound electrodes 184
catalytic-converter heating 276 comprehensive components 321
catalytic-converter-heating phase 99 compressed natural gas 123
catalytic-converter poisoning 272 compression 9, 10
catalytic-converter quality factor 314 compression ratio 10
catalytic emission control 268 compressor 44
CE 226 Computer Aided Engineering 177
center electrode 183 concept 331
central injection unit 71 conical seal seat 182
centrifugal advance adjustment 147 connecting devices 161
ceramic monoliths 271 connection adaptor 334
CES 226 Constant Volume Sampling 299
changeover 222 contamination protection 242
charge component 215 continuous-action lambda control 281
charge recording 15 continuous-delivery system 79
charge-air pressure 244 continuously operating catalysts 269
charge-flow control valve 48 controlles charge flow 48
charge-flow control 48 conventional coil ignition 146
chemiluminescence detector 302 conversion of pollutants 269
CIFI 101 conversion rate 270
circuit diagram 327 coolant temperature sensor 235
CLD 302 coordination engine 226
closed-loop control 212 coordination engine states 226
CNG 30, 123 COP 171
CO 232, 262 corporate average fuel economy
CO2 emissions 293 288, 291, 294, 296
coating 271 corrosion inhibitors 28
coil designations 169 COS 232
coil on plug 171 COU 232
cold starting 98 COV 232
cold starts 197 crankshaft drive 17
cold-starting problems 99 crankshaft-synchronized channel 215
cold-weather trials 341 C-specimen 326
combustion 9 current control 149
combustion-air temperature 47 current shunt 188
combustion chamber 10, 11, 102, 112 Cutter FID 302
346 Index

CVS dilution method 299 distributorless (stationary) voltage

CVS 299 distribution 159
cylinder charge 12 distributorless voltage distribution 171
cylinder-charge control systems 32 D-Jetronic 60
cylinder-individual fuel injection 101 driver stage 174
cylinder pressure curve 195 drivetrain 16
DS 233
Daimler, Gottlieb 4 DSCHED 311
data memory 256 DSM 233, 310
data processing 254 D-specimen 327
DBV 93 DSV 93
deal cycle 18 dual spray 109
demand-controlled system 77, 79 dual-plug ignition 169
density 25, 126 dual-spark ignition coil 169
detergent additives 28 duration of the spark 162
development history 2, 136 DVAL 311
development process 330 dwell period 156
DFPM 310 dwell-angle control 149
diagnosis 304 dynamic internal resistance 176
diagnosis fault path management 310 dynamic supercharging 39
diagnosis in the workshop 324
diagnosis of crankcase ventilation 319 E2PROM 257
diagnosis of engine cooling system 320 EAF 231
diagnosis of exhaust-gas recirculation system early ignition evolution 138
319 ECT 231
diagnosis of fuel system 318 ECU 254
diagnosis of lambda sensors 318 ECU development 326
diagnosis of main catalytic converter 313 ECU functions 214
diagnosis of NOx accumulator-type catalytic EDM 231
converter 314 EEPROM 257
diagnosis of primary catalytic converter 312 efficiency chain 19
diagnosis of variable valve timing 320 EGR 49
diagnosis system 304 electric drive 31
diagnosis validator 311 electric fuel pump 80, 81
diagnostic function scheduler 311 electrical faults 321
diagnostic system management 310 electrical testing 328
diagnostic system manager 233 electrically heated catalytic converter 278
diagnostic system 233 electrocal parameters 175
diagnostic-tester 309 electrode gab 186
diaphragm 95, 244 electrode materials 184
Diesel, Rudolf Christian Karl 5 electrode shapes 183
differential hall-effect sensor 237 electrodes 183
diffusion effect 84 electrode wear 194, 199
digital input signals 255 electromagnetic compatibility 340
dilution systems 299 electromagnetic fields 329
DI-Motronic 220 electromagnetic fuel injectors 106
direct-injection gasoline engines 200 electromagnetic testing 329
distributed development 332 electronic control 212
distributorless (fully-electronic) ignition 151 electronic control unit 254
 Index 347

electronic diagnosis 216 exhaust-gas turbine 44

electronic ignition 150 exhaust-gas turbocharging 15, 44
electronic throttle control 32 exhaust pipe 249
EMC 340 exhaust system air fuel control 231
EMC tests 329 exhaust system control of temperature 231
emission categories 286 exhaust system description and
emission limits 286, 289, 294, 308 modeling 231
emission-control laws 284 exhaust system NOx main catalyst 231
emission-control legislation 284 exhaust system three-way front
emulator 335 catalyst 231
emulator mode 335 exhaust system 231
emulator module 334 extended monitoring 233
encoding 331 external EGR 49
engine efficiency 18 external residual 13
engine knock 23
engine-oil temperature sensor 235 fault detection 306, 341
engine-speed sensors 236 fault handling 306
enhancing knock resistance 26 fault information 309
ENM 231 fault storage 306
EoL programming 258 fault-memory entries 324
EPA legislation 289 FEL 229
EPROM 256, 257 FEPROM 257
ES 231 FFC 229
essential properties of gasolines 26 FID 302
ETC system 32 filter fineness 84
ETC 32 filter medium 83
ETF 231 filtration effects 84
ETM 231 finger-type sensor 249
EU legislation 291 Finite Element Method 177, 206
Euro 1 291 FIT 229
Euro 2 291 flame propagation 11
Euro 3 291 flame-front propagation 153
Euro 4 291 flame-ionization detector 302
European On-Board Diagnosis 224 flasch-EPROM 256, 257
European test cycle 296 flat seal 182
evaporative-emissions control system 79 fleet averages 288, 290
evaporative-emissions test 303 flow of mixture 102
excess-air factor 20, 248 flow-type pump 81, 82
exhaust 9, 253 FMA 229
exhaust-camshaft adjustment 277 FMEA 343
exhaust emissions 260 Ford, Henry 5
exhaust gas 261, 270 formaldehyde 286
exhaust-gas analyzers 300 fossil fuels 29
exhaust-gas branch 268 four-stroke prinicple 8
exhaust-gas categories 290 4-stroke spark-ignition 8
exhaust-gas measuring techniques 298 FPC 229
exhaust-gas recirculation 49 fresh gas 12
exhaust-gas temperature sensor 235 frictional losses 19
exhaust-gas test 298 front electrode 186
348 Index

FS 229 hall-effect angle-of-rotation sensor 34

FSS 229 hall-effect phase sensors 238
fuel-cell power supply 31 hall-effect rod sensors 238
fuel-consumption map 21 hall-effect sensor element 237
fuel delivery 76 hall vane switch 237
fuel-injection systems 50 hardware development 326
fuel outlet 107 hardware specimens 326
fuel pressure 244 HC 262
fuel-pressure damper 95 HDEV 92
fuel-pressure regulator 94 heat generation in the coil 168
fuel rail 92 heat range 189
fuel return 76 heat-range adaption 191
fuel standards 25 heat-range code number 189
fuel supply 76 heating up the catalytic converter 99
fuel-supply control valve 88, 90 HFM 15, 240
fuel-supply modules 82 high oil consumption 194
fuel supply system 229 high voltage properties 176
fuel system 229 high-pressure circuit 78
fuel system evaporation leakage detection 229 high-pressure fuel injector 120
fuel system feed forward control 229 high-pressure generation 110
fuel system injection timing 229 high-pressure injector 120, 121
fuel system mixture adaptation 229 high-pressure pumps 85
fuel system purge control 229 high-pressure sensor 131, 246
fuels 24 high-voltage generation 164, 165
fuel-tank leakage diagnosis 315 high-voltage magneto ignition 141
fuel-temperature sensor 235 high-voltage vibrator ignition 138
fuel-vapor generation 80 history 2
fuel-vapor management 8 history of compressor-engine
fully variable valve timing 38 automobiles 43
fully-shielded spark plugs 202 homogeneous 114
function definition 331 homogeneous air/fuel mixtures 105
function development 330 homogeneous combustion process 111
function monitoring 233 homogeneous knock protection 116
function test 331 homogeneous lean 115
homogeneous mixture distribution 11
gamma angle 109 homogeneous mode 114, 117, 222
gas exchange 13 homogeneous operation 12
gas mass flow 126 homogeneous split 116, 277
gasoline 24 homogeneous stratified charge 115
gasoline direct injection 14, 78, 92, 110, 282 hot-film air-mass meter 15, 240
gasoline direct-injection system 111 hot-soak losses 303
gasoline engine 8 hot-tube ignition 139
gasoline engines on natural gas 122 hot-weather trials 342
gasoline filter 83 hydrocarbon molecule structures 24
gasoline injection systems 50, 60 hydrocarbons 262
GC-FID 302 hydrogen 31
global service 323 hysteresis 166
ground electrodes 183, 195 hysteresis curve 166
group fuel injection 101
 Index 349

ID 232 intermittently operating

ideal fuel consumption 21 catalysts 269
IGC 230 internal EGR 49
ignition 11, 105, 119 internal residual 13
ignition advance adjustment 147 internal-combustion engine 8
ignition cables 161 internal-gear pump 81
ignition circuit 152 ionic current 191
ignition-coil electronics 174 ionic-current-measurement 190
ignition-coil modules 172 IS 230
ignition-coil types 162, 169
ignition coils 162, 164, 171, 177 japanese legislation 294
ignition control 230 japanese test cycle 297
ignition distributor 150 jet-nozzle carburetor 54
ignition driver stabe 160
ignition energy balance 157 K-Jetronic 62
ignition energy 156 KE-Jetronic 66
ignition parameters 155 knock control 23, 154
ignition probability 197 knock recognition 23
ignition reliability 198 knock resistance 25
ignition spark 153, 158 knock sensor 243
ignition system knock control 230 knock-sensor signals 243
ignition systems 136, 230
ignition timing 20, 187, 276 LabCar 334
ignition voltage 162, 186, 199 lambda closed-loop control 248, 282
IKC 230 lambda control loop 280
impact effect 84 lambda oxygen sensors 248
individual-cylinder control 283 lambda (λ) 10, 248
induction 9 laser-welded pins 184
induction-mixture distribution 10, 11 layout 328
inductive ignition system 152 lead-free glaze 181
inductive speed sensors 236 lean-burn mode 114
inductive trigger 150 learn-burn operation 12
in-field monitoring 285, 289, 291, 293 LH-Jetronic 69
injection duration 98 limp-home function 306
injection points 115 linker 333
injection-duration correction 107 liquefied natural gas 123
injector operation 106 liquefied petroleum gas 30
injectors 108 L-Jetronic 66
input signals 254 LNG 30, 123
instants of injection 100, 103 logic analyzer 335
insulator 181, 204 long-term compliance 287
insulator nose 188 low-pressure circuit 78
intake camshaft 37 LPG 30
intake-manifold model 15 L3-Jetronic 68
intake-manifold pressure 244
intake-synchronous injection 103 magnetic circuit 166, 172
intercooling 47 magnetization curve 166
interference suppressors 161 magneto 136
interference-suppression resistors 161 magneto ignition 140
350 Index

magneto-electric low-voltage motronic versions 218

snap-release ignition 140 MOX 233
main channel 215
main functions 226 natural gas 30, 122
major-leak detection 316 natural-gas drives 123
malfunction indicator lamp 308 natural-gas injectors 125, 127
manifold injection 76, 92, 96, 100 natural-gas pressure and temperature
manifold-injection system 97 sensor 130
manufacture of spark plugs 204 natural-gas rail 130
manufacturing paths 29 natural-gas system 124
Maybach, Wilhelm 4 natural-gas vehicles 123
mechanical supercharging 15, 42 NDIR analyser 301
ME-Motronic 218 NDIR 301
metallic monoliths 271 negative temperature coefficient 235
mfng 126 nitrous oxides 262, 272
microcontroller 256 NMOG 286
microcontroller monitoring 233 NO 262
micromechanical diaphragm 241 NO2 262
micromechanical pressure sensors 244 noble metal 271
micromechanics 247 Non-Dispersive InfraRed 301
MIL 308 non-methane organic gases 286
miniaturzation 239 NOx 262, 272
minor-leak diagnosis 316 NOx accumulation 273
misfire detection irregular running 232 NOx accumulator-type catalytic converter 272
mixture control 248 NOx removal 273
mixture distribution 112 NOx storage catalyst 272
mixture formation 101, 117, 125, 264 NSC 272
mixture ignition 157 NTC 235
M-Motronic 218 NTC temperature sensor 235
MNED 296 N2O 262
MOC 233
Modified New European Driving Cycle 296 OBD 307
modularity 330 OBD functions 311
module 333 OBD II 307
MOF 233 OBD limits 308
MOM 233 OBD system 304, 308
moment of ignition 153, 155, 265 OBDI 307
MON 26 OBV 232
monitoring 304 octane number 25
monitoring concept 35, 216, 233, 257 OEP 232
monitoring of ECU communication 306 off-board tester 325
monitoring of input signals 305 oil pressure 244
monitoring of internal ECU functions 306 OMI 232
monitoring of output signals 305 on-board diagnosis 304
Mono-Jetronic 70 on-board-diagnosis system 307
motor-sport- applications 202 on-engine measures 98
motronic system structure 225 open-loop control 212
motronic systems in motorsport 217 operating data 212, 232
motronic systems 212 operating data battery voltage 232
 Index 351

operating data engine position management 232 pressure-limiting valve 93, 94

operating data temperature measurement 232 pressure-regulator module 133
operating data vehicle speed 232 pressure-volume diagram 18
operating modes 114 primary sensor 319
operating-mode changeover 220 primary-current curve 165
operating-mode map 114 primary-droplet spray 102
operating-mode selection 220 printed-circuit board 328
operating-mode coordination 220 processing of gasolines 25
OTM 232 processing of operating data 214
Otto, Nikolaus August 4, 53 program code 333
output signals 258 program version delivery 331
overpressure method 316, 317 programm memory 256
OVS 232 programming language 332
oxidation stabilizers 28 prompted troubleshooting 324
oxygenates 25 Pt 184
PTC 235
p/n system 15 pulse-shaped input signals 255
palladium 271 pump cell 253
paramagnetic detector 302 pump current 253
parameter definition 336 pump pistons 85
parameters 339 pump voltage 253
particulates 263 pumping losses 14, 19
pedal-travel sensor 34 p-V diagram 18, 19
pencil coil 172, 173 PWM signals 258
performance of electronic control units 259
periodic emission testing 293 quality assessment 343
peripheral pump 81 quality assurance systems 343
phase-in 286, 290 quality management 343
piezoceramic element 243
piezoelectric knock sensors 243 rac 12
planar lambda sensor 250, 251 radial engine 57
platinum electrodes 184, 249 radial vee-form element 84
platinum 184, 271 radial vee-form filter 83
plausibility errors 321 rail-pressure sensor 246
plug core 204 RAM 257
PMD 302 ram-tube supercharging 39
pollutants 262, 270 ram-tube systems 41
positive temperature coefficient 235 random access memory 257
positive-displacement pump 81 random testing 285
post-ignition 192 range checks 321
post-start phase 98 rationality checks 321
power loss 176 read only memory 256
power output 17 readiness code 310
power 9, 16 real p-V-diagram 18
pre-ignition 192 real-world fuel economy 135
pre-intake injection 103 reduction of emissons 98
pressure attenuator 87, 88, 90 reference vacuum 244, 245
pressure curve 154 reformulated gasoline 28
pressure-control valve 93 refueling test 303
352 Index

regenerative fuels 29 single-spark coils 171

relative air charge 12 single-spark ignition 169
relative fuel quantity 12 SMD 254
remote version 171 SO2 262
requirement 330 software calibration process 338
residual gas 13 software development 332
resistance 175 software process improvement 332
returnless system 77 software quality 332
review 343 software sharing 332
rfq 12 software testing station 334
rhodium 271 solenoid armature 128
rod sensors 238 solenoid coil 129
roller-cell pump 81 soot emissions 267
ROM 256 soot 263
RON 26 source code 333
rotary-screw supercharger 42 spark current 162
rotating high-voltage distribution 159 spark duration 153
running-loss test 303 spark energy 162, 168
spark gab 190
safety-related system 35 spark-generation properties 176
SC 226 spark head 153, 156
scan tool 308 spark-ignition engines 24
screening 161 spark-ignition 178
SD 226 spark plasma 105
seal seat 182 spark-plug assembly 205
secondary mixture preparation 104 spark-plug concepts 185
secondary sensor 319 spark-plug development 206
secondary-air injection 100, 277, 278, 317 spark plug design 181
SEFI 101 spark-plug efficiency 197
seismic mass 243 spark-plug heat range 188
sensor ceramic element 249 spark-plug installation 207
sensor diaphragm 240 spark-plug operating range 188
sensor integration levels 234 spark-plug performance 194
sensors 212, 234 spark-plug profiles 208, 209
sequential fuel injection 101 spark-plug selection 192
setpoint generation 212 spark plugs 178, 193, 200
SFTP schedules 295 spark plugs with resistors 202
SFTP 295 spark-plug well 172
shear in magnetic circuit 167 spark position 187
shell 182, 204 spark tail 153, 156
side electrode 186 special-purpose spark plugs 202
signal conditioning 255 specific fuel consumption 20
signal processing 214, 255 specimen assembly 328
signal testing 325 speed of sound 126
silver 184 spiral vee-form element 83
silver-center electrodes 184 spit-back test 303
simultaneous fuel injection 101 spray formation 109
single-barrel pump 87, 90 spray shapes 109
single-plunger/barrel pump 86 spray targeting 103
 Index 353

spray-guided combustion process 113, 119, 201 test procedures 285

starting phase 98 tester 309
steel terminal stud 181 testing station 333
story of fuel injection 51 thermal aftertreatment 99
stratified charge 11, 114, 222 thermal auto-ignition 191
stratified-charge combustion process 112 thermal conduction paths 189
stratified-charge concept 11, 20 thermal efficiency 18
stratified-charge mixtures 119 thermal loading capacity 188
stratified-charge mode 114, 117 thermal losses 18
stratified-charge starting 116 thermocouple spark plug 190
stratified-charge/catalyst heating 116, 277 thermographic picture 328
substrates 271 thermography 329
subsystems 226 three-barrel pump 85
sulfur content 28 three-sensor control 283
sulfur dioxide 262 three-way catalyst 268
sulfur loading 274 three-way catalytic converter 269
supercharging 14 throttle device 33
supplemental federal test procedure 295 throttle-valve model 15
surface-air-gab concepts 185 throughflow curve 134
surface-air-gab spark 186 TMO 227
surface carburaetor 54 torque 16
surface-gab concept 185 torquebased system structure 215
surface-gab-spark 186 torque conversion 227
surface-mounted devices 254 torque coordination 227
swell matting 271 torque demand auxiliary functions 227
swirl air flow 113 torque demand cruise control 226
switching signals 258 torque demand driver 226
switch-on sparks 167 torque demand idle speed control 226
SYC 226 torque demand signal conditioning 226
system control 226 torque demand 226
system documentation 226 torque modeling 227
system structure 224 torque structure 215, 227, 231
transistorized ignition with hall-effect
tank shutoff value 132 trigger 148
tank-leakage diagnosis 82 transistorized ignition with induction-type
tank-ventilation losses 303 pulse generator 150
tapered spray 109 trigger conditions 335
TCD 227 TS 227
TCV 227 tumble air flow 113
TD 226 tuned-intake pressure charging 40
TDA 227 tuned-intake-tube system 40, 41
TDC 226 turns ratio 176
TDD 226 two-sensor control 282
TDI 226 two-step control 280
temperature measurement 190 two-step lambda oxygen sensors 248
temperature sensors 235 type approval 285, 292
tendency to knock 22 type tests 292
terminal stud 181, 204
test cycles 285, 296
354 Index

unscheduled testing 289 wall- and air-guided combustion 200

untreated CO emissions 266 wall/air-guided combustion process
untreated emissions 264 112, 119
untreated HC emissions 265 warming-up phase 98
untreated NOx emissions 267 wastegate supercharger 45
US test cycles 294 wood-gas generator system 59
wood-gas 59
vacuum advance adjustment 147 working cycle 8
vacuum method 315 workshop diagnostic functions 325
vacuum-relief diagnosis method 316 workshop tester 308
valve timing 9, 13 workshop 324
vapor pressure 27
vapor/liquid ratio 27 yoke plate 172
vapor-lock index (VLI) 27
variable turbine geometry of turbocharger 46 zero-emission vehicles 289
variable valve timing 36, 320
variable-geometry intake-manifolds 40
variation coefficient 187
vehicle management 216
volatility 26
voltage distribution 159
volumetric efficiency 14, 40
VTG turbocharger 46
VVT 320