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EPARTMENT OF H FlatTona' Bureau
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•UBLICATION W1
BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES
r V \

30

Wind Loads
on Buildings
National
Bureau
of Standards and Structures
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE • Maurice H. Stans, Secretary
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS • Lewis M. Branscomb, Director

Proceedings of Technical Meeting Concerning

Wind Loads on Buildings and Structures

Held at the National Bureau of Standards

Gaithersburg, Maryland, January 27-28, 1969

R. D. Marshall, Editor

Building Research Division

Institute for Applied Technology
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D.C. 20234

and

H. C. S. Thorn, Editor

Environmental Data Service

Environmental Science Services Administration
Silver Spring, Md. 20910

Building Science Series 30

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Bldg. Sci. Ser. 30, 169 pages (November 1970)
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 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

SEP 1 2 1971

Abstract

A technical meeting concerning wind loads on buildings and structures was

held at the Gaithersburg Facility of the National Bureau of Standards on January
27 and 28, 1969. The meeting, jointly sponsored by the Building Research Division
of the National Bureau of Standards and the Environmental Data Service of the
Environmental Science Services Administration, was intended to promote the ex-
change of information between research workers and practicing engineers engaged
in this important area of technology.
Thirteen papers covering four themes were presented. These themes were as
follows: engineering problems in the design of structures to resist wind loads;
atmospheric considerations; experimental and theoretical determination of aero-
dynamic forces; and recent advances in design procedures and current deficiencies.
Presentations were followed by a panel discussion which included a summary of
each theme. The last session of the meeting was devoted to open discussion.

Key Words: Aerodynamic forces; atmospheric boundary layer; structural

design; turbulence; wind effects; wind loads.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 78-606243

 Foreword

The effects of wind on buildings and structures have always presented engineers
with a formidable challenge. That attempts to adequately provide for these effects
within reasonable economic bounds have been only partially successful is evidenced
by the number of structural failures directly attributable to wind action. While
much has been learned from past failures, the current rate of innovation in building
materials and construction methods, coupled with the trend toward extremely
slender structures, has created new demands for knowledge of wind loads. Although
the prevention of catastrophic failures must be given priority, the introduction of
performance concepts has focused new attention on other effects such as rain pene-
tration, aeolian noise production and the physiological implications of building mo-
tions. The effects of buildings on local wind environment are of great importance in
the proper design of ancillary items such as courtyards, plaza areas and entryways.
In comparison to other areas of engineering technology, progress in assessing
wind effects has been remarkably slow. This can be ascribed to the interdisciplinary
nature of the problem which encompasses meteorology, fluid mechanics and struc-
tural engineering. That a conference entirely devoted to the subject of wind effects
on buildings and structures could provide a channel of communication between re-
searchers in these three separate areas was demonstrated by the symposium at
Teddington, England in 1963. This was followed 4 years later by an equally success-
ful research seminar at Ottawa, Canada. Here in the United States, the time had
clearly come for a meeting of national scope where representatives from univer-
sities, consulting firms, industry and government could exchange information and

ideas.
The proceedings that follow represent a significant contribution to the under-
standing of wind effects on buildings and structures. For their papers and active
participation that made the meeting highly successful, our thanks are extended to
all the speakers.

Washington, D.C. R. D. Marshall

H. C. S. Thom
Conference Co-Chairmen
 Contents
Page
Foreword Ill
Welcome to NBS: A. V. Astin, Director, National Bureau of Standards 1
Session 1. ENGINEERING PROBLEMS IN THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURES TO RESIST WIND
LOADS
Chairman: Dr. A. Allan Bates, Chief, Office of Engineering Standards Liaison
National Bureau of Standards
Design and Construction for What Wind Loads and Why
L. C. Maugh
University of Michigan 5
Design Wind Loads for Building Wall Elements
Wayne F. Koppes, AIA
Architectural Consultant 9
Session 2. ATMOSPHERIC CONSIDERATIONS
Chairman: Mr. H. C. S. Thom, Senior Research Fellow
Environmental Data Service
Guidelines in Selecting Wind Measuring Instruhients and Their Locations for Wind
Loading Studies
Gerald C. Gill
University of Michigan 21
The Adequacy of Existing Meteorological Data for Evaluating Structural Problems
Irving A. Singer and Maynard E. Smith
Brookhaven National Laboratory 23
The Characteristics of Atmospheric Turbulence as Related to Wind Loads on Tall
Structures
George H. Fichtl, John W. Kaufman, and William W. Vaughan
NASA— Marshall Space Flight Center 27
Session 3. EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL DETERMINATION OF AERODYNAMIC
FORCES
Chairman: Professor A. G. Davenport, University of Western Ontario
Fluctuating Moments on Tall Buildings Produced by Wind Loading
J. E. Cermak, W. Z. Sadeh, and George Hsi
Colorado State University 4.')

Experience with Wind Pressure Measurements on a Full-Scale Building

W. A. Dalgliesh
National Research Council of Canada
Division of Building Research 61
Influence of Architectural Features on the Static Wind Loading of Buildings
Hans J. Leutheusser
University of Toronto 73
The Unsteady Surface Pressure Around Circular Cylinders in T\\ o-Dimensional Flow
Wayne E. Simon
Martin-Marietta Corporation 87
On the Reliability of Gust Loading Factors
Barry J. Vickery
University of Western Ontario 93
Session 4. RECENT ADVANCES IN DESIGN PROCEDURES AND CURRENT DEFICIENCIES
Chairman: Mr. Edward Cohen, Partner, Ammann & Whitney,
The Treatment of Wind in the Design of Very Tall Buildings
L. E. Robertson and P. W. Chen
Skilling, Helle, Christiansen, Robertson 107
Dynamic Response of Tall Flexible Structures to Wind Loading
Joseph Vellozzi and Edward Cohen
Ammann & Whitney H-'
Some Deficiencies in Current Methods of Analysis
R. W. Clough
University of California at Berkeley 129

V
 Contents — Continued
Page
PANEL DISCUSSION—Session Chairmen 135
APPENDIX
Combining a Wind Tunnel Analysis With a Three-Dimensional Analytic Building
Analysis
Gary C. Hart
University of California at Los Angeles 145
The Engineering Interpretation of Weather Bureau Records for Wind Loading on
Structures
S. C. HoUister
Cornell University 151

VI
 WELCOME TO NBS
Dr. Allen V. Astin, Director*

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, B.C. 2023^

a great pleasure for me to welcome you to

It is physical quantities to complex artifacts which our
this meeting on the effect of wind loads on buildings. society uses. One of the most important areas in
We are pleased with the opportunity of being able this business of how to measure the properties of
to join with the Environmental Science Services artifacts meaningfully our building research
is

Administration in the planning for this symposium, program. In this area, we have been trying over the
and actually cooperating with them in some impor- past few years to extend our test methods from those
tant studies. aimed at determining design characteristics of com-
I would like to take advantage of my opportunity ponents to looking at buildings as systems, and
to say a few words about the National Bureau of developing criteria for the evaluation of the per-
Standards, since this may be the first time a number formance of the system in meeting the social and
of you have been here. We at NBS are concerned technological needs for which the system is intended.
mainly with advancing and exploiting the science We then develop test methods to permit the deter-
of physical measurement. Vannevar Bush, the dis- mination of conformance or nonconformance to
tinguished American scientist-engineer, said in the such criteria. This emphasis on performance, using
Foreword he wrote to the recently published Meas- more and more the systems approach to building
uresf<yr Progress: A History of the National Bureau problems, has led to a real appreciation of the fact
of Standards the following: that we need to know more about how to design
buildings to resist wind loads. And, in cooperation
"If men working together are to accomplish
with ESSA, we have recently initiated a program
anything useful whatever, they must, above all,
on this. Of course, the whole problem is the one which
be able to understand one another. That is the
you intend to explore during your meeting here. I
reason for a National Bureau of Standards."
am pleased to welcome some of our Canadian neigh-
We attempt to provide the basis for the language bors to this meeting. The Canadian building reserach
for meaningful, compatible exchange of quantita- program has long been one which we have respected,
tive information among scientists and engineers. and, in many respects, it has served as a model for
This program ranges from providing standards for some of the things we have tried to do here at the
the basic physical quantities, to the determination National Bureau of Standards. It's a pleasure to
methods for measuring the proper-
of standard test have you with us. I hope you enjoy your meeting.
mechanisms and structures. Our
ties of materials, Thank you very much.
program on measurements runs, of course, from the

* Retired.

1
<
 SESSION 1.

ENGINEERING PROBLEMS IN THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURES TO

RESIST WIND LOADS

Chairman: Dr. A. Allan Bates

Chief, Office of Engineering Standards Liaison
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D.C. 20234
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR WHAT WIND LOADS AND WHY
L. C. Maugh
Professor of Civil Engineering
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 481 04

This paper is primarily concerned with the design of various structures for wind forces from the
viewpoint of the average structural engineer. The subject matter focuses attention upon three
important types of structural problems whose solutions are still so uncertain as to require con-
siderably more study and research. These problems are:
1. Wind action upon structural frameworks during construction with emphasis upon the

relatively large number of partial or complete failures.

2. The behavior of completed structures of relatively high frequencies when subjected to wind
loads. Animportant factor here is the amount and characteristics of motion in high-rise buildings
that will be accepted by the occupants.
3. Some dynamic problems associated with wind forces acting upon structures of low frequencies
such as tall chimneys and guyed towers.
The above problems are discussed from the need for better design criteria and specifications
as well as more exact mathematical analysis and more refined wind measurements. The importance
of the latter factor is recognized but the many empirical factors in structural design are also con-
sidered in this paper.

Key words: Buildings; design criteria; dynamics; gust factors; smoke stacks; structural failure;
wind loads.

1. Introduction of the debris does not always solve the problem

either.
Although many interesting papers and research
As an example of the problem just mentioned, I
reports on the magnitude and distribution of wind
will quote from a recent article in the Engineering
forces on various types structures have been
of
News Record, December 12, 1968, as follows,
pubUshed, my
remarks to the practical
use of this
I will limit
information by structural designers. For
"Winds Topple Bolted Steel Frame Winds gusting —
to 80 mph during a 20-minute snow and rain squall
purposes of presentation rather than order of im-
last week toppled a steel frame being erected for a
portance, I will discuss the action of wmd forces
four-story office building in Greenwich, Connecticut.
upon structures in terms of the following problems.
About 15 workers, warned by swaying that pre-
1. Wind action upon structural frameworks during ceded the collapse, escaped the frame and injury."
construction with emphasisupon the relatively A further quotation gives, "The frame of a similar,
number of partial or complete failures.
large larger structure had been completed and was not
2. Wind action upon completed structures of rela- damaged." To me, the significant part of these
tively high frequencies. statements is: "warned by swaying that preceded
3. Some dynamic problems associated with wind the collapse" which is certainly a declaration of
forces acting upon structures of low frequencies. dynamic magnification of the internal stresses. Also,
the statement that a larger completed structure was
2. Wind Action Upon Frameworks not damaged is both interesting and typical.
During Construction In many cases, I believe, an important reason
for construction failures in two to four story build-
I have always been interested in the number of
ings goes back to a disregard of a provision in the
bridges and buildings that have collapsed or have
codes which, as in the AISC Specifications [1]*
been severely damaged during construction by
states, "Proper provision shall be made for stress
moderate to severe wind storms. Usually the descrip-
tion of such failures in technical literature is not
sufficiently complete as to assign exact reasons for * Figures in brackets indicate the literature references at the
the disasters. I might add that a careful examination end of this paper.
caused by wind during erection and after comple- visualize the fundamental principles of wind action
tion of the building. The wind pressure is dependent that are associated with practically all types of
upon the conditions of exposure, geographical loca- structures; principles that will be considered in
tion, and shape of the structure." Any practical more detail by other speakers at this conference.
designer aware of the fact that the size of primary
is

structural members in low buildings is seldom

3. Wind Action Upon Completed Structures of
affected by wind forces because of the permissible
Relatively High Frequencies
increase in working stresses when wind stresses are
included in the total. He therefore tends to minimize Wind problems in completed high rise buildings
the importance of the wind design and will often have increased with the modern trend toward the
disregard what might happen to the framework use of flexible partitions, large window areas, and
during construction. In my opinion, the statement combinations of elements of different materials. The
given in the Specifications requires that the designer increased use of lightweight concrete deserves par-
should study the wind problem during construction ticular mention because of the wide variations in its
and that provision should be made to provide some physical properties. With respect to various types
permanent internal bracing if necessary. of structural frameworks currently in use, it is
The primary factors that contribute to construc- difficult to interpret, in terms of structural behavior,
tion failures during wind storms are as follows: such designations as: internally braced frames,
externally braced, core braced, unbraced, shear
(o) No internal bracing that might insure safety
walls, and toward
partial shear walls. Present trends
during construction is specified by the designer.
the stiffness method of analysis using complex com-
(6) No plans for temporary bracing are furnished
puter programs that involve the displacements of
by the contractor and consequently are not checked
the entire structure are appealing in terms of mathe-
by a competent structural engineer before installa-
matical exactness, but in terms of the actual design,
tion. Also the installation is not inspected as the
I still favor more limited computer programs that
construction proceeds.
will provide information with regard to the relative
(c) No consideration is given to the dynamic
stiffness of selected structural combinations of ele-
loads and properties of the structural framework
ments. With this information the designer can assign
during erection. Certainly the shape factors of the
reasonable paths for the transmission of wind forces
various structural elements, the total exposed areas,
through the structure and can make changes as the
a possible resonarit condition of first mode vibration
design progresses. When the final selection of the
due to a wind forcing function, together with the
structural elements approaches completion then
low buckling strength of the unbraced beams and
more sophisticated analytical programs can be
columns should be considered. These problems all
applied. However, if the preliminary design is made
add up to trouble.
by experienced designers, I am sure that no signifi-
As an illustration of designing for erection, I re- cant structural changes will be required.
call the study that I helped make for the construc- In structural design the function of the structure
tion of a 325 ft high gunited steel stack. To guard must occupy a position of importance commensurate
against lateral vibration and ovalling of the cross- with safety. Therefore, in most high rise buildings
section, it was specified on the plans that the steel the movement must be controlled so that it is ac-
erection should proceed in three stages, in the follow- ceptable to the occupants. Unfortunately, I have no
ing manner. When the steel shell with ring stiffeners magnitude and periods
reliable information as to the
reached the height of 190 ft above its base, erection of motion that will be accepted by either short
must stop is com-
until that portion of the stack time or long time occupants. Perhaps some practical
pletely gunited and cured; erection may then pro- tests upon a considerable number of people can be
ceed for another 60 ft and then stopped for guniting conducted so that the motion and conditions will
and curing to that elevation; the remainder of the be characteristic of buildings. I recall a pedestrian
stack was then erected. On another similar stack bridge that I designed which received some critical
only two stages of erection and guniting were used. comments from people who were accustomed to
If I appear to be overemphasizing wind problems walking over bridges that were designed for a series
during construction, it is not only because of the ofheavy trucks. This experience convinced me that
loss of life and property, but also because of the most people are very sensitive to structural motion
opportunity that such problems offer to clearly that can initiate fear. To take this fear emotion into

6
consideration, it may be necessary to conduct the from our paper in regard to design criteria for
tests at or near the top of a tall building. vortex action are both conservative and sufficiently
To determine the motion of a high rise building accurate: "However, the assumption that maximum
additional information is required concerning the amplitudes will be obtained when there is sustained
magnitude, distribution, and the time variation of periodicity of the vortex action with the same
wind pressures upon exterior walls, both windward period as the chimneyis on the safe side and will be

and leeward. This information will require full scale accepted as a reasonable basis for estimating the
tests upon buildings of different shapes and the maximum lateral wind moments and shears. Further-
correlation of the results with small scale wind more, for tapered chimneys, experimental results
tunnel tests. The need for additional tests is exempli- indicate that the resonant wind velocity is influenced
fied by the recent report of wind pressures on an 18 primarily by the upper portion."
story office building by Newberry, Eaton, and Mayne In our numerical calculations the following values
entitled "The Nature of Gust Loading on Tall are commonly assumed: a Strouhal number of 0.2,
Buildings" [2]. This experimental work on a rather a controUing diameter at about one-sixth of the
ordinary rectangular type building was performed height from the top, a damping ratio of 0.04 of
in London, England, under the direction of the critical, a coefficient of lift Cl of 0.66, and a sinus-
British Research Station. Even though familiar to oidal variation of the lateral pressure with respect
many of you, a few quotations from this report to time. Obviously, a design based upon such assump-
may be of interest, such as: "Under these winds it tions must be regarded as primarily empirical. I am
is found that the whole load is carried by the wind- sure that the designs based upon these recommenda-
ward face of the building, the load on the leeward tions are overly conservative but, as the cost of a
face being negligible. The short duration structural chimney is affected very little by this conservatism
loads are about 60% greater than the one minute and since outage time of generators is very costly, I
averages that have been the basis of many codes of hesitate to suggest any reductions until more reliable
practice, but the overall drag coefficient in the information is obtained. One certain thing about the
natural wind appears to be less for gust loading problem is that chimneys will be built whether the
conditions than that assumed in wind load calcula- problem is completely solved or not. More research
tions based on model tests. These two effects largely work upon the behavior of actual chimneys is
balance each other." Obviously, the selection of needed to check the results of small scale wind
gust loadings must be related to the location, shape, tunnel tests, I hope that such full scale tests will be
and period of the building, but from the results of made in the near future.
tests upon actual structures, many engineers will The design and construction of tall guyed towers
question the need for providing this information by involves the solution of many special problems
complicated equations with many uncertain param- among which the vibration of the guy cables due to
eters.An important question is, therefore, can we wind action is one of the most important and diffi-

not aim at improving our building codes and still cult. Solutions to this problem have been discussed
keep them relatively simple to apply? by Klousek [4] in 1947, by Davenport [5] in 1959
and 1965, and just recently, by H. Sarvi [6] in a
dissertation at the University of Michigan. More
4. Structures With Relatively Low Frequencies
observations upon actual towers will be needed to
Several types of structures with rather large funda- verify the accuracy of these mathematical solutions
mental periods of vibration, say from 1 to 6 seconds, when applied to ice covered cables subjected to con-
require more extensive investigation of the vibra- stantly varying wind gusts.
tion due to wind forces. I will mention here only the
wind action upon unbraced tall stacks and guyed
5. Summary
steel towers. In a recent paper [3] on the "Dynamic
Design of Reinforced Concrete Chimneys," my col- I have presented only a few examples of the

league. Dr. W. S. Rumman, and I presented recom- problems which the structural designer must con-
mendations for calculating internal stresses due to sider in designing buildings, bridges, towers, and
resonant wind and seismic vibration. From about chimneys for wind forces. The question
arises, what

18 years of experience in the design of tall tapered basic information concerning wind forces does the
reinforced concrete chimneys with circular cross- designer really need to make an adequate design?
sections, we believe that the following statements Although I have made no survey of professional

7
opinions on this subject, my own experience suggests over the surfaces of the walls and members; also
the following basic material. the rapid variation of these pressures, particularly
the negative, with respect to time.
1. A on "Wind
careful study of the final report [7]
6. When is an unusual one, the
the structure
Forces on Structures" by the Task Committee on
designer should seek more information from experts
Wind Forces, Structural Division, ASCE, Trans.,
in the field of wind action. However, his respon-
Vol. 126, 1961. This paper gives basic information
sibility for the safety and performance of the struc-
on the nature of wind forces in terms with which
ture can not be delegated.
the structural engineer is familiar.
2. An understanding of the calculation of the
basic pressure from the recommended
velocity
fastest-mile wind velocity for the geographical loca-
tion of the site and the modification of this pressure 6. References
for height and terrain as recommended in the No-
[1] American Institute of Steel Construction "Manual of Steel
vember 1965 proposed revision of the USASI Stand- Construction," 1963, Sec. 1.3.5, p. 5-13.
ard A58. 1-1955. [2] Newberry, C. W., Eaton, K. J., and Mayne, J. R., "The
3. Equally important is a careful study of gust Nature of Gust Loading on Tall Buildings," Current Paper
factors, together with shape and pressure coeffi- 66/68, Building Research Station, Garston, Hertfordshire,
England.
cients for modifying the basic wind pressures. The
[3] Maugh, L. C, and Rumman, W. S., "Dynamic Design of
designer should avoid a routine selection of such Reinforced Concrete Chimneys," Journal of the Amer.
data from one code but rather compare the informa- Concrete Inst., Sept. 1967, Vol. 64, pp. 558-567.
tion with similar codes in other countries. The differ- [4] Klousek, V., "Solution Statique et Dynamique des

ences znay be quite interesting. Pylones d'Antenne Haubanes," Publication, International

Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering, Vol.
4. For ordinary buildings, incorporating the
VIII, 1947.
dynamic response of the structure into formulas for [5] Davenport, A. G., "Dynamic Behavior of Massive Guy
gust effect should be considered as supplementary Cables," Proceedings, ASCE, No. ST2, 1965.
material and not made a basic part of a building [6] Sarvi, Hassan, "Dynamic Behavior of Guy Cables

code. In other words, the use of such material should Subjected to a Small Periodic End Disturbance," Doctoral
Dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1968.
be optional.
[71 ASCE Task Committee on Wind Forces, "Wind Forces on
5. The designer should have a good understanding Structures," Trans. ASCE, V. 126, Part II, 1961, pp.
of the variation of positive and negative pressures 1124-1198.

8
 DESIGN WIND LOADS FOR BUILDING WALL ELEMENTS
Wayne F. Koppes, AIA

ArcJdtectural Consullanl
Basking Ridge, New Jersey 07920

It is principally the structural engineer who has been concerned with wind forces acting on
buildings, because it is his responsibility to design the structure to resist their overall effect.
Re-
cently, however, the importance of localized wind loads acting on the surfaces of buildings has also
been receiving much attention. These local loads affect wall design, and are a matter of concern
to both the architect and the manufacturer of wall parts.
The important differences between overall and local wind loads include magnitude of intensity,
character, period of duration, significance in relation to building sizeand shape, and importance
in respect to potential propertyComplete destruction of buildings by wind action is rare,
loss.

but local failures are not uncommon and, on the whole, are more costly.
Because gust and shape factors are highly unpredictable, increasing reliance is being placed on
wind tunnel tests and measurements on actual buildings. Both confirm that negative pressures
usually exceed positive pressures on parts of wall areas. Few building codes in this country recog-
nize this, in specifying design wind loads for walls, though codes in some other countries do. The
importance of terrain conditions is not reflected, either, in code provisions.
Failures of windows and other wall elements due to wind loads occur rather frequently, but
relatively few of them are documented. Several interesting examples of such failures can, however,
be cited.
Another important aspect of local wind effects is the funneling often experienced near the base
of tall buildings.Notable examples of this phenomenon have been observed, and research studies
directed at their causes have produced significant findings.
Codes and standards cannot be expected to provide guidance for designers in respect to unique
local wind effects, but they should provide information as to loads which wall surfaces of typical
buildings will likely experience. The only standard currently providing this kind of data is the
Tentative Standard for Design Wind Loads on Walls of Rectangular Buildings, published by the
National Association of Architectural Metal Manufacturers. The background, purpose and
features of this Standard are noteworthy, and it is serving a useful purpose.
A review of current investigations of local wind loads, both by wind tunnel tests and field
measurements, indicates that certain common assumptions regarding their intensity and distri-
bution on building surfaces should be reexamined. Further information regarding the nature of
these loads is urgently needed by, and should be more promptly disseminated to, the designers
and producers of building wall systems.

Key words: Buildings; fluctuating pressure; gust factors; walls; wind damage; wind loads.

Traditionally, it has been chiefly the structural tural engineer who is responsible for the "bones" of
engineer who has been concerned with the influence the structure, it is usually the architect who designs
of wind on building design, because it is his respon- its "skin." When walls arecomposed of factory-
sibility to insure the stability of the structure against made units, as is common nowadays, the manu-
collective wind pressures. It is this overall effect, I facturers of such units, too, are necessarily concerned
believe, which is still of prime interest to most engi- with local wind effects. All of those components

neers, and perhaps to most of this audience, too. which form the envelope of the building must have
During the past decade or so, however, there has adequate strength and stiffness to resist the loads
developed an increasing concern also with what I to which they will be subjected. Thus there are
shall refer to as the local wind effects, as contrasted three parties, not only the engineer but also the
to its overall effects, those wind-induced loads acting architect and the wall component manufacturer,
on all local areas of the building surfaces and affecting who share design responsibilities, and two of these
wall design. Although these local effects are of course three parties are more concerned with local wind
related to the overall effects, there are some im- loads than with the overall wind effects.
portant differences between the two. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to stress
It should be recognized that in most cases the the importance of local wind loads in wall design.
overall effects and the local effects represent different Being in no position to contribute any new knowl-
areas of design responsibility. While it is the struc- edge in this area, I shallattempt simply to summarize

9
current practice and problems, indicate some seem- windows or parts of its walls. Fortunately,
loss of its

ing inconsistencies and perhaps identify some in- know, this hasn't happened. Tower struc-
as far as I
formation gaps. Rather than presuming to suggest tures and bridges have failed under wind loading,
answers, I shall probably be raising some questions, and of course buildings have been destroyed in
in the hope that others may wish to offer opinions tornados, but I've heard of no important building
on some of the matters discussed. having been lost in a lesser windstorm. Some say
Perhaps one of the most important contributions this may be because they're all over designed. On

to the concern with local wind loads was the series the other hand, we all know of instances where
of pressure coefficient values for variously shaped windows have been blown out, or wall elements
buildings and structures published in 1956 by the have been blown off of buildings in high winds.
Swiss Association of Engineers and Architects. While the complete destruction of a building by
Parenthetically, the fact that architects apparently wind action is a very rare occurrence, local failures,
were involved in this work tends to substantiate especially to roofs, windows and wall cladding, are
some of my earlier observations. Since 1961, Ca- not uncommon and, in the aggregate, are much more
nadian authorities have referenced these coefficients, costly. It must be remembered, too, that when ex-

along with some of their own derivation, in that tensive wind damage does occur, it usually begins
part of their National Building Code dealing with with some small local failure.
design wind loads. I know of no major building code Any design wind load, whether overall or local,
in this country which has provided such information is generally considered to be equal to the velocity
as a guide to the designers of building walls. (or stagnation) pressure at a height of 30 feet or 10
In my view, the important differences between meters, modified by a height factor, a gust factor

the overall loads, which must be resisted by the bones and a shape factor. In theory, this seems rather
of the structure, and the local loads which act on simple, but in practice the determination of the
the skin, are these: actual wind pressure existing at a given point on
1. The overall load is the net result of all loads the surface of a building, even if the velocity is
occurring simultaneously at any time on all known, is a complex problem, if indeed it's possible
building surfaces, whereas the local load is the at all. This is due largely to the fact that two, at
peak load which may occur at any time at any least, of the modifying factors —
the gust factor and
location on any surface. the shape factor, or pressure coefficient —vary with
2. Generally, only gusts of perhaps 2 seconds or circumstances and are highly unpredictable. They
more duration are significant in determining change not only with the wind direction, but also
the critical overall loading, but the critical the nature of the surroundings and the configura-
local load is momentary in nature. tion of the building surface itself. The best we can
3. Overall loads are seldom of much concern on hope for is a reasonable approximation, not of the
low buildings of large area, whereas local loads actual wind load, but of the probable maximum
are significant on buildings of all shapes and load that may be expected under given conditions,
sizes. over a given period of time.
4. Local loads are influenced by the configuration It is such uncertainties that have led to increasing
of the buildings surface on which they act, to reliance on two methods of obtaining more accurate
a much higher degree than are the overall information about wind action on buildings. One of
loads. these is model testing in boundary layer wind tun-
5. The most critical local loads are usually nega- nels, where surrounding conditions can be simulated

whereas the overall load repre-

tive in character, and all wind directions can be studied; the other is
sents a combination of positive and negative the measurement of actual wind forces on real build-
pressures. ings. Both methods have their advantages and their
6. Maximum local loads are usually of greater limitations, as I'm sure you'll be hearing from other
intensity than the overall design load. speakers who az'e experienced and expert in their
How about the relative significance of the local use. My impression, as decidedly a non-expert, is

and wind loads in terms of potential

overall design that in the United States we have done some signifi-
damage or loss resulting if they are underestimated? cant work in model testing but very little work in
Certainly the results of inadequate provision for the field measurements. Other countries, however,
overall load acting on a building of consequence notably Canada, England and Denmark, have done
might well be catastrophic, as compared with the and are doing important work in this latter area.

10
 To those concerned with wall design, one of the analysis. It's quite apparent that there are confusing
most important facts established by these studies inconsistencies in today's building code require-
is that the local negative, or suction loads, are much ments, especially with regard to local design loads,
higher then previously suspected. They appear gen- and it's understandable, I think, that the architect
erally to be at least equal to, and often greater than, is often uncertain as to how exterior walls should be
the positive loads, and on corner areas of tall build- designed.
ings may be several times as high. I strongly suspect, The building codes of some other countries are
though, that most architects don't know this, be- more explicit. The Canadian Code, by listing pres-
cause they haven't been informed. With the excep- sure coefficients for various building shapes, calls
tion of those relatively few who have been involved for negative pressures ranging from 7/9 to 1.7 times
in the design of our more important buildings, I the maximum positive pressures. The Danish Code
believe that the majority of architects, and maybe specifies shape factors, or pressure coefficients, for
even a few engineers, overlook the importance of rectangular buildings in terms of a formula which
negative loading on windows and walls. Very rarely takes into account the proportions of the building,
are windows blown into a building in high winds; and also results in maximum negative loads, par-
nearly all of the wind damage to buildings is due to ticularly near the corners of tall buildings, which
glass beingsucked out of its frame, or the roofing, are about 1:^4 times the maximum positive loads. I
cladding or awnings being blown away from the know of no codes in this country which provide
structure. similar helpful guidance to the designer of walls.
Unfortunately, few of the results of research, and Due in large part to Professor Davenport's work,
not enough of the current knowledge regarding wind we have come to recognize that the rate of increase
action has been translated into practical working of wind velocity with height above the ground varies
guidelines for the architect's use. Generally, his with the type of terrain over which the wind blows.
only guidance in respect to design wind loads is the Obviously there is an infinite variety of terrain
building code under which he is operating. There conditions, but for practical reasons these must be
are four nationally recognized codes which govern reduced to a few categories representing major
most than in the largest cities,
of our building other differences. I beheve that generally three t3'pes of
most which have their own codes. These four are
of terrain, or types of exposure, as I prefer to think of
the so-called National Building Code, promulgated them, are accepted as adequatelj^ representative:
by the American Insurance Association, the BOCA
Code, by the Building Official's Conference of Type A, which, in general terms, is an urban or
America, the Southern Building Code and, on the protected area.
west coast, the Uniform Building Code. Three of Type B, which is wooded area
a suburban
these codes call for design wind loads ranging, with and
or rolling terrain,
height, from 15 to 40 psf, though the Southern Code Type C, which is flat open country or the shore-
specifies also loads 10 pounds higher for coastal re- line of a large body of water, fully ex-

gions. The Uniform Code, 1967 edition, specifies posed to a long fetch of wind.
the same design loads as given in the 1955 edition
of ASA Standard A58.1, ranging from 15 to 100 I'm sure that most of you are much more knowl-
psf. Two of the codes specify that exterior walls edgeable than I am about terrain effects and the
shall be capable of withstanding these loads acting theory associated with velocity profiles, so I don't
either inwardly or outwardly, one calls for negative propose to expound on these matters. As a layman,
loads somewhat less than positive loads, and one however,- 1 would like to offer several observations
makes no mention at all of negative loads. The bearing on the subject. The first is that although
recently adopted code for New York City has per- this important concept has been amply proven and
haps wisely not attempted to completely define widely accepted for some time, no major building
design wind load requirements. Although it calls code, as far as I know, has yet recognized it. How-
for overall loads ranging, with height, from 15 to ever, the forthcoming USASI Standard the up- —
40 psf, with a minimum and panels,
of 30 psf for glass —
dated edition of ASA A58.1 will, I understand,
the local loads specified are 30 psf positive or 20 specif}' design wind loads according to type of ter-

psf negative for all heights up to 500 feet, with a rain, and the NAAMM
Standard for Design Wind
requirement that local design loads for greater Loads on Walls, which I'll describe later, is also
heights be specially investigated by engineering based on this concept.

11
 My second observation is that, although wind

loads are undoubtedly affected by the type of

terrain or building exposure, there may be some
doubt, at least in my mind, as to whether we should
be thinking in terms of three types of exposure or
perhaps only two. The Type C exposure, which is
the most severe, is easily identified, and any building
erected along the seacoast is very likely to remain
exposed to a long fetch of wind throughout its life-
time. But the distinction between Type A and Type
B exposure is rather vague, often debatable and
perhaps less valid. Suburban locations are fast be-
coming urban in character, and a good many tall
buildings are being built around airports. It's often
impossible to predict, in view of the surge of building
activity which lies ahead, whether, within the next
30 or 40 years, many Type B locations will not be-
come Type A, or even whether a building erected
today in a Type A location, surrounded by other
tall buildings, may not, during the course of urban

renewal, demolition, and the creation of open spaces,

eventually find itself in a relatively exposed Type
B location. The architect is concerned with knowing
what the maximum intensity of local loads will

likely be during the life For major

of the building.
buildings, these critical loads may be determined in
wind tunnel tests, using models which include all
structures and other barriers to wind within a radius
of several miles. I'm questioning whether these sur-
roundings should be those currently existing and
planned for the near future or, instead, should repre- Figure 1. Wind damage to building on Florida Coast,
sent that combination of structures which will August 1964.
produce the highest local pressures, both positive
and negative, on the building being designed.
Reference has already been made to the fact that suction forces and fell into a plaza area some 20 or
failures of windows and other wall elements often 30 stories below. Fortunately, no one was hurt.
do occur during high winds, indicating, without On a gusty day in March 1967, the wind whistled
question, some weakness in either design or work- around the corner of another major skyscraper in
manship. In many cases it's problematical which is uptown Manhattan, ripping off a spandrel panel and
at fault. Few, if any failures of this kind are very sucking the glass out of corner windows on the 18th
dramatic. There are no widely publicized classic and 21st floors.
examples to compare, for instance, with the Tacoma The third case, illustrated in Figures 1 and 2,

bridge disaster. In fact local failures are usually involved much more extensive damage to a building
hushed up, by the building owner, the architect, or on the Florida coast, during Hurricane Cleo, in
both, for reasons that are rather obvious, and seldom August 1964. Several hundred windows were blown
do we hear much al)out them. I can, however, cite a out, and many of the window frames themselves
few representative case histories, though I'm not were damaged beyond repair. Note that in this in-
at liberty to identify most of them. stance, too, most of the damage occurred near the
Several years ago, when the wind was gusting to corners of the building.
no more than 50 mph, several large sheets of plate The fourth case,shown in Figure 3, occurred over
glass, in windows near the corner, and about mid- 10 years ago, when a severe wind storm hit Phila-
height of a large new office building in downtown delphia and blew several wall cladding panels off of
New York City were broken out of their frames by the Sheraton Hotel. The architect, commenting on

12
Figure 2. Wind damage to building on Florida Coast, Figure 3. Wind damage to wall of Philadelphia Sheraton
August 1964. Hotel, June 1958.

this failure later at a technical meeting [1],* reported Only the U clips had been shown on the shop draw-
in part as follows: "Two bays in from the west ingswhich we had approved."
corner, at the 6th and 8th floors, steel clips holding These are only four examples, but I'm sure that
the mullions of the aluminum grid to the concrete with diligent searching many more could be found.
fireproofing failed dramatically. They had been cold It's significant, I think, that in all of these cases,

formed at a sharp angle, introducing a flaw in the just as in others you may recall, the failures were
metal, and each sheared off at the bend as clean completely local in character. In no case was there
as if a hacksaw had been used to cut them. This any damage, or even any indication of danger, to
allowed the mullions to bulge outward, the steel the structure as a whole.
panels pulled away from the grid and one flew across Another aspect of local wind effects which is also
the street and punched a hole in a church roof. Others of concern toknowledgeable architects, rather than
fell on our own roof. Fortunately, no one was hurt. to the engineer, is the funneling effect often experi-
The occupants of the rooms were saved from being enced near the base of buildings. Many of you, I'm
blown into the street by the concrete block back-up sure, have learned from experience why Chicago is
wall. On investigation, we found that the cold- called the "windy city." It's not only because it's

formed steel clips which had failed were Z-shaped, located on a lakefront, but because of the surprising

whereas the other clips in the area were U-shaped. wind velocities that occur around the bases of
many of its tall buildings. You may have experienced
* Figures in brackets indicate literature references at the similar aggravations in the canyons of lower
end of this paper. Manhattan.

13
 I:-

i|liSl
In
II
Figure Diagram of wind flow, Earth Sciences Building.
II 5.

Source: Michael O'Hare.

"I Michale O'Hare, while still a graduate student at

III
1111=1
III
11:1
Harvard, made a detailed study of this phenomenon,
using model and wind tunnel techniques
his findingswere both interesting and informative.
[2, 3] and

Slllli III He also studied similar problems occurring in the

5iili:i III plaza of Boston's Prudential Center, where it was

IBII found necessary to erect a series of permanent plate

glass wind screens to keep pedestrians from literally
III being blown into the reflecting pool. The O'Hare
III studies showed that, as might be expected, in both
the disposition of the surrounding
lllllllll of these cases,
buildings, as well as the downward wind flow on the
face of the tall building (Figure 5) both contribute
to these high local wind velocities.

It's unlikely that provisions for unique wind

effects such as funneling and venturi action can be
Figure 4. Earth Sciences Building, M.I.T.
made in codes or standards. These are phenomena
which result from the nature and arrangement of
One building, in particular, where this funneling masses affecting wind flow, and each situation re-
effect has been a serious problem, is, rather sur- quires its own analysis. The architect must be aware
prisingly, a building on the M.I.T. campus in however, in the planning stage,
of their possibilities,
Cambridge, Massachusetts. This building is the should be able to recognize potential problems, and
Earth Sciences Building (Figure 4), a 277 ft high should know how to cope with them.
tower-like structure which is pierced at the ground Codes or standards should, however, provide
level by an arcade 70 ft wide by 21 ft high, where information as to the amount and character of
small cyclones are experienced frequently. Simul- loading to which wall elements of typical buildings
taneous anemometer readings on this building, on will likely be subjected. At present we have only
one occasion, showed wind velocities in the 80 to 90 one standard, as far as I know, which does this.
mph range through this arcade, while velocities at This is the Tentative Standard for Design Wind
the roof level were only 40 to 50 mph. Localized Loads for Walls of Rectangular Buildings, published
wind have been a hazard to
velocities in the area in 1967 by the National Association of Architectural
pedestrians, and a substantial part of the university's Metal Manufacturers and designated as NAAMM
physical plant maintenance fund has been spent on Standard WL-10-67. This standard was developed
just keeping hardware on the entrance doors open- over a period of about 23^2 years, by a committee
ing on to this arcade. To remedy the situation, a composed not only of representatives of several
temporary plywood screen wall was erected, but of member companies of NAAMM, but also repre-
course this was an architectural eyesore. sentatives of ASA Committee A58, the National

14
Research Council of Canada, the U.S. Environ- (4) the height of the building, and in some cases, (5)
mental Data Service and other interested bodies, the location on the building facade of the wall area
who served as advisors. The work was prompted in question." Accordingly, it includes the latest
chiefly by two considerations: the recognized need wind velocity map for the country, provided by the
for information about wind loads on wall surfaces, Environmental Data Service, and tabulates recom-
and the acknowledged fact that the data on which mended design loads for various base velocities and
ASA Standard A58. 1-1955 was based had become various heights for each of three types of terrain or
obsolete. The intent, in providing this standard was exposure. Each of these exposures. Type A, Type B
not, in any sense, to question or compete with the and Type C, is defined as I have previously indicated.

work of Committee A58 of the then ASA, now Figure 6 shows the table of design loads recom-
USASI. Quite the contrary, in fact. The purpose mended for Type A exposure. The K,, values in the
was to supplement the work of that Committee, second column are pressure coefficients, which in-
translating it into specific requirements for wall crease with the height h; Th, in the third column, is

design. Members Committee A58 actively as-

of an exposure factor, decreasing with height, which is

sisted in the work, and every effort was made to —

used in deriving the gust factor or more correctly,
reflect in the NAAMM Standard the same philoso- the gust response factor, shown in the fourth column.
phies on which the long-awaited and much-needed The Kh and Tk values were provided by Mr. Vellozzi,
USASI Standard was expected to be based. in hiswork on behalf of Committee ASS, and this
NAAMM Standard WL-10-67, as stated in its work has since been the subject of an ASCE publica-
foreword, recognizes that "appropriate wind loads tion [4]. These values, I believe, are based on Pro-
to be used in the design of building walls and their fessor Davenport's exposure categories and the
component parts depend upon several variable power laws governing wind velocity profiles. The
factors: (1) the geographic location of the building, so-called gust factor values listed in the fourth
(2) the degree of exposure or protection provided column are equal, in the case of relatively small
by its surroundings, (3) the shape of the building. areas, to 0.65 + 41"/,.

TABLE A DESIGN WIND PRESSURES (psf) FOR TYPE A EXPOSURE

Wind Velocities and (q upvalues)
Height Kh Th Gust 60 70 80 90 100
(feet) Factor
Over 100
(9.2) (12.5) (16.4) (20.7) (25.6)

10 0.2 .37 2.13 15* 15 15 15 15 / / / / /

20 0.2 .37 2.13 15 15 15 15 15

30 0.2 .37 2.13 15 15 15 15 15

40 0.24 .337 2.00 15 15 15 15 15

50 0.28 .315 1.91 15 15 15 15 15

100 0.44 .253 1.66 15 15 15 17 21

200 0.69 .201 1.45 15 15 18 23 28

300 0.90 .175 1.35 15 17 22 28 34

400 1.08 .160 1.29 15 19 25 32 39

500 1.27 .149 1.25 16 22 29 36 45

600 1.43 .140 1.21 18 24 31 39 49

800 1.73 .127 1.16 20 28 36 46 57

1000 1.98 .117 1.12 22 30 40 50 62

/t)&^gT/\o2(^ Values f6r/Keiglits/and^oi^ v^ocide^ryih^t^a
over 1000
detemjjle d/b\/^ppa an ajysi^ ////
*15 psf is minimum design load to be used in any case.

Figure 6. Design Wind Loads for Type A Exposure, NAAMM Standard WL-l(>-67.

15
TABLE C DESIGN WIND PRESSURES (psf) FOR TYPE C EXPOSURE
Wind Velocities and (q3o values)
Height Kh Th Gust 60 70 80 90 100
Factor (12.5) (16.4) (20.7)
Over 100
(feet) (9.2) (25.6)

10 1.0 .167 1.32 15* 18 24 30 37

20 1.0 .167 1.32 15 18 24 30 37

30 1.0 .167 1.32 15 18 24 30 37

40 1.07 .160 1.29 15 19 25 31 39
50 1.15 .154 1.27 15 20 26 33 41

100 1.40 .140 1.21 17 23 31 39 48

y
200 1.70 .125 1.15 20 27 35 45 55
300 1.90 .117 1.12 22 29 38 49 60
400 2.05 .112 1.10 23 31 41 51 64
500 2.20 .108 1.08 24 33 43 54 67
600 2.31 .105 1.07 25 34 45 56 70
800 2.53 .102 27 37 48 61 76
1000 2.60 .098
1.06

1.04 27 37 49 62 77
///^
ioT^
'i)p^ie^lp^dy(fk]^s vefopiiieg^m/sh£(^ad^a
over 1000
^tefmilie^V^D^ X////
*15 psf is minimum design load to be used in any case.

Figure 7. Design wind loads for type C e.xposure, NAAMM standard WL-10-67.

Note that the minimum load recommended is have been engaged for some time now, in recording
15 psf, and that no loads are tabulated for wind wind pressure measurements on several high-rise
velocities exceeding 100 mph or heights exceeding buildings, and I'm looking forward to learning more
1,000 feet. Special engineering analysis is recom- about recent findings in that work later in this
mended for such conditions. All load values listed meeting. You are aware, too, that similar important
are to be used by the designer as both positive and field work of this nature is being done by the Building
negative loads, the two being considered equal. Research Station in England. The drawings of
Figure 7 shows the corresponding table for design Figure 8, for example, from the report by Newberry,
loads to be used with Type C exposure. Of course
thereis also a similar table for Type B exposure,

the values being intermediate between those for

Type A and Type C exposure. The standard also
includes a graph of the full range of Ku and Tk values,
to facilitate determining intermediate values not
listed on the tables.
This NAAMM Standard has been rather widely
recognized and commended since its publication
about two years ago and, I think, is serving a useful
purpose. It should be emphasized, though, that it's

intended as a tentative, being subject to revision as WIND ANGLE ^;190• 6UST SPEED 49mph (22 M/SEC)
pnessuREs in lb/soft gauge positions thus •
newly developed information may dictate. (g)
(y

CONTOURS OF MAXIMUM SUCTION (3 SECC^D MEANS) IN SOUTHERLY WIND

Before concluding, I'd like to refer very briefly SwMi tiW iij « H«n*, lb*
, of Om* liflliii M bU art 111^'

to several examples of recent and current work con-

Figure 8. Measured wind pressures on walls of Iloycx
tributing to our information about critical local
Building, London. Source: Newberry, liaton &
wind loads. As you know, our colleagues in Canada Mayne.

16
 67 stories, but are reduced to 40 psf for the top 3
stories; negative loads which are much high(!r,
ranging from 65 psf for the lower 6 stories to 125 psf
through 109th stories, with four inter-
for the 101st
mediate increments, and are 115 psf for the top
story.
I made reference at the outset to information
gaps, and to me this is a matt(!r of major concern.
In many areas of building technology the time lag
between the acquirement of information through
and the dissemination of this knowledge
research,
WIND PRESSURES AS DETERMINED BY TUNNEL TESTS NAAMM Standard WL-10-S7
Cm^fV^ »«Ui.UM-M«l.bi-CM«t>TUUiUN-aoU»aOr«
for general use is far too great. This is particularly
true in respect to design wind loads. The collective
Figure 9. Wind loads on walls of U.S. Steel Building, knowledge in this field, represented in this room
Pittsburgh. today, is tremendous. But it can be of small benefit
to the great majority of practitioners until it is

Eaton and Mayne [5], show the pattern of loads translated into practical working data for the de-
determined by measurements on the Royex Building signer's use. This process should be hastened. Al-
in London several years ago. Boundary layer wind though, some problems may still remain unsolved,
tunnel tests with models are also becoming more and certain theories may not yet be fully verified,
and more important, if not indispensible, as an aid an organized effort should be made to see that codes
to both engineers and architects in the design of and standards more promptly reflect current
major high-rise buildings. The two lefthand drawings knowledge. There should be some central clearing
in Figure 9, for which I'm indebted to the firm of house which would circulate current technical in-
Skilling, Helle, Christensen, Robertson, show, for ex- formation, in this field as well as others, at frequent
ample, the distribution and intensity of wind loads, intervals to all concerned. If the Bureau of Stand-
as determined by wind tunnel tests, on the walls of ards could find a means of doing this, it would be
the new U.S. Steel building now under construction providing a great service to the liuilding industry.
in Pittsburgh. For purposes of comparison, I have To summarize, then, the more important concerns
taken the liberty of including at the right a diagram with respect to the influence of wind on the design
at the same comparable wind
scale, indicating the of wall elements are these:
loads prescribed by the NAAMM
Standard. Loads
for both Type A and Type B exposure are shown,
A below the lines and B above, as this is one of those 1. Local wind loads acting on the walls of a build-
cases I referred to earlier, where proper classification ing are not the same as the overall loads govern-
as to exposure seems questionable. Theie appear to ing the design of its structure; usually their
be no glaring discrepancies between the predicted intensity is greater.
and the prescribed loads as to their magnitude, but 2. The maximum negative loads acting on wall
the distribution pattern of loading consistently areas are usually as large as, if not greater than,
shown by model test, as well as by field measure- the maximum positive loads, and may be
ments, indicates that we are likely in error in assum- several times greater.
ing, as all codes and standards currently do, that 3. The maximum loads on the faces of tall rec-

loads increase consistently with building height, with tangular buildings probably do not occur at the
the maximum load occuriing at the very top of the top of the wall, but at some distance below the
building. top.
One more item of current interest concerns the 4. In planning the arrangement of building units
localwind loads being used for the walls of the new within a group, and the relation of voids to
World Trade Center buildings in New York, which, mass at the ground level, the possible creation
as you probably know, will be the tallest buildings of wind funneling should be carefully

in the world. I am informed by a reliable source considered.

that the loads specified for the testing of these walls 5. Accumulated knowledge regarding wind loads
are as follows: positive loads which range from 45 should be more widely and more promptly
psf for the lower 41 stories to 55 psf for the next disseminated to the design professions.

17
 6. Without question there is need for much more [21 O'Hare, Michael: "Wind Whistles Through M.I.T.
wind Tower," Progressive Architecture, March 1967.
information regarding local effects, if

designers of building walls are to steer a true [3] O'Hare, Michael: "Designing with Wind Tunnels," The
Architectural Forum, April 1968.
course between the creation of hazardous con-
[4] Vellozzi, J.and Cohen, E.: "Gust Response Factors,"
ditions on the one hand and wasteful over-
Paper 5980, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
design on the other. Engineers, Vol. 94, No. ST6, June 1968.

[5] Newberry, C. W., Eaton, K. J. and Mayne, J. R. "The :

References Nature of Gust Loading on Tall Buildings," Paper No. 15,

[1] Dean, Robert C: "Sheraton Hotel, Philadelphia," Publi- Proceedings of the International Research Seminar,
cation —
788 National Academy of Spiences National National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada, September
Research Council (1960). 1967, Vol. 1.

18
 SESSION 2.

ATMOSPHERIC CONSIDERATIONS

Chairman: Mr. H. C. S. Thorn

Senior Research Fellow
Environmental Data Service —ESSA
Silver Spring, Md. 20910
GUIDELINES IN SELECTING WIND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR
LOCATIONS FOR WIND LOADING STUDIES*
Gerald C. Gill

Professor of Meteorology
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104

The different types of wind speed sensors (cup, propeller, pressure tube, pressure sphere, hot
wire, and sonic) will be discussed in relation to their suitability for wind loading studies. For very
sound reasons the rotational types of anemometers (cup and propeller) have become the standard
wind speed sensors used in North America today. Pressure type wind speed sensors will be con-
sidered but they have inherent weaknesses as anemometers. In view of the versatility of the
rotational anemometers and in view of all weather records and charts being ba.sod on observations
with these instruments it appears advisable for wind loading studies to measure wind speed with
these conventional anemometers.
Wind vanes of different types (flat plate, splayed vane, and aerodynamic cross section) will be
discussed and the transducers to be used with them. Very light vanes of the flat plate type are
recommended.
The dynamic response and fidelity of recording of both anemometers and wind vanes will be
discussed.
The wind-shadow on the wind sensors mounted thereon, and the orientation
effect of towers
of the sensors will be discussed.For good exposure the sensors should be moimted one to two
tower widths out from the tower, and, either into the prevailing wind, or, into tiie wind direction
of maximum concern. The height and location of towers relative to the building or structure
under study will bo discussed.

Key words: Anemometers; instrumentation; tower interference; transducers; wind vanes; wind
loads.

* Note. —Due to illnes.s, the author was not able to complete

the manu.script in time for publication.

21
THE ADEQUACY OF EXISTING METEOROLOGICAL DATA FOR EVALUATING
STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS
Irving A. Singer and Maynard E. Smith
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Upton, Long Island, New York 11973

Available meteorological data are usually unsuitable for application to structui-al problems
The most obvious deficiency involves instrument location in the three-
for a variety of reasons.
dimensional sense. Most meteorological observations have been obtained at low elevation in open
country, and they therefore do not reveal the wind structure at the typical heights of modern
urban buildings. Furthermore, few of the data have been processed to reflect the turbulent struc-
ture of the flow. More subtle problems are involved with the failure of any current programs to
define the horizontal structure of turbulence, although a small number of appropriate studies
have been made in the vertical. Very important also is the lack of data taken under extreme
meteorological conditions, such as thunderstorms and hurricanes. These deficiencies derive in
part from the difference in objectives that have led to existing meteorological programs and those
that would suit the structural engineer, but they are also associated with the failure of the latter
to define his requirements. An experimental program that may fill some of the gaps is outlined
for discussion and criticism.

Key words: Climatology; meteorology; spatial correlation; turbulence; wind observations; wind
profiles.

1. Introduction more than 1,000. Many of these stations have been

in operation for one or more decades, and ESSA has
Ritter and Ordway, in a presentation before the
provided an excellent repository and processing
New York Academy of Sciences [1]* noted that: "It
center at Asheville, N.C. so that data can be re-
is a peculiar fact that until now climate has been a
trieved and reprocessed readily.
minor factor in the design of our current urban re-
The typical "surface" wind observation is usually
newal programs," and they cite a variety of problems
obtained from a sluggish cup anemometer and vane
that may be created by, and conversely influence,
assembly, mounted in a well-exposed location about
the construction of massive buildings of new and
30 ft above the ground or building structure. The
unusual configurations. It is true that there has
vast majority of the sites are at airports, and urban
been surprisingly little conversation among the
observations are comparatively rare. The standard
aerodynamicists, architects, structural engineers
observation procedure is to note the indicated wind
and meteorologists, and it is imperative that such
speed and direction for a brief period once each
exchanges begin. In our own limited probing into
hour, and record them to 10° (formerly 16 compass
this field,we have found that a need exists for a
points) and the nearest knot or mile per hour.
review of the available wind data that can be applied
Normally a contacting device is associated with the
to such problems, and this paper includes such a
anemometer, from which one can obtain the time
review. Since our consideration of the problem re-
required for one mile of wind flow to pass the in-
veals important gaps in the meteorological data,
strument. Observations called PIBALS or RABALS
suggestions for remedying the deficiencies are also
are taken at many of the stations, using either visual
included.
or electronic tracking of a rising balloon several
times per day to determine the variation of wind
2. Standard ESSA Wind Observations with height. These data are processed to reflect the

By far the most complete wind data available in wind at above mean sea level.
1,000-ft intervals

the United States reside in the records of the U.S. Unfortunately, neither the surface nor upper wind
Weather Bureau (ESSA) stations, which number data offers direct and substantial assistance to the
structural engineer. One can obtain at best a crude
* Figures in brackets indicate the literature reference at the impression of the change of wind with height, and
end of this paper. statistics of the distribution of the "hourly" wind

23
speeds and directions. It is possible to develop than 5 minutes cannot be studied, and in only one
reliable estimates of the maximum winds at ane- case [2] are we aware of complete three-dimensional
mometer elevation, since the length of record is records up to 1,000 ft.

usually sufficient for the purpose and observations To we have no current

the best of our knowledge
are made during extreme as well as typical mete- source of information linking low and high-level
orological conditions. fluctuations in a major urban area, nor do we have
Obviously, no indication of short-term wind any indication of the horizontal distribution of wind
fluctuations other than the variable period "fastest fluctuations high above the ground, except by blind
mile" can be derived from these records, nor can one dependence on some theoretical transformation
reach any valuable conclusions about the small- from time to space scales. The current vogue among
scale spatial distribution of the wind field. meteorologists is Taylor's hypothesis which permits

transfer from one coordinate system to another,

but this approach has been tested only at low eleva-
3. Specialized Data
tions and in the direction of the mean wind. Lack of
Most of our knowledge of the details of wind three-dimensional observations extending to higher
fluctuations comes from a limited group of tower elevations is the most serious shortcoming of the
observations, generally extending no more than 500 existing data.
ft above ground, although there are a few reaching
4. Suggested Remedies
1,000 ft and more.
Unlike the standardized ESSA surface stations, Despite the foregoing gloomy remarks, there are
these towers have been equipped with a variety of many constructive steps that could be undertaken,
wind sensors, ranging from hot-wire anemometers and which our organization is interested. The
in

to Bendix-Friez Aerovanes, and the recording and an intensification of exchanges of which the
first is

processing of the data are almost as varied as the present meeting is an example. We must determine
number of towers themselves. Furthermore, and by what meteorological data would be most valuable
no means trivial, is the fact that few of these in- in analyzing structural problems and the form in

stallations have been operated during extreme me- which they could be most easily utilized. As mete-
teorological conditions. Most of the research as- orologists we suspect, for example, that turbulence
sociated with these towers has been directed toward measurements on a very fine scale may have no
typical weather regimes, and equipment is fre- application to these problems, we are not
but
quently removed if the probability of damage by certain of this conclusion. The choice and location
lightning or strong winds is anticipated. of instrumentation for new studies, however, is
From these towers, however, we have obtained strongly dependent upon the time and space scales
our only records of the detailed wind structure that of interest.
is important in structvu-al design. A fair amount of Surely a climatology of mean and maximum
these data could be reduced to a useful form if this velocity profiles can be established from the tower
has not been done already. Certainly we are in a data we now have. These profiles should be de-
position to define typical vertical wind profiles up veloped to cover various averaging periods, mete-
to 500 ft above ground in open country at a mini- orological conditions and topography (including
mum of 20 locations within the United States. At cities wherever possible) and they should be ex-
many of these locations spectra or other expressions pressed in probability statements such as recurrence
of time and space correlation covering wavelengths intervals.
of 10 m and longer can be developed for the |u and One can also attempt to relate the profile data
V components of the wind, and in rarer instances for to the standard ESSA observations. If this effort is

the w component. In a few isolated instances, some successful, the huge body of standard data will in-
of these data are available for extreme wind condi- crease greatly in value.
tions. Spatial representation is confined almost ex- A climatology of the good data from existing
clusively to a single vertical line, and horizontal towers should be made. The adjective "good" im-
correlations are available only at very low elevations. plies appropriate instrumentation, recording and
Above 500 ft information becomes very sparse, processing, so that much of the existing record
both in terms of the number of sites and in the suit- would be eliminated, but even the most meagre
ability of the data. Most of the information has been climatology, segregated into meteorological, topo-
processed so that fluctuations having periods shorter graphic and height classifications should be valuable.

24
 I
New data obtained with the objectives of struc- The television in<histry has gcuiei'ously provided
tural design as controlhng criteria should obviously a number of spires that may be useful in observing
be collected, and appointment of an advisory com- wind structure within mhan areas, and measui-c-
mittee for the program including representation ments on poles or modest towers above the taller
from the fields of aerodynamics, instrumentation, buildings may also be helpful in determining the
meteorology, statistics and structural engineering differences l)etween urban and countiy wind
should therefore be the first order of business. We structures.
have quite enough experimental data that are not One reasonably simple method of establishing the
j
suitable for such purposes. alterations in natural turbulence; that may be in-
j
We believe that the most valuable experimental duced by the introduction of new structures is by
I
effort should be aimed at determination of the full the use of inflatable buildings. C 'Onsiderable experi-
details of the three-dimensional wind structure at a ence with fixed structures has ali'eady been obtained
relatively simple, I'ural site. The key features of in wind tunnels and some
of this evaluation has been
the program should be the utilization of instrumenta- duplicated in the but the emphasis has been
field,

tion of appropriate response, durai:)ility and reli- placed on the stresses on the Iniildings rather than
ability, and the definition of the horizontal spatial the deformation of atmospheric structure. Inflatable
correlations in the flow. An arraj' of towers, one of buildings permit extension of wind tunnel "before
which should reach 1,000 ft, would be needed. and after" techniques to field experiments.
Several mobile units approximately 150 ft high An important
criterion also is that the site of the
should be included to determine the horizontal fieldexperiments be subject to extreme wind condi-
variability adequately. Kecording equipment must tions with reasonable frequency. Towers such as
be directly suitable for computer analysis, and it is those in Philadelphia, Cedar Hill and Savannah
quite possible that an on-line computer should be River, for example, are too far inland to experience
assigned to the project to permit immediate analysis maximum hurricane winds, but they ceitainly will
of the data and reorientation of individual be more frequently affected by squall lines and
experiments. thunderstorms than coastal sites.
An open, uncomplicated site is suggested in New field experimentation obviously implies
preference to an urban installation, since we believe more than a single site if it is to be comprehen.sivc
that the complexities of flow at the lower levels in and effective. The desirability of duplicating certain
cities will always remain unique functions of the measurements at different sites is already clear.
particular locality and may never submit to theo- The standard deviations of the u, and v and lo
retical analysis. On
the contrary, it would seem more components observed at the 500-1,000 ft levels on
likely that correct judgements concerning the design the Savannah River tower, for example, are not in
of a new urban structure might better be achieved agreement with the values that would be derived
by wind tunnel reproduction of the profile and from theories that seem to describe lower-l(>vel
turbulence characteristics of the unimpeded flow measurements, l)ut no one can say whether these
coupled to scale modeling of the salient ui'ban data are incorrect, whether the site is somehow
features. anomalous or whether the theor}^ is defective.
A word of caution about tunnel modeling does Such a majoi' program to remedy the defects in
seem in order, however. Logically, careful attention our knowledge of turbulence would ol)viously be
to detail should permit reproduction of many char- expensive, but it would seem that the savings that
acteristics of the natural wind flow, but one wonders might accrue in more intelligent structural codes
whether it will become possible to reproduce the and designs would greatly outweigh the cost.
larger scale (though relatively short period) varia-
tions in the v and lo components of the natural flow.
The wind tunnel provides a fixed mean wind direc-
tion, while the atmosphere is under no such
5. References
restrictions.
Elevated measurements within cities should, |1| Hitter, A. and Ordway, O. V..: "Tlu; Ronai.ssance of
Subsonic Aerodynamics," Annals, X.Y. Acad, of Scienee.s
however, be used in developing our understanding
YITA, Art. 2, pp. 777-791, Nov. 196S.
ofurban turbulence, and the program should include
[21 Cooper, R. \\. and Rusche, B. C. Tlie SRL Motoorological
:

study of data from structures withincities and the Systems, Proe., USAKC Mot. Info. Mfg., Sept. 11-14,
establishment of new measuring arrays as well. 1967, Chalk River, Can., AKCL-2787, pp. 51-58.

25
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE AS RELATED TO
WIND LOADS ON TALL STRUCTURES
George H. Fichtl,' John W. Kaufman,- and William W. Vaughan''

Aer OS-pace Environment Division

Aero-Astrodynamics Laboratory
NASA —Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama 35812

An engineering boundary layer wind model based upon data collected at the NASA 1.50-meter
meteorological tower facility at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida is discussed. A statistical
power-law peak wind profile used to extrapolate peak wind statistics valid at the 10-meter to
is

other levels. The relationship between the instantaneous extreme wind profile and the peak wind
profile for various periods of exposure up to ten minutes is examined. The gust factor profile,
which depends on the peak wind speed, height, and averaging time, is applied to the peak wind
profile to obtain a mean wind profile. A spectral model of the longitudinal and lateral components
of turbulence for the neutral boundary layer (high wind .speeds) is presented.

Key words: Atmospheric boundary laj-er; gust factors; peak values; power spectra; turbulence;
wind profiles.

Nomenclature t = averaging time

f = time average mean temperature
b = parameter that characterizes the statistics
u{z) = peak wind speed at height z
oik
u{z) = time averaged mean wind speed at height z
Cp = specific heat of dry air at constant pressure
u* = surface friction velocity
C = empirically detcrnuned parameter that occurs
Zq = surface roughness length
in formulae of the longitudinal and lateral
0 = vertical collapsing factor
spectra
= variance of k or variance of the longitudinal
/ =nzlu
or lateral components of turbulence
fm = value of / associated with peak of logarithmic
= logarithmic wind profile stability defect.
spectrum
g = acceleration of gravity 1. Introduction
go = empirical function of Uu and t that occurs in
The purpose of environmental wind criteria is to
the formula for the gust factor
provide a model of the atmospheric boundary layer
G = gust factor
such that when it is used in design studies an ac-
k =peak wind profile parameter
=0.4 = von Karman's constant
ceptable structure results. How one should develop
k\
such a model is determined by the purpose and re-
L' = stability length
quirements of the structure. Thus, to develop these
n = frequency, Hz
models so that they arc meaningful from an engi-
p = empirical function of that occurs in the
neering viewpoint, it is necessary that the atmos-
formula for the gust factor
pheric scientist and the design engineer work as a
r = empirically determined parameter that occurs
team.
in formulae of the longitudinal and lateral
The National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
spectra
tration, Marshall Space Flight Center (MSEC),
Hi = gradient Richardson number
Huntsville, Alabama, is concerned with developing
S{n) = longitudinal or latci-al spectrum of turl)ulenco
and operating launch vehicles like the Saturn V,
52(w) = spectrum of the square of the longitudinal or
which placed three American astronauts into lunar
lateral components of the wind
orbit on December 25, 1968. The Saturn V stands
363 feet tall and weighs over 6 million pounds. Its
' Aerospace Engineer.
Dynamics Branch. height makes the vehicle especially vulncral)le to
- Chief, Atmospheric
' Chief, Aero.spacc ]']nvironment Division. ground wind loads. An artist's concept of this

27
 Figure 1. An artist's concept of the Satui-n V space vehicle and the associated ground support equipment.

vehicleand its associated ground support cquipnuMit dustry is to design the auxiliary ground support
isshown in Figure 1. About 2 months before launch, (Hjiiipment to alleviate, wherever practical, some of
the vehicle is erected in the Vertical Assembly the loads on the vehicle due to the ground winds.
Building (see background of Figure 1) on the Mobil(> However, it is conceival^le that ground support
Launcher. The vehicle and launcher are then moved equipment niay have to be so sophisticated that
to the launch pad, about 3 miles away, on the providing this capability will become impractical.
Crawler Transporter. The Mobile Service Structure Thus, it is imperative that the ground wind environ-
is then moved to the vehicle to provide a platform ment be defined in usable engineeiing terms as pre-

from which the vehicle can be serviced. Before cisely as possible so that the engineer need not over-

launch, the Mobile Service Structure is rolled ofT

design the ground support equipment and the
vehicle structui'e for a given value of risk. This is
the pad, and the vehicle is launched from the
especially true if the vehicle is required to withstand
Mobile Launcher.
ground wind loads in the event the ground support
During the design and fabrication stages of space
equipm(>nt cannot Ix' designed to completely alleviate
vehicles, the design engineer must know the final
the entire design ground wind loadings. Although
weight of the launch configuration so that unneces- there are various ways of presenting wind criteria
sary weight penalties are avoided. Since the ground for engineering design, this paper describes only the
support equipment will remain on the ground at principal methods used at the Marshall Space
launch, the present design philosophy in the in- Flight Center.

28
 — — ^ —

2. Peak Wind Statistics [2], which is the one used by Gumbel [3]. Although
the Gumbel distribution appears to give a good
The fundamental surface wind statistics for the
theoretical fit to the empirical peak wind speed
Kennedy Space Center are based on an 8-year
distribution, it has the disadvantage that it is
sample of hourly peak wind speeds measured at the
unbounded at both ends. Since wind speed ha.s a
10-meter level for a period of record from September
physical lower bound at zero, it may be desirable
1958 through June 1967. The sample was constructed
to investigate other disti'ibution functions. Smith
for NASA at the National Weather Records Center, points out that the Fisher-Tippett Type II distribu-
Asheville, North Carolina, by selecting the peak
tion,which is indeed bounded from below at zero,
wind speed that occurred in each hour of record read
would be such a function. Thom [4] has used the
from original wind rolls. Peak wind statistics have
Fisher-Tippett Type II distribution for representing
three advantages over mean wind statistics. First,
ground wind statistics.
^eak wind statistics do not depend on an averaging Figure 2 shows an example of Smith's peak wind
operation as do mean wind statistics. Second, to
speed statistics where the distributions for the month
construct a sample of mean winds, a chart reader or
of October for different reference periods are illus-
weather observer must perform an "eye-ball" aver-
trated, and the probabilities of the occurrences of
age of the wind data, thus, causing the averaging
peak wind speeds for the indicated reference periods
process to vary from day to day according to the
can be determined. Thus, for example, the probabil-
mood of the observer and from observer to observer.
ity that the peak wind speed during the hour from
Hourly peak wind speed readings avoid this subjec-
0530 to 0630 EST will be less than 32 knots is 0.977.
tive averaging process because "a peak is a peak is a
Probabihty statements concerning the capabilities
peak." Third, to monitor winds during the count-
of the space vehicles developed at MSFC and
down phase of a vehicle launch, it is easier and more
launched at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) are
objective to monitor the peak wind speed than the
given in terms of Smith's peak wind speed exposure
mean wind speed.
statistics. The statistics are valid at the 10-meter
Smith et al. have performed extensive statistical
[1]*
level. However, to perform loading and response
analyses with the Kennedy Space Center peak wind
calculations resulting from steady-state and random
speed sample. In the course of his work at the Mar-
turbulent drag loads and von Karman vortex
shall Space Flight Center, he has introduced the
shedding loads, the engineer requires information
concept of exposure period probabilities into the
about the vertical variation of the mean wind speed
design and operation of space vehicles. By deter-
and the structure of turbulence in the atmospheric
mining the distribution functions of peak wind speeds
boundary layer. The philosophy at MSFC is to
for various periods of exposure (hour, day, month,
extrapolate the peak wind statistics up into the
year, etc.), it is possible to determine the probability
that a certain peak wind-speed magnitude will occur K WIND SPEED (knolsl 10 MEIER REFERENCE LEVEL PEAK WIND SPEED Im/

during a prescribed period of exposure of a space

vehicle to the natural environment. Thus, for ex- HURRICANES »/
to
YEARLT
YEARLY
PEAK
PEAK
-

-
INCLUDING
EXCLUDING HURRICANES /
ample, an operation requires, say, one hour to
if

complete, and if the critical wind loads on the

vehicle can be defined in terms of the peak wind TRIMONTHLY PEAK

speed, then the probabihty of occurrence of the

it is
OCI-NOV- OEC A(' y^^^ONIHLY PEAK

peak wind speed during a 1-hour period that gives a DAILY PEAK,^^^

measure of the probable risk of the occurrence of y^ knoi!

20
32

structural failure. Similarly, if an operation requires y^ H6 5 m/secl

one day to complete, then it is the probability of oc-

currence of the peak wind during a 1-day period ^''"'^^^''''^ ^^^C^
^
HOURLY PEAK - 1500
that gives a measure of the probable risk of struc- '"'^^^ ^--^^^ — HOURLY PEAK - 0600

tural failure.
Smith et al. [1] have also shown that the peak wind —
. 1 i — ——
J 1 1 1 ' 1
' '
1
M— — 1
\
M '
fJ 0

speeds at Cape Kennedy for various periods of ex-

PROBABILITY OF THE OCCURRENCE OF THE WIND SPEED

posure have a Fisher-Tippett Type I distribution

Figure 2. Fisher-Tippett distribution collated to peak w ind
* Figures in bracket.s indicate literature references at the speed samples at Cape Kennedy, Florida, in

end of this paper. October.

29
atmosphere using a peak wind profile, and to obtain plex 39. Located about 3 miles from the Atlantic
the associated quasi-steady or mean wind speed Ocean, the tower is situated in a well-exposed area

profileby applying a gust factor, which is a function free of near-by structures which could interfere with
of wind speed and height. At this point, the engineer the air flow.
can calculate the steady-state loads resulting from The aerial photograph (Fig. 4) of the terrain sur-
the mean wind profile and the response due to dis- rounding the tower (point T) was taken at 3,500 ft
crete gusts in the form of a gust factor. The gust above mean sea level. In the quadrant from approxi-
factor accounts for the loads beyond those resulting mately 300° north azimuth with respect to the tower,
from the quasi-steady wind profile in short, the — clockwise around to 90°, the terrain is homogeneous
turbulence. For some applications, depending on the and is covered with vegetation about to 13^ H
response characteristics of the vehicle, the peak meters high. Another homogeneous fetch with the
wind speed profile is used directly in the calculations. same type of vegetation occurs in the 135° to 160°
An alternative, and probably more meaningful, quadrant. The areas A (230° to 300°), B (90° to 135°),
representation of the turbulence can be given in the and C (160° to 180°) are covered with trees from
form of a spectral model of the longitudinal and about 10 to 15 meters tall. The fetch from the
lateral components of turbulence. tower to areas A or C is about 200 meters, and the
fetch to area B is about 450 meters. The height of
3. The NASA 150-Meter Meteorological Tower the vegetation over these fetches ranges from 3^ to
13^2 meters, as in the area to the north of the tower.
To obtain micrometeorological data representative
To the south-southwest in the 180° to 230° quadrant
of the Cape Kennedy area, especially in the vicinity
225 meters from the tower, there is a body of water
of the Apollo/Saturn V launch pads, a 150-meter
called Happy Creek.
meteorological tower was constructed on Merritt
Island at the Kennedy Space Center. The tower
facility,* by Kaufman
discussed in detail in a report
3.2. Instrumentation
and Keene [5], is only briefly described here.

The complete tower facility comprises two towers,

3.1. Terrain Features
one 18 meters and the other 150 meters high (see
Figure 3 shows the location of the facility with Fig. 5). The levels on both towers are instrumented
respect to the Saturn V space vehicle launch com-^ with Climet (Model Cl-14) wind sensors. Tempera-
ture sensors, Climet (Model-016) aspirated thermo-
couples, are located at the 3- and 18-meter levels
on the small tower and at the 30-, 60-, 120-, and
150-meter levels on the large tower. Foxboro (Model
F-2711AG) dewpoint temperature sensors are lo-
cated at the 60- and 150-meter levels on the large
tower and at the 3-meter level on the 18-meter tower.
Wind speed and direction data can be recorded on
both paper strip charts and analog magnetic tapes
with an Ampex FR-1200 fourteen-channel magnetic
tape recorder which uses a 14-in reel. The tempera-
ture and dewpoint data are recorded on paper strip
charts. To avoid tower interference of the flow, the
large tower is instrumented with two banks of wind
sensors. The details of how and when one switches
from one bank of instrumentation to the other bank
is discussed by Kaufman and Keene in Reference 5.

During a test in which the wind data are stored

on magnetic tape, only one bank of instrumentation
is used. This avoids interruption of the wind data

signals within any magnetic tape recording period,

Figure 3. NASA Launch Complex 39, Kennedy Space and thus avoids data-processing difficulties when
Center, Florida. converting analog tapes to digital tapes.
3.3. Surface Roughness Length (zq) 4. Design Wind Profiles

In an earlier report, Fichtl [6] discussed the sur- To calculate wind loads on space vehicles, the
face roughness length configuration associated with engineer requires specific information about the
the NASA meteorological tower. This analysis was wind profile. As pointed out in Section II, the funda-
based upon wind profile laws that are consistent mental wind statistics for the Kennedy Space
with the Monin-Obukhov similarity hypothesis. Center are specified in terms of peak wind speeds for
The calculations of zo were based on wind data ob- various periods of exposure (hour, day, month, etc.)
tained at the 18- and 30-meter levels and on tem- at a reference height of 10 meters. A statistical peak
perature data obtained at the 18- and 60-meter wind profile model is used to extrapolate this in-
levels. Most of the measurements were obtained formation into the vertical, and the mean wind
during the hours of 0700 and 1600 EST, and the profile for various averaging periods is obtained by
gradient Richardson numbers at 23 meters (geo- applying gust factors.
metric height between 18 and 30 meters) for the 39
cases ranged between —5.82 and +0.079. The
4.1. Peak Wind Profiles

results of these calculations, shown in Figure 6, show To develop a peak wind profile model, about 6,000
the effect the terrain features (see Section Ilia) hourly peak wind speed profiles measured during
have upon the surface roughness. 1967 at the tower were analyzed. The data seemed

31
 )

BOOM HEIGHTS values of k occurred for approximately 8% of the

(meters) cases in the sample. One should keep in mind that
150.0 W- W.T.Th we are analyzing peak wind profiles
and that it is
TOWER possible for thepeak wind speed at some or all of the
levels about 18 meters to be less than the 18-meter
level peak wind speed resulting in negative values
120.0 W- W, T
of h. This is not to imply that the associated mean
wind speeds decrease in the vertical.
A statistical analysis of the data revealed that,
90.0 W- W - WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION for engineering purposes, k is distributed normally
SENSORS
(CLIMET SERIES C1-14) for any wind speed at
particular value of the peak
T - TEMPERATURE SENSOR the 18-meter Thus, for a given percentile
level.
(CLIMET ASPIRATED THERMO-
60.0 W- W, T, T^ COUPLE SYSTEMS CI-016) level of occurrence, it was found that, for peak wind
Tj - DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE speeds at the 18-meter level less than approximately
SENSOR
(FOXBORO MODEL F-2711AG) 2 m sec~', k is equal to a constant, while for peak

30.0 W W, T
wind speeds greater than 2 m sec~^,

18.0 18.0 pW.T k =h Uis~''

3/4
(2)
10.0 -W
3.0 -W. T,
SW-
777 n I
NE where 6 is a parameter that is distributed normally
18.0 H with mean value k and variance a equal to 0.52 and
(meters
0.36 and Mis is in meters per second. The distribution
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the location of instrumenta- of /c as a function of Uis is shown in Figure 7.
tion of the NASA 150-meter meteorological tower To apply Eqs. (1) and (2) to the peak wind sta-
at Kennedy Space Center, Florida.
tistics valid at 10 meters, Eq. (1) is evaluated at
2 = 10 m, and it is assumed that the resulting rela-
to show that the variation of the peak wind speed
tionship can be inverted to yield uis as a function
in the vertical, below 150 meters, could be described
of the 10-meter level peak wind speed uw for a
with a power law relationship given by
(dimentionlest
m(z)=Mi8(2/18)*, (1)
k

where u{z) is the peak wind speed at height z above

natural grade and U\% is a known peak wind speed at
2 = 18 meters. The parameter k was determined for
each profile by a least-squares analysis of the data.
At low wind speeds on the order of 2 m sec~\ the
values varied from about —0.05 to 0.15. Negative

z. (meters)

270 360
WIND DIRECTION (deg)
Figure 7. The mean, zfco-, ±2cr, and ±3<t values of k as
Figure 6. Distribution of the surface roughness length at the functions of the peak wind speed Uis at the
NASA 150-meter meteorological tower site. 18- meter level.

32
fixed value of b. This function is then combined with where p(b) is the p.d.f. of b, a known function. Upon
Eq. (2) to yield k as a function of ttio for a given integrating Eq. (7) over the range of h, we obtain
value of b. The validity of this inversion process is the marginal p.d.f. of u,:
open to question because Eq. (1) is a stochastic
relationship. However, preliminary analyses of V2{uz)= Pi(um{u„b)) (^-^^^p(b)
j db. (8)
profiles that include peak wind information obtained
at the 10-meter level seem to show that this inver- At the present time, we are calculating these inte-
sion is valid. grals numerically for the annual hourly peak wind
The current design practice at MSEC is to use speed data. To calculate the monthly and seasonal
the k-\-3a value of k to determine operational limits peak wind speed statistics, we require the associated
for space vehicles. Thus, if a space vehicle designed monthly and seasonal distributions of k. Programs
to withstand a particular value of the peak wind are now being written to calculate these statistics.
speed at the 10-meter level is exposed to that peak Once we have determined the p.d.f. of the peak
wind speed, the vehicle has at least a 99.87 percent wind speed as a function of height, we can then
chance of withstanding the associated peak wind calculate design peak wind-speed profile envelopes
speed profile. for various percentile levels of occurrence.

4.2. Alternative Approach 4.3. Instantaneous Extreme Wind Profiles

At the present time, we are developing procedures Because the probability that the hourly peak
to extrapolate peak wind speed distributions valid wind speeds at all levels occur simultaneously is
at the 10-meter level to other levels. Consider a small, the practice of using peak wind profiles intro-
peak wind speed probability density function (p.d.f.) duces some conservatism into the design criteria.
Pi(mio) valid at the 10-meter level for a given period This section estimates the amount of conservatism
of exposure, say, one hour. The probability that Uw involved.
is less than Uwc is given by To gain some insight into this question, about 35
/•"lOc
hours of digitized magnetic tape data were analyzed.
P(mio<Wioc)= / pi{uw) duio. (3) The data were digitized at 0.1-second intervals in
*' n
real time and partitioned into and 10- 0.5-, 2-, 5-,

To obtain the peak wind speed p.d.f., at level z, minute samples. The vertical average peak wind
we express Eq. (1) in the form speed ilp and the 18-meter mean wind Uis were
calculated for each sample. In addition, the in-
W10(W., b) =M,(10/2)^l""(u.,6)l-3M (4) stantaneous vertical average wind speed time history
where we assume that Eqs. (1) and (2) can be in- at 0.1-second intervals was calculated for each
verted to yield Uw as a function of b and the peak sample, and the peak instantaneous vertical average
wind at level z denoted by Uz. Eq. (4) permits us to wind speed iii was selected from each sample. The
express Eq. (3) in the form quantity Uj/up was then interpreted to be a measure
of how well the peak wind profile statistics at the
10-meter level approximate the instantaneous ex-
p{Uz<u^c\b) = f Pi{uwiuz, b)) (^^) duz, (5)
treme wind profile statistics.
In Figure 8, a plot of ui/up as a function of u\%,
where p{uz<Uzc b) is the conditional probability
the data points tend to scatter about a mean value
\

that Uz is less than Uzc, given b and p{uz<Uzc b) = \

p{uio<Uioc) Thus, the integrand in Eq. (5) is the

conditional p.d.f. of Uz, given b, and is given by

P2{uz\b) =pi{uw{uz,b)) (6)

^^^^
.

The quantity {duw/duz)b, a function of Uz and b,

10 M 14 16 18 20
can be calculated by differentiating Eq. (4). The
joint p.d.f. of Uz and b is given by u.o (m/sec)

Figure 8. The ratio Ui/up as a function of the mean wind

P2{uz,b) =pi{uw{uz,b)) (^)
\duz /ft
pib), (7) speed Mi8 at the 18-meter level for an averaging
time equal to 10 minutes.

33
 — —

1.0' where f and u denote the mean Kelvin temperature

A
r B and wind speed at height z, g is the acceleration of
D
gravity, and Cp is the specific heat of dry air at
SAMPLE PERIOD: A — 0.5 mil) constant pressure ((7/Cp~9.S°K/km) In approxi- .

g — 2.0 ijiifi

C — 5.0 min mately the first 30 meters of the boundary layer,

D - 10.0 min
the wind profile is given by
1 1 1 1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1

^= ^(^ln^~^(i20) (13)

Figure 9 The ratio uj/ilp as a function of the mean wind

speed Mi8 at the 18-meter level for averaging times where ki is von Karman's constant with numerical
equal to 0.5 (A), 2 (B), 5 (C), and 10 minutes (D). value approximately equal to 0.4, zo is the surface
roughness length and ip{Ri) is a universal function
of Ri.
of ui/up^O.93. Since drag loads are proportional to
Combining Eqs. (9), (10), (11) and (13), we
the square of the velocity, this mean value implies
find that
that the peak wind profile may be overestimating
the loads by about 14%. However, the fact that 3fciA {Ri, t)

some of the data points have values equal to 0.9S G=l + (14)

could mean an overestimate of the loads by only In -i^iRi)

4%. Figure 9 gives the average values of uilup as a

function of mis for different averaging times (0.5, 2,

5, and 10 minutes). For a neutral atmosphere, Ri = 0, and vanishes,

so that

Gust Factor
4.4.
r;=i+
3M (0, 0
(15)
The gust factor G is defined as
In
G = ulu, (9)
Zo

where u is the peak wind speed within a data record

of length t in time and u is the mean wind speed We may conclude from this relationship that the
gust factor decreases as the height increases. This
associated with the data record. A simple theory
result is also qualitatively true for unstable air
can be constructed to aid in understanding the be-
{Ri<0). As the averaging time decreases, the vari-
havior of the gust factor. If cr denotes the variance
of the fluctuations of velocity about the mean wind ance will decrease so that ^ is a decreasing function

speed, then iZ+3cr is an estimate of the peak wind of the averaging time and thus, we may conclude
speed; therefore,
from (14) that G is an increasing function of the
averaging time.
3(7 The functions i/' and A are monotonically de-
G=l+ (10)
creasing functions of the Richardson number; \J/

vanishes in neutral {Ri. = 0) air, while A is positive

The variance is related to the friction velocity, rt*,
definite. Thus, as the Richardson number decreases,
through the relationship or rather, as the air becomes more unstable, the gust
factor increases.
a = A{Ri, <) w*. (11)
Let us now consider a typical daytime situation
where A is a function of the Richardson number, at Cape Kennedy. At low wind speeds the air is
Ri, and the averaging time, t. The Richardson unstable and G is large. However, as the wind
number is given by speed increases, the wind shear (clu/dz) increases,
causing the Richardson number to tend to zero
from the unstable side of Ri = 0. Thus, an increase
f\Cj, dz) in the wind speed will tend to lower the gust factor
Ri = (12) in view of the dependence of the gust factor upon
stability. In a typical nighttime situation, the
stratification is stable, and the Richardson number
is usually positive. As the wind speed increases, the

34
Richardson number tends to zero from the stable
side of Ri = 0. This means that the gust factor will G=l+- (lS/z)r, (16)
increase as the wind speed increases. In both cases On

the limiting value of the gust factor will be that of a where z is the height in meters. In this equation the
neutral atmosphere {Ri = 0) as given by Eq. (15). parameters p and go are given by
In view of these considerations, a gust factor model
for the Kennedy Space Center was developed with p = 0.283 -0.435e-''-2"" (17)

181 hours of afternoon turbulence data encom-

and
passing a broad range of wind speed conditions.
Gust factors were calculated for averaging times i/o
= 1.98+0.085 (in —j -0.329 In — - 1.8876-" •2"",
(<) equal to 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10 and 60 minutes. It was

assumed that the gust factor is a function of the (18)

averaging time t, and the peak wind speed Uis at where and Uu have the units of minutes and meters
t

the 18-meter level. The peak wind speed at the 18- per second. The dependence of the 18-meter level
meter level plays the role of a stability parameter. gust factor on the averaging time and the peak wind
It was found that the expected value of the gust speed is shown in Figure 10, and the dependence
factor at any level between 18 and 150 meters can of the 10-minute gust factor on the peak wind speed
be represented as and height is given in Figure 11.
Within the range of variation of the data, the 1-
G hour gust factor and the 10-minute gust factor were
approximately equal, because the spectrum of the
horizontal wind speed near the ground is character-
ized by a broad energy gap centered at a frequency
approximately equal to 1 cycle hr"^ and typically
extends over the frequency domain 0.5 cycles

2.0-

150

12-'—r 1 1 1 1 1
•
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 CD

u^g (m/sec)
t ( m i n )

Figure 11. The gust factor G as a function of the peak wind

Figure 10. The gust factor G at the 18-meter level as a Mis at the18-meter level for various heights above
function of the averaging time for various peak natural grade associated with a 10-minutc grand
wind speeds at the 18-meter level. average.

35
 1 1

1.0- III) 1
r
T
1
——
1
I
I I I 1
_
in Monincoordinates are shape-invariant in the
This hypothesis appears to be reasonable
vertical.
and permits a practical approach to developing an
engineering spectral model of turbulence.

nSJn)
-V- 0.1-tr 18 m
P 30m 5.1. The Longitudinal Spectrum
60m
90m
The vertical variation of the dimensionless wave
120m
150m number associated with the peak of the logarith-
mic spectrum &u scaled in Monin coordinates is
0.01 -I I I I 1 1 1 1
given in Figure 14. A least-squares analysis of the
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0
data in this figure yields the result

Figure 12. Dimensionless logarithmic longitudinal spectra = 0.03(0/18), (30)

for neutral wind conditions plotted in Monin
coordinates. where z is in meters. A plot of nSu{n) /u^c''- versus
f/fmu will shift the spectra at the various levels, so
10 I I r I ri r
I
that all the peaks of the logarithmic longitudinal
spectra are located at f/fmu = l- Values of from
other tower sites are indicated in Figure 14.
The average ratio of the shifted spectrum at
level z and the 18- meter spectrum,

(S„( z)/Su{f/Uu, IS)),

is shown in Figure 15. A least-squares analysis of

these data yielded the result

-J III''' " ^„=(2/18)-''-'

0.01 I '
I
' ' ' '

(31)
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0

where z is in meters. A plot of n*S„(n)/^„M*2 versus

Figure 13. Dimensionless logarithmic lateral spectra for f/fmic will collapse the longitudinal spectra. The col-

neutral wind conditions plotted in Monin lapsed longitudinal data are plotted as a function
coordinates.

1.0

the longitudinal and lateral components of turbu-

lence are decreasing functions of z, so that by scaling
the spectra with the surface value of the friction
velocity, the scaled spectra at the upper levels fall
below the 18-meter spectra. 0.1

By scaling the wave number with z, we have as-

sumed that the integral scales of the longitudinal
and components of turbulence are propor-
lateral
tional to z. This might be true in the Monin layer;
however, in the Ekman layer one might suspect --
0.01
from the behavior of eddy coefficients [14] that, if
the local integral scales have a vertical variation,
then they should increase at a rate slower than z. In
addition, we have no knowledge that the integral
scales of the longitudinaland lateral spectra should
0.001
have the same vertical variation. However, the data 10 100 1,000

appear to show that Monin coordinates will collapse z (meters)

spectra with various turbulence intensities at any

Figure 14. Vertical distributions of the dimensionless fre-
particular level in the vertical.
quencies /,„u and/,„i. associated with the peak of
To produce a vertical collapse of the data, it was the logarithmic longitudinal and lateral spectra
assumed, for engineering purposes, that the spectra for neutral stabihty conditions.

38
 \

that *Su/»S„ = 3/4

[17]. This requirement can be
derived from the mass continuity equation for incom-
pressible flow subject to the condition that the
eddies are isotropic in the inertial subrange. The
experimental values of and /3„ are given in Fig-
ures 14 and 15. These data show that /„„ and /3„ can
be represented as power laws as for the longitudinal
spectra. The function

0 NEUTRAL LONGITUDINAL nS,{n)

^ (33)
o NEUTRAL LATERAL
(1 + 1.5 (///„„) ^O''''"
0.1
100 1,000
was used to represent the scaled spectra, where
z (meters) and r„ are positive constants. This function behaves
like the one chosen for the longitudinal spectrum.
Figure 15. The vertical distribution of the collapsing factors
For sufficiently large values of /, the asymptotic
i3u and ;8„ for neutral stability conditions.
behavior of the ratio between Eqs. (32) and (33)
is given by

of O.OSf/Uu in Figure 16.

u 3 / Jmu
yu i
The function I
(3/2)
5/3(l/r„-l/r„)
(34)
V \ fmv/
nSuin) ^ u f/fmu
(32)
In the inertial subrange we must have *Su/<S„ = 3/4,
so that upon substituting this ratio into (34) we ob-
was selected to represent the longitudinal spectrum, tain a relationship that can be used as a constraint in
where Cu and r„ are positive constants, determined the determination of values of C„ and r„ and func-
by a least-squares analysis. For sufficiently small tions to represent /3„ and fmv The values C„ = 8.686
values of nS„(n)/i8„M*^ asymptotically behaves
/, and n = 0.512, and the functions
like f/fmu which is the correct behavior for a one-
dimensional spectrum. At large values of /, f„,=o.i{z/i8r-'' (35)
nSu{n) / ^uUiiP' asymptotically behaves hke and
18)-°-''
{ f/fmu) I3.= {z/ (36)

consistent with the concept of the inertial subrange. along with the longitudinal parameters will satisfy
The maximum value of (32) occurs at f=fmu. condition (34) and simultaneously give a good fit

Various authors have suggested formulae like (32) to the data {z is in meters). The collapsed lateral
to represent the longitudinal spectrum. However, spectra and the functions given by (32) and (33)
most of the representations have only one adjustable are shown in Figure 16.
parameter available, while Eq. (32) has two: C„
and Tu. In this light (32) appears to be superior.
Upon setting ru = 5/3, we obtain the form of the
longitudinal spectrum suggested by Panofsky [7]
to represent the strong wind spectra of Davenport
[153- Von Karman's longitudinal spectrum [16]
can be obtained by setting ru = 2. A least squares
analysis of the longitudinal data in Figure 16 revealed
that C„ = 8.641 and r„ = 0.845.
SYMBOL C

5.2. The Lateral Spectrum

The lateral spectra (S„ can be collapsed with a
procedure like the one used for the longitudinal
spectra. However, to determine an analj'^tical ex-
Figure 16. Dimensionless logarithmic longitudinal and
pression for the lateral spectrum, special attention lateral spectra as functions of 0.03 f/fmu and
must be paid to the inertial subrange to guarantee 0.1 ///mil for neutral stability conditions.

39
 ,

5.3. Engineering Application scientist to work as a team. The engineer must

specify the risks he is willing to accept, while the
To apply the spectrum of turbulence to engineer-
atmospheric scientist must produce a wind model
ing problems, we first select the design peak wind
from which it is possible to determine the appropriate
speed for a prescribed level of risk. The peak wind
forcing functions for that accepted risk. The model
speed profile is established by selecting the 99.87
presented here for Cape Kennedy, Florida, serves
percentile (mean +30-) value of k, and the mean
thispurpose in that risk values can be applied to the
wind profile is obtained by "backing off" from the
occurrence of peak wind speeds at a reference level
peak wind profile with the appropriate gust factor
for a given period of exposure; and if these design
profile. The friction velocity tt* is calculated with
peak wind speeds occur, an upper bound risk value
Eq. (21) for wind conditions (Ri = 0,
neutral
of structural failure can be estimated from statistical
1^(0) =0). Once the mean wind speed profile and the
information about the wind profile shape (k). By
friction velocity are known, the longitudinal and
applying gust factors for an appropriate averaging
lateral spectra are completely specified. This is the
period, a peak wind speed environment can be
procedure presently used at MSFC.
partitioned into mean wind and turbulence
Thus far, we have been talking about the spectra
environments.
of the longitudinal and lateral components of turbu-
lence. Actually, it is the spectra of the square of 7. References
these components that are important from a loads
[1] Smith, 0. E., L. W. Falls, and S. C. Brown, "A Statistical
viewpoint. If we assume that these components in- Analysis of Winds for Aerospace Vehicle Design, Mission
dividually constitute Gaussian processes, then it is Planning, and Operations," Achievements Research
possible to express the power spectra of {u-\-u')'^ or Review, Vol. II, Report No. and Space
10, Terrestrial

v'^ with the Wiener-Khintchine theorem in the form Environment at MSFC, NASA X-53706, George C. TM
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama,
82(71) = l{u'+2uV)e + a'']8{n) -\-4:€U^Si{n) 1967.
[2] Fisher, R. A., Contributions to Mathematical Statistics,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.
+2 f Si{n-^)Sia) d^, (37) [3] Gumbel, E. J., Statistics of Extremes, Columbia University
•'-00
Press, New York, 1958,
— <n< <» [4] Thom, H. C. S., "Distribution of E.xtreme Winds in the
where S^in) is defined in the interval 00
United States," Journal of the Structural Division,
6 =1 (longitudinal loads) or 0 (lateral loads) and
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
5(n) is the Dirac delta function. In this equation, April 1960.
the variance of the turbulence is given by [5] Kaufman, J. W. and L. F. Keene, "NASA's 150-Meter
Meteorological Tower Located at Cape Kennedy
a'= S{n) dn, (38)
Florida " NASA TM X-53259, George C. Marshall Space
j Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, May 12, 1965.

[6] Fichtl, G. H., "An Analysis Roughness Length

of the
where S{n) is the longitudinal or lateral spectrum Associated with the NASA 150-Meter Meteorological
as define'd by Eqs. (32) and (33) and Tower," NASA TM
X-53690, George C. Marshall Space
Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, January 3, 1968.
Si\n\) [7] Lumley, J. L. and H. A. Panofsky, The Structure of
(39)
Atmospheric Turbulence, John Wiley and Sons, 1964.
[8] Davenport, A. G., "The Relationship of Wind Structure
The details of the derivation of Eq. (37) can be to Wind Loading," presented at the Meeting on Ground

found in a paper by Wood and Berry [18]. Wind Load Problems in Relation to Launch Vehicles,
To produce the convolution integral in Eq. (37) NASA Langley Research Center, June 7-8, 1966.
[9] Blackman, R. B. and J. W. Tukey, The Measureynent of
by numerical procedures is straightforward. The Power Spectra, Dover, New York, 1958.
right-hand side of Eq. (37) is directly proportional [10] Pasquill, F., Atmospheric Diffusion, D. van Nostrand
to the spectrum of the longitudinal or lateral drag Company, Ltd., New York, 1962.
forces, which are the required inputs for vehicle [11] Monin, A. S., "On the Similarity of Turbulence in the

response studies.
Presence of aMean Vertical Temperature Gradient," J.
Geophys. Res., Vol. 64, 1959, pp. 2196-2197.
[12] Berman, S., "Estimating the Longitudinal Wind Spec-
6. Conclusions trum Near the Ground," Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc, 91,
1965, pp. 302-317.
Development of space vehicle wind loads design
[13] Busch, N. E. and H. A. Panofsky, "Recent Spectra of
criteriais not simple, but is a rather complicated Atmospheric Turbulence," Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc,
procedure requiring the designer and the atmospheric 94, 1968, pp. 132-148.

40
[14] Blackadar, A. K. et al., "Flux of Heat and Momentum pheric Turbulence for Use in Aircraft Design," TR
in the Planetary Boundary Layer of the Atmosphere," AFFDL-TR-65-122, Air Force Flight Dynamics Labora-
The Pennsylvania State University Mineral Industries tory, Research and Technology Division, Air Force

Experiment Station, Dept. of Meteorology, Rept. under Systems Command, Wright- Patterson AFB, Ohio, 1905.
AFCRL Contract No. AF9604-6641, 1965. [17] Batchclor, G. K., The Theory of Ilomogencom Turbulence,
Cambridge University Press, New York, 1953.
[15] Davenport, A. G., "The Spectrum of Horizontal Gusti-
[18] Wood, J. D. and J. G. Berry, "Random Excitation of
ness Near the Ground in High Winds," Quart. J. Roy.
Missiles Due to Winds," Proc. of National Symposium on
Meteor. Soc, Vol. 87, 1961, pp. 194-211.
Winds for Aerospace Vehicle Design, Vol. 1, USAF
[16] and G. E. McVehil,
Pritchard, F. E., C. G. Casterbrook, Geophysics Res. Dir. A.F. Surveys in Geophysics, No.
"Spectral and Exceedance Probability Models of Atmos- 140, Vol. 1, AFCRL-62-273(I), March 1962, pp. 125-138.

41
 SESSION 3.

EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL DETERMINATION OF

AERODYNAMIC FORCES

Chairman: Professor A. G. Davenport

Faculty of Engineering Science
University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario, Canada
 FLUCTUATING MOMENTS ON TALL BUILDINGS PRODUCED BY
WIND LOADING
J. E. Cermak,* W. Z. Sadeh,** and G. Hsi***
Fluid Dynamics and Diffusion Laboratory
College of Engineering
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521

Wind loading on a 1:384 scale model of a building 666 ft high was studied experimentally in a
thick-boundary-layer wind tunnel. Measurements of mean velocity and turbulence intensity
upstream of the model building verified that the wind tunnel flow was an adequate simulation of
atmospheric-surface-layer flow over an urban area.
Mean pressure distributions and local pressure fluctuations were measured for a variety of
upstream roughness conditions and wind directions. Use of a high frequency response pressure-
measuring system permitted rms and peak values of the local pressure fluctuations to be de-
termined at numerous points on the building surface.
Emphasis was placed on direct measurement of mean and fluctuating overturning moments
by means of a strain-gage dynamometer. A stiff model, U/Dn < 1, was used to obtain moments
due to wind action alone. Peak values of the moment fluctuations were found to have a magnitude
of ±34% of the mean moment. Root-mean-square values of the moment fluctuations were also
determined in an effort to relate the moment fluctuations to the measured pressure fluctuations.

Key words: Boundary layer; buildings; pressure fluctuations; instrumentation; overturning

moments; wind loads; wind tunnel modeling.

1. Introduction of local pressure fluctuations enable a proper choice

of window glass and outer skin panelling to be
The study aerodynamic forces on tall buildings
of
made. However, these data do not give adequate
produced by strong turbulent winds can now be ac-
information on a quantity of prime importance to
complished through the use of scale models placed
the structural engineer, the fluctuating overturning
in a wind tunnel capable of simulating the atmos-
moment. Mean pressure coefficients yield the mean
pheric surface layer. Existing wind tunnels capable
overturning moment but the local pressure fluctua-
of simulating the mean velocity variation and turbu-
tion data do not yield the fluctuations in overturning
lence structures with height up to about 1,600 ft
moment because the space correlation of pressure
because of their special long test sections are located
fluctuationson the building surface is not known.
at Colorado State University [1]^ and the Univer-
The research reported in this paper emphasizes
sity of Western Ontario [2]. Past studies have been
an exploratory effort to measure directly the fluc-
devoted primarily to determination of pressure co-
tuating overturning moment produced by a turbu-
efficients for the mean wind, local pressure fluctua-
lent wind. By using a high-frequency-response sys-
tions, and in the case of an aeroelastic model, de-
tem the total moment, i.e., mean and fluctuating
flections of the buildings, e.g., Marshall and Cermak
moment, was measured. The natural frequency of
[33, Davenport and Isyumov [2] and Ostrowski,
the strain-gage dynamometer-building shell system
Marshall and Cermak [4].
was about 200 Hz. Furthermore, the structure was
Knowledge of the distribution of mean pressure
stiff enough, i.e., the reduced velocity U/Dn<l,
coefficients permits calculation of mean overturning
such that the measured moments are determined
moments and mean shear while rms and peak values
completely by the wind characteristics and not by
structural dynamic action.

* Professor-in-Charge, Fluid Mechanics Program.

** Assistant Professor of Engineering. 2. Experimental Apparatus
*** Research Associate.
1 Figures in brackets indicate literature references at end of The main objective of this study was the direct
this paper. measurement of the total overturning moment, i.e..

45
mean and moment. This was accom-
fluctuating
plished by using a suitable dynamic balance. The [>H<-
—
1

latter was designed to respond only to this moment. - Workinq Seclion 1

Prior to moment measurement an investigation to

ij In 36 5
obtain the local and overall wind loading on a rigid
Top View of ihe Low Speed Wind Tunnil
tall rectangular building was conducted. The latter

is defined by both the mean and fluctuating values

of pressure acting on the structure. Furthermore, Pilot- Stoti

"Tube
for certain structural considerations the instantane-
ous peak value of pressureis also of interest. There-

fore, an exploration of pressure distribution, i.e., Vortei Generolor

2-43 Buildin
Model
Surrounding
. Upsiream Roughness
mean, fluctuating (rms) and peak pressure, over a Bwldrngs

scaled building model was carried out in a wind Smooth 0.55

Smooth
Suftoce
I

tunnel. H 13 , Surfoce

The experimental objective could not be attained

ki— 1^
by simply placing an appropriate model in a regular
All Dimensions Feet
aerodynamic wind tunnel [5, 6]. A rather detailed
in
Side View of Working Section

discussion of this problem is reported in References Figure 1. Sketch of the experimental arrangement and the
1, 2 and 7. It was desired to obtain a mean velocity low-speed wind tunnel.
profile similar to the natural wind. Moreover, a
suitable thick turbulent boundarj'^ layer was neces-
rectangular shape and 666 ft high. A geometrical
scale of 1:384 was employed. This scale was chosen
sary for simulating the real flow conditions. Conse-
for obtaining a meaningful simulation of the natural
quently, the experiments were performed in an ap-
wind over a built-up urban area. The atmospheric
propriate wind tunnel which is described later.
boundary layer is about 1600 ft thick, thus, about
The flow around structures can be considered
2.4 times the building height. Therefore, a boundary
similar to flow around bluff bodies at relatively large
layer about 50 in. in thickness was desired.
Reynolds numbers. When the flow is simulated in a
wind tunnel, dynamic similarity needs to be satisfied.
For relatively large Reynolds numbers and sharp
edged structures, i.e., Reynolds number on the
order of 10'', the drag coefficient and, thus, the pres-
sure distribution and the resulting forces are inde- 1
pendent of the Reynolds number [1, 8]. Since the
Reynolds number of the experimental flow was of Pressure Tap Levels (I- 10)

this order it follows that the flow pattern and, hence, ^Building Wall
3/8" Lucife
the pressure distribution and the overturning mo-
ment are Reynolds-number independent. The former Stiffening
Aluminum Rib
was based on the largest dimension of the building 1/4" Thick

model cross section and/or on the equivalent (hy-

draulic) diameter of the model.
For these reasons, it was decided to use a simple
model placed in a relatively thick turbulent boundary
layer formed over a surface with roughness (up-
stream of buildings) scaled to the same scale as the Adjustable
Transmitting Pins
structure of interest. A schematic diagram of the
experimental arrangement and of the low-speed
Attactiment Rods
wind tunnel used is displayed in Figure 1 which also
shows all important dimensions.

2.1. The Model Building

Base
A scaled model of the
two towers planned for the
/ //
Atlantic-Richfield Plaza in Los Angeles was made All Dimensions in Inches

of "Lucite" 0.375 in thick. The buildings are of Figure 2. Sketch of the building model.

46
 Figure 3. Overall view of the building model.

A sketch of the model is portrayed in Figure 2 tion it was possible to rotate the table 360°. The
which also shows the system of coordinates used rotating table permitted visualization studies of the
and all important dimensions. On its faces 54 static flow pattern for various wind directions. A photo-
pressure taps of 1/16-in. diameter were drilled. The graph of this arrangement is provided by Figure 3.

taps were located as follows: 32 pressure taps on its

wide face and 22 on its narrow- face. The taps were 2.2. Wind Tunnel
bored only on two faces of the model. For measuring The experimental investigation reported herein
the pressure over the other two faces it was neces- was conducted in the Colorado State University,
sary to rotate the model by 180°. Furthermore, 13 Fluid Dynamics and Diffusion Laboratory, low-
pressure taps were also drilled on the building roof. speed wind tunnel. This tunnel is of closed circuit

Hence, it was possible to monitor the pressure at type and has a working section about 36.5 ft long.
Its axial-flow blower is driven by a 75 hp constant
121 locations for each building. The static pressure
speed motor. The fan is capable of generating air
tap stations are also shown in Figure 2.
speeds up to 65 ft/sec in a 6X6 ft test section. The
The surrounding buildings in the immediate
air speed can be changed continuously by varying
vicinity were also simulated using a scale of 1:384.
the fan pitch. The model was placed at about 29 ft
The former were constructed of styrafoam. Both the downstream of the entrance section. Therefore, it
towers and these buildings were mounted on a ro- was located in the thick boundary-layer region.
tatable plywood sheet base. For investigating the The removable side panels of the working section
pressure-distribution dependence on the wind direc- are made of glass in order to allow visualization

47
 Figure 4. Overall view of the test section.

studies of the flow. Along the center line of the top building. This model extended over a distance of
panel a Pitot-static tube was inserted above the up- more than 1 mile(see Fig. 1) upstream of the
stream building for continuous monitoring of the studied buildings. It was simulated by covering the
free-stream velocity, i.e., outside the boundary layer. tunnel floor with an adequate configuration of
Its location is shown in Figure 1. modular bricks (2jX3fX7| in.). A photograph of
An electrically operated traversing and positioning the latter for the NE wind direction is shown in
mechanism was used for continuous movement of Figure 4. For every particular wind azimuth, i.e.,
the Pitot-static tube and/or hot-wire probe. This free-stream velocity direction, an appropriate up-
mechanism permitted fine control of position within stream roughness was employed.
0.005 in. along lines parallel to the r, y and 2-axes. Next, for generating a higher turbulence level, a
vortex generator [9] was installed at the entrance
2.3. Upstream Conditions of the working section (see Fig. 1). This generator
A complete simulation of the natural wind char- also caused aninitial thickening of the boundary

acteristics includes the generation of a suitably thick layer.For this purpose an asymmetric arrangement
and turbulent boundary layer [1, 2]. Furthermore, of two rows of modular bricks 1.3 ft total height was
the modeling of the upstream urban configuration used. Both the upstream roughness, i.e., the up-
is necessary for simulating the real flow conditions. stream modeled city, and the vortex generator
As a result, the upstream urban topography was ap- caused the necessary thickening of the boundary
propriately modeled using the same scale as for the layer and the desired turbulence intensity level.

48
 3. Experimental Technique and ence was measured with respect to the static pres-
and Instrumentation sure of the uniform free-stream. The latter was
obtained from the Pitot-static tube located above the
3.1. Flow Visualization
model (see Fig. 1 ) . The reproducibility of the calibra-
Two visualization methods were employed, paper
tion curveswas within 1% to 3%. In connection
tufts and thread tufts. The former, attached to
with these measurements the following auxiliary
wire grids and placed upstream and/or downstream
equipment was used
of the buildings, were used to obtain a qualitative
picture of the flow pattern for various wind (1) A variable range amplifier (Dana, Model
directions. 3500) . Usually, an amplification of 200 was
The thread tufts were glued directly on the model utilized;
faces. They permitted an acceptable qualitative in- (2) A seven channel tape-recorded (Mincom,
dication of the flow pattern along the building faces Type 100) for recording and storing the
to be obtained. As will be seen later both visualiza- amplified signal for further analysis;
tion methods established clearly the overall flow (3) An electronic voltmeter (Bruel & Kjaer,
pattern and the existence of vortices downstream Type 2416) for measurement of rms and
of the buildings. Moreover, the influence of the peak values;
surrounding buildings on the flow was also visualized. (4) A recording wave analyzer (General Radio,
Recording Sound and Vibration Analyzer,
3.2. Pressure and Velocity Measurement
Type 191 1-A) for frequency spectra meas-
Average static pressures on the model faces were urement ;

measured by means of an electronic pressure meter A dual-beam oscilloscope (Tektronix Storage

(5)
(Trans-Sonic, Type 120) with a resolution of Oscilloscope, Type 564) for quick assessment
0.0001 mm Hg. The overall range of this manometer of the output signal pattern;
is 30 mm Hg. A Polaroid camera (Type C-12) for taking
(6)
A Pitot-static tube located 2.43
above the model
ft
oscillograms of the output signal;
as shown in Figure 1 was employed to measure the
(7) A digital DC voltmeter (Hewlett-Packard,
static pressure and the mean velocity in the uniform
Model 3440A) for monitoring various output
flow. A Prandtl standard Pitot-static tube with a
signals.
hemispherical impact head was utilized [10]. Its
impact orifice is 1/32-in. in diameter. This probe
A simplified block diagram of this system is shown
in Figure 5 and, a general view of the auxiliary equip-
was also used to measure the velocity profile up-
stream of the building. The velocity change along
ment is provided by Figure 6.

the 2-axis was measured at 1 ft upstream of the

model. In performing these measurements the Oscilloscope

Trans-Sonic pressure meter was utilized. Further-

more, the velocity change along the vertical direc-
Digital
tion was also recorded on an x-y plotter (F. L.
Voltmeter
Moseley Co., Model 135). When the latter was
carried out, the Pitot-static probe was moved con-
tinuously by means of the traversing mechanism. TRMS
r Pressure
Bridge Amplifier[- Meter
The fluctuating pressm-es, rms and instantaneous Transducer 1

peak pressure, on the model faces were measured at

all the pressure taps by means of low-pressure differ- Wave
ential pressure transducers (Statham, Model PM Analyzer
283). Six similar transducers were utilized. These
transducers were installed inside the model and were X - y
connected closely to the pressure taps. The trans- Plotter
ducers with the associated tubing (|-in. I.D. vinyl
tubing) had a frequency response larger than about
200 Hz. The transducers exhibited a reasonable linear Tape
Recorder
The latter was carried out utilizing
calibration curve.
a precise micromanometer (The Meriam Instru- Figure 5. Simplified block diagram of the pressure-trans-
mentation Co., Model 34FB2). The pressure differ- ducer system.

49
 mean values). In the above relationship the mean
velocity is designated by U and E stands for the
time-averaged voltage drop across the wire, i.e.,
the DC voltage necessary to balance the bridge
under steady conditions. The fluctuating velocity is
denoted by u and the corresponding instantaneous
voltage drop by e, i.e., the instantaneous AC voltage.
The voltage drop across the wire in still air (zero
velocity or shielded hot-wire) is denoted by Eq. It is

constant for a chosen resistance ratio (overheating

ratio). In connection with the hot-wire unit, a true
RMS meter, a digital DC voltmeter and a dual-beam
oscilloscope were used. This equipment is described
in Section 3.2.

3.4. Moment Measurements

Figure 6. General view of the equipment.
As mentioned earlier, the direct measurement of
the total moment, i.e., mean and
overtui'ning
3.3. Turbulence Intensity Measurement fluctuating, was particularly stressed. In order to
The longitudinal turbulence intensity was meas- eliminate all the other force components a suitable
ured upstream of the model by means of a hot-wire strain-gage dynamometer system was conceived
anemometer. The measurements were carried out and built. Hence, the model was mounted in the
at the same distance from the model as for the mean wind tunnel by attaching it rigidly to an aluminum
velocity, i.e., at 1 ft upstream of the model, along beam (2X1X5 in.) by means of four rods 90°
the 0-axis. When performing these measurements apart. In turn, the beam was rigidly anchored to a
the hot-wire probe was positioned by means of the massive base located underneath the wind tunnel
traversing mechanism. The hot-wire anemometer floor. Thus, the dynamometer-building model system

unit used in the present experiment is a constant- constituted a cantelever beam with end-load. The
temperature fully transistorized system conceived, aerodynamic force acting on the model building was
designed and built at the Fluid Dynamics and transmitted to the beam by two adjustable pins
Diffusion Laboratory. Its output noise level is less 180° apart. The pins were positioned close to the
than about 200 /xF and its frequency response is beam's free-end and they were tightened manually
beyond 100 KHz. A detailed report about this unit, to the former. At the lower end of the beam four
its characteristics and performances, is under prepa- foil strain gages (Micro-Measurement, Type ED-

ration. A copper-plated tungsten wire of 0.00025- in DY-250B6-350) were cemented. They constituted
nominal diameter and 0.06-in effective length the four arms of a Wheatstone bridge. Thus, the
(l/(i = 240) was employed. overall sensitivity of the straift-gage system was in-
The hot-wire calibration was effected by locating creased four times. This balance was sensitive only
it in the free-stream above the model. It was carried to the overturning moment about the weak axis of
out employing a Pitot-static tube. The calibration the building.The response of the strain-gage for any
curves obtained revealed that the so-called King's lateral loadwas about 20 times smaller than for the
law [11], i.e., the § power linear relation (E- \/ U) frontal force producing the overturning moment.
was satisfied reasonably well for the velocity range In order to stiffen the model and to increase its
of interest.The latter ranged from about 10 to 60 natural frequency an aluminum rib and stiffening
ft/sec. was reproducible within about 3%. The
It rods were mounted rigidly between its two wider
turbulence intensity, which is commonly defined as faces. The balance system is portrayed in Figure 2.
Urms/U, is given by [12] For obtaining reliable and dependable measure-
ments of the moment due only to aerodynamic
forces in a stationary structure the natural frequency
of the entire aeroelastic system, i.e., the beam and
where the subscript rms denotes square-root of the building model, should be larger than any forcing
mean (time-averaged) square values, i.e., -s/ and frequency expected. The pressure survey revealed
-y/g^, and, the over bar denotes time-averaged (or that the maximum frequency of interest was smaller

50
than about 200 Hz. Consequently, the balance Building Model Fficlionless
Pulley

system was conceived such that its natural frequency

was 200 Hz. The strain for a moment of about 25 Strain-gage

Ib-in. was of the order of 6 juin/in.

As a result, a relatively stiff model was obtained.

For a free-stream velocity of 50 fps the reduced
velocity [2] I] JDn was about 0.43. In the latter,
d is the largest dimension of the model cross-section
and n is the natural frequency of the dynamometer
system. Thus, the tip deflections of the model were
negligible.

A simplified block diagram of the moment meas- Figure 8. Typical calibration curve of the balance.
uring system is provided by Figure 7. Essentially
the same auxiliary equipment as employed for the 4. Results
pressure measuring system was utilized. The excita-
The measurements were carried out for three
tionand balance network of the strain-gage is also
differentwind directions (free-stream velocity direc-
shown in Figure 7.
tions) —
NE, N and NW. This was achieved by
suitable rotation of the turnable base. However,
The balance was calibrated by applying various
forces at different heights along the building. A only the results for the NE direction are presented
with emphasis on overturning moment of the up-
sample of the kind of calibration curves obtained is
wind building. No significant basic changes, except
shown in Figure 8. A satisfactory linear change was
for the absolute value of the pressure distribution,
obtained. The reproducibility of the calibration
were obtained for the other two directions. More-
curves was within 2% to 5%.
over, it was found that this particular direction was
the most suited for performing the direct measure-
Strain
Signal Circuit Tape ment of the overturning moment. This choice was
Amplifier
Gage Excitation
Bolance Recorder determined by structural consideration of the aero-
dynamic balance design.
— x-y Plotter The system of coordinates used in the presentation
of the results is portrayed in Figures 1 and 2. For
generality, the results are presented in dimensionless
Oscilloscope
form. Dimensional variables, wherever employed,
are denoted bj^ an asterisk. As the experimental
TRMS results are presented below, some pertinent discus-
IVleter
sions are interspersed wherever it is deemed helpful
for the proper interpretation of the results.
Wove
Analyzer
4.1. Establishment of the Flow

An extensive •series of flow visualization trials

= 12V I* . 100 K -Strain Gages were carried out for the purpose of studying the
350X2 ±03% overall flow pattern upstream and, principally,
downstream of the building. Visualization of the
i
flowby means of paper tufts gave a clear picture of
the flow pattern. Particularly, the tufts indicated
the flow within the wake. Its strongly turbulent
character and its vortex structure were clearly ob-
served. The wake extended vertically above the
out
model up to about 10% of its height. The longi-
Figure 7. Simplified block diagram of the moment measur- tudinal extent of the wake was not evaluated due
ing system. to the interference of the two model buildings. The

51
Figure 9. Visualization of the flow by means of paper tufts.

second tower was situated in the wake of the front

building. The vertical extent was similar for both
Figure 10. Visualization of the flow pattern along the model
buildings. Figure 9 is a photograph of paper tufts
walls by means of thread tufts.
showing the wake.
The thread tufts glued to the model walls showed
Generally, the mean velocity profile over terrains
distinctly the flow pattern along them. Generally, a
of differing roughness configuration is given either
down was discerned along the front wall. Near
draft
by a logarithmic law or a power law [13]. The lat-
its bottom a clear rotational trend was observed.
ter may be described by
On the other hand, along the leewind wall an up-
draft and a rather turbulent rotational pattern C7*oc2*«' (2)
were indicated by the tufts. Photographs of these
where z* denotes the height and the value of the
patterns are shown in Figure 10. A similar flow
exponent a depends on the particular roughness
pattern is reported in Reference 8.
structure. This representation was employed in the
present work.
4.2. Mean Velocity Survey
The mean velocity variation along the z direction
The wind velocity gradient upstream of the build- was measured upstream of the model, i.e., at 1 ft
ing is of utmost importance in determining the flow upstream of the building model, at more than
characteristics. Its variation with height depends on 15 stations over a distance of about 55 in. Concur-
the particular configuration of the roughness struc- rently, it was also recorded for continuous traverses
ture [13]. Furthermore, for finding the Reynolds- along the z All the measurements were per-
axis.

number dependence, the velocity gradient and the formed at a uniform free-stream velocity of 50 ft/sec.
resulting average pressure distribution should be At this velocity, denoted by U J", a sufficiently thick
practically independent of the upstream velocity boundary layer at the building model location could
variation. be obtained. The Reynolds number based on the

52
 ——f
largest dimension of the cross-section was about
U = 2° a
r
182,000. o ( 1 ) Clear Wind Tunnel 0,107

Next, the mean velocity was measured for various • (2) Vortex Generator 0206
upstream conditions. This investigation was per-
formed for verifying the adequacy of the atmos-
D (3) Vortex Generator and
Upstreann Roughness
r\/\/ic:
1
pheric surface-layer flow simulation in the wind A (4) Field Wind 0157
tunnel. The measurements were carried out for the
[|4]
1
following cases: (1) clear wind tunnel; (2) vortex
generator installed; (3) vortex generator and up-
stream roughness, i.e., the scaled model of the up-
stream urban configuration, installed (real flow
conditions) In all these three cases the scaled model
.

of the building and of the adjacent buildings were

located in the wind tunnel (see Fig. 1). It was found
that the velocity change is by the
strongly affected
upstream conditions. The power-law variation was
satisfied for all the cases, but the value of the expo- rf
nent differed for each case. -if 4)-/ /-
the results are presented in dimen-
Hereafter,
sionless form.
all

The dimensionless coordinates are

J-
2) /
defined by (3)
{ 1 )

x,y,z = x*/h, y*/h, z*/h, (3)

where h is the building height, and the dimensionless 06 08

0 0.2 0.4 1,0

velocity by U

H = H/C7i*, (4)
Figure 11. Mean velocity profile upstream of the model.

where U* is themean velocity at Hence, z* = h. the

sentative values reported by Davenport [13]. The
dimensionless mean velocity is given by influence upstream conditions, i.e., vortex
of the

U= z<^. (5) generator and/or upstream roughness is easily ob-

served. Thus, the atmospheric surface-layer flow
The measured mean velocity distributions along
simulation was acceptable.
the z direction for the above three cases are displayed In the following, the results for case (3) are pre-
in Figure 11. The results were reproducible within sented. Thisis the case of interest since the upstream
3% to 5%. The field wind profile is also shown in urban configuration was appropriately modeled, i.e.,
Figure 11 (case 4). The latter is based on 100-year the case of the real flow conditions.
wind data at 250 ft height above the surface. For As mentioned earlier, a suitably thick boundary
obtaining the wind variation a y-power law was
layer is desired for a meaningful simulation of atmo-
utilized for selected heights between 250 and 1,000 Consequently,
spheric-surface-layer conditions. it
ft. On the other hand, a ^-power law was employed
was important to find out the vertical extent of the
for heightsbelow 250 ft [14]. boundary layer immediately upstream of the model.
For the sake of comparison the res\ilts for all the The boundary-layer thickness was defined, as is
three cases and the field wind (case 4) are sum-
commonly done, as the distance from the wind
marized below: U*/U„* = 0.99. The recorded
tunnel floor where
velocity profile, i.e., dynamic head, at 1 ft upstream
Case Ui* {feet /sec) (X

of the model is displayed in Figure 12. This record

1 47 0.107
was obtained by continuously moving the Pitot-
2 45 0.206
3 45 0.446 static tube using the traversing mechanism. The
4 96.8 0.157 probe was moved at a suflficiently small speed to
allow a suitable response. A boundary-layer thickness
Note that /i = 20.75 in. for cases (1), (2) and (3) of about 49.7 in. was measured. Thus, the dimension-
whereas /i = 666 feet for case (4). The values of less boundary-layer thickness 5*//i = 2.4. This corre-
the exponent are in general agreement with repre- sponds to a real boundary layer about 1,600 ft thick.

53
 , —

10 4- H - 1

—
- -

0.8 —- — ilJ.,i!ilLi
fIT t- -r
4- 1=
- - —
0-6 -J -!-
1.
'

-
Ap 1
...
r
-f
^-

H-
(mmHg) 0.4
-(-
J-. - 1- - '7- ^- - -j-

-- !j i_
02
0 "f Model B uildim 1
H el; hi h 20.75
1

in
-L
1
1

1
t
1
— \— X'
^
-l:
"
-
-^
i

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
z (in)

Figure 12. Record of velocity profile upstream of the model.

As a result, a sufficiently thick boundary layer was The results for case (3) are displayed in Figure
obtained. Hence, the simulation conditions were 13. They were reproducible within 2 to 3%. Both
fulfilled. the turbulence intensity based on local and on free-
stream mean velocity, i.e., based on U{z) and U
4.3. Turbulence Intensity Measurement are shown. Based on the local mean velocity a maxi-
mum 29% was meas-
turbulence intensity of about
Simultaneously with mean velocity measurements
ui'ed = 0.05. When it was based on the free-
at 2
the turbulence intensity based on local mean
stream velocity a maximum of about 12.5% was
velocity,
monitored at 2 = 0.4. The different location of the
^rms (^) maximum is caused by the- local mean velocity
Tu,= ' (6)
U{z) variation. As the free-stream region is approached
the difference between them decreases. It can be
was monitored. In this relation u is the fluctuating
obsei'ved that, at a distance of about 0.2 h above the
velocity parallel to the mean flow velocity U. The building model, they are practically equal. The
subscript rms denotes square-root of mean (time-
turbulence intensity at the outer edge of the bound-
averaged) square value, i.e., a/m'. = 2.4, was
ary layer, i.e., at 2 about 0.2%. The latter
is practically the free-stream turbulence intensity.;
The relatively high turbulence level throughout the
z
^rms< '
.
°
,
,
,
T _
boundary layer was caused by the upstream condi-
U(z)
tions, i.e., vortex generator and upstream roughness.
The high level of turbulence within the boundary
layer can also be observed from the recorded velocity
• Ref. 15
profile along the 2-axis. The latter is portrayed in
Figure 12.

Unfortunately, no field data are available for

comparing the turbulence intensity distribution. On
the other hand, the results exhibit a reasonable
agreement with the measurements in the lowest
atmosphere reported by Singer [153-

Sio 1 ) Based or IJ (7 1
4.4. Pressure Survey |

(2) — The aerodynamics forcesand moments acting on a

Bosed on
• structure are determined by the wind characteristics.
Due to the velocity gradient and the turbulence
structure within the atmospheric surface layer (the
•
0.10 0,20
boundary layer) both mean and fluctuating forces
are of importance in finding the structural response
to wind loading. Furthermore, the local instantane-

Figure 13. Turbulence intensity variation upstream of the ous peak force together with the fluctuating force is

model. also important in designing outer skin panelling and

54
window glass. Knowledge of the pressure distribu-
tion, mean, fluctuating and peak pressure, per-
i.e., Op, — Op —_ , (14)
mits computation of these forces.
A detailed survey of the pressure distribution along
the building model was carried out. The local pres- (15)
sure was measured with respect to the static pressure Ap
of the uniform free-stream above the model, i.e., In order to test the variation in time of the pres-
the static pressure outside the boundary layer. The sure fluctuations at every position on the model,
latter was monitored by means of a Pitot-static tube
the pressure transducer signal was monitored on an
located as shown in Figure 1. oscilloscope over a period of several minutes. The
The total local pressure at any point along the observed changes were completely negligible. A
model wall is
typical oscillogram of the transducer output signal
is displayed in Figure 14.
p-Poo={P+p')-Poo, (7)
As mentioned earlier, the results reported herein
where p the total local pressure, p the local mean
is
were obtained for C/„* = 50 ft/sec and for a NE
pressure, p' the local fluctuating pressure and p^ is wind. Consequently, the flow had an incident angle
the free-stream static pressure. The overbar denotes of 6° with respect to the x-axis (see Fig. 15). For
time-averaged (or mean) values. Next, Eq. (7) can purposes of calculating the mean force the flow can
be written be considered normal to the wider face of the model.
Ap = Ap+p', (8) The mean pressure coefficient distribution and the
where isobars of the ratio of the fluctuating and the peak
Ap = p-p„. (9) pressure coefficient to the former on the front face
of the model are shown in Figure 15. On the lee wind
The fluctuations of the free-stream static pre.ssure
face negative mean pressure coefficients were meas-
are completely negligible with respect to the local
ured. Generally, the fluctuating pressure coefficient
fluctuating pressure. Then, by taking the mean- (rms) is smaller than the mean coefficient. Only
square of the total local pressure we obtain near the model base is the former larger or of the
same order as the latter. Within this domain the
Ap2 = ^p2-(-p'2 (10)
mean pressure is relatively small. On the other hand,
Next, for incompressible flow at small velocities the over most of the face, the peak pressure is larger
local mean pressure coefficient is defined by than the mean pressure. Peak pressures as large as
4 times the mean pressure were measured. It is,
Ap
'
(11) further, important to notice that the maximum peak
XnTI *2

whereas the local fluctuating pressure coefficient

„ _ Prms
(12)
29^ «

where prms denotes square-root of mean (time-

averaged) square values, i.e., \^p'^. In the above
two relationships UJ^ represents the free-stream
velocity above the model and p is the air density. In
a similar fashion the local instantaneous peak pres-
sure coefficient is

P'
(13) 40 60
f (msec)

where p'max is \ of instantaneous peak-to-peak pres- at

Figure 14. Oscillogram of the fluctuating pressure
sure fluctuation. In terms of the mean pressure co-
x = 0.07, !/=0.17, 2 = 0.75, (2;* = 1.45in.,
efficient, the local fluctuating and peak pressure J/* = 3.5 in., 2* = 15.6 in.); sweep 10 msec/cm,
coefficients are sensitivity 100 mv/cm.

55
 For each cross-wise area element (area element
normal to the mean velocity) it was possible to
compute an average pressure coefficient, i.e., pres-
sure coefficient per unit area. The change of the
average mean, fluctuating and peak pressure coefl5-
cient with height is depicted in Figure 16. The mean
and fluctuating pressure exhibit a linear variation
while the peak pressure reveals a periodical change.
Simultaneously with pressure measurements a
survey of pressure fluctuating-energy was carried
out. The frequency spectrum at each station was
recorded by a wave analyzer. The signal to noise
ratio (S/N) was larger than 10 for all the transducers
employed. A characteristic frequency spectrum is
shown in Figure 17. It was taken at the same station
as the oscillogram displayed in Figure 14. Most of
the pressure fluctuating-energy was concentrated
Figure 15. Mean, fluctuating and peak pressure coefficient at low frequencies. No significant contributions
distribution on the front face.

pressure occurred within regions where the fluc-

tuating pressure was the largest. The large increase
in both fluctuating and peak pressure near the build-
ing base may be attributed to the upstream rough-
ness and the concomittant large turbulence intensity.

2 ,4 .6 .8

Figure 17. Typical frequency spectrum of pressure fluctua-

Figure 16. Variation of average mean, fluctuating and peak ting-energy; x = 0.07, = 0.17, 2 = 0.75,
)/ (x* =
pressure coefficient as a function of height. 1.45 in., y*=3.5 in., 2* = 15.6 in.).

56
 .

were obtained at frequencies larger than about 200 pressure do not yield sufficient information for ap-
to 250 Hz. A predominant frequency of about 17 propriate estimation of the fluctuating overturning
Hz was observed. On the other hand, the oscillogram moment. The reason for this is that the correlation
indicated a predominant frequency of about 20 Hz. of pressure fluctuations on the structure is not
A report on the pressure fluctuating-energy survey known.
is under preparation. The total overturning moment is defined by
was important to check the pressure distribu-
It
tion invariance with Reynolds number. For this
M = M+m', (17)

purpose the mean pressure coefficient was measured where M is the mean (time-averaged) moment and
for two different upstream velocities, i.e., for the fluctuating moment. It was measured with
in' is

i[/oo* = 30 and 50 feet/sec, while the other conditions a relatively high-frequency response dynamometer
were unchanged. Then, a normalized pressure co- system sensitive only this moment (see Sec. 3.4)
efficient difference Its natural frequency / vas about 200 Hz. Based on
the pressure fluctuating-energy spectrum most of
Cp(50)-Cp(30)
7= (16) the energy was concentrated at low frequencies, i.e.,
up to about 30 Hz.
was computed at about 97 sample points. In Figure
The measurements were carried out under similar
18 the number of points for a constant value of y are conditions as for the pressure survey, NE wind i.e.,

displayed. At 77 sample stations 7<0.2. Further-

of 50 ft/sec. Initially, the moment
smooth up- for
stream conditions, i.e., without the upstream rough-
more, at 41 locations 7 = 0.025. On the other hand,
ness, was measured. Its variation is shown in Figure
only at sample station 7>0.8. Hence, at most of
1
20. The mean moment was about 37 Ib-in and the
the stations the change in pressure coefficient is
negligible.
peak value of the fluctuating moment reached a
maximum of 8% of the former. All the measure-
ments were reproducible within less than 4%.
4.5. Moment Measurement
Next, a thorough survey of the overturning mo-
The direct measurement of the total overturning ment for the real flow conditions, i.e., the upstream
moment was particularly emphasized. The main roughness installed, was performed. An oscillogram
objective of this investigation was to obtain an ac- of the fluctuating moment is shown in Figure 19. It
curate measurement of the fluctuating moment. As reveals a predominant frequency of about 25 Hz.
mentioned earlier, the local fluctuating and peak On the other hand, the predominant frequency
monitored during the pressure measurement ranged
50 roughly from 15 to 30 Hz depending on the position
Sampled from 97 Data Points
along the model. Thus, both measurements indicated
N- Number of Sample Points
the existence of definite predominant frequencies,
Cp(50) -Cp(30)
i.e., a predominant eddy size.
40
Co (50)

30

20

10

_i_L
40 80 120 160
.4 ,8 1.0
r t (msec)

Figure 18. Histogram of normalized pressure coefficient Figure 19. Oscillogram of the fluctuating moment; sweep
difference. 20 msec/cm, sensitivity 100 mv/cm.

57
 mean and the fluctuating moment depend strongly
on the upstream conditions. Particularly, a strong
dependence of the fluctuating moment on the up-
stream turbulence intensity was observed. A sys-
tematic study of this correlation is intended.
Use of the balance technique will permit accurate
and rapid measurement of the mean and fluctuating
moments. Moments, mean and fluctuating, obtained
for a stationary model provide integrated wind
loading data which can be utilized in conducting
numerical studies of a building with a variety of
elasticand mass distribution characteristics. Thus,
a standard reference loading is obtained. Further-
Figure 20. Total overturning moment variation : (a)without more, the use of an aerodynamic balance for meas-
upstream roughness; (b) with upstream
uring other wind loading components is also
roughness.
practicable.
The flow was found to be Reynolds-number in-
In Figure 20 the total overturning moment time
variation for both cases, i.e., with and without the
dependent. No significant changes in the pressure
distribution were observed for ambient wind speeds
upstream roughness, is portrayed. The mean mo-
ment for the former was found about 23.6
of 30 and 50 ft/sec. The surveys of the mean velocity,
to be
turbulence intensity and boundary-layer structure
Ib-in., 37% smaller than without the upstream
showed that the wind-tunnel flow provided an ac-
roughness. It is smaller since the wind load does
ceptable simulation of the atmospheric surface-
depend on the upstream mean velocity dis-
layer flow conditions.
tribution.
The instantaneous peak values of the fluctuating The peak pressure fluctuation ranged up to about
4 times the mean pressure. Knowledge of the in-
moment were found to be of the order of ±34% of
stantaneous local pressure fluctuation is essential
the mean moment. Thus, it was about 8 Ib-in. This
for adequate "skin" design of buildings.
large increase with respect to the smooth upstream
conditions is produced by the turbulence caused by
The partial support of this work by Metronics
the upstream roughness. The rms-value of the fluc-
Associates, Inc. is gratefully acknowledged.
tuating moment was found to be about 4.8 Ib-in.,
about 20% of the mean moment. It is important
to notice that the turbulence intensity averaged
over the length of the building was roughly of the
6. References
same order of magnitude.
[1] Cermak, J. E. et al., "Simulation of atmospheric motion
Lastly, we note that the important result remains by wind tunnel flow," TR CER66JEC-SI17, FDDL,
that the aerodynamic balance yields immediately a Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, Colorado (1966).
Davenport, A. G. and Isyumov, N., "The application of
direct and rapid measurement of the total over- [2]

the boundary layer wind tunnel to the prediction of wind

turning moment. Furthermore, the overall fluc-
loading," Proceedings of the Intern. Res. Seminar on
tuating moment can be measured accurately and Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Vol. 1, N.R.C.,
directly. Since the results are obtained for a sta- Ottawa, Canada (1967).
tionary model structure they may be used as a [3] Marshall, R. D. and Cermak, J. E., "Wind studies of

standard reference loading in numerical analysis for Bank of America World Headquarters Building,"
TR CER66-67RDM-JEC19, FDDL, Colorado State
dynamic response of a building with specified elastic
Univ., Fort Collins, Colorado (1966).
and mass distribution characteristics. [4] Ostrowski, J. S., Marshall, R. D. and Cermak, J. E.,
"Vortex formation and pressure fluctuations on build-
ings," Proceedings of the Intern. Res. Seminar on Wind
5. Conclusions
Effects on Buildings and Structures, Vol. 1, N.R.C.,
The experimental results presented indicate quite Ottawa, Canada (1967).
Jensen, M., "The model-law for phenomena in natural
clearly that the direct measurement of the total [5]

wind," Ingenioren, Int. Ed. 2 (1958).

overturning moment is feasible and desirable. In Jensen, M. and Franck, N., "Model-scale tests in
[6]
order to obtain the moment due to the wind action turbulent wind," Part I and II, The Danish Tech. Press,
a relatively stiff model has to be used. Both the Copenhagen (1965).

58
 [7] McVehil, G. E., Ludwig, G. R. and Sundaram, T. R., Speed Aerodynamics and Jet Propulsion, Vol. 12,
"On the feasibility of modeling small scale atmospheric Princeton Univ. Pre.ss, Princeton, N.J., 1954).
motions," TR ZB-2328-P-1, Cornell Aero. Lab, [12] Sadeh, W. Z., Sutera, S. P. and Maedcr, P. F., "An
Buffalo, N.Y. (1967). investigation of vorticity amplification in stagnation
[8] Leutheusser, H. J. and Baines, W. D., "Similitude flow," TR AF 1754/4, WT50, Brown Univ., Div. of Eng.,
problems in building aerodynamics," Proceedings Providence, R.L (1968).
ASCE, J. Hyd. Div., HY3, 35-49 (1967). [13] Davenport, A. G., "Gust loading factors," Proceedings
[9J Armitt, J., "The simulation of the atmospheric boundary ASCE, J. Struc. Div., ST3, 11-34, (1967).
layer in a wind tunnel," C.E.G.B., Lab. Note No. [14] Pavelka, B. R., "Wind study, Atlantic-Richfield Plaza,
RD/L/N 83/66 (1966). Los Angeles, California,"Met. Report, TR 151,
[10] Pankhurst, R. C. and Holder, D. W., Wind Tunnel Aerosol Lab., Metronics Associated Inc., Palo Alto,
Technique (Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, 1952). Calif., (1968).

[11] Landenburg, R. W. et al., (editors) Physical Measure- [15] Singer, I. A., "A study of the wind profile in the lowest
ments in Gas Dynamics and Combustion, Article F, 2, 400 ft of the atmosphere," PR 5, Brookhaven Nat. Lab.
Kovasznay, L.S.G., "Hot-wire method," 219-285 (High (1960).

59
 EXPERIENCE WITH WIND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ON
A FULL-SCALE BUILDING
W. A. Dalgliesh

National Research Council of Canada

Division of Building Research
Ottawa 7, Ontario, Canada

Wind pressure measurements made over a 4-year period on a 34-story building in downtown
Montreal were used to obtain data for checking and improving wind tunnel techniques of modeling
flow characteristics of wind and aerodynamic behavior of buildings. It had been hoped that the
measurements could be applied directly to certain problems of design such as evaluation of peak
suction load over small wall areas. The small number of pressures recorded, however, combined
with limitations of field measurements made direct application of the data extremely difficult.
The major problems involved in making field measurements and in comparing them with wind
tunnel measurements were found to be:
(a) difficulty of establishing a static reference pressure and its relation to the static pressui-e
in the wind tunnel;
(b) inadequacy of wind velocity information, which in this case consisted of one anemometer

and wind vane located 1,500 ft southwest of the building;

(c) lack of stationarity and homogeneity of the velocity field as compared with the wind tunnel

situation.
Comparisons with model measurements are made on the basis of mean pressures, rms pressures,
power spectra, and the correlation between selected pairs of pressures measured at various points
on the building. Examples have been found of excellent agreement in almost all respects, but for
some wind directions the comparisons gave unsatisfactory correlation. The lack of agreement
is attributed mainly to differences between indicated and actual on-site wind direction, but this

cannot be shown conclusively because of incomplete wind information.

The total cost of the project over the 4-year period was of the order of $100,000. A greater
expenditure would have been advisable, primarily for instrumentation to permit a better defi-
nition of the wind velocity around the building. Measurements are now under way on a 600-ft
office building using a much more sophisticated data acquisition system by means of which it
should be possible to acquire the desired information more efficiently and in a shorter period of
time.

Key words: Buildings; full-scale tests; power spectra; pressure fluctuations; wind loads; wind
tunnel modeling.

1. Development of Methods for Wind Research 1.1. Need for Full-Scale Data on Pressure
Coefficients
Investigation of wind effects on buildings and
structures by the Division of Building Research, Study of the literature revealed serious discrep-
National Research Council of Canada, began in 1958 ancies among pressure coefficients for geometrically
when an extensive survey of the available literature similar models tested by different researchers.
[1]* was made in connection with the revision of de- Modeling laws were obviously a matter for debate,
sign wind load information for the 1960 edition of which brought into serious question the applicabiUty
the National Building Code. In this code, as in most of the results to full-scale structures [2].

other building codes, the conversion from design A need clearly existed for field measurement of
wind speeds to design wind pressures and suctions wind pressures on full-scale buildings to answer the
on various building surfaces was given in the form questions of applicability to full-scale situations,
of pressure coefficients determined experimentally by and the correctness of similitude rules. There was
testing small-scale models in wind tunnels. surprisingly little full-scale information available,
however, up to 1960, and the few comparisons with
* Figures in brackets indicate the literature references at model results that had been made were at best
the end of this paper. inconclusive.

61
1.2. Objectives for Field Measurements in 1.4. New Developments in Wind Tunnel
Canada Techniques
A project was therefore set up within the Struc- The special problem of building aerodynamics as
tures Section of DBR/NRC to measure pressures opposed to conventional aeronautical wind tunnel
and suctions on full-scale buildings. The main ob- work has also been receiving attention [10], with
jectives were to check wind tunnel data and pos- gieat emphasis on simulating the turbulent shear
sibly to indicate how to improve modeling tech- flow usually found during strong winds. One method
niques. It had been thought at first that such field of creating a turbulent shear flow that has been
information might also prove directly useful to used with considerable success involves the so-
designers in assessing, for example, peak suctions called boundary-layer wind tunnel, in which a thick
over small areas or for similar problems of detailed boundary layer is allowed to grow over the long,
conditions in which wind tunnel results seemed in- specially roughened floor of the tunnel. Over the

adequate. The limited instrumentation, however, past 3 or 4 years the boundary-layer wind tunnel
coupled with other problems to be discussed in has been applied as a design tool for predicting wind
Section 3, made direct design application of these loading on several major structures [11].
particular measurements very difficult. The parallel development of laboratory and field
techniques, and the availability of full-scale results
for comparison with model results have already ex-
plained some of the discrepancies of earlier wind

1.3. Full-Scale Measurements in Other tunnel work, but much checking and improvement
Countries remains to be done. The measurement of wind pres-
sures and suctions on a full-scale building in down-
j

In contrast with the limited activity before 1960, town Montreal, Canada, constitutes the most
interest in field investigations of wind effects on
recently completed portion of the investigations :

structures since that time has been very great. In under way in the Structures Section of DBR/NRC. |

England an extensive program of full-scale measure- These results have been compared with wind tunnel
ments of wind pressures has been under way for tests done in a boundary-layer wind tunnel. A brief
|

nearly 10 years, and interim results from measure- description of the field measurements, of the prob-
ments on a 200-ft tall slab-like office building have lems of analysis and interpretation of the results,
been reported [3, 4, 5]. The program for the future and of the correlation with wind tunnel results
involves measurements on the new 600-ft G.P.O.
follows.
tower in London.
Full-scale measurements of wind pressure were
2. Instrumentation of 34-Story Office Building
also carried out on a 150-ft slab-like university
building in Melbourne, Australia. Results were com-
Arrangements were made with the owner of a 34-
story office building in Montreal to permit the in- '

pared with wind tunnel tests of a conventional type

and with those using a turbulent boundary-layer strumentation of the two mechanical floors for

flow Dissatisfaction with the correlation achieved

wind pressure measurements. Most of the office
[6].
floors of the building had already been rented at the
led to more fundamental laboratory work on the
time of instrumentation (spring, 1964), and this
flow around wall-mounted bluff objects (buildings
on the ground). made it impossible to instrument other levels with- i

Wind loading of a 145-ft slab-like apartment out seriously inconveniencing the tenants. The i

mounting an anemometer and tower on the build-

'

of
building in Delft, Holland, was investigated without
ing itself was not practicable, and wind speed and
the use of pressure taps, using instead a single de- ,

direction signals were transmitted through telephone

formation gage mounted on one of the steel columns
wires from instruments mounted in the fall of 1964
[7]. These results were correlated to some extent

with calculations based on the statistical approach on an existing 200-ft mast atop a 600-ft building to
the southwest.
to wind loading proposed by Davenport [8].
The widespread interest in full-scale measurements
shows no sign of slackening. Construction is now well 2.1. Influence of Surrounding Terrain
advanced on a 10-story welded steel-frame building The location of the two buildings involved and ^

in Hong Kong to be used exclusively for full-scale the nature of the surrounding terrain are shown in ;

research on wind forces during typhoons [9]. Figure 1. As may be seen from the ground contours,

62 [
Figure 1. Contour map of the terrain surrounding test buildings.

63
 X-

120

" 1
BUILDING i

0 200 400 600

Figure 2. Plan showing heights of adjacent buildings.

the area is fairly Mount Royal to

level except for
the northwest. Figure 2 an enlarged view of the
is

immediate surroundings. Wind pressures on the 34-

story building (building B) were found to be signifi-
cantly influenced by the presence of the nearby tall
buildings, particularly the 600-ft cruciform building
to the northwest.
Figure 3. Thirty-four-story office building looking south-
Dark bands are at 10th
east (relative to building).
and 33d floors, where mechanical services are
2.2. Installation of Pressure Taps
located and wind pressure measurements were
taken.
The instrumented and the 33d,
floors are the 10th
at heights, respectively, of 134 and 413 ft above the
street. The total height of the building is 440 ft and
the plan dimensions are 119 by 173 ft. The exterior
2.3. Sensors and Recording Equipment
wall surface is plane except for 8-in. deep mullions, The turbulent nature
of wind requires that speed,
4 ft 8 in. apart, which run the full height of the direction,and pressure at several locations on the
building. At the mechanical floors, however, there building be recorded simultaneously and continu-
are horizontal louvers, and the curtain wall is set ously for periods preferably longer than 10 or 15
back about 5 in. from the plane of the exterior wall. minutes at a time. The response of the sensors and
The louvers show up as dark bands on the wall sur- the capacity of the recording equipment should
faces in figure 3. be sufficiently high to record fluctuations with fre-
Holes H-in in diameter were drilled through quencies up to several cycles per second. The equip-
the curtain wall into the space behind the louvers ment used for the instrumentation of the 34-story
about 2 ft above floor level at intervals of approxi- office building met most of the requirements, but in
mately 24 ft all around the building at the two levels, the final analysis of the records an upper frequency
except where locations were inaccessible because of limit of 0.5 cycle/sec was imposed to keep the task
equipment placed in the way. Any 12 of a total of of manually preparing digitized records within
49 holes could be used as outside pressure taps for reasonable bounds.
the 12 transducers, which were used to convert The pressure sensor, or transducer, of which there
pressure differences into electrical signals for con- were 12, comprises an elastic steel diaphragm divid-
venient transmission to a central recording location. ing a chamber connected, on one side, by about 2 ft

64
of plastic tubing to the outside air pressure tap, ing B was carefully machined from plastic to a
and on the other side by up to 200 ft of plastic tubing scale of 1:400, including the muUions. Pressure taps

to the air pressure at a central location inside the were made at locations corresponding to those
building. The pressure difference between the two where full-scale taps on the two instrumented levels
sides of the chamber is measured in terms of the were situated, and three additional levels were
diaphragm deflection by an unbonded 4-arm resist- tapped to give a more complete picture of pressure
ance strain gage bridge. The power and signal are distribution than was possible in the field measure-
transmitted by strain gage cables over distances ments. All major structures within a 1,600-ft radius
of up to 600 ft to the central recording location on were modeled to the 1:400 scale from wood, and
the 10th floor. upwind land contours and surface roughness were
The wind vane and 3-cup anemometer are of the also simulated, as is shown in Figure 4.

type U-2A used by the Meteorological Branch of A fundamental difference between the field meas-
the Canadian Department of Transport and were urements and the wind tunnel measurements is re-
located about 1,500 ft away at a height of 800 ft lated to control of flow conditions and the repro-
above street level on building A (see Figs. 1, 2). ducibility of an experiment. The main advantage of
Electrical wind speed and direction signals, trans- wind tunnel testing over full-scale testing is the
mitted via telephone lines, were recorded with the fact that investigations can proceed systematically
12 pressure signals on an 18-channel ultraviolet and efficiently. Full-scale measurements, on the
Ught beam type oscillograph. Chart speedwas other hand, are dependent on the random behavior
limited to 4 in./min for most of the recording, and of weather, making systematic investigations im-
the full-scale deflection of each signal was made practical. This is particularly true for such features
±2 in. (±10 psf). as the phenomenon of extreme suctions near the
corners of the buildings, for which wind angle is

2.4. Field Trips and Processing of Records fairly critical.

Trips weremade from Ottawa to Montreal (120

miles) whenever strong winds seemed imminent. It 3.1. Stationarity and Homogeneity of Flow
was necessary upon arrival to select the 12 most
The basic difficulty associated with field measure-
desirable tapping locations (depending on the wind
ments arises because of the random nature of wind.
direction), set up transducers, and begin recording.
Not only is the acquisition of useful records made
Set-up time was usually about 1 hour and recording
difficult and time-consuming, but the interpretation
usually continued for 1 to 3 hours longer. Of the
and comparison with laboratory results may be-
results obtained on eight such trips between 5
come confusing. Much of the confusion can be
March 1964 and 23 September 1966 five sets were
avoided if a distinction is made between "weather"
selected for detailed study.
and "gustiness" on the basis of the time scales in-
After visual examination of each strip chart
volved. The shortest period associated with weather
record, portions representing recording intervals
changes and, in particular, strong winds is usually
from 15 min to over an hour were selected and
an hour or more, except for thunderstorms, whereas
digitized, using a semiautomated procedure, at
the longest period associated with gustiness is about
time intervals of 1 sec. The digitized values, either
5 minutes. Thunderstorms may have to be treated
on punched cards or digital magnetic tape, were
somewhat differently from other types of strong
then processed by a digital computer.
wind storms.
The randomness of the gusts superimposed on the
3. Differences Between Field Measurements
mean wind speed can be analyzed using statistical
and Wind Tunnel Measurements
procedures developed over the past 20 years by
The model scale investigations were made in a communications engineers and others [12, 13]. These
boundary-layer wind tunnel rather than in a con- statistical procedures have been applied recently to
ventional low-turbulence aeronautical wind tunnel wind effects on structures [8]. The application of
because of the undoubted importance of modeling established methods for measurement and analysis
the gustiness of real wind. Care was taken to simu- of random data is greatly simplified if it can be
late field conditions as closely as possible, but in assumed that the wind is at least weakly stationary
As an ex-
spite of this certain differences remain. and homogeneous. This implies that the means and
ample of the precautions taken, the model of build- variances of wind velocity and pressures are con-

65
 .

Figure 4. Model of downtown Montreal with major topographical features in the boundary-layer wind tunnel at the University
of Western Ontario for comparison with full-scale measurements.

stant with respect to time and with respect to posi- 3.2. Time Scaling
tion in space. Stationarity and homogeneity hold
The time interval over which mean velocities and
only approximately for measurements, if at all,
field
pressures were averaged was chosen to distinguish
and then only if care is used in selecting suitable
between (a) the random fluctuations about the mean,
portions of the total record for detailed analysis. In
and (b) the much slower variation of the mean wind
principle, would be best to use as long a record as
it
velocity and the corresponding pressures in response
possible to improve the reliability of estimates of
A scaling parameter
to changing weather conditions.
means, variances, and distributions of variances ac-
with respect to time must therefore be considered
cording to frequency (power spectral density). It
when comparing field and model measurements.
was found, however, that portions of record much
For purposes of comparing averaging times the
over 5 to 10 minutes often contained "trends" or
nondimensional parameter to be kept the same for
variations in the mean value, and these complicated
model and full scale is:
the analysis.
There was no particular difficulty in satisfying Vt
the requirements of stationarity in the wind tunnel, L
but in consideration of the objective of simulating
where 'F= mean velocity in ft/sec,
field conditions it was thought more important to
= time in sec,
<
reflect the nonhomogeneities of the prototype situa-
L = characteristic length in ft.
tion rather than to have the theoretical advantages
of the homogeneous flow. The land contours of the The ratio of mean velocity in the tunnel to mean
eastern end of Mount Royal were, therefore, modeled velocity in the field ranged from about 0.50 to 0.75,
in order to introduce the same sort of spatial varia- and the length scale for the model was 1:400. An
tion of velocity as might be found in the field (Fig. 4) averaging time of 30 min in field measurements

66
 —
would therefore be represented by a tunnel time of Ib/ft^ was common;
6 to 9 sec. The averaging time actually used in the (c) wind effect —
assuming an internal pressure
tunnel was 30 sec, and the length scale of the gusts coefficient of—0.3, the action of the wind
proved to be approximately 1:700; the correspond- could produce a lowering of the internal pres-
ing full-scale averaging time would be about 175 to sure by 1 or 2 Ib/ftl
260 min, based on the scale of turbulence. A much
Simulation of these effects would be extremely
longer averaging period can be used in the wind
complicated in the wind tunnel because of the very
tunnel because the slow-moving trends associated
complex system of flow resistances and leakages
with the weather system in the field situation are
throughout the building. As a result, no adjustment
not present.
was made to the wind tunnel technique a correction ;

was made, instead, in the comparison of the pressure

3.3. Reference Static Pressure
coefficients.
Wind tunnel measurements of pressures on a
tapped model are expressed in terms of differences 3.4. Reference Dynamic Pressure
from a reference static pressure, divided by a refer-
The dynamic pressure of the reference mean
ence dynamic pressure. The resulting nondimen-
velocity of equation (1) was measured in the wind
sional ratio, the pressure coefficient, is defined as
tunnel at a height of 24 in. midway between building
follows:
A and building B (see Figs. 1 and 2). This height cor-
responds to 800 ft in actual field measurement, but
the pitot tube had to be moved away from building
A to avoid the interference effect of the tunnel wall.
where Cj,.= pressure coefficient, The use of this dynamic pressure as a reference
Pi = pressure at ith tap, in the wind tunnel should not seriously affect com-
Po = reference static pressure, Ib/ft^ parison, provided the spatial variation of velocity
p = mass density of air, slugs/ft^, issmall from building A to the pitot tube location,
F = reference mean velocity, ft/sec. and similar in model and full scale.
The usual reference static pressure Po is the am-
bient barometric pressure inside the tunnel, meas- 4. Comparison of Field and Wind
ured either at a flush wall tap or at the static side Tunnel Results
of a pitot tube mounted upwind of the model.
The reference side of each transducer in the field
When the mean pressure coefficients, Cp., derived

measurements was connected by a long plastic tube from the field measurements, were first compared

to the ambient barometric pressure at a point near

with the from the wind tunnel, allowance had
the center of the 9th floor of the 34-story building.
not yet been made for the difference in reference
The reference tubing was present to ensure that all
static pressure. The comparison was consequently
quite unsatisfactory. The effects of chimney action
transducers were at least measuring with respect to
a common reference pressure, even though it was and building pressurization by the air-handling
not necessarily completely static. system were frequently sufficient to overcome the
The between the reference static pres-
difference
wind pressure on the windward wall. The transducers
at all locations around the building therefore regis-
and that used in the tunnel proved
sure in the field
tered suctions in relation to the reference internal
to be one of the most troublesome aspects of the
pressure.
comparison of results. The difference, of the same
order of magnitude as the measurements themselves,
A correction was then applied to the reference

was caused by a combination of factors: static pressure at each level for each of the records
of full-scale measurements. Corrections were calcu-
(a) chimney action —the temperature differential lated using the least squares principle to produce the
during cold months, combined with the very best fit of the full-scale pressure distribution to the
considerable effective stack height, caused model pressure distribution. This procedure seems
pressure differences of the order of 2 to 5 reasonable as long as there is a definite correlation
between the two sets of pressure coefficients and
(b) operation of the air-handling equipment the deviations that remain after fitting appear to be
building pressurization of as much as 1 or 2 small and random. It is interesting to note that cor-

67
rections made in this way to the reference static agreement in terms of pressure distribution, but no
pressure are independent of the dynamic reference other sample was as close to the model results in
pressure. The same correction of the reference static terms of dynamic pressure, which governs the scale
pressure (in Ib/ft^) is obtained even if completely of the pressure distribution.
different dynamic reference pressures are used in Figure 6 does not show the same agreement for
the wind tunnel and in full scale. The corrections distribution. The probable explanation for suction
arrived at by least squares fitting were checked in on the southwest wall of the 33d floor in the full-
each instance and found to be consistent with ap- scale result is that the indicated wind direction at
proximate calculations of chimney action and build- building A (where the anemometer and vane are
ing pressurization. located) may have
differed by perhaps as much as
10° from the actual wind direction at the building.
4.1. Comparison of Mean Pressure Distribution If such a difference existed it was evidently not
on 34-Story Building simulated by the model.

The relation between full-scale and model mean

4.2. Comparison of Mean Pressure Distribution
pressure distributions in terms of the nondimen-
in theEmpire State Building
sional pressure coefficients, Cp^, is plotted for two
different wind directions in Figures 5 and 6. The Agreement between wind tunnel testsand full-
agreement in the first case (wind at right angle to scale tests, unless it is either uniformly good or com-
building), particularly at the 33d floor level, is
very good with regard to both distribution and scale.
0. 8
Many similar portions of record for approximately
the same indicated wind angle gave equally good

0. 4

0. 8
-

0 L
0. 4

Dl RECTION

FULL
SCALE

MOD EL I i LJ^-^[
33RD FLOOR

lOTH FLOOR lOTH FLOOR

Figure 5. Comparison of full scale with model results; Figure 6. Comparison of full scale with model results;
mean pressure coefficients on 34-story office mean pressure coefficients on 34-story office

building, northwest wind. building, south wind.

68
 i
WIND WIND
Dl RECTION Dl RECTION
•-^
?
MODEL

36TH FLOOR
36TH FLOOR

Figure 7. Comparison of full scale with model results;

mean pressure coefficients on Empire State Figure 8. Comparison of full scale with model results; mean
Building, SSW wind (from Rathbun, Dryden, and Empire State Building,
pressure coefficients on
Hill). ENE wind (from Rathbun, Dryden, and Hill).

pletely unsatisfactory, is hard to assess in objective some of the "items" tabulated by Rathbun. There
terms. To help estabhsh some perspective for making were, however, other items for which the agreement
at least a subjective assessment of the results the in pressure distribution was good, except that the
author studied comparisons made by others who scale (i.e. the reference dynamic pressure) seemed
had done full-scale tests [5, 6]. considerably smaller for the full-scale results. The
Of particular interest were measurements on the two examples given in Figures 7 and 8 were chosen
Empire State Building, reported nearly 30 years ago to parallel as closely as possible the examples of
by Rathbun [14]. The wind tunnel tests for this Figures 5 and 6. One reading on the 75th floor in
building were carried out at the National Bureau Figure 7 seems to be a clear case of mistaken sign,
of Standards and the results were presented in 1933 and has been plotted at its probable value as a cross.
by Dryden and Hill [15]. No comparison of the pres- The deviations from the model pressure distribu-
sures on the model and those on the building was tions in Figures 7 and 8 are rather larger than those
presented in the paper by Rathbun, presumably in Figures 5 and 6, and the scale is consistently
because there appeared to be very little agreement. smaller. The improved agreement of the recent
The author therefore made several comparisons comparison can be attributed to improvements in
similar to the two illustrated in Figures 5 and 6 for both the instrumentation of the full-scale building
the 34-story building. Agreement was poor for and the modeling techniques used in the wind tunnel.

69
The disparity in scale of the work on the Empire model information for the pressure records obtained
State Building probably results from use of a con- at a corresponding tap location on the 33d floor
stant velocity profile and the absence of terrain on the windward wall. An empirical curve based on
roughness or the shelter of other buildings in the wind speed data, suggested by Davenport, is also
wind tunnel. A similar difference in scale would no shown. The scale of turbulence was probably about
doubt have been found for the Montreal building if 1:700 in this particular model test, and did not
the effects of terrain roughness and the other tall therefore agree with the length scale of the building
buildings nearby had not been simulated. Thirty (1:400). The ratio of velocities happened to com-
years ago pressures were measured by U-tube pensate for the difference to a large extent, and as a
manometers, either by observers or by photograph- result the spectral peaks appear to occur at approxi-
ing the manometer banks; in either case it was diffi- mately the same reduced frequency.
cult to get an accurate record of mean pressures.
Much of the scatter and disagreement of the results 5. Evaluation of Field Measurements
must have been caused by gustiness in the wind The sample comparisons in Section 4 are fairly
that could not be accounted for in the analysis of representative of the sort of agreement that has been
the records. Modern data acquisition systems now found between wind tunnel tests in a boundary-
make it between mean and
possible to distinguish layer type wind tunnel and measurements of wind
gust readings to a large extent and to treat mean pressure on the full-scale building in Montreal. The
and fluctuating components separately. need for considerably more full-scale information is
indicated although the results can be considered
4.3. Analysis of Fluctuating Components encouraging in many respects.

For purposes of analysis the fluctuating compo- 5.1. Suggested Improvements

nent of a record of wind speed or pressure versus
Several improvements in instrumentation and
time is treated as a stationary random process. The
data processing can be suggested on the basis of
parameters estimated by analysis of the records are
useful for determining equivalent static loads or for
experience with that part of the project now com-
pleted.There is merit in recording data in a visual
estimating the probable number of load cycles at
form, such as an oscillograph chart, for pilot studies
different stress levels. It is consequently a matter
or short-term projects. For the main part of an in-
of considerable importance to demonstrate agree-
vestigation,however, data processing should be
ment between and model results for param-
full-scale
handled by computer. The data acquisition should
eters relating to the fluctuating component such as
therefore employ punched cards, paper tape or
standard deviation, or rms pressure coefficients, and
magnetic tape storage, compatible with computer
power spectral density as a function of frequency.
input requirements.
Agreement of shape and location on the frequency
axis of the power spectral density curve implies a
A second improvement would be an automated
system for initiating recording whenever suitably
proper scaling of the turbulence in the wind tunnel.
strong winds occur. Approximately five of eight
Figure 9 is a combined plot of both full-scale and
trips to Montreal produced successful runs in the
project just completed but many good storms were
undoubtedly missed because of insufficient fore-
warning.
The third suggestion for improved procedure con-
cerns the scheduling of wind tunnel tests. One of the
weaker areas of field installations is often the ac-
quisition of wind velocity records. On the one hand,
one can strive for more and better anemometer sites;
on the other, maximum use should be made of the
wind tunnel in searching for those conditions, par-
ticularly angle of attack, that best simulate a par-
10-4 2 4 6 8 10-3 2 4 6 8 lO'^
ticular field experiment.
FULL-SCALE WAVE NUMBER, FT"1
Figure Sample power spectral density curves obtained
Measurements of building accelerations, strains j

9.
'

from both model and full-scale experiments on an in columns, or deflections can provide valuable in-
office building in Montreal. formation about the integrated effect of wind over

70
the whole structure, and comparisons can be made This paper is a contribution from the Division of
on models articulated at the base and suitably ad- Building Research, National Research (youiicil,

justed for damping and period of vibration. Canada, and is published with the approval of the
The separation of wind effects into a mean compo- Director of the Division.
nent and a superimposed fluctuating component
7. References
made the analysis and the comparison between
[l] Davenport, A. G. "Wind Loads on Structures." Division
model and full scale much easier to understand. It
of Building Research, National Research Council,
was necessary to apply a correction to the reference Canada, NRC 5576, March 1960.
static pressure for the mean component of the pres- [2] Jensen, M. "The Model-law for Phenomena in Natural
sure, and the difference in time scales had to be taken Wind." Ingeni^ren, International Edition, Vol. 2, No. 4,
1968.
into account in dealing with fluctuating components.
[3| Newberry, C. W. "The Measurement of Wind Pressures
on Tall Buildings." p. 113-150, NPL Symposium on
5.2. Approximate Costs Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Vol. 1, London,
HMSO, 1965.
The part measurements
of the project involving
[4] Newberry, C. W., K. J. Eaton, and .J. R. Mayne. "The
on the 34-story building covered the period from Nature of Gust Loading on Tall Buildings." p. 339-428,
spring 1964 to approximately December 1967. The Proc. International Research Seminar on Wind Effects on
overall cost for the 4 years was approximately Buildings and Structures, Ottawa, Canada, September
1967, Vol. 1, University of Toronto Press, 1968.
$100,000. Of this, instrumentation, including in-
[5] Newberry, C. W. and J. R. Mayne. "Wind Loading of a
stallation, maintenance, and field trips accounted for
Tall Building in an Urban Environment; A comparison
$30,000, engineers' and technicians' time about of Full Scale and Wind Tunnel Tests." Paper 3, Sym-
$60,000, and computer processing at standard com- posium on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures,
mercial rates $10,000. April 1968, Loughborough University of Technology,
Vol. 1, England, 1968.
(6] .Joubert, P. N. et al. "The Drag of Bluff Bodies Immersed
6. Conclusion in a Turbulent Boundary Layer." p. 297-336, Proc,

Wind pressure measurements are now under way International Research Seminar on Wind Effects on
Buildings and Structures, Ottawa, Canada, September
in the building marked A in Figures 1 and 2. This
1967, University of Toronto Press, 1968.
is a 600-ft high office building with a much more Van Koten, H. "Wind Measurements of High Buildings
[7|
open exposure, particularly to the southwest. A in the Netherlands." p. 685-704, Proc, International
new data acquisition system incorporating most of Research Seminar on Wind Effects on Buildings and
the suggested improvements has been installed at a Structures, Ottawa, Canada, September 1967, University
of Toronto Press, 1968.
cost of nearly $40,000, and arrangements are being
[8| Davenport, A. G. "The Application of Statistical
made to record the particle velocity of the top of
Concepts to the Wind Loading of Structures." Proc,
the building. The main objective, as in the previous Institution of Civil Engineers, August 1961.
measurements, is the gathering of essential field [9] "Tenantless Building Will Rise in Path of Typhoons."
data for the development and checking of wind Engineering News Record, March 14, 1968, p. 29.
[10] Leutheusser, H. J. and W. D. Baines. "Similitude
tunnel techniques so that eventually they can be
Problems in Aerodynamics." Journal of
Building
used with confidence for the determination of wind
Hydraulics Division, Proc, American Society of Civil
effects on buildings and structures. Engineers, p. 35-49, May 1967.
[11] Davenport, A. G. and N. Isyumov. "The Application of
the Boimilary Layer Wind Tunnel to the Prediction of
Field measurements on the 34-story office building
Wind Loading." p. 201-230, Proc, International
could not have been made without the permission Research Seminar on Wind Effects on Buildings and
of the owners. The Division of Building Research is Structures, Ottawa, Canada, September 1967, L^niversity
grateful to Dorchester University Holdings Limited of Toronto Press, 1968.
Bendat, J. S. and A. G. Piersol. Measurement and Analysis
for their cooperation. Many people have contributed [12]
of Random Data. New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1966.
in various ways to the project; all are appreciated;
[13] Lee, Y. W. Statistical Theory of Communication. New
in particular, the efforts of Mr. W. von Tobel de- York, John Wiley and Sons, 1960.
serve special recognition. [14] Rathbun, J. C. "Wind Forces on a Tall Building."
The wind tunnel tests were made at the Univer- Trans. American Society of Civil Engineers, Pai)er No.
2056, Vol. 105, p. 1-41, 1940.
sity Western Ontario Boundary-Layer Wind
of
[15| Dryden, H. L. and G. C. Hill. "Wind Pressure on a
Tunnel under the direction of Dr. A. G. Davenport
Model of the I'jnpire State Building." Joinnal of
and N. Isyumov. Their interest and assistance is Research, National Bureau of Standards, Vol. 10, [). 493-
gratefully acknowledged. 523, 1933.

71
I..
 INFLUENCE OF ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES ON THE STATIC WIND
LOADING OF BUILDINGS
Hans J. Leutheusser

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Toronto
Toronto 6, Ontario, Canada

The paper deals with the exploration, by model tests, of the effects of roof parapets and roof
projections onto the roof wind-loading, and of wall mullions (or
onto the wall wind-loading,
ribs)
of bluff building forms. Results are presented which suggest that parapets are effective in equalizing
the pressure distribution over the roof surface while slightly reducing the uplift force. Roof pro-
jections, on the other hand, have the opposite effects. The presence of wall mullions causes saw-
tooth like deviations from the peripheral wall pressure-distribution for the no-rib case. The devi-
ations are particularly significant in regions of attached flow and tend to become more pronounced
with an increase in rib spacing.

Key words: Architectural features; buildings; mullions; parapets; roof projections; static pressures;
wind effects; wind tunnel modeling.

1. Introduction were undertaken to study the effects of roof parapets

and roof projections onto the roof wind-loading of
For the majority of conventional buildings knowl-
flat-topped, block-type structures and circular cyl-
edge of the time-averaged, or static, wind loading
inders. Furthermore, an investigation has now been
(as opposed to the dynamic loading due to vortex
initiated to explore the effects of wall mullions (or
shedding and turbulence) is usually sufficient to
ribs) on the peripheral wall pressure-distribution of
allow adequate design of exterior walls, roofs and
very tall structures of rectangular plan. This latter
cladding, and to test the stability of a structure as a
study is still in progress, but some results for the
whole against overturning. Because of its great
square-plan building configuration are already avail-
utility, hence, information on the static wind loading
able. All of the various investigations, which are
is usually summarized for a wide range of building
described in some detail in the following, were stimu-
configurations in the building codes of most
lated by the keen interest taken in the subject
countries.
matter by the Division of Building Research of the
The bulkof these code data originates from model
National Research Council of Canada.
tests which are performed, with various degrees of
sophistication, in wind or water tunnels of labora-
2. Investigative Procedure
tories specializing in experimental building aero-
dynamics. Since the physical size of models in rela- Wind action on buildings and structures is a con-
tion to their full-scale counterparts is very small sequence of what in Fluid Mechanics is referred to
(linear scale ratios of 1 : 200 to 1 : 400 are common) as flow about bluff bodies at large Reynolds number.
it proves rarely possible to reproduce in a model This statement implies that the flow field can be
with sufficient detail all of the architectural features divided into a potential flow zone, a boundary-layer
of a prototype structure which would assure exact region and a turbulent wake. Although the field can
geometric similarity between the two. As a conse- be described by equations of motion, the complexity
quence, it has long been recognized that models of them precludes mathematical solution. Hence,
may be inadvertently oversimplified and, hence, the experimental approach must be adopted for
that tests may yield incomplete or even misleading the solution of most practical problems such as the
results. determination of the static wind loading on buildings.
In order to ascertain the influence which architec- The investigations under consideration here were
tural features might have on the static wind loading variously carried out in one of two essentially
of buildings a number of systematic investigations identical micrometeorological wind-tunnel facilities.
have been performed in the Fluid Mechanics These tunnels are of the open-return type, have
Laboratory of the Department of Mechanical Engi- test sections 8 ft wide, 4 ft high and 36 ft long and
neering, University of Toronto. In particular, tests are equipped with continuously variable speed

73
drives at their downstream ends. At its upstream
end, each tunnel contains a honeycomb followed (2)
by a stilling chamber with screens and a gradual
constriction. The maximum air speed realizable in where A is the total area, and is the area element
the two tunnels is, respectively, about 25 and about contributoiy to an individual pressure tap.
60 ft per second.
All tests were performed with the models installed 3, Study of Roof Parapets
in the uniform velocity field of the potential flow
core of the wind-tunnel test-section. This was done
3.1. Scope and Experimental Details
although it is well recognized that this classical ex- A very common feature of flat-roofed buildings is

perimental technique can yield results of only limited the parapet, a low wall around the edges of the roof.
practical utility [1].* However, the method was Parapets are usually integral parts of the outside
judged to be applicable in the present instance since and are designed to provide posi-
walls of buildings
the main concern of the various studies was to ex- tive anchorage of roof to structure. However, as
plore relative changes. In other words, the investiga- first Nacy [2], parapets may also be
suggested by
tions were based on the premise that relative effects beneficial in reducing local extremes of wind suction
on pressure distributions brought about by minor by equalizing the wind pressure distribution over the
modifications in building geometry are sensibly in- roof surface. Since the occurrence of local pressure
dependent of the mean flow and turbulence char- extremes, or more specifically, of the associated steep
acteristics of the velocity field. pressure gradients, often entails wind damage to
Throughout the testing program special pre- cladding, parapets would thus appear to represent
cautions were taken to effectively seal the leeward, an appealing combination of accepted architectural
low-pressure, building wake against falsifying en- feature and wind safeguard.
trainment of ambient-pressure fluid [1]. This was In an effort to explore the promising character-
accomplished by ground and separating
using istics of parapets in some greater detail, a study
plates of sufficient size, and by carefully blocking all program was devised encompassing representa-
possible leakage paths between high and low pres- tive ranges of both building configuration and para-
sure zones on the models. pet height [3]. The general configurations of the
For the purpose of determining the pressure dis- building models investigated are illustrated in the
tribution, selected regions of the model exteriors definition diagrams of Figure 1. In particular, for
were provided with closely spaced and carefully the block-type structure, the aspect ratio of the
finished static pressure taps. Local pressures (p) building plan h/l was either 3^ (oblong) or 1
were determined with respect to the ambient static (square), and for both the block-type and the
pressure (po) prevailing in the field of undisturbed cylindrical structures the relative building height
flow velocity immediately upstream of the h/h (or h/d) varied between }/2, 1, and 2. Similarly,
model, as indicated by the static holes of a strate- the relative parapet height p/h ranged from 0 to
gically arranged Pitot-static tube. Pressure diff'er- }4, for both building configurations.
ences evaluated from the readings of a sensitive The models were manufactured from clear acrylic
micromanometer were rendered nondimensional by plastic at an actual size of 6 =d=6 in. and with a
division with the dynamic pressure of the undis- uniform parapet thickness of 3^ in. Each of the
turbed airstream to yield nondimensional local three basic building shapes (i.e. oblong, square and
pressure coefficients, viz. round) comprised three main components, viz. three

interchangeable wall shells, five interchangeable

parapet rings, and the roof proper which was pro-
Cn (1) vided with pressure taps. The top photograph of
Figure 2 represents an "exploded" view of the oblong
block-type structure, and the bottom photograph
where p is the fluid density. Average pressure coeffi-
shows this structure mounted on a ground plate and
cients were deduced by numerically integrating the
installed in the wind tunnel.
local pressure coefficients over appropriate building
All tests were performed at a free-stream velocity
surfaces, i.e..
Vo of about 20 ft per second (corresponding to a
Reynolds number, based on the minimum model
* Figures in brackets indicate references at the end of paper. dimension h or d, of about 6X 10^), and each building

74
 :

Definition Diagram of MODEL STUDY OF ROOF PARAPETS

ROOF PARAPETS

Complete Set of Model Componets of

Structure with b/X = 1/2

Figure 1. Definition diagram of roof parapets.

configuration was tested at all of the principal wind Model Installed in Wind Tunnel
directions. (b/U =1/2, h/b=l/2, p/h=l/6,<e.=45°)

Figure 2. Parapet study, model components and model

3.2. Results and Discussion installation.

By way of example, figures 3a and 3b depict ex-

perimentally determined distributions of nondimen- For block-type structures, 45° winds result in
sionalized relative pressure over the roof surface of large negative pressures close to the leading corner.
the square-plan block-type structure {h/b=l) for In the case of low buildings, parapets of small height
six values of relative parapet height and for the two make these pressures even more severe. Similarly,
i principal wind directions applicable in this case, these extreme negative pressures increase with de-
j
The information conveyed by the various plots is creasing aspect ratio b/l of the building plan.
I
representative of the sum total of general findings Addition of parapets may result in some instances
i
of the investigation which can be summarized as These will occur mainly
in locally positive pressures.
follows in leeward roof areas of low block-type structures
j
In general, the nonuniformity of pressure dis- equipped with high parapets and subjected to
tribution is greatest for a p/h-ratio equal to zero. cornering winds.
Increasing the height of parapets tends to equalize A more concise summary of the test results than
the pressure over the roof surface. This effect be- can be provided by plots of isobars is offered in
comes more pronounced with an increase in building Figure 4. Here the effectiveness of parapets in rela-
height. tion to pressure equalization is expressed in terms

75
Archit'l Feature: ROOF PARAPETS Archit'l Feature: ROOF PARAPETS
ISOBARS (cp- Contours) on ROOF b/l = 1
I
ISOBARS (cp- Contours) on ROOF
of of
BLQCK-TVPE STRUCTURE h/h
n/ D i
BLOCK-TYPE STRUCTURE
p/h •0° p/h
1 1

SECTION

IA8 1/^8

\/zw 1/24

1/12 1/12

1/6 \

Figure 3a. Effects of parapets on roof pressure-distribution

Figure 3b. Effects of parapets on roof pressure-distribution
for frontal wind.
for cornering wind.

Arcfiitectunl Feafure: ROOF PARAF€TS

(Cp) ex t r
Rectangubr Plan
(b/l - U2>
EFFECTS ON PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION (3)
AND LIFT COEFFIOENT c.
h/b (h/d) = 1/2
*s.o Square Plan '
' 2
1 in which (Cp)extr is the largest measured local pres-
n.o
sure coefficient of a particular pressure distribution,
*i.O — C/rcutor Plan and Cl is the lift coefficient or, what is the same in
V2-M> this case, the average pressure coefficient for the
*2.0 whole roof as defined by Eq. 2, where A is the total
flO roof area inside of the parapet. Since for design
0 mt 1/12 3/2t l/S fl/7l 0 l/2i l/!2 3/21. p/h 0 l/2( Vt2 3/24 l/S

purposes, at least, distinction between wind direc-

tions is irrelevant, both e and Cl are plotted in
^
Figure 4 as function of relative parapet height p/h
with relative building height h/b (or h/d) as a param-
eter, but irrespective of wind angle. As a conse-
quence, the curves in Figure 4 actually represent
the envelopes of the most critical values of e and Cl
Figure 4. Neteffects of roof parapets on pressure distribu-
for all of the wind directions tested.
tion and on lift coefficient.
The systematic variation of e in Figure 4
is remarkable, particularly in view of the some-
of an index (tending toward unity for complete what more erratic behavior of the correspond-
uniformity) ing lift coefficients. It is immediately apparent that

76
for all structures not only relative parapet height In an attempt to provide some quantitative in-
but also relative building height has a pronounced formation on the influence of projections onto the
effect on the nonuniformity of pressure distribution roof wind-loading of flat-topped buildings, a study
as measured by e. The latter decreases in general program similar in scope to that of the previ-
with increasing values of p/h and h/h (or h/d). As ously reported parapet study was executed [4]. The
suggested also by the isobar plots, addition of general configurations of the various building models
parapets of insufficient height to low block-type investigated are depicted in Figure 5. As before,
structures may cause the nonuniformity of pressure the aspect ratio h/l of the plan of the block-type
distribution to become more severe. It is noteworthy structures was either }/2 (oblong) or 1 (square), and
that this effect is particularly pronounced in the the relative building height h/h (or h/d) varied
case of the oblong block-type structure. It is also between 3^, 1, and 2. Similarly, the relative roof
apparent that, for the purpose of pressure equaliza- projection e/h ranged in uneven increments between
tion, parapets are not likely to be very useful on 0 and
tall block-type structures and on cyhndrical struc- The models were manufactured out of plastic and
tures of any height. built at an actual size of 6 =d=6 inches. The over-
The variation of lift coefficient with relative hanging portions of the roofs had a uniform thick-
parapet height depicted in Figure 4 shows a generally ness of ^6 inch. Each of the three basic building
decreasing trend for all three types of structure and shapes, i.e., oblong, square, and round, comprised
for all building heights. Over the range of relative two main components, viz. three interchangable
parapet heights tested, this load relieving effect of
parapets increases to about 10% of the uplift force
on an unprotected roof (i.e., one for which p//i = 0). Definition Diagram of
It is also apparent that lift coefficients become nu- ROOF PROJECTIONS
merically larger with an increase in building height
whether or not parapets are present. Indeed, from
the data available it is clear that it is relative build-
ing height rather than relative parapet height which
is the significant parameter in determining the ap-
plicable roof lift coefficient for a particular building.
However, somewhat inconclusive experimental evi-

dence [3] suggests that the lift coefficient will be-

come independent of relative building height at
values of h/h (or h/d) of about 10, in which case
then relative parapet height would assume the role
of governing parameter.

4. Study of Roof Projections

4.1. Scope and Experimental Details

The term "projections" refers to those portions of

the roof which overhang the side walls of a building.
Roof projections are a normal and, indeed, necessary
feature of practically all residential buildings inso-
far as they serve to protect outside walls against the
direct roof runoff of precipitation, and provide
shade. Even elementary aerodynamic considerations
suggest that roof projections will have an adverse
effect on the static wind loading of both roof and
walls, particularly in the case of flat-topped build-
ings. However, no concerted attempt at clarifying
their role seems to have ever been made. Figure 5. Definition diagram of roof projections.

77
wall shells and four interchangable roofs. Each roof subsequently cementing the top layer to this surface.
consisted of three laminated layers of sheet plastic. Static pressure holes were drilled after the three
The bottom layer was 3^-inch thick, fitted into the layers had been laminated together, and all internal
appropriate wall shell and accommodated the channels, as well as all straight-through taps, were
manometer-lead receptacles for pressure taps strate- carefully pressure-tested for cross-leakage. By way
gically arranged in bot-h the top surface of the whole of example, the top photograph of Figure 6 portrays
roof and the underside of the roof projections. The the complete complement of components for the
3/8-inch thick center layer and the J^g-iiich top layer oblong block-type structure, and the bottom photo-
together constituted the roof proper. Its two-layer graph shows the square-plan block-type structure
construction was necessitated by the requirement installed in the wind tunnel.
for having internal connections between the pres- As in the case of the parapet
study all tests were
sure taps in the projecting portions of the roof and run with a free-stream velocity of about 20 feet per
their corresponding manometer-lead receptacles in second, and each building configuration was tested
the interior of the model. The internal connections at all of the principal wind directions.
were realized by milling shallow channels into the
upper surface of the center layer of the roof, and by
4.2. Results and Discussion
MODEL STUDY OF ROOF PROJECTIONS Figures 7a and 7b show the pressure distributions
over the upper and lower roof surfaces of the square-
plan block-type structure {h/b = l) for six values of
relative roof projection and for the two principal
wind directions applicable to this building shape.
These diagrams are representative examples of all
of the isobar plots prepared in the course of the data
evaluation.
Inspection reveals that an increase in relative
roof projection causes the pressure distributions to
become more nonuniform, particularly for frontal
winds. However, the changes do not appear to be
very drastic, at least not for the range of e/Zi-values
studied. As would be expected, 45° winds acting on
the block-type structures give rise to local suction
Complete Set of Model Components of extremes on the top surface of the roof in the im-
Structure with b/"C = 1/2 mediate vicinity of the leading corner. To be sure,
the measured values of these pressure extremes for
the various e/h-values pertaining to a particular
combination of b/l and h/b do not permit direct
comparison because the members of such a series of
models are not geometrically similar. However, in
overall view of the experimental evidence available
it would appear that also local suction extremes
ought to be relatively insensitive to changes in e/h.
Of particular interest are the pressure distribu-
tions over the underside of roof projections. Positive
pressures prevail generally over all eaves over-
shadowing windward building walls. In the case of
cylindrical structures the positive pressure region is

restricted to the upwind 60° sector.The balance of

the eaves is subject to relatively weak suction as in-
Model Installed in Wind Tunnel dicatedby measured negative pressure coefficients
(b/X =1, h/b=2, e/h=l/l2,'e =0*^)
which nowhere exceed an absolute value of 0.9.
Figure 6. Projection study, model components, and model Integration of the various pressure distributions
installation. over the roof surfaces of all structures tested showed

78
 —

ArchitectufX]l Feature: ROOF PROJECTIONS Architectural Feature: ROOF PROJECTIONS

ISOBARS (cp-Contours") on ROOF of
BLOCK-TYPE STRUCTURE
TOP SURFACE b/l= 1 b/'l= 1.

t-048
h/b- I h/b- 1
,
1

—=i
;
o V'.ND DIRECTION,
O VINO oiRe.cTiO''

1
UNDE.RSIDE UNDERSIDE
(as f^een from above) (as 'j^e'.^ti 'iram above)

\ •

iA8 I As
\
J-0-73
-OLM -037 -asij -OM -slz -OM -tSK

1/24 1/24 »«• *— — IJ-

-

1 I \^
-0.58 -oU -aii
-1

1/12

: —r- 1

1/6

Figure 7a. Effects of projections on roof pressure-distribu-

tion for frontal wind. Figure 7b. Effects of projections on roof pressure-distribu-
tion for cornering wind.

that both the average pressure coefficient (cpr) for

the top surface of the roof {At), and the average
L/A+
pressure coefficient (cpu) for the underside of the roof Cl+ = Cl{At/A+) = (5)
projection {Au) are invariably negative, i.e. that
there is always an upward directed upUft force which is referred to the plan area (i.e., 6X/ or
acting on the top surface, and a downward directed d'^Tr/4:) of the structure proper. The variation of the
downpull force acting on the eaves. As a consequence, maximum (i.e., irrespective of wind direction) spe-
the net Hft coefficient for the whole roof, i.e.,
as a function of e/h with h/b (or
cific lift coefficient

^
tL=
L/At
— — =CpT- Cpu{Au/At) (4)
h/d) as a parameter is plotted in Figure
of the curves leads to the interesting conclusion that
8. Inspection

the net uplift force on roofs of cylindrical structures

where L is the net lift found to vary little
force, is is,over a certain range of the argument, practically
and, indeed, may even tend to decrease with an in- independent of e/h and, hence, of the roof diameter.
crease in relative roof projection. The range is longest for the lowest structure and de-
However, by its very definition Cl is not a direct creases quite systematically with increasing building
measure of the net uphft force acting on the roof of height. On the other hand, only the two lowest of
a given structure since it depends on At and, hence, the block-type structures exhibit a similar char-
on e/h. More meaningful for judging the effects of acteristic, but the behavior is less pronounced par-
variable relative roof projection on the net lift force ticularly in the case of the oblong configuration. It
is the "specific" lift coefficient defined as is further apparent from Figure 8 that for all of the

79
 Architectural Feature: ROOF PROJECTIONS In an effort to at least partially close this informa-
Pkn
EFFECTS ON PRESSURE aSTRIBUTION
Rectangular
AND UFT COEFFICIENT tion gap a study program was devised around the
7'h/t 1
Square Pkin concept of a very tall, i.e., essentially two-dimen-
•rrr
h/b (h/d) = 1/2 sional, building of rectangular plan configuration
- 7
- 2 equipped with mullions of identical cross-section
f Circular Pkm
geometry but of variable spacing between fixed
corner arrangements.
1

The general characteristics of this building are

indicated in Figure 9. Although the model of this
0 lOi ya 3Qi iM e/h 1 3/2i i/s e/h o im tm im ik

structure permits changing the aspect ratio h/l

of the building planfrom Yi (oblong) to 1 (square),
only tests on the square-plan configuration have so
far been undertaken. Similarly, the model is actually
designed in such a way that a wide variety of types
of ribbed building walls can be studied. However,
Figure 8. Net effects of roof projections on top-surface during the investigation here under consideration
only mullions of square plan arranged with variable
building shapes investigated, Cl"^ (and hence, the spacings s/h of 1/27, 3/27 and 5/27 have been used.
net uphft force) increases strongly with building The square-plan model tested has an actual
height. 6=13.5 inches. It consists
physical size of of four
Also plotted on Figure 8 is an index illustrating main components, viz. model stand, one set of
the degree of nonuniformity existing on the top (scjuare) end plates, one set of separating plates
surface of the roof. This index is defined similar to (attached to the end plates and serving as wake
Eq. 3, i.e.,
seals), and four sets of wall panels. Each set of wall

(Cpr) extr panels (three provided with ribs at different spacings

(6)
and one without ribs for the purpose of comparison)

where the largest measured local pressure

(Cpr)extr is
Definition Diagram of
coefficienton the top surface. The variation of
WALL MULLIONS
with e/h and /i/6 (or /i/d), though rather erratic,
certainly suggests that no benefit can be derived
from roof projection with regard to pressure
equalization.

5. Study of Wall Mullions

5.1. Scope and Experimental Details
Mullions, or vertical ribs, protruding from the
exterior surface of outside building walls seem to
become increasingly popular with architects design-
ing high-rise office towers and apartment buildings.
More often than not these ribs have no functional
purpose and are used strictly for appearance's sake.
Some limited information on the pressure distribu-
tion over the outside walls of cylindrical tanks with
vertical fins [5] suggests that there may occur
significant pressure differences across wall projec-
tions and, hence, that mullions may be subjected to
possibly very large aerodynamic forces due to wind
action.However, no pertinent design data which
would be directly applicable to angular buildings
BLOCK- TYPE STRUCTURE
with plane walls appears to be presently available
in the literature. Figure 9. Definition diagram of wall mullions.

80
 MODEL STUDY OF WALL MULLIONS MODEL STUDY OF WALL MULLION .S

Complete Set of Model Walls with s/b=l/27 Model Interior Showing Contact Plate

Model installed in Wind Tunnel Close-Up of Exterior Model Surface

(b/l = l, e/b=l/27, s/b=l/27, =45° ) (s/b = 1/27)

Figure 10. Mullion study, model components and model Figure 1L Mullion study, model details.

installation.

model installed in the wind tunnel. Details of the

comprise four panels of which one only is provided
pressure-tap hook-up, and the outside appearance
with pressure taps.
of the tapped wall panel with the closest mullion
The arrangement of the pressure taps is staggered
spacing are shown in the two photographs of Figure
over the center third of the 12-in. high model, and
11.
there are a minimum of three taps in each half-inch
All tests of the investigation were run at a fi-ec-
of peripheral length including each mullion face.
stream velocity of al)out 50 ft per second (corre-
Hook-up of the pressure taps to abundle of manom-
sponding to a Reynolds number, based on the dimen-
eter leads which ispermanently installed in the
sion b, of about 2.3X10^), and each mullion
hollow shaft of the model stand is effected by bolting
configuration was tested for both fi'ontal and corn-
a lead-terminal contact plate leak-proof against the
ering (i.e., 45°) winds.
interior surface of the tapped wall panel.
The top photograph of Figure 10 portrays a com-
5.2. Results and Discussion
plete set of wall panels for the oblong structure sur-
rounding one of the corresponding model end-plates, In the order to assure two-dimensional flow about
and the bottom photograph shows the square-plan the model, the building wake had to be perfectly

81
 Square -Ran Cylinder
the basic shell (i.e., 6X0 of the model, and the dots
measure the average pressure difference across
EFFECTS OF WAKE SEAUNG BY PLATES
ON PERIPHERAL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION individual mullions. The type of data repre-
latter
sentation is made conveniently possible by the
experimentally established fact that the pressure dis-
tribution over the mullion side-walls is essentially
uniform.

Inspection of the various diagrams reveals that

mullions may, indeed, cause serious modifications of
the peripheral pressure distribution for the no-rib
case shown as a dashed line. The modifications con-
sist essentially of saw-tooth like deviations from the
plain-wall case which increase in magnitude with an
increase in mullion spacing. The effects of mullions
on the pressure distribution are particularly signifi-

cant in those regions of the building plan where, in

the case of no ribs, the flow is attached to the struc-
ture. The static loading on mullions can be severe as
indicated by the pressure conditions recorded for
the windward corner shown in Figure 13c. Here the
measurements indicate the existence of pressure differ-
ences in the neighborhood of twice the dynamic
pressure in both directions across the mullion section.
Figure 12. Pressure distribution on a square-plan cylinder. It appears, that still more critical conditions could
result from larger mullion spacings than were tested
so far.

sealed against inflow from above and below. Results

of an incidental series of tests with various designs
of separating plates attached to the plain structure
are depicted in Figure 12. In this, cases A, B and C
pertain to absence of any plates circular separating
: ;

6. Conclusions
plates; and circular separating plates with tails;

respectively. From a study of the flow behavior in True appreciation of the effects which architectural
the wake region with the aid of a tuft probe, case C features might have on the static wind loading of
was confirmed as providing complete wake sealing, buildings can only come through carefully performed
and the corresponding distribution of peripheral model tests. While the paper summarizes a consider-
wall pressure forms the basis of comparison to which able body of hopefully useful information in this
are referred the results of the mullion study proper. regard, the data presented actually pertain only to a
Throughout study the model was always equip-
this very small number of features, viz. roof parapets,
ped with separating plates corresponding to case C. roof projections, and wall mullions. There are many
Figures 13a through 14c are plots of the non- other common architectural details which deserve
dimensional peripheral wall pressure-distribution on to be studied in a similar systematic manner and
the square-plan structure for three cases of mullion much remains to be done before a really significant
spacing and two wind directions. In these, the solid advance in the understanding of wind effects in this
lines correspond to pressures measured normal to field of building aerodynamics will become apparent.

82
 • —

mil Mullions
b/l' 1

c/b *1/27
s/b-1/27

^
1

O O
CD -rT
1 6 § >

h
-
-p- -7 1

<
l"ja_

Figure 13a. Effects of wall mullions on peripheral pressure distribution for frontal wind (s/6 = l/27).

mil Mullions
b/l - ;

c/b -1/27
Cp
s/b '3/27
-;.o

-o.e

s/b -(
-0.5

-a2
• lO >» IN
UM. o CS a cj
I I I I

+ 4. 4. 4.
J; ») <» o
^—
: 1
—-~
a cs

/ — 1 1

c/f F/^ure fer s/b = 1/27

FiGUBE 13b. Effects of wall mullions on peripheral pressure distribution for frontal wind (s/6 = 3/'27).

83
 ' —
Wall Mullions
M - ;

c/b'1/27
Cp
s/b'5/27
-10
/b m 0O
-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-02

-\-
p
K<
p
K p
ffi
.o
OB
«L7
w

— -1

Figure 13c. Effects of wall mullions on peripheral pressure distribution for frontal wind (s/b = 5/27).

• « avg. kiteral press, difference across mullions /

positive if tending to mil Mullions
turn dockwise
b/l - ;
J' c/b - 1/27
s/b'1/27
If -45'

Figure 14a. Effects of wall mullions on peripheral pressure distribution for cornering wind (s/6 = l/27).

84
• * c/f Figure for s/b - 1/27

si'

Figure 14b. Effects of wall mullions on peripheral pressure distribution for cornering wind (s/6 = 3/27).

• * cf. Figure for s/b - 1/27

mil Mullions
b/l - 1
09
c/b ' 1/27
s/b '5/27

Figure 14c. Effects of wall mullions on peripheral pressure distribution for cornering wind (s/6 = 5/27).

85
 The work described herein covers several years lished. Department of Mechanics and Hydraulics,
Graduate College, State University of Iowa, June 1951.
and was made possible through grants by the Na-
[3] Leutheusser, H. J., "The Effects of Wall Parapets on the
tional Research Council of Canada. The writer is
Roof Pressure-Coefficients of Block-Type and Cylindrical
indebted to his many co-workers who, at various Structures,"University of Toronto, Department of
times, rendered able assistance to his research Mechanical Engineering, Technical Publication Series,
program. TP 6404, April 1964.
[4] Leutheusser, H. J., "The Effects of Eaves on the Roof
7. References Pressure-Coefficients of Block-Type and Cylindrical
[1] Leutheusser, H. J. and Baines, W. D., "Similitude Structures," University of Toronto, Department of
Problems in Building Aerodynamics," Journal of the Mechanical Engineering, Technical Publication Series,
Hydraulics Division, Proceedings of the American Society TP 6503, April 1965.
Volume 93, No. HY3, May 1967.
of Civil Engineers, [5] Hoerner, S. F., "Fluid-Dynamic Drag, Practical Informa-

[2] Nacy, P. S., "Modification of Pressure Distribution tion on Aerodynamic Drag and Hydrodynamic Resist-
around Buildings due to Parapets," M.S.-Thesis, unpub- ance," published by the author, Midland Park, N.J., 1965.

86
THE UNSTEADY SURFACE PRESSURE AROUND CIRCULAR CYLINDERS IN
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW*
Wayne E. Simon
Martin Marietta Corporation
Denver Division
Denver, Colorado 80201

The unsteady surface pressure around circular cylinders in two-dimensional flow has been
measured in the subcritical, supercritical, and A representation of the
transcritical flow regions.
crosspower spectral density has been developed which a reasonable representation of the data
is

and which applies to all three regions. The most important result is the essential similarity of
the subcritical and transcritical regions.

Key words: Circular cylinders; power spectra; pressure fluctuations; subcritical flow; .super-
critical flow; transcritical flow; turbulence.

1. Introduction the Strouhal frequency and the model frequency

were the same, thus giving very high response, the
The parameter analysis was, in
original flow field
observed motion of the model was approximately
essence, a semiempirical representation of the un-
periodic and nearly sinusoidal. The flow field param-
steady aerodynamic force exerted on a boost vehicle eter analysis computations gave a response of the
in the vertical launch position. It was so constructed
right magnitude, but with a narrow-band random
that the calculated response of the Saturn V wind response that was not periodic.
tunnel model was a reasonably good representation
Since the purpose of the flow field parameter
of the wind tunnel data. In this work, was found
it
analysis is to predict vehicle response based on data
necessary to postulate a relationship between
from a wind tunnel, it is very important that the
Strouhal frequency and the second derivative of the
analysis correctly reflects the physical situation.
steady pressure at the separation point [1].**
An experimental program was then planned to
An experimental program was then planned to
investigate the unsteady surface pressure around a
investigate this postulate. The work reported in
circular cylinder in two-dimensional flow. This
Chapter II, Section C of Reference 2 showed that program was designed to obtain data on the un-
this postulate was valid.
steady pressure for a relatively simple flow condition.
Another portion of the flow field parameter To incorporate the unsteady pressure into the flow
analysis postulatedan exponential decay in the cross- field parameter analysis, it will be necessary to ob-
correlation of the unsteady force as a function of
tain additional data for the effect of three-dimen-
axial displacement. In addition, an effect of vehicle
sional flow (change of section and presence of the
motion on the correlation length was also assumed. tip of the vehicle) and for the effect of vehicle motion
Although these assumptions were necessary to give a on the unsteady pressure.
mathematical model that agreed with response
measurements in the wind tunnel, data were not 2. Nomenclature
available to establish their validity. One fact indi-
Cp^ base pressure coefficient
cated that some factor was still missing in the
Cd^, viscous drag coefficient
analysis. This fact was the observation that when
q stream dynamic pressure
free
power spectral density of pi
Fp^p^{o})
* This work was performed under Contract NAS8-5322,
FpiPiM cross power spectral density of pi and p2
from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
p unsteady pressure
George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama.
** Figures in brackets indicate references at the end of this (Tp standard deviation of unsteady pressure =
paper. RMS
87
o) frequency in radians/sec spectral density is obtained, as presented in Figure
D cjdinder diameter 2. Finally, a representation of cross-power spectral
U free stream velocity density is obtained as shown in Figure 3. Note that
z axial distance coordinateon cylinder the representation is real. The data analysis showed
6 angular position coordinate on cylinder small imaginary components (phase angle <10 deg)
^ V(j:i-X2)2+3^(| 01-^0 D)2= geodesic with no observable trends. Combining these results,
I

distance between (a, ^i) and (j-2, ^2) on Eq (1) is obtained for the cross-power spectral
surface of cylinder density of the unsteady pressure in supercritical
5 Dirac delta function flow.

Data Analysis 2D
3. F pip2(w; Xi, X2, 61, d'l)
U
C(i- Cp,) q -200 n J
The experimental program used two tunnel-
spanning cylinders (10 in. and 2-i in. diameters) with
smooth and rough surfaces and with low and high exp -2 (1^1-^. I)
1/2

tunnel turbulence. It is then possible to produce

subcritical flow by using the smooth 10-in. cylinder ,1/2

in a clean tunnel. produced

Supercritical flow is

either by using a smooth 10-in. cylinder with a turbu-

lence grid in the tunnel, or by using the smooth 24-
in. cylinder in a clean tunnel. Finally, transcritical +
flow is produced by using a rough 24-in. cylinder
with a turbulence grid.
/ [<r|| (2D/U)] NORMALIZED
[Fp|p,(a,)] ,

The first regime to be analyzed was the super- POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY
critical Reynolds Number range. Examination of
the RIMS unsteady pressure indicated a sharp peak
at the separation point, with a rapidand reasonably
symmetric drop in both directions. Figure 1 presents
the representation which was developed. Note that
the factor
•

[9(1

is just the local free stream dynamic pressure at the

separation point. Next a representation of the power

0-10 inch Cylinder

- 24 inch Cylinder

(I-Cp,)q20 Co,
Normalized Standard Deviation

(Reduced Frequency)
(|e|-e, |)'''^, e, = Seporatlon Angle
Figure 2. Normalized power spectral density of surface
Figure 1. Normalized standard deviation of surface pressure pressure on 10-in. and 24-in. cylinders in super-
on 10-in. and 24-in. cylinders in supercritical flow. critical flow.

88
 0),Radians /sec - 5.45 - 21.8 43.6 174.5 O- 10 inch Cylinder in Subcriticol Flow
10 inch Cylinder - O - O A - 24 inch Cylinder in Tronscritical Flow
24 inch Cylinder - o - O A
<rp|/(q 10 Cq^) ~ Normalized

[|f>,P2M|]/[Fp|P|(w) Fp2P2 (w)]'''^ Normalized Standard Deviation

Cross. Power Spectrol Density

0.5 1.0 5.0

(l-Cp) ~ Local/Free Stream Dynamic Pressure

Figure 4. Normalized standard deviation of surface pressure

on 10-in. cylinder in subcritical flow and 24-in.
cylinder in transcritical flow.

quenc}^, and that the principal component of the

signal has a bandwidth less than the analysis band-
width of either the wideband or the narrow band
4 = Geodesic Distance between and pg. analysis. The technique developed in Chapter II of
P|
Reference 3 is then used to indicate the nature of
Figure 3. Normalized cross power spectral density of surface
the signal. Figure 6 presents the results. It is indi-
pressure on 10-in. and 24-in. cylinders in super-
critical flow. cated that the signals are a combination of wide
band random with a strong periodic component,
where with no discernible difference between the subcritical
and transcritical regimes. It is interesting to note
do -D
+
I

(j-l-^2)- that the oscillator response amplitude distributions

show the same characteristics as response of the
Next the data and transcritical flow
for subcritical wind tunnel model. That is, when the oscillator fre-
were analyzed. It had originall.y been intended to quency coincides with the Strouhal frequency the
consider the regimes separately, but it soon became amplitude distribution approaches a sinusoidal dis-
evident that no qualitative difference could be found tribution. Away from the Strouhal frequency, the
between the two regimes. Examining the un- RMS amplitude distribution approaches a Gaussian dis-
steady pressure (and excluding the region around tribution. Figure 7 presents plots of surface pressure
the separation point where the random unsteady time history for the two regimes. If allowance is

pressure would be significant, it was seen that the made for the fact that the sampling rate per cycle
important variable was the local dynamic pressure. for transcritical flow is double that for subcritical
Figure 4 presents the representation of RMS un- flow, the two signals have the same appearance. Note
steady pressure which was developed. Figure 5 that although the signals are periodic, they are not
presents power spectral density computations for sinusoidal.
the two regimes. It is obvious that the results are Finally, when the cross-power spectral density at
essentially identical except for a difference in fre- the Strouhal frequency is computed, the result is

89
extremely simple. All signals on each side of the Note: Amplifier Gain Adjusted to Give Approx.
cylinder are in phase, and one
deg side is just 180 0.2 Volt Signal RMS to IVlinimize Error
in Digitizing
out of phase with the other (again within about 10 inch 24 inch
±10 deg).
(>0.95) for
The correlation is essentially
Combining these
unity Cylinder
O —— Cylinder
-Wide Band ( 600 Samples of Signal)

with Eq (1),
all

Eq
signals.
is obtained for the unsteady
results
A -
—O -Narrow Band (4000 Samples of Signal)
(2)
POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY
surface pressure on a circular cylinder in two-dimen- (Volt)2- sec/Radian
sional flow.

2D
X,, X2, du 6,) = — L{l-CJq-20CnJ
1/2
• exp 1

+ (1 e,-ds 1)1/2+

0.00010

.Ci-Cp(eO][i-Cp(02)]

.[,.ioc.jm(s-^)

(2)
where
7r<0<7r 0.00001

Note that the range of d has set so the cross-power

spectral density of the periodic pressure has the FREQUENCY, cps
proper phase angle. Since S =0 in the supercritical Figure 5. Effect of bandwidth on computed power spectral
flow regime, the periodic component vanishes in density of surface pressure signal for 10-in.

that regime but is otherwise present. It is interesting cylinder in subcritical flow and 24-in. cylinder in
transcritical flow.
to note, in this connection, that satellite pictures of
islands in ocean currents show a vortex system in
the wake behind the island.
is 0.14 at ie = 3X10^ increases to .30 at = 7X106,
and is approximately constant at higher Reynolds
4. Comparison with Work Under Contract Numbers.
NAS8-11277 Second, Reference 4 interprets the observed data
to indicate a wide-band random aerodynamic force
Direct comparisons with the work under Contract in the supercritical range, a narrow-band random
NAS8-11277 [4] are difficult since Reference 4 re- force in the low transcritical range, and finally a
ports measurements of the unsteady aerodynamic periodic plus random force in the high transcritical
forceon a segment of a tunnel-spanning cylinder. range. The flow field parameter analysis, [1], as-
However, qualitative comparisons can be made. sumed a wide-band random force in the supercritical
First, Reference 3 presents data indicating that the and a narrow-band random force in the transcritical
Strouhal Number increases from 0.15 at J? = 2X10*^ Reynolds Number range. The present results indi-
to 0.3 at R = 7X10^ and then is constant at 0.3 at cate that the aerodynamic force is wide-band random
higher Reynolds Number. Reference 1, presenting in the supercritical range, and random plus periodic
the original flow field parameter analysis, computes in both the subcritical and transcritical Reynolds
a Strouhal Number for the Saturn V model which Number regimes. Comparisons with the conclusions

90
 10 inch Cylinder SURFACE PRESSURE SIGNAL, Volts
Acceleration of Wide Band Oscillotor
(600 Samples of Signal, Ca^ 1.0 1)
A Acceleration of Narrow Band Oscillotor
(4000 Samples of Signal, Ca= 1.00)
24 inch Cylinder
Acceleration of Wide Bond Oscillator
(600 Samples of Signal, C8= 0.943)
O Acceleration of Narrow Bond Oscillator
(4000 Samples of Signal, C8=0.97)

NOFSVIALIZED EIGHTH MOMENT COEFFICIENT

2 3
TIME, seconds

Figure 7. Time history of surface pressure signal for 10-in.

cylinder in subcritieal flow and 24-in. cylinder in
transcritical flow.
FREQUENCY, cps

Figure 6. Effect of bandwidth on amplitude distribution of the essential similarity between the subcritieal and
acceleration of oscillator driven by surface transcritical Reynolds Number regimes.
pressure signal for 10-in. cylinder in subcritieal
flow and 24-in. cylinder in transcritical flow.

6. References
of Reference 4 concerning the motion dependence
of the force and the presence of negative aerodynamic [1] Peterson, H. C. and W. E. Simon: Investigations Relative

damping cannot be made until measurements of un- to Wind Induced Oscillations of the Saturn Boosters in the
Launch Position
Vertical (1 June 1963 thru 30 June 1961i.),
steady surface pressure on a moving model can be
September 1964.
performed. Simon, W. E., C. R. Howard, and H. C. Peterson:
[2]

Investigations Relative to Wind-Induced Oscillations of

Saturn Boosters in the Vertical Launch Position. Annual
Report, Contract NAS8-5322, March, 1967.
5. Conclusions
[3] Simon W. E. Investigations Relative to Wind-Induced
:

An extremely simple representation of the cross Oscillations of the Saturn Boosters in the Vertical Launch
Position. Final Report, Contract NAS8-5322, March,
power spectral density of the unsteady surface pres-
1968.
sure on a circular cylinder in two dimensional flow
[4] Cincotta, J. J.: Experimental Investigation of Wind-
has been developed that is a reasonable approxima- Induced Oscillation Effects on a Circular Cylinder in Two
tion to measured data. The most important result is Dimensional Flow. Contract NAS8-11277 (no date).

91
 ON THE RELIABILITY OF GUST LOADING FACTORS
Barry J. Vickery

Faculty of Engineering Science

University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario, Canada

The accuracy of the simpHfied gust factor approach to the determination of wind loads is
examined. An expression for the gust factor is derived which treats the scale of turbulence, mode
shape of vibration, and parameters defining the vertical and crosswind cospectra as variables.
The method formulated in this paper differs from previous methods primarily in the size reduction
factor and in the form of the spectrum of velocity fluctuations. Predicted values of gust factors
are compared with those observed on eight different aeroelastic models tested in a boundary layer
wind tunnel. The gust factor relates only to overall loads in the mean wind direction. Where basic
data are well defined, the ratio of expected peak values of wind-induced stress or deflection to their
average values can be predicted to an accuracy of typically 5 percent to 10 percent.

Key words: Buildings; dynamics; gust factor; mode shape; probability theory; wind loads.

1. Introduction treated as variables. In previous formulations of a

gust factor, these quantities have been assigned
While the dynamic action of wind on tall buildings,
specific values.
towers and other structures has been of some con-
In Section 3, the validity of the basic assumptions
cern to structural engineers for many years, there
used in the derivation are examined in the light of
have been few references to this action in the various
recent experimental data obtained from both models
building codes. This omission can be explained, in
and full scale structures. The experimental data are
part, by the absence of comparatively simple
employed to obtain a measure of the accuracy of
analyses or rules which would provide a reliable in-
the gust factor approach when used in conjunction
dication of the severity of dynamic action. Attempts
with well defined meteorological, aerodynamic, and
to formulate such a set of rules have recently been
structural parameters. The loss of accuracy associ-
made by Davenport [1],* Vickery [2], and Vellozzi
ated with the use of available meteorological data,
and Cohen [3]. The aim of all three of these attempts
which may often be poorly defined, is examined in
has been the definition of a "gust factor" to be ap-
Section 4.
plied to the steady wind forces in order to account
A comparison of gust factors computed by the
for dynamic action.
methods proposed by Davenport, Vickery, and
It is the object of this paper to examine the ac-
Vellozzi and Cohen with those computed in accord-
curacy of the simplified "gust factor" approach to
ance with this paper is presented in Section 5.
the assessment of wind loads. In Section 2, an ex-
pression for a gust factor is derived. The formulation 2. Derivation of a Gust Factor for a Linear
of the gust factor is similar to that presented by Elastic Structure in Turbulent Shear Flow
Davenport [1] but an endeavor has been made to The analysis which follows is based on numerous
reduce the necessary simplifications to a minimum. assumptions and simplifications, these are identified
The parameters involved computation of the
in the in the analysis and in subsequent sections; the
gust factor are more flexible than those adopted by major points will be examined more closely. The
Davenport and allow the user to take advantage of basic assumptions on which the analysis is based are
meteorological data which might be available for a as follows:
particular site. The scale of turbulence, the param-
(a) The load per unit area, projected on a plane
eters defining the vertical and cross-wind cospectra
normal to the mean wind can be expressed in
and also the shape of the mode of vibration are
the form,

* Figures in brackets indicate literature references at the q{y, z) =Cp(y, z)p - {y, z)
end of this paper.

93
 : : : . )

in which
maximum at the tip, i.e. niy, z) =
Cp{y, z) is a pressure coefficient, Khj
u{y,z) is the instantaneous velocity at {y, z)
if) The projected area of the structure is rec-
in the absence of the structure.
tangular in shape with a height h and breadth
(6) The response of the structure in the funda- b.

mental mode is dominant for both mean and (g) The mean velocity is a function of z only and
fluctuating deformations. can be expressed in the form,
(c) The intensity of turbulence, V'^/ti, is much
ujz) _
less than unity and terms of order u'V^^ may (4)
u{h) \h
be neglected.
{d) The wind velocity fluctuations constitute a (h) The cross - spectral density function,
stationary random process and are distributed SuiyiZiyiZif), can be expressed in the form:
according to the normal error law (Gaussian)
{yiziy^zif) =Su{f) -Riyiy^ziZif)
The generalized force fundamental mode
Q for the
in which,
of vibration may now be expressed in terms of its
Suif) is the spectral density function of u'
mean and time dependent components. If n{y, z) is
and is invariant with y and z,
the fundamental mode shape and u{y,z), u'{y,z)
(^) The function RiyxyiZiZif) can be expressed
the mean and time dependent components of the
in the form:
"along-wind" velocity, then the mean force may be
written as:
^= exp ,
(5)
}i{u{zi) -j-u{z2)
Q= Cj,(y,z)p— {y,z)fiiy,z) dA (1)
J inwhich Cy and Cz are constants, invariant with y
and z.
and the time dependent component as
(j) Cp{y,z) is constant over the structure and
equal to Cd where:
Q'= j Cp{y, z)puiy, z)u'{y, z)n{y, z) dA (2)

(6)
The spectral density function (*Sq(/)) of Q' may
2) dA
be expressed as

The spectral density function »Sq(/) may then

Sq = pW jj SuiyiZiy2Z2f)iiyiZi)\l/{y2Z2) dAi dAi (3)
be expressed as follows:

in which
2(l-|-;8+a)J u'^ih)
u{y, z)
\piy, z) =Cp{y, z)p.{y, z)
in which.
Uo

where Uo is a reference velocity and SuiyiZiy-iZif) is

the cross-spectral density function of the fluctuating

along-wind components of velocity at {yi, zi) and
(2/2, 22) •

In order to reduce the expression for Sgif) to a

form suitable for the derivation of a gust factor,
certain simplifications and restrictions are necessary.
-
F V(2i-22)2+A2(2/i-2/2)2'
exp
The simplifications to be made at this stage are as K(2l« + 22«) )
follows
dyi dy2 dzi dz2 (8)
(e) The structure is free-standing with a funda- and
mental mode shape that is adequately ap-
proximated by power law variation in dis-
Cyb CJH
placement from zero at the base to a CM ' u{H)

94
 : :

The function x^(^, ^) is also a function of the

power-law exponents a, ^ but the variation with a r SJif)- \H{f) l^x'iF, X) df

about average values of these quantities is 'o
and |8

small and may be ignored. The function has been

computed by numerical integration and is presented
Figure For the limiting cases of and
= r sj{f)x'{F,x) df
in 1. •'o

the function can be evaluated analytically:

(9) + SJ{fo) ~x'{Fo,X) (14)

4:71

,.(^»l,X).2..1|il±^l
^ (10)'
in which,
^ '
' X [l+2(8+4a J
^

fo = natural frequency,
The mean deflection of the structure dfi{z) and Fo = CJoh/uih).
the root-mean-square deflection \/a''^'n{Z) may be
expressed as follows
The form of SJif) after Davenport [4] is:

1 2 fLjh) Ljh)
C DP bh 2-iif (ii;
" '
3 ilih) u{h)
Su'if) (15)
4/3
f-L{h) V]
1 + (
(l+/3+«) u{H) \ u{h) J I

1/2 in which L{h) is a length scale and is equal to \/3

SJif) \H{f) l^xHF, \)df times the wavelength which the function /•!§„'( /)
{f^
is a maximum. Davenport originally suggested that

(2x/„)2.M
ujh)
(12) L(h) =4000 '

u{33)
in which,
however, there are advantages in retaining the more
M= \ m\z)y}{z) clz flexible form of Equation 15. If a reduced frequency

fLjh)
m{z) = mass per unit height n=
u{h)

fo= natural frequency of vibration

is introduced, then Equation 15 may be re-written
1 as follows:
H{f) \' =
|2
/•* n
a I l+^+a u{h)

rj= damping ratio (fraction of critical).

The ratio of the RMS value to the mean value

(the coefficient of variation) of the response is then, 1/2
1 1

- -xKFo,
VP l+i8+2a 2\/¥^ V
X)

a ~ u{h)
1/2
S-F
= r {B + (16)
•
SJif)- \Hif) \^ 'x'{F,\) df^ (13)
II where
The integral with respect to frequency can con-
veniently be approximated by the following }=
l+/3+2a
•
—--
2u''
(roughness factor)
expression
l+0+a u{h)

95
 :

= Function {terrain roughness, building height

mode shape}
S = x^{Fo, X) {size reduction factor}

Czfoh Cyh
Function
u{h) '
Czh

F= [gust energy factor}

6 (l + no2)*/3
'foL{h)
Function
u{h)

foL(h)/iIlh)

^Czh CyB
B= Function (Background
Figure 3. Gust energy factor "f."
[L{h) CzH]
excitation factor)

The parameters S, B, F and r have been computed

and are presented in Figures 1 to 4.
A gust factor G is defined as the ratio of the ex-
pected peak value of displacement in a period T to

HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND - FEET (h)

Figure 4. Suggested values of

the mean value. The gust factor may now be written

as:

SFy
G = l+gT \B+ (17)
n J

in which ^ is a "peak factor" and is equal to the ratio

of the expected maximum value of the dynamic dis-
Figure 1. Size reduction factor "S." placement to the root-meaii-square value of dy-
namic displacement. Davenport [5] has derived
the relationship:

0.577
(j==V2 logevT+ (18)
V2 log. vT
ff
is the average or expected value (over a large
number of periods each of duration T) of g, the
ratio of the maximum to root-mean-square values
in each period of duration T. The standard deviation
of g has also been derived by Davenport and is

r/V6
(19)
V2 loge vT
In Equations IS and 19, v is the equivalent fre-

Figure 2. Backround factor "B." quency and is given by the relationship:

96
 tower-like structures with b/h ratios substantially
less than the values of 0.4 and 1.6 applicable to the
fs{f)-fdf structures examined in references [8] and [9]. The
p'= (20) wake pressures for very slender structures will,
however, bulk of the turbulent velocity
reflect the
r sif)df
•'o
fluctuations; this hasbeen observed in model studies
of a very slender taperod stack but the results are as

S{f)= spectral density function of the dynamic yet unpublished.

response.
Equations (18) and (19) are valid only for large
3.1. Experimental Determinations of the Size
values of vT, for lightly damped low frequency
Reduction Factor, S
structures the value oipT is not sufficiently great
(forT'~20 min. say) and the use of Equations (18) The adequacy of the pressure/velocity
assump-
and (19) will result in an overestimate of g and computation of a
tion, in so far as it influences the

underestimate ag. gust factor, is best examined by a comparison of ex-

In the work which follows, it will be assumed that perimental and predicted values of the size reduc-
g is equal to 3.5. The value of 3.5 is, on average, tion factor S. Measurements of this quantity, to-
slightly conservative; for values of T between 10 gether with the predicted values, are presented in
and 30 minutes and for a wide range of structures g Figure 5. Three sets of measurements are presented;
will usually lie between 3.0 and 3.7. the most complete of these is that obtained by

wind tunnel studies and described elsewhere [10]

3. Experimental Confirmation of Gust in some detail. This set of measurements was ob-
Factor Computations tained from plates and prisms of various aspect
Basic to the derivation of a gust factor is the as- ratios, the hatched area in Figure 5 indicates the

sumed relationship between pressure and velocity. spread in the observations. The remaining two sets
In Section 2, it is taken that the force per unit of data are from measurements in the atmosphere
projected area is proportional to momentum flux and are described in references [11] and [12]. The
(in the absence of the structure). In detail this as- set described in reference [12] was obtained from
sumption far from adequate, however when the
is observations of the fluctuating loads on three mesh
concern with total effects (e.g. total force on a
is targets with areas from 20 ft^ to 60 ft^ and mounted
building) many of the inadequacies in detail vanish about 40 ft above ground. The remaining results
during the integration. Pressure measurements on were obtained from measurements on a building in
both model [6, 7] and full scale [8] buildings in an urban environment; unfortunately, the atmos-
turbulent shear flow indicate that both mean and pheric conditions existing for this set were poorly
fluctuating pressures on the windward face do reflect defined and the results must be regarded with some
the variations in momentum flux. This is particu- degree of suspicion.
larly true away from the edges of the face; near both
the side and the top edges there is a reduction in
both the mean and the fluctuating components of
pressure. Measurements of the spectrum of the
pressure fluctuations on the windward face have
shown [8], on both model and full scale structures,
the same form as that observed for the velocity
spectrum. In general, the pressures on the leeward
face, and on side faces, do not reflect the variations
in momentum flux but are more or less uniform.
Although this latter feature is a major departure
from the basic assumption, these wake pressures do
not contribute markedly to the total force on a
building. Field observations [8, 9] on buildings in a
city environment indicate that the load on the lee-
ward face is less than 10% to 20% of the total load. Figure 5. Comparison of experimental and theoretical
This proportion would undoubtedly be higher for values of the size factor "S."

97
 The predicted values of S are in reasonable agree- and on a wide range of models of different cross-
ment with the wind tunnel observations, the atmos- and aspect ratios. In all, 45 models
sectional shapes
pheric results show similar trends but are limited were tested and the average value of the ratio
and, unfortunately, of doubtful value. The most
significant values of S are those corresponding to
Vb predicted

excitation at the natural frequency of vibration.

Vb obs-

For most structures such excitation will correspond was 0.98 and the standard deviation of this ratio,
to values of 0.18. This deviation would result in errors of typi-
cally 5% to 10% in predicted gust factors.

u \CzhJ 3.3. Experimental Measurements of Gust

in the vicinity of lOitS. Within this range it would Factor
appear that the predicted values of S will be within
A direct measure of the reliability of gust factors
±30% of the true value. While this may appear to can be obtained from a comparison of predicted
be an excessive discrepancy the error induced in a
values with those observed on model structures
predicted gust factor would generally be from 5%
tested in a boundary layer wind tunnel. The shapes
to 10%.
of eight aeroelastic models that have been studied
in the Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory of
3.2. Experimental Determinations of the The University of Western Ontario are shown in
Parameter B Figure 7. The experimental observations for models I
to VI are reported in reference [6] and the observa-
The background excitation factor B is largely tions for models VII and VIII in reference [7] and
dependent of S and, hence, on the assumed load/ reference [14] respectively. The structure of the
velocity relationship. Predicted and measured values flow in the boundary layer wind tunnel is also
of \/B are presented in Figure 6; the experimental described in these three reports and is summarized
measurements are described in detail elsewhere in Table 1.

[10, 13]. The results were obtained in wind tunnels The predicted and observed gust factors for
Models I to VI are presented in Table II. Also in-
cluded in this table are observed values of a lateral
gust factor, this factor is the ratio of the peak lateral
response in direction XX, (i.e. with wind along YY)
to the mean drag response in direction XX. There
are no predicted values of lateral response since, at

f LEVATION

MODELS T 10 V!

MODEL VII

PREDICTED VALUES OF 1^

Figure 6. Comparison of observed and predicted values of Figure 7. Elevations and cross-sections of models studied in
Vb. B.L.W.T.

98
Table I. Properties of turbulent shear flow in boundary layer to the broader face of the model, gust factors were
wind tunnel
obtained for both urban and open exposures. In Figure

Urban Open
8 the variation of gust factor with total damping is
exposure exposure presented while in Figure 9, the gust factor is shown

as a function of wind speed. The agreement between

Approximate height of rough- the predicted and the observed gust factors is satis-
ness elements U.25 It. U.Ul It. factory and the dependence of the gust factor on
Thickness of boundary layer 4 it. 2.5 ft. both wind speed and damping is clearly demon-
Mean velocity profile
strated. The lateral gust factor is the more sensitive
(exponent a) - 0.36 0. 15
to both damping and wind speed.
Turbulent intensity a,tz = 2.0ft.,. 0.14 0.10
L{z) at 2 = 2.0 feet 14 ft. 10 ft.
The gust factors for Model VIII, a tapered stack
C. ==^10 2^10 of circular cross-section, are shown in Figure 10. In
Cy c^l2 c^l2 this case two predicted values of gust factor are
shown, one of these is that derived from the gust
factor equation and the second is the result of a
present, no adequate theory exists. It will be noted more complete analysis which accounts for the true
that in six of the eighteen tests, the lateral response mode shapes and for contributions from modes other
exceeds the predicted drag response and in each in- than the fundamental. The two predicted values
stance the reduced velocity was the higher of the differ only slightly and both are in satisfactory
two velocities examined. The two velocities corre- agreement with the observed values.
spond to approximately 65 mph and 120 mph at
The results presented in Figures 8, 9, 10 and in
prototype scale. Neglecting the lateral response,
Table II cover, in all, 34 evaluations of the gust
the observed and predicted gust factors are in satis-
factor. The range of variables is wide and includes a
factory agreement. The ratio of the predicted to the
variety of cross-sections, aspect ratios from 3 to
observed values has an average of 1 .04 and a stand-
ard deviation of 0.05. 20, two conditions of exposure and values of struc-
The predicted and observed gust factors for tural damping from 0.001 to 0.02. The average
Model VII are presented in figures 8 and 9. All results ratio of the predicted to the observed gust factor is

refer to the response along the YY axis or normal 1.02 and the standard deviation 0.07. The standard

Table II. Measured and predicted gust factors for models I to VI (urban exposure)

(?PRED
Model Line of response u{h)/n\/A CpRED G DBS <?LATERAL
GoBB

I YY 7 0 2 48 2 55 0 97 1.53
3 8 2 17 2 39 0 91 1.14
XX 7 0 3 02 2 62 1 15 *4.94
3 8 2 45 2 35 1 04 2.36
II YY 7 0 2 44 2 40 1 02 1.99
3 8 2 13 2 03 1 05 1.65
. XX 7 0 2 61 2 33 1 12 1.58
3 8 2 21 2 12 1 04 0.82
III XX & YY 7 0 2 83 2 63 1 08 *3.64
3 8 2 33 2 12 1 10 1.52
IV XX & YY 7 0 2 75 2 64 1 04 *4.47
3 8 2 29 2 29 1 00 1.71
V YY 7 0 2 65 2 64 1 00 *3.08
3 8 2 24 2 08 1 08 2.00
XX 7 0 2 73 2 73 1 00 *3.32
3 8 2 30 2 24 1 03 1.38
VI XX & YY 7 0 2 77 2 77 1 00 *3.93
3 8 2 28 2 18 1 05 1.57

A'rerage: 1 .04±.05

99
 PREDICTED GUST FACTOR"]
OBSERVED GUST FACTOR
^DRAG MODEL VII

OBSERVED (LATERAL)

URBAN EXPOSURE
-OBSERVED (LATERAL)
URBAN EXPOSURE
(C/Cc);,, = 0.01

MODEL Vil
120
I I

.010 .015 .020 025 GRADIENT WIND SPEED mph

_J _J _1 _J

TOTAL DAMPING C/C,

MODEL VII

(C/Cr),
^ Aero
= .0044

OBSERVED GUST FACTOR

PREDICTED GUST FACTOR

OBSERVED (LATERAL)—'

OPEN EXPOSURE GRADIENT WIND SPEED mph

MODEL Vn
Figure 9. Variation of gust factor with wind speed.
.005 ,010 .015 .020
I I
I

TOTAL DAMPING C/C^

PREDICTED (GUST FACTOR EO'N)
Figure 8. Variation of gust factor with damping.
PREDICTED "EXACT" ANALYSIS
(
)

BSERVED

deviation is in agreement with that (ieduced from

the earlier comparisons of experimental and pre-
dicted values of the parameters S and B.

4.The Reliability of Gust Factor Estimates in OBSERVED (LATERAL)

Relation to The Adequacy of Meteorological

and Other Data WIND SPEED AT TIP — FT/ SEC

The reliability or accuracy of an estimate of a Figure 10. Observed and predicted gust factors for a model
gust factor is dependent firstly upon the adequacy tapered stack of circular cross-section.
of the theory and the basic assumptions on which
this is founded and, secondly, the accuracy or reli- data, or the independent variables of which it is a
ability of the data (meteorological, aerodynamic and function. In the derivation of a gust factor presented
structural). The adequacy of the theory has been in Section 2, it is shown that the gust factor can be
examined in the previous section; under controlled expressed as follows:
test conditions with reliable data the theory leads
i, Lih), V, Cz, Cy/Cz, 0,fo, r,)

to estimates of the gust factor which are generally

in which
within 10% of observed values. The use of the gust
factor to predict the response of a proposed struc- a = power law exponent of mean velocity
ture to atmospheric winds involves data which, in profile,

many instances, is poorly defined. It is intended to i= intensity of turbulence,

determine the relationship between the accuracy of L{h) = a length proportional to the scale of
an estimate of a gust factor and the accuracy of the turbulence.

100
 .

a coefficient representing the variation in similar terrains and at similar heights. The coeffi-
the dimensionless spectral density func- cient of variation in the damping parameter (77) is
tion at a given frequency about some as- based on the scatter of field measurements obtained
sumed value of the spectral density, i.e., for similar types of structure, e.g. the scatter in
S{fo) =vSaifo) where S(fo) is the true measurements on concrete chimneys or the scatter
spectral density function at a given site, for steel structures. In the case of most of the vari-
and Saifo) is the assumed value deter- ables involved the number of field measurements
mined in accordance with, say, the sugges- available is very limited and the assigned coeffi-
tions of Davenport. cients of variation are largely subjective rather than
a coefficient (defined in Section 2) related the results of rigorous statistical analysis.
to the vertical scale of a turbulence com- The coefficient of variation of a gust factor Go
ponent of a given wavelength. determined by values of the independent variables
Cy/ Cz = the ratio of the horizontal to the vertical {a = ao, i = io etc.) can be expressed as.
scale coefficient.

i8= the power law exponent of a curve ap-

proximating to the mode shape of the
fundamental mode of vibration, in which
fo
= the natural frequency of vibration of the
OCo (dG\
fundamental mode.
1
= the total damping, expressed as a fraction
of critical.
io (dG\
etc.
None of the nine independent variables can be
defined with complete confidence. It is difficult to

assign an accuracy with which any one variable can and Ca, Ci, etc., are the coefficients of variation of
be estimated for a given site and structure, but from a, i, etc
a survey of existing data the writer suggests that The weights w^^, w,^ etc. and the resulting value of
reasonable values of the coefficient of variation for Cgo have been computed for three structures and the
each variable would be as shown in Table III. results are presented in Table V. The three structures
. examined range from a comparatively stiff structure
Table III. Estimated coefficients of variation for which resonant effects are negligible to a tall
lightly damped structure of low natural frequency
Variable Estimated coefficient of variation and a dynamic response dominated by resonance.
The properties of the three structures and the rele-
vant meteorological data are presented in Table IV.
0.10
I 0.20 For all three structures it is apparent that ac-
0.20 curacy depends largely on the specification of tlie

V 0.15 intensity of turbulence. In the structure "A," for

C._.. 0.15 which resonant effects are small, the errors intro-
Cy/C 0.25
duced by poorly defined data are due almost entirely
0.10
/o— 0.10 to the definition of the intensity of turbulence. As
ri 0.25 the contribution of resonant effects increases, the
influence of other parameters is of increasing im-
portance. The specification of Cz, Cy/Cz, v, L{h)
The values suggested in Table III are estimates and fo are of approximately equal importance while
only. In quoting values for the coefficients of varia- the specification of damping is somewhat more
tion of and /„, it is assumed that the estimates of
/3 significant. In no case is the gust factor particularly
13 and /„ have resulted from an analysis of the par- sensitive to the choice of the mode shape or the
ticular structure rather than some empirical rela- mean velocity profile. The coefficient of variation
tionship (such as /o~10/A'', N = 'No. of stories). associated with the variability of data is approxi-
The coefficients of variation of a, i, v, Lz, C,, and Cy/ mately 0.10 and, as could be anticipated, increases
Cz. are estimates based on the scatter observed in with an increase in the relative significance of reso-
measurements of these quantities obtained over nant effects.

101
 Table IV. Structural and meteorological data VI. The computed values of the gust factor are
presented in Table VII. In order to maintain uni-
Structure
formity the "peak factor" g has been taken as 3.5
in all computations. The wind speed chosen in each
Description "A" "B" "C"
R.C. framed R.C. frame Steel frame
case corresponds to a gradient wind speed of ap-
apartment office office proximately 150 ft./sec.
block block block
The gust factors computed in accordance with
Section 1 of this paper will be taken as reference
u.(H)... 100 ft/sec--_ 120 ft/sec 150 ft/sec values and nominally correct. The gust factors as
Exposure Suburban City City
computed by the method of Davenport are, on
B 150 150 200
H 200 600 1,200
average, low by 5% while those computed by the
1.0 1.0 1.0 method of Vickery are, on average, 5% high. In view
fo 0.6 cps 0.2 cps-.. 0.08 cps of the accuracy estimates of the previous sections
0.020 0.02 0.015
ri
these discrepancies are barely significant. It should
a 0.25 0.36 0.36
be noted that in neither case are the methods em-
0.15 0.14 0.11
6,400 ft 10,000 ft. 18,000 ft
ployed and attributed to Davenport and Vickery
Vifo) —- 1 1 1 identical with those proposed in reference [1] and
Cz [2J. A modified form of Davenport's original pro-
10 10 10
Cb/Cz - - 1.6 1.6 1.6
posal was prepared for studies conducted in connec-
g 3.5 3.5 3.50
tion with the Building Code of Canada and it is
r 0.33 0.32 0.25
B 0.70 0.68 0.68 this modified form that has been adopted. A modified
SF/r,.,.. 0.085 0.48 1.84 form of Vickery's proposal has also been adopted,
G 2.04 2.21 2.42 this modified form will be published as part of a
discussion [15] on the paper by Vellozzi and Cohen
[3].

Table V. Coefficients of variation of gust factor

The gust factors computed by the method pro-
estimates for structures A, B, &C posed by Vellozzi and Cohen are, on average, 17%
low while for the larger structures the discrepancy
Structure "A" Structure "B" Structure "C" is approximately 25%. This discrepancy is highly
Variable 100 100 100
X X X and can be attributed to the size reduction
significant
C 03 coC CO coC u wC factor used by Vellozzi and Cohen. Vellozzi and
Cohen evaluate the size reduction factor in a manner
a 0.10 0.05 0.5 0.06 0.6 0.06 0.6 similar to that used in Section 2 of this paper but
i. .15 .51 7.7 .54 8.1 .56 8.4 compute the correlation integral over a rectangular
Lz .20 + .03 0.6 -0.4 0.8 -.13 2.6
prism rather than a plane rectangle. The depth of
V .15 .03 0.5 .11 1.7 .20 3.0
Cz .15 -.09 1.4 -.20 3.0 -.18 2.7 the prism is taken as four times the least dimension
Cy/Cz---- .25 -.05 1.3 -.08 2.0 -.08 2.0 of the frontal rectangle. The argument put forward
13 0.10 -.02 0.2 -.03 0.3 -.03 0.3 in support of this approach is that a gust must
fo 0.10 -.04 0.4 -.21 2.1 -.29 2.9
envelop a large portion of the wake before it becomes
V 0.25 -.03 0.8 -.11 2.7 -.21 5.3
2a)2C2 64X10--4 95X10-" 135X10-"
fully effective. This may well be true in regard to

Coefficient wake pressures but not in regard to the more signifi-

of Vari- cant pressure fluctuations on the front face of a

ation of
building. In comparison with experimental observa-
G 0.08 0.10 0.12
tions the size reduction factor proposed by Vellozzi
and Cohen is a severe underestimate.
The differences between the methods proposed in
5. A Comparison of Gust Factors Computed references [1] and [2] and that proposed in this
by the Various Proposed Methods paper lie primarily in the size reduction factor and

Gust factors have been computed for three struc- the form of the spectrum of velocity fluctuations.
tures, in open and urban terrain and for two values These differences are discussed in a contribution to

of structural damping. The properties of the build- the discussion on the paper by Vellozzi and Cohen.
ings and the flow conditions are presented in Table Although the differences are quite substantial it

102
 Table VI. Gust factors for 3 buildings

Building 1 Building 2 Building 3

TTpio-ht 150 500

150 200
f 1 . 0 cps 0.2 cps
0.01, 0.02 0.01, 0.02 n ni n 09
P 1 \
' 1
'offQ in TTPRATVr Ur JdiiN U xtU AiN UrlLIN TIPBAN
U oO.
n 11
U 1
. U.oO U 14
. 0.35 0. 14
\ /ii(h'\ U 10.
nil
U 1
. 0 12 0.93
in in lU lU 10 10
1 A
ID 1
10 10 16 16
T <h\ (11.)
Li(n) (ft ^ 6,500 5,000 10 000
, 6,000 14 000 6 500
nttnl ft /ciai^
65 110 95 130 130 150
r^h /T.(h\ 0.23 0.30 0.50 0.83 0.85 1 .85
u\n) 1 o ^ 7 7
y^z Jon/ lO 0 . 9.2 8.0
1.6 1.6 0.64 0,64 0.27 0.27
]oLi\h)IU 100 45 21 9.2 10.7 4.3
U 00 . U o/. 0.28 .201
R 0.71 0.67 0.68 0.60 0.64 0.51
s .010 .025 .026 .101 140
. .330
F .024 .039 .068 .117 .107 .185
OOd. 00^; .005 .006
g 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

SF
— ,
(r,, = .01) .022 .081 .126 .79 1.00 3.81
V

— (vs = .02) .011 .044 .074 .47 0.60 2.35

V
1

G = l+ gryjB + —
SF
2.67 1.83 2.16 1.97 2.26 2.45

vs = 0.01
Vs = 0.02 2.66 1.83 2.12 1.88 2.09 2.18

Table VII. Comparison of computed gust factors

Basis of calculation
TERRAIN DAMPING
Section Davenport Vickery Vellozzi & Cohen
2 ref. (1) ref. (2) ref. (3)

1 Urban . 0.01 2.67 2.57 2.87 2.59

0.02 2.66 2.57 2.82 2.59
Open - 0.01 1.83 1.74 1.85 1.72
0.02 1.83 1.72 1.82 1.72
2 Urban 0.01 2.16 2.28 2.39 1.80
0.02 2.12 2.10 2.28 1.80
Open . 0.01 1.97 1.93 2.13 1.56
0.02 1.88 1.78 1.97 1.54
3 Urban . . 0.01 2.26 2.48 2.44 1.63
0.02 2.09 2.08 2.23 1.61
Open 0.01 2.45 2.03 2.44 1.58
0.02 2.18 1.95 2.17 1.52

103
would appear, from the results presented in Table [4] Davenport, A. G., "The Spectrum of Horizontal
Gustiness Near the Ground in High Winds." Quart. J.,
VII, that their influence of the gust factor on
is,
Roy. Met. Soc, Vol. 87, 1961.
average, quite small. There could well be, however,
[5] Davenport, A. G., "A Note on the Distribution of the
circumstances in which this would not be the case. Largest Value of a Random Function with Application to
In particular, the method proposed by Davenport Gust Loading." Proc. I.C.E., Vol. 28, pp. 187-195,
results in relatively large estimates of the contribu- June 1964.
[6] Davenport, A. G., and Isyumov, N., "A Wind Tunnel
tion by resonance and underestimates of the back-
Study for the United States Steel Building." Eng. Sc.
ground effects. This change in the distribution is of
Res. Rep. BLWT-5-67, The University of Western
significance with respect to estimates of acceleration Ontario, November 1967.
which depend more on resonance than on the back- [7] Davenport, A. G., and Isyumov, N., "A Wind Tunnel
ground excitation. Study for a Proposed 53 Story Building for the Seattle-
First National Bank Building." Eng. Sc. Res. Rep.
BLWT-1-67, The University of Western Ontario, 1967.
6. Conclusions Dalgliesh, W. A., Wright, W., and Schriever, W. R.,
[8]

"Wind Pressure Measurements on a Full Scale High-Rise

(i) The ratio of expected peak values of wind
Office Building." Paper No. 6, Wind Effects on Buildings
induced stress of deflection to their average values and Structures, University of Toronto Press, 1968.
can be predicted by the use of a gust factor to an [9] Newberry, C. W., Eaton, K. J., and Mayne, J. R., "The
accuracy of typically 5% to 10%. Nature of Gust Loading on Tall Buildings." Paper No.
(ii) The gust factor relates only the overall loads 15, Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, University
of Toronto Press, 1968.
in the direction of the mean wind. Lateral loads or
[10] Vickery, B. J., "A Model of Atmospheric Turbulence for
local pressures are not predictable by the gust
Studies of Wind Loads on Buildings." Proc. 2nd. Aust.
factor. Conf. on Hyd. & Fluid Mech., Aukland, N.Z., 1965.
(iii) The method is suitable only for free standing [11] Smart, H. R., Stevens, L. K., and Joubert, P. N.,
structures and should not be applied to such struc- "Dynamic Response to Natural Wind."
Structural

tures as guyed masts or suspension bridges. Paper No. 22, Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures,
University of Toronto Press, 1968.
(iv) The accuracy or reliability quoted above
[12] Van Koten, H., "Wind Measurements on High Buildings
applies only in instances where the basic data are well
in the Netherlands." Paper No. 25, Wind Effects on
defined. When used in conjunction with data nor- Buildings and Structures, University of Toronto Press,
mally available at any given site the accuracy of the 1968.

gust factor will be typically 10% to 15%. [13] J., "Load Fluctuations in Turbulent Flow."
Vickery, B.
J.Eng. Mech. Div., Proc. A.S.C.E., pp. 31-46, Vol. 94,
No. EMI, Feb. 1968.
7. References
[14] Vickery, B. J., and Davenport, A. G., "The Response to

[1] Davenport, A. G., "Gust Loading Factors." J. Struct. Wind Load of a 1200' R.C. Stack for the American
Div., Proc. A.S.C.E., Vol. 93, No. ST3, June 1967. Electric Power Service Corporation." Eng. Sc. Res. Rep.
[2] Vickery, B. J., "On the Assessment of Wind Effects on BLWT-4-68, The University of Western Ontario,
Elastic Structures." C.E. Trans., Inst. Aust., pp. 183-192. August 1968.
[3] Vellozzi, J., and Cohen, "Gust Response Factors."
E., [15] Vickery, B. J., "Discussion on 'Gust Response Factors' by
J. Struct. Div., Proc. A.S.C.E., Vol. 94, No. ST6, June Vellozzi, J., and Cohen, E." To be published, Proc.
1968. A.S.C.E., J. Struct. Div.

104
 SESSION 4.

RECENT ADVANCES IN DESIGN PROCEDURES

AND CURRENT DEFICIENCIES

Chairman: Mr. Edward Cohen

Ammann & Whitney
New York, New York 10011
THE TREATMENT OF WIND IN THE DESIGN OF VERY TALL BUILDINGS
Leslie E. Robertson and Peter W. Chen
Skilling, Helle, Christiansen, Robertson
New York, New York 10017

This paper describes briefly some highlights of a study of the wind effects for the design of the
United States Steel Office Building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Throe types of models were
used in a boundary layer wind tunnel to obtain data of the wind effects on the building. The
wind tunnel results are combined with Weather Bureau data to obtain statistical estimates of the
design parameters. These parameters include the envelopes of maximum deflections, the contours
of maximum and minimum wind pressures on the exterior walls, and the expected number of
cycles of oscillation per year which exceeds specific values of acceleration and of deflection.

Key words: Aeroelasticity; buildings; dynamics; statistical analysis; structural engineering; wind
loads; wind tunnel modeling.

1. Introduction the aeroelastic model for static and dynamic

deflections; and the pressure model for local
Research on the structure of wind has clearly
pressures and for cross-checking of results,
shown the random and turbulent character of wind
(c) Synthesis of environmental criteria with the
which varies with the height above ground and with
results of the wind tunnel measurements.
the topographic features of the ground surface.
Furthermore, a realistic estimation of the responses
of the structures to natural wind has been shown by
researchers to require dynamic and statistical
concepts.
The firm of Skilling, Helle, Christiansen, Robertson
has been engaged during the last few years in the
design of several tall buildings. Among them is the
United States Steel Office Building which is now
under construction in Pittsburgh. These tall buildings
have provided the opportunity to incorporate many
of these new concepts in the treatment of wind
effects during the design of those buildings.
A rendering of the United States Steel Office
Building is shown in Figure 1. This building is

triangular in plan with 64 occupied stories exclusive

of basements and heliport, has a total of 78 framed
levels,and its height is 839 ft above the plaza. The
area of each floor is 41,400 sq ft to the building line.

2. Scope of the Wind Study

The program for the study of the wind effects on

the United States Steel Office Building consists of
three coordinated phases, as follows:

(a) Environmental study —the gathering and

analyses of all pertinent data for wind velocity
and temperature.
{h) Simulation by wind tunnel models the topo- —
graphic model to establish the wind structures Figure 1. Rendering of United States Steel Office Building,
appropriate for the testing of building models; Pittsburgh, Pennsj'lvania.

107
 3. Environmental Study
The most useful parameter that defines the wind
cUmate of a locahty is the mean gradient wind
velocity taken over a time period between 5 minutes
and 1 hour, as suggested by Professor Davenport [1]*.
The interval that has been adopted is 20 minutes. Our
task is then to determine the probability distribution
of the annual maximum gradient wind velocity
averaged over 20 minutes for the city in which the
building will be built.
Three types of wind data were utilized, namely, the
weather balloon data, the hourly observations, and
records of annual maximum wind speeds. On the
basis of the gradient wind speeds estimated from the
three types of data, one probability distribution of Ternperofure C^) lav^^r than
the annual maximum gradient wind speeds is chosen sia fed values.
as the design distribution [2]. This distribution is Example The protxibi/ify
: is '/so '0 O2
+ha4 oir temperature i lO° f
shown in Figure 2. arid gradient wind speed
i SO mph vs/ould occur in
Wind and temperature data are combined in a year
Figure 3 and Figure 4, to indicate the joint prob-
Figure 3. Joint probability of gradient wind speed and air
ability of the simultaneous occurrence of specific
temperature at site.
wind speeds and specific temperatures.

lOO

lO

Exomp/e The probahi/if'^ is '/so-

:

O OZ +haf air temperofwe

fSefurn Pertod (year^ > 90" P and gradient
\r/inid speed 2 S3 mph

QjOestgn di9ir'bufion baaecJ on cloto of onnao/ y/ould occur m a year.

_^ FoafSSf' rni/e Spsec/S of" 0/r/Dort.S
,^-£stimafed -from c/afa of annua/ max S noinute Figure Joint probability of gradient wind speed and air
^ ove Speeds af City Off/ce. 4.

{ZjEsfin^afed frorn dora of Wmd

A/of^ Sunnmary temperature at site.
^ at 300 mehsrs.
^E^fimcitecf from data of hourly obser\^at'cns
ai Oirporf /95& - / 9<i,0.
, 4. Wind Tunnel Studies
The wind tunnel studies consisted of four stages
Figure 2. Probability distribution of annual maximum 20
which were carried out at the Boundary Layer Wind
minute average gradient wind speeds.
Tunnel of the University of Western Ontario.

4.1. Stage I

* Figures in brackets indicate the literature

references at During the preliminary concept stage of the
the end of this paper. design, various shapes of the building were con-

108
 Figure 5. Models used in aeroelastic comparison study of building shapes.

sidered. In order to assess the relative aerodynamic y/ooo/v

merits of different building shapes, an aeroelastic J

study of six building shapes was made in a simulated
city atmosphere. The six models that were tested are
shown in Figure 5. The results are compared in
Figure 6 by means of the envelopes of peak deflections
for all wind directions. The aerodynamic character-
istics of the modified triangular building shape, which
was preferred for structural and architectural reasons,
was found to be favorable and to be aerodynamically J i.i y
—thus
.

superior to the conventional rectangular shape J

confirming its adoption for the final design of the
United States Steel Office Building.
Genera/ iy/-ta/7 aj(/30S£/r<T: ^ •
(^^s)
4'f£>c/f'//e<:3^
7?-/}rrj^/a
S^iy<y/'£
C/^ss
4.2. Stage II
C/rc/£

Amodel of the Pittsburgh area was built to a scale

of 1:2000 and tested in the boundary layer wind
tunnel. Figure 7 shows a photograph of the topo-
graphical model in the wind tunnel. The vertical
profiles of mean velocity and the profiles of intensity Figure 6. Envelopes of peak deflections of six building
of turbulence at the building site were obtained for shapes.

109
 Figure 7. View of 1 : 2000 scale topographical model in wind tunnel.

Figure 8. View of "rough" exposure showing 1:400 scale aeroelastic model of United States Steel Office Building.

the eight principal compass directions. These tests 4.3. Stage III
were completed in order to assess the extremes of
exposure for later use in studying models of the The wind tunnel study of the final building design
building itself. included both the measurements of the responses of

110
the aeroelastic model and the measurements of the
pressures on the exterior faces of the static model.
The tests were carried out in two extremes of exposure
which had been established in Stage II. Figure 8 gives
a view of the aeroelastic model of the United States
Steel Office Building in the boundary layer wind
tunnel.
The aeroelastic responses of tall buildings are
usually dominated by the fundamental modes of
vibration which may
be adequately approximated by
a linear shape. Thus, the aeroelastic model of the
building consists of a rigid model dynamically
mounted so that the lowest mode of vibration is

modelled in each of two transverse directions. The

profiles of wind speeds are adjusted to match those
found in the topographic model by varying the
roughness of the floor surface of the wind tunnel. The
buildings in the vicinity of the project site are
reproduced to scale in the wind tunnel.
Measurements mean and of the RMS values
of the
of the deflection intwo orthogonal axes are made for
various angles of attack at different wind speeds and Figure 10. Static and dynamic responses along Y axis.

for various combinations of damping, building value of the pressures are measured for various
density, exposure and frequency ratio. Both static angles of attack and for two extremes of exposure.
and dynamic deflections at the top of the building are The pressures are converted into dimensionless form
plotted in Figures 9 and 10 for various wind direction. by dividing the local pressures by the dynamic
These two graphs clearly demonstrate the dynamic pressure of the gradient level.
nature of the wind effects on the building.
The static model has pressure taps located at all
points of interest such as the large glass curtain walls
of the lobby. Figure 11 shows the static model with
one of the faces opened. The mean and the RMS

-X
Figure 11. View of pressure model showing pressure sensing
Figure 9. Static and dynamic responses along X axis. unit and piezometric pressure tap connections.

Ill
 4.4. Stage IV Building are shown in Figures 12 through 17. These
figures show:
The efficient operation of a rooftop landing field

may be significantly influenced by the characteristics

(a) Probability distributions of annual maximum
of the airflow in the region immediately above the
deflection at top of the building (Fig. 12).
building. Thus, the nature of the airflow over the
proposed heliport atop the United States Steel Office (6) Envelope of maximum deflections with 50
Building was studied in detail by means of wind year return period (Fig. 13).
tunnel models [3]. The models were built to a scale
(c) Probability distribution of annual maximum
of Both
1:96. flow visuaUzation technique and
peak amplitudes of oscillation at top of the
hot-film anemometer sensor were used. It is found
building (Fig. 14).
that the magnitude of the maximum turbulence
intensity and the positions of the vortex layer over (d) Expected number of cycles of oscillation per
the United States Steel Oflfice Building are similar to year having amplitudes exceeding specific
those over the Pan Am Building in New York City on values (Fig. 15).
which a heliport has been successfully operated.
(e) Maximum exterior pressure for wind speed of
50 year return period (Fig. 16).

5. Statistical Prediction of Building (/) Minimum exterior pressure for wind speed of
Performance in Service 50 year return period (Fig. 17).

Procedures have been developed in the last few

years to make statistical estimation of various
6. Conclusion
parameters of building performance in wind [4, 5, 6].

Such prediction is based on the probability distribu-

A comprehensive treatment of the wind effects has
tion of the annual maximum gradient wind velocity
been accomplished for the design of very tall buildings
and on the static and dynamic response character-
which incorporates the statistical and dynamical
istics of the building models obtained by tests in a
concept developed by the researchers in the recent
boundary layer wind tunnel.
years.
The parameters that are predicted include the
maximum maximum amplitudes of
deflections, the 1 1 1 ; 1
,

oscillation, the maximum and the minimum wind

pressures on the exterior wall, and the expected
number of cycles of oscillation per year which exceeds
given values of deflection and of acceleration. These
parameters are relevant to an evaluation of the
building performance with respect to

(1) the stresses of the structural frames,

(2) the adequacy of the partitions and of the
curtain wall; and
(3) the comfort of the building occupants.

Because of the directional characteristics of the wind

effects on the building, the probability distributions
of the parameters such as deflections and pressures o I 1 1 1 1 1 1

^ s /o ao so /oo
are only indirectly related to the probability distribu-
tion of wind velocity. A specific value of deflection N
or some other parameter can arise from either a low \
wind speed coming from a critical direction or a
higher wind speed coming from a non-critical
direction. The procedures for estimating the combined
" probabilities of these events have been described in
Figure 12. Probability distributions of annual maximum
detail in the reference already cited. Some of the deflections at top of United States Steel Office
estimated results for the United States Steel Office Building in Pittsburgh.

112
 —

Figure 14. Probability distribution of annual maximum

peak amplitudes of oscillation at top of United
States Steel Office Building.

1 1 1 1
1

4!
'I
.

1
_L- >
— 1

<J <f- e a /o <fo ao (SO so /oo

Figure 15. Expected number of cycles of oscillation per

year having amplitudes exceeding specfic values.

113
 -Z3 )
1 1

-z/

-2-3

0
'Z4

24

'Z4-

Z3

-ZS

vy
-2Z

/Or /H///^.

-ZO

/S
^

/li
S. Pr<^^^r^ of^SO
1^/0 or
yS% a/^c:>^r?/o£rr^

-/•r

/z

Figure 17. Minimum exterior pressure for wind speed of 50

year return period.
Figure 16. Maximum exterior pressure for wind speed of 50
year return period.

7. References States Steel Corporation, April 1968.

[4] Davenport, A. G., "The Estimation of Load Repetitions
[1] Davenport, A. G., "The Relationship of Wind Structure to on Structures with Application to Wind Induced Fatigue
Wind Loading," Proceedings of the Symposium: Wind and Overload." Rilem International Symposium on the
Effects on Buildings and Structures, National Physical Effects of Repeated Loading of Materials and Structures,
Laboratory, June 1963, Her Majesty's Stationary Office, Mexico City, September 15-17, 1966.
London 1965. [5] Robertson, L. E., "A Study of the Wind Effects on the
[2] Wind and Temperature —The United States Steel Office Seattle First National Bank Building," Notes from a
Building, A Report of Skilling, Helle, Christiansen, Design Seminar on Buildings in Earthquake and Wind,
Robertson, to The United States Steel Corporation, pp. 9.1-9.49, A.S.C.E., 1967.
March 1968. [6] Robertson, L. E. and Chen, P. W., "Glass Design and
[3] A Wind Tunnel Investigation For A Rooftop Landing Code Implications for Extremely Tall Buildings,"
—
Field The United States Steel Office Building, A Report Building Research, pp. 6-11, May-June 1967, Building
of Skilling, Helle, Christiansen, Robertson, to The United Research Institute, Washington, D.C.

114
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF TALL FLEXIBLE STRUCTURES TO WIND LOADING
Joseph Vellozzi and Edward Cohen
Ammann & Whitney
New York, New York 10011

The purpose of this paper and discuss methods of calculating the dynamic response
is to present
of tall, flexible and masts, to wind loading. The paper is presented
structures, such as towers, stacks
in two parts; the first part deals with the dynamic response of cylindrical structures to vortex
shedding and the second part deals with dynamic response to gust loading.

Key words: Aeroelasticity buildings; circular cylinders; gust factors; masts; structural engi-
;

neering; towers; vortex shedding; wind loads.

1. Vortex Shedding Reynolds numbers the flow in the immediate vicinity

of the cylinder is very much like ideal flow and no
1.1. General vortices are formed. At somewhat higher values, up
to Nr = '^0, the flow separates from the surface and
A cylindrical structure subjected to wind stream
forms two symmetrical stationary vortices [2]. Above
normal to its axis vibrates in a lateral direction
^^•= 40, however, the stationary vortices become
(transverse to the direction of the wind) due to the
distorted and unstable, and an asymmetrical flow
formation of on alternating sides. The
vortices
condition develops wherein vortices are formed at
resulting pattern of flow on the downwind side is
opposite sides of the cylinder. These vortices grow in
known as the von Karman Vortex Street [1]*. In a
strength in the vicinity of the cylinder and move
certain range of wind velocity and cylinder diameter
downstream with the flow in an alternating pattern
these vortices are formed and shed from opposite
as they detach from the cylinder. The flow in the
sides of the cylinder at a regular frequency; conse-
vortex street is viscous from A'/j = 40 to approxi-
quently, alternating differential pressures are exerted
mately 150, and the vortices decay by viscous
upon the cylinder by the moving fluid. When the
diffusion [2]. The range from iV/e = 150 to 300 is a
vortex frequency approaches the frequency of one of
transition region in which the flow changes from
the normal modes of vibration of the structure,
laminar to turbulent in the free vortex layer which
resonant oscillation results due to the alternating
separates from each side of the cylinder [3]. Above
pressures. The frequency of the oscillation remains
NR = 'iQQ, the flow becomes turbulent at the separa-
close to the natural frequency of the structure. The
tion point. In this range, called the irregular range,
alternating pressures also cause oscillations in the
the vortex shedding is periodic, but the velocity in
direction of the wind stream but the major oscilla-
the immediate vicinity of the cylinder fluctuates in
tions are transverse to the wind. The oscillations will
an irregular manner because of the flow turbulence.
continue to build until the energy dissipated by the
The irregular manner in which the velocity fluctuates
damping in the structure equals the energy supplied
is augmented by the turbulence in the natural wind.
by the wind stream. Hence, lightly damped structures
The result of these fluctuations is that the amplitudes
are especially susceptible to this phenomenon.
of thelift or side forces on the cylinder are more or
The manner in which vortices are shed from a
lessrandom, and the randomness becomes more
cyHndrical structure depends upon the Reynolds
pronounced with increasing Reynolds numbers.
number, Nr, where:
The frequency of the vortex shedding is fairly

NR=Ud/v, (1) periodic for Reynolds numbers about

in the range of
40 to 3X101 At or near the latter Reynolds number,
where U is the velocity of the wind, v is its kinematic the flow in the boundary layer on the forward portion
viscosity, and d is a characteristic dimension such as of the cylinder changes from laminar to turbulent,
the diameter of the cylinder. At extremely small and the separation points move rearward on the
cylinder. There follows an abrupt drop in the drag
* Figures in brackets indicate literature references at the coefficient and the wake becomes narrower and
end of this paper. apparently aperiodic [4]. The result is that the

115
frequency of the vortex shedding and the ampHtudes the range of 3X10^^ to 3.5X10", where the vortex
of the Uft forces are both random. Again, the natural shedding is random, there is a gradual rise in the

wind turbulence augments this randomness. The "aerodynamic" Strouhal number, and with increasing
frequency of the vortex shedding remains random Reynolds numbers above 3.5X10", where there is a
with increasing Reynolds numbers up to about gradual return of definite periodic vortex shedding,
3.5 X 10*'; however, with increasing Reynolds numbers the Strouhal number increases to a constant value
above 3.5X10®, the frequency of vortex shedding of about 0.3. In the range where the vortex shedding
imdergoes another change whereby there is a gradual is random, the Strouhal number determined from an

return to definite periodicity [5, 6]. autocorrelation function, which is essentially the
The frequency at which vortices are shed from a center frequency point of the power spectral density,
cylinder is usually expressed non-dimensionally as the is shown as a dashed line; the effective bandwidth of

Strouhal number *S: the unsteady force is presented in terms of the

Strouhal number by the solid lines. The characteristic
narrowing of the Strouhal number bandwidth with
S-- (2)
'u increasiiag Reynolds numbers above 3.5X10" is an
indication of the return of periodicity in the vortex
where/ is the frequency of the shedding, d is a typical shedding at these Reynolds numbers.
dimension and U is the wind speed. When the vortex For tapered structures where both the diameter
shedding is periodic, / is the frequency of this
and wind speed U vary with height, the Strouhal
shedding; however, when the shedding is random, it is
number will likewise vary with height. Some recent
necessary to speak of a power spectrum, or a correla-
experiments on this variation for tapered stacks [7]
tion function, rather than a single dominant fre-
have indicated that the tendency is for the frequency
quency. For random vortex shedding, an aerodynamic of the vortex shedding to be constant over a sub-
Strouhal number is sometimes defined by, "the stantial part of the axial length at a value determined
predominant frequency measured from an auto- by the wind speed and diameter at the top. In other
correlation function (or the peak power of the power
words, the frequency of vortex shedding on a tapered
spectrum) of the unsteady aerodynamic lift forces" cylinder would be "locked in," at least for a con-
[5].
siderable length of the height, to the Strouhal
The variation of the Strouhal number, S, with
frequency appropriate to the least diameter. These
Reynolds number, Nr, is shown in Figure 1. It is experiments also suggest that the top diameter of
noted that in the Reynolds number range less than cylindrical towers and stacks should be as small as
3X10^ where the vortex shedding is periodic, the possible since critical wind speed and excitation
value of the Strouhal number is fairly constant and in
(which varies with V^) is thereby kept to a minimum,
the order of 0.2, the value generally accepted for the
and less structural damping is needed to prevent
circular cylinder. For greater Reynolds numbers in
oscillations.
When a cylindrical structure is vibrating in
resonance with periodic vortex shedding forces, the
vibration itself causes an increase in the magnitude
of the forces. The
additional aerodynamic force is
probably associated with a periodic shifting of the
separation points of the flow from the surface of the
structure, thereby causing increased circulation. At
the same time, the vortices in the wake are larger and
stronger than would be the case if the cylinder were
stationary. Steinman [16] hypothesized that if

vortices are shed at or near each end of the amplitude

range, the normal width of the vortex street is

increased by the ratio

h±2y 2y_
h
= 1 + 1. 3d
(3)

Figure 1. Variation of Strouhal number with Reynolds in which h (^ 1.3d) is the width between the centers
number for circular cylinder. of the two rows of vortices behind a non-oscillating

116
cylinder, y is the half amplitude of vibration, and d is 1.2. Stochastic Excitation
the diameter of the cylinder. For the vortices to be
The Reynolds numbers of primary interest for
stable, the distance between the vortices in each row
cylindrical towers and stacks are in the supercritical
must also increase in the same ratio. Figure 2 (after
range. In the range of supercritical Reynolds numbers
Weaver [17] shows schematically the increased
from about SXlO'^ to 3.5X10^ where the unsteady
dimensions of the vortex street due to vibration of the
lift forces are random, the theory of random excitation
cylinder. The increase in distance between shedding
[8] may be used to obtain estimates of the probable
vortices decreases the shedding frequency and the
peak deflections. According to this theory, the
Strouhal number by the reciprocal of Equation 3.
mean-squared bending response y(zy in a direction
Hence, resonant vibrations of large amplitude cannot
normal to the wind can be written as: (considering
be attained when the Strouhal frequency for a
only the first bending mode of the structure)
stationary cylinder exactly equals the natural
frequency of an elastic body. In this instance, as soon
1 d W<^i(2)2
as oscillation begins, the Strouhal frequency decreases yizy=^-CL'F{S)
8 U -^i^ (6)
and goes out of phase from the natural frequency.
However, when oscillation begins at a wind speed where
slightly higher than the critical velocity, the Strouhal
frequency decreases to the point where it matches the W1= / q{z) d{x)<t>iiz) dz
natural frequency, and the vibrations are sustained
or increased. The ratio of the velocity Up at which
peak amplitude occurs to the critical velocity based
Mi= f m{z){Mz)ydz
on S=fd/U for a stationary cylinder is in the same
ratio as the dimensional increase in the vortex
street; i.e.
m= mass per unit height
q{z) = dynamic wind pressure per unit height

[/p/[/= 1 + 1.54 y/d (4)

= VipUizY
d= diameter at height z

between the Strouhal number Sp

Similarly, the ratio
L= total height of structure

at which peak vibration occurs and the Strouhal 01= mode shape of first bending mode of
number *S for a stationary cylinder is vibration

Uiz)= velocity at height z

p= Air density
Sp/S = (5) d= diameter at top of structure
1 + 1.54 y/d
U = Wind speed at top of structure
= percentage of critical damping
/3
It has been suggested by Steinman [16] and others
coi= natural (circular) frequency of first bend-
[18] that the limiting ratio of y/d is unity, and this is
generally supported by experiments in which
ing mode
structural damping is very small. = 2irf

f= frequency in cycles per second

3.31 (1.3d* 2y)

fd
S= — = Strouhal number

F{S) = power spectrum of lift forces

Cl^= mean-squared lift coefficient

d + 2y

The power spectral term Cl'^F{S)

Equation 6 is in
a measure of the mean-square on the lift forces
structure. For cylindrical structures. Figure 3 shows a
typical variation of Cl^F{S) with Strouhal number *S.

Figure 2. Dimensional increase in vortex street due to This plot is based on experimental results obtained
vibration (after Weaver). by Fung [4]. Fung measured the fluctuating lift forces

117
 0.1 6

A MEASURED VALUES STACK A

m MEASURED VALUES STACK B

0. 1 2

001

.0025 .

9
0 0.1 02 0.3 04 0.5 0.6
40 60 80 140
0 20 IOC 120 )60

S = f d /U

L,
Figure 3. Fung's power spectrum for lift on a circular I

lo'
1

lO"
I

5»I0* 10' S^" Ud/c

cylinder.
Figure 4. Variation of maximum amplitude of stack top
versus wind speed and percentage of critical

acting on a stationary circular cylinder for Reynolds damping.

numbers in the range of 0.3X10'' to 1.4X10'' and

obtained its power spectrum as a function of Strouhal
Fung's power spectrum. For calculating Uiz), it was
number by use of a wave analyzer. assumed that the wind speed increased with height
It is seen from Figure 3 that Cl^ F{S) is a maximum according to the 1/7 power law:

at a Strouhal number of about 0.05. With increasing V{x) = V,{zmY" (8)

Strouhal numbers the value of Ci} F(S) gradually
falls to zero. The results in Figure 3 are normalized
where f/o is the wind speed at a reference height of 30
feet.
such that:
Estimates of the peak deflections y{z) max were
obtained from the relation:
F{S)dS = 1.0 (7)
f
2/(2)max = 3VRJP (9)

Based on this equality, the mean-squared lift where the factor of 3 (3 times the standard deviation)
coefficient can be shown by integration to be corresponds to a probability of 0.9973 that 2/(z)max
C? = 0.274. will not be exceeded; i.e., during a storm, the value
Nakagawa et al. [9] also determined the power will not be exceeded, on the average, more than 0.27
spectrum of the fluctuating lift forces by measuring percent of the time.
amplitudes of both oscillating circular cylinders in a The calculated amplitudes pertain to assumed
wind tunnel and steel stacks in the field. The wind damping ratios, ^, of 0.001, 0.025 and 0.006. As
tunnel tests covered a Reynolds number range from expected, the amplitudes increase with an increase in
1.5 to 10^ to 1.5X10^ and the field measurements wind speed and are greatest for the smallest damping
covered a range from 2X10" to 8X10". Both Fung's ratio of 0.001. For comparison. Figure 4 presents field
and Nakagawa's wind tunnel data are in general measurements of the amplitudes for wind speeds up
agreement with the field measurements. to 52 fps. These amplitudes are in good agreement
Figure 4 presents calculated deflections of the top with the theoretical results for a damping- ratio of
of an actual 250 foot high, unlined steel stack 0.001, and suggest that the damping in the stack is
(Stack A) which exhibited severe lateral oscillations quite low. Field data (Stack B, Reference 9) for a
at moderate wind speeds. (This stack has since been steel stack having similar dimensions and free
fitted with a spiral arrangement of vertical strakes to vibration characteristics as Stack A, but having a
suppress the oscillations [19]. The efflux of the stack damping ratio of .006, are also brought into compari-
is 9 feet and the fundamental frequency, confirmed son in Figure 4. These data compare well with the
by field observation, is 1.16 cps. The Reynolds theoretical curve for a damping ratio of 0.006.
number, based on the efflux diameter, ranges from The experimental data of Figure 4 pertain to wind
0.8X10" for a wind speed of 15 fps to 8.75X10" for a speeds at 30 feet in the range of 20 fps to 75 fps. The
design speed of 160 fps. Estimates of the maximum Reynolds number, based on the efflux diameter and
deflections were obtained from Equation 6 using wind speed at the top of the stack, increases from

118
1.5X108 to 6X10'' while the Strouhal number In connection with the foregoing, it is apparent
decreases from 0.35 to 0.10. In the range of Reynolds that an increase in natui'al frequency of a structure
numbers greater than which corresponds to
3.5 XlO'', may not be a feasible means of reducing Karman
the periodic vortex shedding range,
there is no vortex oscillations, and, in fact, can be detrimental.
change in the trend of the experimental data and the This is because an increase in natural frequency is

theoretical curves based on random excitation match accompanied by an increase in the critical wind
the experimental data quite well. This is because, in speed; if this critical wind speed corresponds to a
this range of Reynolds numbers, the Strouhal Reynolds number in the range where the vortex
number is much smaller than the Strouhal frequency shedding is periodic, a resonance condition may be
at which vortices are shed (Figure 1) and a resonant created.However, an increase in natural frequency is

is eliminated. advantageous when the critical wind speed is

noted from Figure 4 that there is no peak

It is also increased to a value greater than the probable
in thedynamic response at a Strouhal number of 0.2, maximum speed for the site.

the value at which resonance is sometimes observed

for cylindrical structures. In this case, a Strouhal 1.3. Self Excited Response
number of 0.2 corresponds to a Reynolds number of
For supercritical values of Reynolds numbers
2.9X10^ which is in the range where the vortex
A'fl>3.5X108, the vortex shedding is periodic and
shedding is random. Power in this range is supplied
there is evidence [10, 11] which indicates that the
over a wide range of Strouhal numbers and, as a
associated aerodynamic forces are strongly dependent
result, excitation occurs over a wide range of
upon the motion of the structure. As mentioned
frequencies.
above, instability tends to occur at a Strouhal number
Scruton [11] observed a similar phenomenon in a
in the neighborhood of 0.2, which happens to be the
wind tunnel and mentions that: "A model of the
test
Strouhal number of the Karman vortex street at
tower for the Museum Telephone Exchange, London,
Reynolds numbers.
subcritical
showed the effect of an aperiodic wake (random
Although a Strouhal number of 0.2 should in
vortex shedding) for SX10'<Nr<3.5X10^. This
cylindrical structure was tested at values of Nr up
general be avoided Tor Nr> 3.5X10'^, estimates of the
vortex oscillations for cylindrical structures may, in
to 2.9 XlO^ Oscillations were spasmodic and the
this case, be computed using an approach advanced
amplitudes increased steadily as velocity was
by Scruton [11].
increased. There was no predominant frequency of
In this approach it is assumed that oscillations will
vortex shedding, excitation occurring over a wide
be maintained at constant amplitude rj when the
range of frequencies."
energy dissipated by positive damping is equal to the
This phenomenon may seem inconsistent with the
negative aerodynamic damping provided by the wind
observed behavior of cylindrical towers and stacks
stream; that is when:
which have exhibited peaked resonant vibrations at
a Strouhal number of about 0.2, and which appear to {5a-\-ds)v=0 (10)
be relatively quiescent at other Strouhal numbers.
where 5a is the logarithmic decrement of the negative,
However, apart from subcritical values of Reynolds
aerodynamic damping and 5s is the logarithmic
numbers such peaked vibrations usually occur only
decrement of the positive, structural damping.
when a Strouhal number of approximately 0.2
For a flexible structure, the negative aerodynamic
corresponds to numbers greater than
Reynolds
damping can be determined by the integration:
3.5 XIO^, where the vortex shedding is periodic. For
instance, in 1953, a welded stack of 16 ft. diameter
and natural frequency came to resonance and
of 1 cps
8,=
f
•'o
p (PK^cj^Hz) dz
/
/ 2 'of m{z)(t>''{z) dz (11)

failed in a wind of about 50 mph; the corresponding

where (^(z) represents the displacement mode of
Reynolds number was 7.3 X 10*' and the corresponding
oscillationand Ka is a non-dimensional parameter
Strouhal number was 0.22. Similar resonant oscilla-
which must be determined from experiment. The
tions at a Reynolds number of about 4 X 10^ were also
value of Ka is dependent upon the aei'och^namic
observed in recent wind tunnel tests at Langley shape, the Strouhal number and the Reynolds
Research Center, NASA, involving Saturn IB and number, and the amplitude of vibration. Ka can be
Saturn V launch vehicles [10]. On both models, positive or negative and oscillations will be main-
resonance occurred at a Strouhal number of about 0.2. tained only when it is negative and when the

119
attendant value of 5a is numerically equal to the Reynolds numbers below 4.5 XlO" there is sufficient
positive damping provided by the structure. experimental evidence which shows that Cl increases
For a subcritical Reynolds number of about to values between 0.6 and 1.0; this range of A^'^e,
1.2X10^, Scruton determined the variation of —Ka however, is not important for tall structures.
with displacement from experiments on smooth,
circular cylinders. Peak excitation occurred at a 1.4. Correction Procedures
Strouhal frequency of 0.2 and the variation of —Ka If calculations show that either excessive ampli-
with at this frequency followed the hyperbohc
7}
tudes of Karman vortex vibration are to be expected
relationship
or that small but sustained vibrations may occur as
a result of a critical wind speed equal to the prevailing
-Ka~ =0.55 (12) wind speed for the area, several alternatives are
cl
available to the Since the aerodynamic
design.
Although Scruton's were obtained at a
results depends upon the aerodynamic
stability of a structure
subcritical value of the Reynolds number, similar shape, the frequency of oscillation and the structural
results were obtained by Reed [10] for supercritical damping, these alternatives include modifications to
Reynolds numbers in the periodic flow regime. These one or more of these factors. Modifying the structure
tests indicate thatmotion dependent forces, in the height to diameter ratio or taper is usually the first
form aerodynamic damping occur at a
of negative approach to be made; but since this change may not
Strouhal frequency of about 0.2 for Nr>3.5 X 10« and be practical in many cases, alternate procedures are
suggest that Scruton's results are also applicable to available. These include:
Nr in this range.
1. Dynamic Spoilers
Since Ka and hence 8a areupondependent
2. Utilization of bracing or guying
amplitude rj, limiting amplitudes may be obtained by 3. Utilization of frictional or impact damping
calculating values of da for a number of values of rj.
devices
The limiting amplitude (see Equation 10) is then
4. Addition of an internal gunite or refractory
determined by the intersection of the — 5a vs. and 17
lining
Ss vs. curves. The structural damping, 5s, will, in
r]
5. Addition of mass or change in fundamental
general, depend upon amplitude, but insufficient frequency
information is available on this variation and 5s is
In general, the addition of aerodynamic spoilers is
normally taken as a constant.
Measurements of 5s made on stacks and towers in often more feasible and more acceptable than
changes of the natural frequencies or increase of the
air have been reported by Scruton [11] and are
still

found to range from about 0.02 to 0.18, the damping

structural damping. The purpose of spoilers is to
being generally greater for concrete or concrete-lined
"spoil" the airflow over a body in order to avoid the
generation of vortices with a predominant frequency,
construction than for unHned steel construction.
It is interesting to note that, on the basis of
or to break up the correlation of the aerodynamic
exciting forces over its length.
Equation 12, it is possible to relate the values of Ka
and Cl, the Karman lift coefficient used by many An optimum configuration of spoilers for cylindrical
writers to express aerodynamic lift forces L as
structures was developed at the National Physical
Laboratory [13]. It consists of a three start system of
L = y2pU-dCL sin o^t (13) rectangular section strakes of height 0.09d and of
pitch 5d. In the case of circular towers and stacks, it
Using the following equivalence [11]
is only necessary to apply this device to the top
third of the structure.
-4^KavS
Cl= ; (13a) Other spoiler configurations which have been found
a
to be effective in reducing vortex vibrations of
with S equal to the Strouhal number at resonance cylindrical structures consist of a two or three start
(i.e., 5 = 0.2), then on substitution of Equation 12, system of equally spaced vertical fins arranged in a
Cx, = 0.27. This value is close to the mean-squared helical pattern [14]. The optimum height of these
lift coefficient Cl^ = 0.274 measured by Fung [4] for a strakes about O.ld and the optimum pitch is about
is

stationary cylinder. lid. This configuration has also been found to be

Fung tested up to A^^? = 1.4X lO** and found Cl to effective when applied only to the top third of
be fairly constant for A''/? > 4.5X10''. With decreasing circular cross section towers and stacks.

120
 Although spoilers are effective in reducing Karman existing structures, l)racing can bo provided by moans
vortex vibrations of cyUndrical structures, they of trusses or crossed pipes. In general, the spacing
increase the drag loading. Wind tunnel tests [15] between adjacent cylindrical structures should exceed
indicate that the drag coefficient for a circular one and one-half diameters, which is the minimum
cyHnder fitted with helical strakes is about 1.15 based distance citedby Landweber [22] for out-of-phase
on the circumscribing diameter. This drag coefficient vibration due to wind perpendicular to a line of
is approximately the same at that observed for cylindrical sti'uctures; bracing can be expected to be
smooth circular cylinders at subcritical Reynolds effective only when the spacing exceeds one and
number. A summary of reported drag coefficients for one-half diameters. Cross bracing is less effective in
circular cylinders shown in Figure 5. In the
is reducing vortex vibrations for wind parallel to a line
supercritical Reynolds number range, the range of of cylindrical structures, particularly if the spacing
primary interest for the present problem, the drag between the structures is greater than two to three
coefficient for a cylinder with spoilers is about twice diameters; such bracing, however, would appear to

as great as that for a smooth cylinder.

be effective in controlling dragwisc vibrations due to

For adjacent structures such as stacks, stacks buffeting in the wake of upwind structures.
The utilization of frictional or impact type damping
close to a structure or small stacks, corrections can be
devices usually have proven to be an effective means
made by bracing or guying. For tall flexible
of controlHng vortex vibrations of flexible, cylindrical
structures, guy wires would appear to offer a
structures. As noted above, the dampers are usually
feasible solution provided there is adequate land connected to the structure by means of guy wires.
space available for guy anchorages. In some cases, However, other types of damping devices, which
guy wires have been used to connect dampers to the require no external connections, have been used or
structure [20, 21]. For adjacent stacks or towers near pi'oposed. These devices consist of acceleration

I M M M I

0- Slarlock • Slolhtr (8"i4a" Cft. covtr aiHl ••ll4p«»«r)

<S>- SKarlock • St*lli*r (S"<4«" cyl m>— Hi wrt»ct)

1.2
®
iourc* Woodruff (AS.C.E <>ri>c. paptr I70«, Jgly l*S«)
(««Mct ratio 5: 1) tmooth cylin^r
I 1 I I I I I

C>«t«ny > S»r»n»«n (W».C.A TN 303> N»v

I 0
Inf. Cy1in4«r v«ry tmMtti tyrfoco

I I I I I I

f) Faf* • WorMp ,
Infinil* R*ut*i Cylindtr

.
I
I M II
® Wtil«lb«f9«r , Infmit Smooth CyliMOf

(7) Clncotto et ol (Infinite Smooth Cylindar)

Figure 5. Drag coefficient versus Reynolds number.

121
 : :

(impact) [12] and auxiUary mass

chain dampers this may not be important provided there is a
(Lancaster) dampers [10]. The acceleration chain reasonable amount of damping available.
damper, which provides beneficial damping when a
vibrating structure causes hanging chains to impact
2. Dynamic Response to Gust Loading
against the walls of the structure, has been found to
be successful in controlling vortex vibrations of a
2.1. General
Wullenwebber antenna [23] and of an unfueled
launch vehicle [12]. In general, both the impact and In addition to the effects of lateral vibrations
Lancaster type dampers become prohibitive for caused by Karman vortex shedding, it is necessary in
large structures because a relatively large mass for the the design of exposed structures to make allowances
damper is required to provide a substantial increase for the influence of dragwise vibrations due to gust
in damping. loading. It is a comparatively well-known phenom-
In the case of stacks, a thick internal gunite or enon that the turbulence characteristics of natural
refractory lining greatly increases damping. The winds are distrubuted randomly in both time and
addition of a lining acts in two ways that can be space and that this turbulence produces a stochastic
approximated by calculation; first, mass is added to dynamic response of a structure. For such cases, it is
the stack thereby reducing its natural frequency; meaningless to attempt a deterministic solution to
second, although refractory lining increases the the problem; however, power spectral techniques
moment of inertia of the stack which in turn increases have proved to be powerful tools for analyzing the
the natural frequency, it reduces the dynamic response of structures to random inputs and will be
deflection. The change in moment of inertia can only the approach discussed in the remainder of this paper.
be expected to occur for a thick lining that is forced Thi'ee elements are involved in determining the
to act integrally with the stack. dynamic response (deflection, stress, etc.) of a
Achange in the natural frequency of a structure structure to random wind loads: (1) the input power
can, in some cases, be a feasible solution to the spectrum, defined by the power spectral density of
problem. For vibrations occurring within the super- atmospheric turbulence, $/(/) (2) the frequency
;

critical range of Reynolds numbers, it is recalled that response function of the structure T{f), defined in
the vibrations are random when a critical Strouhal terms of the steady-state-load-response amplitude
frequency of about 0.2 corresponds to a Reynolds for a unit sinusoidal gust as a function of the forcing
number 3XlO'^<A^fl<3.5Xl08. On the
in the range, frequency /; and (3) the output power spectrum
other hand, when a Strouhal frequency of about 0.2 <l>o(/) defined in terms of the response quantity of
corresponds to a Reynolds number greater than about The basic relationship between input and
interest.
3.5X10", a self-excited phenomena will
response output spectra for linear systems is given by the
occur, and the amplitudes, depending upon damping, expression
could result in a catastrophic failure. It is desirable,
therefore, that the structure natural frequency and/or Mf)= I
Tif) <!>,(/) (14)

damping be such as to avoid the occurrence of this

where \T{f)\'^ is the square of the modulus of the
phenomenon.
structure frequency response function. The variance
In cases where it is impractical to increase the
or mean-square response is obtained by integrating
fundamental frequency an
of a structure to such
with respect to frequency; i.e.,
extent that the critical wind speed for and
iVij>3.5X 10'' is raised above the maximum wind ,.00

speed likely to be encountered, then consideration ^r'= I

Ml) df (15)
0
should be given to a reduction in frequency. A
decrease in frequency serves to reduce the wind speed Under certain simplifying assumptions that the
for vibration instability with the result that the atmospheric turbulence is locally stationary and
energy input clue to aerodynamic excitation is Gaussian, and the shape of the input power spectrum
lessened. In some cases, a reduction in frequency is invariant with the level of intensity of turbulence,
would place a Strouhal number of 0.2 in the range of it is possible to obtain quantities for the probable
Reynolds numbers where the vortex shedding is peak values of the dynamic response. For example,
random, thereby eliminating the possibility of a Davenport [24] has shown that the ratio, g, between
self-excited response; however, this reduction would the probable peak response and the RMS response
tend to augment the random vibrations, although ( is given by

122
 g = V2 In j/r+0.57/ V2 In j/T (16) square deflection of the structure to the fluctuating
load is given by:
where T is the averaging period for the mean wind
(usually 1 hour) and where, according to Rice [25]
<t>n{z)(t>m{z)

EE f H
.= yy-'Mf) df l\n{f) df^'
I (17)

The product vT in a sense is a measure of the r H^*if)H^{f)CUf) df (20)

effective number of cycles of vibration that the
structure will undergo during the averaging period T. where
The larger the number of cycles, the larger is the
chance of an extremely large response occurring. The
value of g generally lies in the range of 3.0 to 5.0.
c..(/)=
f f
Jo *^f^y
c{z)c{z')
(21)

(t>n(z), <t>m{z) are the n"' and jn*"* mode shapes

2.2. Application to Tall, Slender Structures
Hn{f) is the complex frequency response of the n**"

Tall structures, such as towers, can be regarded as mode

line-like systems, i.e., structures extended in only one Hn*{f) is the complex conjugate of Hn{f)
direction. Consequently, all parameters of the Y{z, z', t) is the cross spectrum of p{z, t)

system such as mass, stiffness, deflection, etc., can be

and En is the normaUzation constant of the mode
regarded as functions of only one space variable. On where
the basis of this assumption, the system will obey, in
the linear elastic range, the partial differential m(z)
equation /
^<^"'(^) dz (22)
Jo c{z)

,d^y{z) dy(z) d'y{z)

0 ro(2) P{z, t) All of the necessary properties of the random wind
dt
loading are contained in the term Cnm{f) and the
solution of the problem to gust loading is reduced to
(18)
the determination of this term in a form useful for
where
design purposes. Unfortunately, C„m(/) depends upon
z = the space variable measured from the
<j>{z), and the distribution of area and drag for
c{z)
ground
the structure, and hence any given Cnmif) is specific
= the time variable
i
to the particular structure whose modes and stiffness
y = the displacement of the structure
functions are used to evaluate the integrals.
m = the mass/unit length of the structure If one assumes that normal components of the
6 = the damping/unit length of the
exciting force are in the form e™' then one can easily
structure
prove that the complex frequency response in the n^^
c = the bending stiffness/unit length of
mode is
the structure
P{z, 0 = the applied load
(23)
The load P{z, t) can be written in the form

P{z, t)=Piz)+p(z, t), (19)

where P{z) is the mean load and p{z, t) is the

fluctuating component. Since the structure is linear, where 0 is the percentage of critical damping.
then the total response can be obtained by the The normal mode analysis thus transforms the
superposition of the response due to P{z) and that due problem into a set of single-degrec-of-freedom
to p(2, t). The former can be obtained by the systems and the total response is obtained by a
traditional methods of statics whereas the latter superposition of the individual modal responses. The
requires dynamic analyses and the use of statistical amplitude of H„(/) represents the magnification
theories. factor, which is defined as the ratio of the deflection
When normal mode analysis is applied to Equation of the system during vibration to that corresponding
18 it can be shown [26] that the variance or mean- to a static condition, and is given by

123
 : :

spectrum of turbulence for strong winds. If the

HnU) (24) spectrum, Sv{f), of this region is plotted versus the
frequency, /, on a log-log scale, then the slope at the
+4/3^ high frequency end of the scale would be close to the
universal value in isotropic turbulence of —5/3. It
This expression tends, as would be expected, to the should be mentioned that experimental results are
value of unity when / approaches zero and approaches available only up to a frequency of 3 cps. In
zero at large values of /. At the natural frequency, the accordance with the theory of turbulence, however,
response is maximum and the peak becomes greater the spectrum contains very little energy at higher
as the critical becomes smaller. damping ratio jS frequencies.
For most structures, the damping is small, and in A region of very low energy exists to the left of the
this case only the diagonal terms in the summation gust region and is usually referred to as the spectral
(Equation 20) need be considered, i.e., gap. This gap is very helpful in the measurement of
wind, since it provides a means for obtaining mean-
1
and stable mean velocity measurements. For
f \H^{f) pC„„(/) df (25) ingful
intance, if a record of one hour duration is averaged,
where Hn{f) \
is given by Equation 24 the small-scale fluctuations will be averaged out and
\

and Cnnif) is given by Equation 21

a true "mean" is obtained. To the left of the spectral
gap, one finds large-scale fluctuations; these, how-
with <^„(z') =<j)n{z')
ever, reflect weather-map changes whose periods are
much larger than the natural periods of vibration of
2.3. Evaluation of C„mif)
structures and, hence, are of no concern to structural
In addition to the modal, stiffness and basic drag engineers. The spectral gap, which provides this
data for the structure, certain statistical properties clear-cut distinction between gusts and weather-map
of the wind velocity are required for the evaluation of disturbances, may not exist, however, in certain
the integral given by Equation 21. The properties extreme weather conditions such as tornadoes. These
include the power spectrum of the wind velocity and conditions are, nevertheless, of such rare and localized
its spatial The former reflects the
correlation. nature that they are normally considered as special
distribution of energy among various wave fre- cases by structural designers.
quencies, and the latter indicates how two velocity A generalized gust spectrum was obtained by
components located at two different points in space Davenport from 100 individual measurements
[28]
are correlated. made in strong winds at several locations all over the
A spectrum of the horizontal velocity measured by world and at heights in the range of 40 to 500 ft.
Van Der Hoven [27] is shown in Figure 6. The curves are This spectrum is plotted in Figure 7, and can be
seen to be characterized by several prominent peaks. written in the form
The region on the high frequency end, commonly
referred to as the gust region, reflects the power
SAf) (26)

where Sv(f) is the spectrum of longitudinal velocity,

/ is frequency in cps, K is the surface drag coefficient
referred to Uo the mean wind speed at a reference
OUST REGION height of 30 feet, and x is defined by

x = mOf/Uo (27)

Harris [29] has shown that the Davenport spectrum

dues not fully conform to certain known results of the
equilibrium theory of turbulence, and proposed the
alternate equation:
o' 1 I 1 1 i i i pI I I 1 1 iijil 1 II I I I 1 1 mil I I 1 1 mil ' ' '

1000 100 10 I 0.1 0 01 .001

PERIOD (HOURS) 4KUo'x
(28)
Figure 6. Van Der Hoven's gust spectrum.
7(2+^6

124
 :

electrical signal in communication theory. The latter

has been extensively investigated by Rice [25] and
others.
Davenport [30] has shown that the normalized
correlation coeflficients for the longitudinal velocity
can best be represented in the exponential form,

R{^z,f) =e-'-f^^'''(j<'^
(29)

where As is the separation distance and C is an

empirical constant. A typical correlation curve is
shown in Figure 8. Based upon experimental data
WAVE NUMBER, = (CYCLES / METER)
obtained by Singer [31], the following values for C
may be used
Figure 7. Spectrum of horizontal gustiness in high winds.

Along-wind direction : C = 7.7

Cross-wind direction : C = 23
The two equations, however, are almost identical Vertical direction: C = 7.7
except in the low frequency range, as can be seen in
Figure 7. These values of C clearly indicate that eddies are

The energy spectrum has been found to be elongated in the direction of wind. This phenomenon
independent of height in the height range indicated may be attributed to the presence of the ground
above (40 to 500 ft). Recent measurements by Harris surface.

[29] have also substantiated this assertion in the

The correlation coefficients are normally complex

height range 58 to 598 ft. The spectrum, then, made up of two quantities in-phase
quantities and are :

appears to be nearly universal in this height range and quadrature components. In other words, the best
and is only a function of the ground roughness, as correlation between two points may not necessarily

reflected by K, and the square of the mean wind occur at the same time. The parameter expressed by
speed at the reference height. Average values of K Equation 29 is then the modulus of this complex
are given in Table These are seen to range from a
1. quantity and is also called the square root of the
value of 0.085 for large cities and very rough, hilly coherence function. The phase is found to be small
terrain, to a value of 0.005 for flat, open country. and is normally neglected.
Interpolations of these values may be used for In the evaluation of structural response to wind
conditions intermediate to any of these exposures. loading, the load spectrum rather than the wind
velocity spectrum is needed. The former, however,
can be obtained from the latter as follows:
Table I. Surface drag coefficients, K and velocity The drag force on the structure, P(z,
exponents, a
t), can be
written as

E.xposure Description K a P{z,t)=y2pCDAU-'{z, t) (30)

A Large cities and very rough, 0.085 1/3

hilly terrain.
B Rough wooded country, towns. .010 1/4.5
city outskirts.
C Flat open country, open flat .005 1/7
coastal belts and grassland.

The other parameter which is needed in describing

random wind loads is the cross-covariance (or
cross-correlation) function. This function measures 0.30 0.»

the correlation between velocity fluctuations of a

given frequency located at two separate points in
space. The process is analogous to that of the random Figure 8. Typical correlation curve of wind velocity.

125
where p is mass density, Cd is the drag coefficient, A is A limited amount of experimental data obtained by
the projected area and U is the longitudinal com- Vickery [33] indicates that the latter assumption may
ponent of the wind velocity. Writing P{z, t) and be unconservative and additional experimental data
U{2, t) in terms of a mean and a fluctuating compon- are needed to define the limits over which the
ent, Equation 30 becomes correlation should be extended. It is generally
considered to be conservative to assume that Ay is
p+P=y2pCDA{u+uy (3i;
at least equal to the diameter or downwind dimension
where P and U are the mean components, and p and u of the structure.
are the fluctuating components. Neglecting the term If it isnow assumed in the most general way that
Equation 31 yields the mean drag loading P{z) varies with height, then

2Pu it is easy to show that C „„,(/) can be written in the

(32) form

4>M<i>m{z') P{z)P{z')
Hence, the load spectrum, Sp{f), can be written as C„„.(/)=45„(/) r f C{z)C{z') U{z)U{z')
4:P'S.if)
(33)
'R{z,z',f)dzdz' (35)

where St,(f) is the velocity spectrum defined by Where S,.{f) is the velocity power spectrum given by
Equations 26 or 28. Equation 26 or 28, i?(z, z',f) is the spatial correlation
In the above derivation, it was assumed that the function given by Equation 34, and P{z) and U{z)
drag coefficient, Co, is the static value corresponding are the mean wind load and wind speed at height z.

to 17. Experimental results [30], however, indicate All of the significant properties of the fluctuating

that this coefficient increases with frequency. For drag loading are contained in Equation 35. Hence,
slender, flexible structures, the error derived from once the integration indicated by this equation is

this assumption may be small, largely because of the performed, the double summation indicated in

fact that at large frequencies, i.e., gusts with small Equation 20 or 25 is performed, followed by integra-
wavelength, the wind is poorly correlated. tion with respect to frequencj^, to obtain the variance

In Equation 21, the term Y{z,z',f) (the cross of the deflection at any point in the structure. The
spectrum of the load) can be expressed as the product variance of other structural quantities of importance
of the load spectrum Sp{f) and the correlation such as shearing forces and bending moments, which
function R{Az,f). However, for a three-dimensional are linearly related to displacement, may then be
structure, the spatial correlation in the three direc- obtained using conventional procedures. The equa-
tions must be considered. It is reasonable to calculate tions can be solved straight-forwardly by numerical
the correlation between gusts over the flow region integration with a digital computer.
aft'ecting the loading on the structure. This assump- It is generally assumed for gust loading calcula-
tion is generally considered to be reasonable [32] and tions that P{z) and U{z) can be taken as hourly
results in the following expression for spatial averages. When wind speed data for shorter averaging
correlation periods are available, the pldt of Figure 9 may be
used to convert these speeds to hourly averages. This
^27-l+e--A /2M-l+e
R{z, z'J) plot was obtained by Durst [34] by means of a
2y- data taken in strong winds over
statistical analysis of

(34) flat, unobstructed terrain. In Figure 9, F represents

where the ratio of probable maximum wind speed averaged

y = n.5fAx/Uo over time t to the mean hourly speed. For "fastest

mile'' wind speeds the averaging period t is given by
= 3.S5fAy/Uo
fjL

f = 3600/1'/ where t is in seconds and V/ is the fastest

5 = 3.S5//f7o
mile speed in miles per hour.
The first two products
Equation 34 were obtained
in The variation of U(z) with height is generally
by integrating the terms e"'-"^ and e^-" in the crosswind assumed to follow the power law.
and downwind directions, over distances Ax* and Ay,
U{z) = Ua{z/SO)'' (36)
respectively. For slender structures, it is implied in
Reference 32 that Ax be taken as the diameter of the where U{z) is the velocity at height z above the
structure and Ay be taken as four times the diameter. ground, Uo is a reference velocity at a height of

126
 must be cautioned here that the above values
It
ofa and Zg represent only average conditions, and do
not apply in cases where extreme conditions of
shielding or channeling prevail.

3. References
[1] Von Karman and T. & H. Rabach, Uber den Mechanis-
mus des Flusigkeits und Luftwiderstandes, Phys. Zeits
13(2), 1912.
[2] Milne-Thompson, L. M., Theoretical Hydrodynamics,
Macmillan, New York, N.Y., 1955.
I 10 100 1000 IO.0OO
[3] Roshko, A., On the Development of Turbulent Wakes
tUec) From Vortex Streets, NACA Tech. Notes 2913, 1953.
maximum [4] Fung, Y. C, Fluctuating Lift and Drag Acting on a
Figure 9. Ratio (F) of probable speed averaged
Circular Cylinder in a Flow at Supercritical Reynolds
over period t to that averaged over 1 hour.
Number, Shock and Vibration Bulletin Part II, No. 26,
Office of Secretary of Defense, December 1958.
[5] Cincotta, Joseph J. Experimental Investigation of
et al.,

usually 30 ft and a is an exponent which depends on Wind Induced Oscillation Effects on Cylinders in Two
the roughness of the terrain. Average values of a are Dimensional Flow at High Reynolds Numbers, paper
presented at Meeting on Ground Wind Load Problems in
given in Table 1.
Relation to Launch Vehicles, NASA Langley Research
Using the concept of gradient height, i.e., the Center, June 7-8, 1966
height at which the effect of ground friction becomes [6] Roshko, A., Experiments on the Flow Past a Circular
negligible, hourly wind speed data for a given Cylinder at Very High Reynolds Numbers, /. Fluid
exposure may be converted to exposures of different Mechanics, 10, (3), 1961.
[7] Scruton,C, On the Wind-Excited Oscillations of Stacks,
roughness. Average gradient heights are in the order
Towers and Masts, paper presented at Symposium on
of 1,500, 1,300, and 900 ft for exposures denoted in Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, National
Table 1 by ^, B, and C, respectively. Based on a Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, England,
900-ft gradient height foran open exposure (C), the June 1963.
mean hourly speed in Exposures A and B may be [8] Hurty, Walter C. and Moshe F. Rubenstein, Dynamics
of Structures, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1964.
related to that in Exposure C by
[9] Nakagawa, Kenji et al. An Experimental Study of
Aerodynamic Devices for Reducing Wind-Induced
U{z)=imU,,c(^^^ (37) Oscillatory Tendencies of Stacks, paper presented at
Symposium on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures,
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex,
where U (z) is the mean hourly speed at height z, Uo,c England, June 1963.
is the hourly speed at 30 Exposure C, and Zg is
ft for [10] Reed, Wilmer H. Ill, Models for Obtaining Effects of
the gradient height. Equation 36 is plotted in Ground Winds on Space Vehicles Erected on the Launch
Pad, paper presented at Conference on The Role of
Figure 10 for the three types of terrain.
Simulation in Space Technology, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute Engineering Extension Series Circular No. 4,
August 1964.
[11] Scruton C. et al.. Wind Excited Oscillations of Structures,
The Paper No. 6758,
Institution of Civil Engineers,
London, 1964.
[12] Reed, Wilmer, H. Ill, Hanging Chain Impact Dampers,
paper presented at the International Research Seminar:
Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Ottawa,
Canada, Sept. 11-15, 1967.
[13] Scruton, C, Note on a Device for the Suppression of the
Vortex Excited Oscillations of Flexible Structures of
Circular or Near Circular Cross Section, With Special
Reference to its Application to Tall Stacks, National
Physical Laboratory Aero. Note 1012, April 1963.
z(ft.) [14] Goldman, R. L., Karman Vortex Forces on the Vanguard
Rocket, Shock and Vibration Bulletin Part II, No. 26,
Figure 10. Wind velocity profiles. Office of the Secretary of Defense, December 1958.

1^7
Cowdrey, C. F. and J. A. Lawes, Drag Measurements at to the Wind Loading of Structures, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.
High Reynolds Numbers of a Circular Cylinder Fitted 19, 449-472, 1961.
with Three Helical Strakes, National Physical Labora- [25] Rice, S. 0., Mathematical Analysis of Random Noise,
tory, Aero Report 384, July 1959. Bell System Tech. Jour. 23, 282-296, 1944 and 24,
Steinman, D. B., Problems of Aero-Dynamic and 46-59, 1945.
Hydrodynamic Stability, Proc. Third Hydraulics Conf. [26] Thompson, W. T. & Barton, M. V., The Response
Univ. Iowa Studies in Engin. Bull. 31, 1946. Mechanical Systems to Random Excitation, J. Appl
Weaver, William Jr., Criteria for Design Against Wind Mechs. Vol. 24, No. 2, 1957.
Induced Vibrations Antenna Members, Annals of the
in [27] Van der Hoven, I., Power Spectrum of Horizontal Wind I

New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 116, Art. 1, June 26, Speed in the Frequency Range from 0.0007 to 900 Cycles
1964. per Hour, J. Meteor. 14, 160-164, 1957.
Guyton B. et al., Maximum Amplitude of Oscillation of a [28] Davenport, A. G., The Spectrum of Horizontal Gustiness
Cylinder due to its vortex wake, Proc. ASCE, Vol. 82 Near the Ground in High Winds, Quart. J. Roy. Meteor.
No. HY4, August 1956. Soc. 87, 194-211, 1962.
Ammann and Whitney, Investigation of Karman Vortex [29] Harris, R. I., Measurements of Wind Structure at
Shedding of Steel Stacks, Prepared for Chemical Heights up to 598 Feet Above Ground Level, Electr. Res.
Construction Company, New York, August 1968. Assoc. Report No. SPI/T31, 1968. (Unpublished).
Boorne, R. A., The Aeroelastics of Tall Stacks, Inst. [30] Davenport, A. G., The Buffeting of Large Superficial
Aero. Sci., Preprint No. 851, October 1958. Structures by Atmospheric Turbulence, Annals of the

Den Hartog, J. P., Recent Technical Manifestations N.Y. Academy of Sciences, Vol. 116, Art. 1, 1964.
of
[31] Singer, I. A., Wind Gust Spectra, Annals of the N.Y.
von Karman's Vortex Wake, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. of
USA, Vol. 40, 1954.
Academy of Sciences, Vol. 116, Art. 1, 1964.
[32] Vellozzi, J. and Cohen, Gust Response Factors, Proc.
E.,
Landweber, L., Flow about a Pair of Adjacent Parallel
ASCE Vol. 94, No. ST6, June 1968.
Cylinders Normal to the Stream, David Taylor Model
[33] Vickery, B. J., On the Reliability of Gust Loading
Basin Report 485, 1942.
Factors, Paper presented at Tech. Meeting Concerning
Farmer, Moses, G. and Reed, Wilmer H. Ill, Study of Wind Loads on Bldgs. and Structures, Nat. Bur. of
Wind Excited Oscillations of High Band Wullenwebber Stds., Jan. 1969.
Antenna, NASA LWP-324, November 1966. [34] Durst, C. S., Wind Speeds Over Short Periods of Time,
Davenport, A. G., The Application of Statistical Concepts Meteor. Magazine, Vol. 89, 1960.

128
 SOME DEFICIENCIES IN CURRENT METHODS OF ANALYSIS

R. W. Clough, Chairman
Division of Structural Engineering and Structural Mechanics
The University of California
Berkeley, California 54720

Deficiencies in methods of analysis for structures subjected to wind forces are considered.
Areas of similarity between wind and seismic forces and their treatment by current building
codes are discussed. Deficiencies include a neglect of the dynamic nature of the wind problem,
a lack of basic information, and an inadequate definition of acceptable levels of risk.

Key words: Buildings; climatology; seismic loads; structural engineering; wind loads; vibrations.

My talk will give us an opportunity to try to get set up a computer program for the dynamic
back on schedule, because I don't have a formal analysis of this non-linear structure.
paper, and I don't intend to take anything like the The program was based on a two-phased operation.
allotted time. We started by considering the mean static wind load
As was mentioned, my subject is supposed to be acting on the structure and treated this as an
deahng with the deficiencies in the wind load iterative solution of the nonlinear problem, succes-
problem. I am afraid the principal deficiency that sively changing the stiffness properties of all the
will show up is my own lack of experience with this structural components in accordance with the forces
problem ! My experience is highly limited in the wind which they were carrying. After we got the nonlinear
area. What I want to do is to talk very briefly about a solution, we then proceeded with the dynamic
specific was associated with. And in
problem that I analysis for which we assumed the structure would
connection with this you might keep in mind that behave linearly, vibrating as a linear system about
my point of view in working with this problem was as the non-linear equilibrium positions defined by the
a structural dynamicist working primarily with mean wind pressures. This approach seemed reason-
earthquake engineering-type problems. able to us, and, of course, it was a fairly straight-

The particular problem that I was confronted with forward problem to calculate the vibrational
was the analysis of a guyed tower. This was a tower properties for the particular stiffness coefficients
which was to be a rather monumental structure. It associated with the mean wind condition which we
was supposed to support a restaurant at a very high had previously calculated. So we went through the
elevation, and the analysis seemed to pose a con- standard vibration analysis, and then used mode
siderable challenge as far as my own field of interest superposition procedures to calculate the dynamic
was concerned. At that particular time, we happened wind response.
to be working on analysis techniques for nonlinear During the time that was under
this analysis
structures at Berkeley, and this seemed to be a good way— in other words, while we were
up the setting
opportunity to apply some of our computer programs computer program to do the things which we
to a very practical example. After we got into the —
thought needed to be done I had my initiation into
analysis of the problem, it turned out that the the deficiencies in this whole wind business. Of
principal question of concern to the design engineer course, we needed information about the types of
was the dynamic behavior of this structure, which, loadings to be applied to the particular structure at
of course, was quite a change of direction as far as our the particular location, and very quickly we found
analytical requirements were concerned. But, inas- what we thought were adequate data for preliminary
much as we had had quite a bit of experience with design purposes, describing themean wind conditions
earthquake design analyses for dynamic effects, we which we should apply to the structure. But, when we
felt that we probably could divert our direction, here began looking into the problem of dynamic behavior
also, into the dynamic direction, so we proceeded to of the winds and dynamic variations of velocities or

129
 —
pressures, I was amazed to find that the Weather these monumental-type structures for rather com-
Bureau simply didn't make measurements of that plete dynamic analyses to be made of the seismic
type and had no statistics of any sort which were behavior of structures.
directly applicable to our problem. This, of course, Very, very few really large, important structures in
completely limits the capability of an analyst with seismic regions are now designed without having
the kind of approach that we were proposing to take. rather thorough digital computer studies of their
Fortunately, after a number of inquiries, we were dynamic behavior under seismic conditions. In both
directed to the NASA group which has been making of these respects the wind load deficiencies seem to be
measurements at the Cape Kennedy tower, and they more severe than those in the earthquake area. There
were kind enough to supply us with some excellent is very little direct recognition in the code of the
wind data for their 150-meter tower system which we dynamic nature of the problem, and I think only in a
felt we could distort sufficiently to serve the purposes very few instances, such as the ones which we have
of our own analysis. So, with this information, we heard about this morning, have we had significant
were actually able to make a deterministic study of analyses of the wind behavior, including some
the behavior of this particular nonlinear structure. consideration of the dynamic response. Both of these
About the time we got the data, unfortunately, the factors —the improvement of the code, and consider-
whole project was canceled, and we never did carry ably more actual study of the dynamic behavior of
out the complete set of analyses that we had in mind. —
the structure in the analysis phase are necessary.
We had just started making some comparisons of The second area of similarity in deficiencies
nondeterministic studies —following Davenport's between the wind and the earthquake problems is in
techniques —to
compare with our deterministic the lack of information. In the earthquake area, the
studies. Our hope was to use our determin-
original reason for this shortage of information is quite
istic analysis as a substitute for wind tunnel studies obvious. The major earthquakes, which are the
we thought we could actually introduce specific primary hazard to our structures on the West Coast,
winds, study the actual behavior of the structure are very, very rare occurrences. The Coast and
from a mathematical model of the structure, and, by Geodetic Survey has a network of some 250 strong-
this approach, get something equivalent to a wind motion seismographs distributed throughout the
tunnel study. Ultimately, of course, we recognized seismic regions; but, even with this very large
the need for the nondeterministic study, to get some network available, we have very, very few records of
estimate of the overall performance to be expected important earthquakes. In fact, we have no records
over a long period of time. of really major earthquakes of the Anchorage or
This is the experience that I had. In connection Chile proportions. This, I think, is not so much a
with this experience, I recognized a lot of deficiencies deficiencyon the part of the people interested in
in the wind load picture, and I also recognized that making the measurements as it is a fact of life. We
there are very definite between the
similarites just don't get that kind of information very fre-
deficiencies in the wind problems and those which we quently. On the other hand, in the case of wind data,
recognize in the earthquake engineering field. I it seems that wind information is really quite
thought I might, just very briefly, relate some of my available; it's just a matter of devising suitable
concepts of these deficiencies. instrumentation systems and going to work on getting
The first deficiency, I think, is in the code the information. I think the NASA tower at Cape

Both in the case of the

specifications themselves. Kennedy an excellent piece of work in this
is

earthquake problem and the wind problem, the code direction; and I think the NBS-ESSA cooperative
treats the behavior of the structure as a static progi'am which is being set up here at this facihty is,
problem. The dynamic nature of the problem which also, a very good step in that direction. But these are

actually exists is essentially ignored by the code. In very limited efforts in what should be a very
this respect, I think the earthquake business is a important area of investigation.
little bit ahead of the wind business, because, at Now,
in this regard I might point out that the City
least in the specification of the seismic coefficients, of Los Angeles in its most recent code adopted a
there is some recognition of the dynamic properties of requirement that any major structure must include
the structure; the seismic coefficients are presented as two strong-motion seismographs in the structure.
a function of the frequency of vibration of the They put the burden of providing instrumentation on
structure in the typical code approach. Also, I think the owners of the buildings in this case, and I think
that it has become rather common practice now in there could be some consideration given in the wind

130
 loading area to the same type of thing. I think major whether these coefficients are supposed to relate to a
j
buildings such as the United States Steel Building 10-year earthquake or a hundred-year earthquake, or
and the World Trade Center could very well be whether there should be any damage associated with
forcedby some sort of code requirements to include the structure that is designed according to these

in their actual cost of the structure some instrumenta- coefficients. This

one of the tremendous deficiencies
is

tion which would benefit the whole profession. in the whole earthquake problem; there has been no

; Finally, the other area of similarity, in the real attention paid to the specification of these Ijasic
;
deficiencies of the design problem, between earth- What should be done is to establish the
coefficients.

,
quake and wind is in the area of defining the risk for earthquake for which one intends to design
level of
which we ai'e actually designing structures. Code and then establish some sort of recurrence date for
'

provisions are established as rather sterile quantities, which that earthquake would be expected, and have
with very, very little indication of what kind of risk this clearly indicated in the code provisions.
•
one is accepting — whether it's a hundred-year Apparently the same situation is also true with
j
condition or a 10-year condition and they also say — respect to the wind problem. There seems to be no
nothing about the level of damage which might well indication of whether the 40-pound pressure which,

j
be expected to be associated with that particular apparently, is now specified in New York, is associ-
I loading condition. In the case of the earthquake ated with a 10-year return period or a hundred-year
I
problem, the typical designing engineer's philosophy return period, and apparently, there is no indication
j
isthat he wants his structure to perform well that — of whether the structure is expected to come through
is, without structural damage —in relatively moderate the design loading conditions without damage or
earthquakes, but he is willing to accept a significant whether some significant amount of damage is to be
I

'

amount of structural damage in a major earthquake. expected. It seems to me that we can't continually

hoping to avoid any total collapse and increase the factors of safety of our structures simply
;
Of course, he is
by increasing the load coefficients one way or another,
!
loss of life in a major earthquake, but the concept of
without somewhere indicating the kind of risk which
I
accepting damage in a major earthquake is very well
we associate with these various factors of safety. And,
accepted throughout the engineering profession on
j

I think that very soon in both the earthquake and

the West Coast. Now, this is a nice philosophy of
wind business, we are going to have to make some
I design; I think it's a consistent one in terms of the sort of direct attack on this problem of relating the
I

economy of the country, but, associated with that code provisions to some measure of the risks which we
philosophy, there have been no indications of the are taking.
kind of earthquake we are talking about when we Those are the only comments which I have to
I
specify our seismic coefficients —no indications as to make. I thank you very much.

131
 I

!
!
 PANEL DISCUSSION

Mr. Edward Cohen, Chairman

Amman & Whitney
New York, New York 10011

Dr. A. Allan Bates

Chief, Office of Engineering Standards Liaison
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D.C. 20234

Professor A. G. Davenport
Faculty of Engineering Science
University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario, Canada

Mr. H. C. S. Thom
Senior Research Fellow
Environmental Data Service, ESSA
Silver Spring, Maryland 20910
 a —
PANEL DISCUSSION

De. Bates: primary areas of ignorance. He related them to three

I am going to inject an unexpected note into this major aspects of our subject, and he started out hy
discussion —a note which may sound shghtly ominous saying that we need a great deal more information,
to some of you; actually, it is not ominous, I assure which is, I guess, pretty well known although this —
you. Ed [Cohen] referred to the fact that there is now is not to despair over getting it, nor is it to be
in existence an Standards Policy (now office
Office of derogatory of the vast amount of information we
of Product Standards) This office, while it is located
. already have. He related his remarks to frameworks
within the Department of Commerce, has re- in the process of construction, that is buildings in the
sponsibilities which spread far beyond the Depart- process of erection, which are perhaps sometimes
ment of Commerce —spreading to all the agencies peculiarly vulnerable to damage by dynamic forces,
of the US Government, departmental, regula- and which case we have less information than
yet, in
tory, and otherwise, which are concerned with we have for completed buildings. He also spoke of the
standards and matters relating to standards, such as necessity of relating the frequency and mode of
building codes, which are, of course, in large part, —
response in buildings in high-rise buildings with —
compendiums newly established
of standards. This relatively high frequencies, and related that to the
office is only one part of a general concern of which I subjective factor, that is to say, how much the
am sure you are all aware to some degree. There is a average human being will stand without alarm, in
concern in governmental circles Federal, State, and — building motion. This is certainly a subjective factor
—
otherwise over the development of standards in in the study —the kind which should be studied more
this country under the traditional organizations, often. He then went on to speak of structures with
which have been largely private. Our standards and relatively low frequencies. This gets us into areas in
codes have evolved from privately introduced, which both potential danger and ignorance are,
privately conducted actions; and this has endowed perhaps, becoming magnified. Incidentally, in Mos-
the United States with one of the richest bodies of cow, a year ago, I TV tower
stood at the foot of a
standards in the world. It has been a traditional which is, according to my Russian informant, 1,700 ft
activity which has served us well but one which has tall with a restaurant at the 900-ft level, and he told
come under increasing criticism in recent years. me, if I understood him correctly, that the structure
You're all aware of the concern of the Congress over was expected to sway 3 meters in the wind at the top.
consumer standards. You're aware of the concern of Now, the frequency of that structure is, of course,
Congress over standards in general, especially as they not very high, and one wouldn't get the feeling of
affect the public welfare.Now, if there is anything vibration up there. But, this is the sort of thing we
that affects the public welfare, it is the standards and are getting into, and
which our ignorances are
in
the codes which relate to building and construction. becoming magnified as we become bolder in design.
The two speakers yesterday were complementary
to each other in a most useful way. Professor Maugh Wayne Koppes pointed out that the frequency of
dealt in a very practical way with the bones and danger and, indeed, the totality of danger —the total
skeleton —and Wayne Koppes with the skin or summation danger and of damage is not so much
of —
exterior. Wayne Koppes showed us some slides — with the structure, but with the localized components
series of pictures of which steel spandrels
damage, in of the skin, the windows, the spandrels, and so forth.
and windows were torn loose by wind and went flying He emphasized further that the negative pressures
around the atmosphere, to possible public detriment. are, in general, apt to be higher than the positive
(Wayne's slides might collectively have been entitled pressures, and this is, likewise, an area in which
"Gone with the Wind!") The implication of pubhc while we are not ignorant —we know much than
less

concern and public welfare was so great, not only in we should. He also spoke of the funneling effect,
those slides, but remarks which he and
in the which is obviously very important and of high
Professor Maugh and others made, that it is quite potential danger to the welfare of persons. He spoke
certain that we are delving here in a field which is of the instance in which, I think he said, persons
going to be looked into by Congress in the next year were —or potentially were— blown into a pond ; while
or two. Professor Maugh pointed out, I think, the the pond was shallow enough that the effects were

135
 —
not too damaging, this illustrates what can happen of damage or discomfort or danger within reasonable i

due to these strange effects. ecomonic limits; but it is expected that due diligence
Both speakers repeatedly referred to building will be exercised —and
I'm happy to say, as repre-
codes, and Professor Clough, this morning, returned may have this
sentative of this particular office which
to them most emphatically in emphasizing the task, that I am dehghted with the diligence and the
deficiencies of codes. This brings me back to my advancement in knowledge which has been shown by
opening remarks, that codes and standards have the speakers in the discussions of this session. I think -j

become of such concern to the public that the it's been a most fruitful session, and I hope it will be j

deficiencieswhich have been so emphasized here followed by others, extending the vast reservoir of^
throughout yesterday and today, simply cannot be private competence and private knowledge which is

permitted to continue. And indeed, they are not represented here and in related organizations into
continuing in the same order of magnitude as in the sufficient and proper progress in building codes and
past. The deficiencies of codes and standards are, standards.
I think, quite certain to be the object of public Professor Davenport:
attention —a good deal of public attention. I can Mr. Chairman, I felt that probably my most useful
refer you to a report, here, by a Congressional task might be just to try to summarize some of the
committee which came out only a very few days ago, keynotes that have appeared in some of the valuable
in which the recommendation is made that every papers we've heard. I'll try to deal with them in not
voluntary standard, in effect, shall be subjected to a necessarily the sequence in which they were given,
Governmental review, a very extensive three part but rather in a manner more orderly in terms of the
—
Governmental review one for the legitimacy of the development here. In this instance, I would like to
procedure which has been followed; one for the start with some comments on the meteorological
technical content, the adequacy and accuracy of the area, which I feel is the basis of most of our technical
technical content; and finally, the third review which problems.
relates to what we might call the economic and social We saw from Professor Gill's paper some evidence
effect of the standard. And, the recommendation is that the instruments which we use to measure wind
that all private voluntary standards be subjected to speeds are extremely important. And, there was a
that review. Now, almost an
literally, this is relationship —
I felt —
between his and some of the
impossible task to carry out, and, and when this if remarks which Mr. Fichtl and Mr. Kaufman made in
comes to your attention, I would suggest you get not their very interesting paper. One of the matters
too greatly alarmed, as you might if you took the which concerns us is to try to find an adequate means
—
language literally because an impossible task can for referencing wind speed on a national basis or on a
be dealt with on the basis of its impossibility. continental basis, if you like. There are several
However, that task can be modified to become approaches to this. The Weather Bureau and the
possible, and will have a rather strong effect upon Canadian Department of Transport have used what
such organizations as are represented by this group are fairly standard measurements they've used —
here today, which are largely private although not — hourly wind speed; they've used maximum gusts and
entirely so. in the United States they have used the fastest mile.
So my principal the codes and standards
concern is And, there are also some upper level wind aero-
as viewed by any and
Governmental agencies,
all nautical observations which are becoming extremely
—
regardless of their origin private, Governmental, or valuable. I feel that there is a very great need to try
—
otherwise that these codes and standards shall be to communicate, to the meteorological organizations,
reviewed with due diligence as they relate to the the need for developing a consistent type of measure-
public concern and the public welfare. Obviously, no ment. This point was referred to by Mr. Smith. In the
building code can ever be a perfect building code. brief discussion this morning, I came out in favor
Wayne Koppes made this point —that the extremely for technical reasons —
of an average which is based
complex local aspects of wind load and wind damage, on something like a 15 minute average which is
positive and negative, are such that it is almost justifiable both for structural and meteorological
hopeless to ever reduce them literally to a complete reasons.
code which will take all of the curious aspects of There are several difficulties which exist at present.
buildings into mind. So, it is not expected that One the determination of maximum gusts. As we
is

building codes or building standards can be reduced saw from Professor Gill's paper, the tj^pe of instru-
to perfect coverage which will assure no possibility ments which are used affects the reading. If you use

136
the fastest mile, you find that the estimate of the One factor which hasn't been touched on very
fastest mile from actual records is an extremely much in the meteorological area is the importance

tenuous business when the wind speed gets very high, of tornados. Mr. Thom might have some very useful
for the simple reason that you're trying to measure observations in this connection. I think, though, that
very small increments of distance on a chart of paper. if you were to order the damage in Canada and the
There's never been any estimate that I've seen of the United States as to order of importance per year,
accuracy of the actual data that has been presented. I'm sure that tornados would head the list. I .suspect
The use of hourly averages is very much colored by that they cause more damage on an annual basis,
themethod of observation, and in not all cases has —
than do earthquakes and, probably, more deaths.
the hourly average been the true average, but has Yet, we have extremely few handles by means of
been, rather, a guess by the meteorologist who's on which we can get hold of this problem of tornado
duty. These point to the fact that there is a need to action.
improve accuracy in the records; and secondly, a need The second area that I'd like to touch on is the
to develop some consistent estimate of wind speeds question of aerodynamics. In Professor Cermak's
from which we can build a useful model of what the paper, the value of wind tunnel techniques was noted.
wind environment of the structure is likely to be. We also saw pictures of his micrometeorological wind
Sometimes I've felt that we have looked at the tunnel at Colorado State University which was the
definition of the meteorological problem rather like first effective instrument on this continent which
the motorist in Nova Scotia who asked the way to could handle structural problems in, what I consider
somewhere from a local, and the local replied that, to to be, an adequate way. There is a long history to
"If I wanted to get to there, I wouldn't go from here." wind tunnel testing procedures. The evolution has
I feel that to try to evaluate the meteorological been, naturally, organized around the availability of
problem from the vantage point of the surface of the wind tunnels. And, the kind of wind tunnel that
globeis probably the worst possible starting point to developed for aeronautical research was a very
get to the final objective. logical one. It was designed, usually to be turbulence-
I feel very strongly that the kinds of observations free because the loads on aircraft are turbulence-free.
which we have tend to be misleadingly different due — It was designed to obviate entirely the kind of
to entirely local effects — if a town has grown up conditions which really exist at the level of the
around the anemometer, then you're likely to see structures we're building. The micrometeorological
that reflected in the velocity of the wind. Historically or boundary layer wind tunnel creates a flow repre-
in the United States, with the coming of aviation, sentative of the wind. I believe it has to be used more
there was a tendency to move most of the first-order often, and the importance of its use —
as distinct from
meteorological stations off to airports from their —
other types of wind tunnels has to be emphasized.
positions in the centers of cities. This itself dramati- Martin Jensen, a very well-known worker in this
cally increased the estimates of wind speeds, and area, once remarked that he felt that the aeronautical
hence the wind loads. This was entirely unrelated to wind tunnel had already had nine lives in this kind
a change in climate; it was simply that the instru- of problem area —
that its inadequacies have been
ments were moved. demonstrated many times, but still people will
I feel that there's a tremendous amount of continue to test in aeronautical wind tunnels, in
information which is available, both to structural spite of quite strong evidence that some of the
engineers, and also to people who are interested in problems are inadequately dealt with in this kind
this kind of research. We've got the task ahead of us of environment.
to unscramble the information that is available, and We heard from Dr. Simon of the importance of
I think also, we have a task to improve the nature vortex shedding, and this, again, is a highly interest-
of the records which are currently being made. ing problem with which we have to grapple. His was
The value of upper-level winds is very useful in the only contribution which dealt really effectivelj''
this respect. And, I've been most impressed by the —
with this problem but which was, perhaps, more
—
ICAN I don't know what that stands for, something associated with the non-turbulent situation. When
about International Civil Aviation Network these — we transfer our thinking to turbulent flow, our
types of organizations are interested in winds which experienceis that we find a lot of surprises. The paper

are free from the influence of the earth, and it's by Professor Cermak, I think, very much underlines
surprising how much order seems to emerge from the the fact that the nature of our aerodynamic problems
chaos which comes from relying on surface is highly conditioned by dynamic influences. This
observations. reality must color a lot of our future developments.

137
 I think the question of the state of the integration case. We in Canada are intending to embody the
of dynamic aspects into the profession was
the similar dynamic principle of gust factors.
highhghted by three papers one by Professor — I think that one of the questions that has to be
Vickery, one by Dr. Vellozzi and Mr. Cohen, and also dealt with very much in the area of structures and
the paper by Dr. Chen and Mr. Robertson. I think codes was referred to, both by Professor Maugh and
there were several distinct approaches in evidence Mr. Koppes, in their very interesting papers.
here. I might at this point distinguish between what Professor Maugh referred to construction problems.
I feel is a code approach, which is, inevitably, a I think this is a very real question, and it's being
simplified approach — its terms of reference are not neglected in codes.
altogether the same as the technical aspects of strict Another question is the distinction between the
engineering design. It has responsibilities to the skin and the bones. I thought that was a very
public, which are embodied in the utility of the code. felicitous phrase. I think it is quite essential that we '

Five or six years ago, I was asked to contribute a discriminate between the formulation of the load
section on dynamic loading which was usable or — itself, in the first instance, between the skin and the
—
j

hopefully usable for the Danish Code. This has now bones. The gust factor approach along the Danish —
been in operation for several years. It was found to be lines and the new Canadian lines will be organized —
quite usable; engineers are finding that it is a around these two aspects. The gust factor will apply,
manageable concept to deal with and doesn't stretch in one sense, to the structure as a whole, and there
the ordinary structural engineer's technical back- will be other gust factors entirely for use on the
ground too far. There have been some points which exterior cladding. The reason is, of course, that the

we have to work with further in the Danish Code. size of the structure produces a fairly large averaging
One is the question of vortex shedding, and this we're effecton the overall loading and it also has resonant
trying to improve on at the moment. amplification.The skin, on the other hand, is exposed
In his paper. Professor Vickery pointed out that to very high local pressures much higher local —
the basic concepts of this approach are in reasonable —
pressures which are not averaged out and the
agreement for tall, slender structures with wind resonant characteristics are entirely different. The
tunnel work. The main influence of such a code, which characteristics of the structural components are
embodies the gust factor, is that, rather than change entirely different from the characteristics of the
the level of average loading, if you like, from the total structure as a whole.
assembly of all structures that we build, the gust I think that one other aspect which has been
factor approach does not move the average value of referred to this —
morning perhaps on the philosoph-
the wind loading very much. What it does do is ical end,but very important to think about is the —
discriminate between structures a lot more than measure of the level of risk. We're using once-in-30-
present static wind loading codes do. For example, it year wind loads or once-in-50-year wind loads, and
has tended to relieve the loading significantly on such these match up fairly well with what we reckon to be
structures as apartment buildings which are very — "working loads" from our experience. The back-
broad and usually relatively stiff. It has tended to ground of this is largely conditioned by history. There
reduce the loading required for such structures from was a time when wind loads tended to be organized
what are our present-day code values. For slender around the maximum observation on record. Then,
structures, such as smoke stacks, the loadings have people like jNIr. Thom came along with statistics,
increased. And, in consideration of the damage rate, showing that this is not a reasonable basis, because
I think this is a consistent development to have records only exist to be broken now and again. It so
—
happen as the damage rate certainly would indicate —
happened I think this is a fairly historical evalua-
that smoke stacks are quite prone to damage under tion —that the once-in-50-year or the once-in-30-year
certain circumstances. So, this has made the question was an average for the period over which we had
of wind loading a far more dispersed kind of loading records and, therefore, match the
it was logical to
than it has hitherto been. wind speeds that were used in design for this kind of
This has not as yet been adopted very widely by a return period. But, if you turn to other kinds of
number of codes. The French codes consider the loading, such as earthquake loading —as Professor
Danish approach regarding the gust loading factor, Clough was referring to this morning you find that, —
and they did adopt a half-way -house, which was if you apply the same logic, you end up with a

embodied in the Russian Code, but they felt it was completely ridiculous answer. If people designed for
too complex. My own feeling is that this is not the the expected once-in-30-year earthquake load, they

138
 —
wouldn't bother about earthquakes at all. What is —
from tornados which are storms in which we cannot
happening, in a sense, is that we have a margin which —
measure the wind speeds runs about one third of the
is protecting us —which is providing a buffer —be- damage from these large-scale storms and thunder-
tween what you might call the most severe incident storms. It runs about $150 million a year, and again,
that the structural engineer is prepared to entertain. there are large fluctuations from year to year.
This buffer, or the safety factor, is keeping us out of Of course, much of this damage is to small
trouble, because, really, when you talk about a structures, and literally, the figures aren't too
once-in-30-year wind load, you expect it to happen accurate. However, one can draw some important
once in 30 years doesn't mean that you go for 30 conclusions from them. At the same time, we've
years without it. There are reasons to think about —
conducted studies into the mortality that is, the
this question quite seriously from several points of loss of life — due to these types of storms.
view. One is that the glass and the structure as a There are some rather interesting facts which I'll

whole do not necessarily deserve to be given the same be calling attention to in these two studies, and these
return period. Some people may think that the loss arise from probabilistic considerations. In the case
of glass in a strong wind is a sort of safety valve. of the large-scale storm, the damage is constantly
There are a lot of philosophical connotations to this increasing from year to year. It is going up ex-
problem which I think are worth trying to differ- ponentially, roughly, as the population increases.
entiate between. Another factor here is that for This, of course, is due to the fact that the probability

aerodynamic instability where the kind of margin of being hit by a storm of this character is propor-
that you have —represented by the once-in-30-year tional to the amount of area that is covered by
load — is not adequate at all. structures which is proportional to the population.
would like to endorse the remarks that
Finally, I So, this damage has increased from year to year and
we should have better criteria to deal with in will go on increasing — perhaps with some little
evaluating wind loads. The question of motion has reduction, maybe due to design (I don't know what
been mentioned several times. These, in many cases, can be done along these lines). Anyway, the fact is
are the most complicated problems and the most that it's increasing, and it must increase based on
difficult problems to overcome. If you can beat these this increase in probability of structures being struck
problems adequately, the structure itself will nor- by such storms.
mally have sufficient capacity to deal with strength Now, as far as the loss of life is concerned in these
conditions. There's also the question of fatigue. My large-scale storms, this has been greatly reduced
impression is that most wind failures, if they do because of the warning system that's been put into
occur, occur through fatigue. And the question of 20 years or so. You have observed
effect in the last

fatigue is always coupled with plastic action because this yourself; the loss of life in hurricanes, for
you cannot have plastic action without exposing example, has been reduced to almost no loss of life at
yourself to fatigue, and to deal with plastic action, all, compared to 20 or 30 years ago. This, possibly,
as
purely and simply, without considering how many will increasesome along with the probability of being
times the structure is bent back and forth — is to sti'uck by these storms, but, as the warning systems

meet only half the problem. —

improve which they, no doubt, will this will —
Mr. Thom: probably keep the loss of life at some reasonable level.
Dr. Pfrang asked me to say a little about wind One other thing to consider here, of course, is that
damage. I have been making some studies on wind the area of the country along the East Coast, where
damage, based on data which the Weather Bureau the major part of the population is concentrated, has
has collected over many years —since 1916, as a the largest probability of high winds. So, this
matter of fact. Several interesting points can be contributes a great component to this damage. In
briefly mentioned. Wind damage from large-scale the Mid-West, where the population is much more
storms, such as hurricanes, extra-tropical cyclones, spread-out, the probability of damage is less. On the
and also including thunderstorms —which, of course, West Coast, where the population is large —becoming
are small-scale storms, but those in which we can larger and larger all the time —the probabilitj^ of high
measure the wind speeds, at least —damage from this winds is generally ver}^ low, so the risk of damage is

type of storm runs between five and six hundred low.

million dollars on the average per year. This damage Now, in the case of tornados, the damage has also
amount fluctuates violently from year to year, and increased, because you can't take a house in when
can run up to a billion and a half dollars. The damage there's —
a warning of a tornado you can't hide it

139
 — I

somewhere; it's going to be struck by the tornado if we can determine the gust
factors with some degree
if this is the inevitable consequence. The loss of life of accuracy and then superimpose this on a macro-
in tornados also has been greatly reduced by wind, I think we would have an estimate which
improved warnings. The wind damage, however, —
would have a standard error or relative standard
continues to rise. It rises in a somewhat different error —
that was certainly well within the accuracies
manner, because the high probability of tornados in of the mechanical design.
the United States is in the Mid-West, where the would say another word here based on some of
I —
population is, more or less, spread out. But, we can my own experience. We have used the fastest mile
see in the statistics, that, as a result of the migration largely because there was record available, and it's
from farms to cities —which has been large over the the best record we had available available for a —
past 30 years —the chances of striking urban areas considerable number of years, a requirement for a
have also increased. Hence, this has been a consider- valid statistical analysis. We might have made a
able factor in increasing the damage loss in tornados better choice if we had been in a position to start with
—
•
that is, the chance of the storm's striking an urban other and we could then have
instrumentation
area is much
larger than it's striking a single chosen a better measure of the wind. But, one must
farmhouse. Here again, the situation with respect to not forget that this is a climatological problem
the probability is a little different. In the area along where, in order to determine probabilities and design
the East Coast, where we have the main concentra- values with respect to wind, one must have a fairly
tion of population, the probability of tornados is long previous record. So, one can't say today, let's

relatively small. On the West Coast, the probability change the observation and have a design value
of a tornado is practically zero. So, fortunately, tomorrow. If we changed the record, we would have
where we have the most sparse distribution of pop- to wait quite a number of years before we could make
ulation, we have the high probabilities. some reasonable estimate of the probabilities. Now,
Enough of that .... The striking thing is, I think, as to the validity of the present data : we have checked
that this damage is increasing. And, by the nature of on numerous occasions where there were reports of
the probabilistic situation, it must constantly high winds, in other cases where we were able to add
increase, except for what can be done in the way of a considerable amount of data to the previous
design against this damage. records —and we've found that, in a large percentage
Now, to actually get to the program: I got the of the cases, the records were stable, and that the
impression from Professor Gill's presentation, that addition of extra records simply served to enhance
the instrumentation is in pretty good shape. He the accuracy of the estimates, and did not change the
showed that we have instruments that can be used to climatological features, namely the statistics of the
measure most of what we anticipate measuring at the distribution.
present time, and that, if we need to go to higher Now, a word about the return period — I don't
frequencies, development of such instrumentation really like the term "return period;" I like to use
—
could take place which would take care of the "mean recurrence interval" because it explains
problem. So, I think this is in very good shape really what the term means. Mr. Cohen brought up
thanks, to a large extent, to Professor Gill, himself, this question this morning, and the question also was
who has designed and built many of the instruments raised in Ottawa. No answer has been given to this,
that are in use today. and I don't know whether there is an answer to it or

In the second paper by Mr. Singer and Mr. Smith, not. But, certainly, I think everybody would agree
I thought that a very pessimistic view of things was that a 50-year mean recurrence interval is not a
given. I don't feel that things are quite that bad. It measure of the probability as it applies to the
seems apparent, at least, that the wind problem and — structure. As was pointed out by an Austrailian^ —
the mechanics problem also divides itself into two— —
think it was Professor Joubert in Ottawa, that if
parts. One is what might be called a macro-wind the — this were so, there would have been a large number
kind of winds that we now produce for design data. of structures which would have failed over the past
And, superimposed on this is a gust which we hundred years. Well, we haven't experienced this. So,
determine theoretically and, in some cases, have been what apparently is happening, and I think this can
able to measure. It's apparent, also, I believe, that be demonstrated if one considers a rather simple
the gust is a scale change on the macro-wind, and this structure — is that we have enormous factors of safety
is a rather happy set of circumstances, because it on the mechanical side. Otherwise, this 50-year
makes the statistical theory somewhat simpler. So, design wind just wouldn't be safe. And, we're pretty

140
 —

sure that the wind speeds cannot be that far wrong very good figures on wind damage, but we do l.lie
nor can we be that far off on relationship to the static best we can. We've had a lot of criticism about the.se
load. Certainly, there are random errors in both, but figures. Some insurance companies want to do one-

they couldn't be as far off as this probability must be. thing with them, and other insurance companies want
So, I think that —
as Mr. Cohen said this morning to do the opposite. For one person, our estimares are
we should get to a more realistic consideration of the too high; for another per.son the estimates are too
overall probability. As somebody said the other day, low .... What these figures do show is what's
we're going to design buildings no matter how much inevitable in the probabilistic model —that these are
we know, and this is what's gone on in the past. I increasing ... So, I say in both of these studies that
think a 50-year mean recurrence interval just came the principal use of these estimates is to show the
to be something that everybody sort of liked. It's relation from year to year, rather than anj' al^solute
been going on for a long time, and if you try to value.
change this in any standard or code, you're going to From my examination of the data, I would say
run into a lot of difficulty. So much for that . . . that a major part of the total consists of a large
Mr. Fichtl and Mr. Kaufman gave a very interest- number of small damages —that is, mainly on the
ing paper which provides a good bit of information on cladding of the buildings. (I'm now talking about
the fine-scale structure of the wind. I think that we thunderstorms, extra-tropical cyclones —the kinds of
need a lot more of this kind of work, particularly at storms that you would experience, let's say, in

high wind speeds. Most of the spectra that we've had Minnesota —excepting tornados.) Now, as far as
in the pasthave been determined at low wind speeds tornados are concerned, the situation is entirely
by people who are interested in air pollution, and different. As you know, few structures will withstand
these may not be adequate for the higher speeds. But, a tornado. When a tornado strikes a building, that's
I don't think that they're very far off either, because usually the end of it, unless it happens to be a
we have other checks with respect to the gust factors, reinforced concrete structure or some similar strong
which makes them appear to be rather reasonable. structure; but, even there, there have been cases
Finally I would like to comment on wind damage where a tornado causes a collapse by failure in some
as it relates to the complexity of the structure. I particular area of the building. By and large, I would
think it is, as Professor Davenport pointed out, if you say that, for the large-scale storms, the damage is

look at the mechanics of the problem, you'll find that mainly to the cladding or to relatively small
the probability of a concentrated load on the cladding structures.
will be much higher than the probability of a load I remember a Bell Laboratory man saying to me
which causes a collapse of the building. The building
that of 1,500 microwave towers his company had
ismade up of a series of components which interact constructed, it had lost three. If you consider the
with each other and which produce a convolution of
probabilities in this situation, you would expect a lot
probabilities which makes the chance of failure of the
more failures than that. In other words, those towers
whole structure an extremely small probability. If
are designed to be strong enough to carry the loads.
this weren't so, then we would have much greater
I've wanted to look into those three failures for I have
collapse damage from wind.
The we get on wind damage
statistics are, admit- a sneaking suspicion that tornados did the job of

tedly, not very good. I don't think anyone can get destruction.

141
 APPENDIX

Note: The following papers were submitted

after the formal program was established.
COMBINING A WIND TUNNEL ANALYSIS WITH A THREE-DIMENSIONAL
ANALYTIC BUILDING ANALYSIS
Gary C. Hart
Assistant Professor of Engineering
University of California
Los Angeles, California 900^4

A three-dimensional computer oriented stiffness representation of a liigh-rise building is de-

scribed. Statistical quantities obtained from aeroelastic models in a boundary layer wind tunnel
are combined with the three-dimensional analytical building model to obtain a probabilistic
description of the building's response. The response is expressed in terms of the mean and co-
variance of floor displacements and stresses in the structural members. The procedure is intended
to provide a more realistic combination of the aerodynamic and structural behavior of a high-rise
building.

Key words: Buildings; dynamics; gust loads; matrix analysis; mode shape; probability theory;
wind loads.

1. Introduction It is that the presented wind design

believed
procedure more realistically combines the aero-
This paper presents a systematic procedure for
dynamic and structural behavior of a high-rise
combining an aerodynamic high-rise building model
building. Also, by virtue of the separate modeling of
with a three-dimensional computer oriented stiffness
the structural stiffness and the aerodynamic response
representation of the building. The building's
this procedure is particularly well suited to con-
response is expressed in terms of the mean and
tinuously use new future developments in each of
covariance of the floor's displacements and structural
these areas.
member's stresses.
A boundary layer wind tunnel is used to model the
wind's structure and the topography surrounding the
2. Dynamical Equations of Motion for
building. Various wind speeds and angles of attack
the Building
can be studied. During all such studies the aeroelastic
model is allowed to translate in two orthogonal The first phase of a dynamical analysis of a
directions and corresponding time histories of high-rise building involves determining the structure's
response are recorded. These two orthogonal motion equations of motion. In such a formulation we must
time histories are assumed to be approximations to first define the building's independent generalized
the actual building's first two normal coordinate coordinates. Figure 1 shows a simplified building and

response-time histories. The means, variances and its assumed generalized coordinates. In general, there
covariance of these two time histories are calculated. will exist three independent rigid body floor displace-
Then, these statistical quantities are combined with —
ments per story two translational and one rotational
an advanced three-dimensional analytical building degree of freedom. For the buildings that are the
model to obtain a probabilistic description of the main concern of this paper, the translational
building's response. The procedure has assumed that displacements of the floors are assumed to be large
the response of the building's third and higher modes when compared to the floors' rotational motion.
does not significantly influence the response and However, this rotational motion can still be expected
therefore can be neglected. to significantly affect the structure's stresses in the
The proposed procedure has the following im- outside frames. Several methods exist for formulating
portant characteristics: (1) the aerodynamic forces the stiff"ness matrix of the building [1, 2, 3],* and it

acting on the building are considered in the response, should be emphasized that the accuracy of the
(2) the structural behavior of the building's beams entire wind design procedure depends on the
and columns can be modeled using "state of the art" formulation of the structure's stiffness matrix.
techniques, and (3) the in-plane rotations of the
building's floors are approximately calculated by * Figures in brackets indicate references at the end of the
using the building's actual first two modal vectors. paper.

145
 which completely defines the deformed configuration
of the building.
(•^1 th STORY
Because of this normal coordinate truncation the
relation between the generalized and normal
coordinate displacements, Eq. (2), simplifies to

9i *11 <J'l2

*22 IN Q2
< 0-

2nd STORY
{qN} ,0.

1st STORY
^'21 *22

(7)

/77S777

Figure 1. Generalized coordinate (floor) displacements of a

building. Therefore, from Eq. (7) we see that a knowledge
of the first two normal mode displacements enables
If the generalized coordinates of the building are us to completely define all of the building's generalized
located at the center of mass of each floor, then we coordinate displacements. Also, the eigenvector
can write the building's dynamical equations of matrix used to relate the normal and generalized
motion as coordinate displacements is calculated using the
building's stiffness matrix. This matrix is obtained by
using the most recent building models and can include
Now, if we define the building's normal coordinates such important internal degrees of freedom as column
as vertical displacements and beam-column joint
!Q}-m-Mg! (2) rotations [2, 4].

Knowledge of the generalized coordinate (floor)

then the dynamical equation of motion in each
displacements enables one to completely define the
normal mode (coordinate) is
deformed position of the building. From such a
Qi+2^M^+^^''Q, = F,, i=l,2, 3, -..iV (3) deformed shape the stresses in the building's beams
and columns can be expressed in terms of the
When high-rise buildings are modeled in a wind
generalized coordinate (floor) displacements. Let such
tunnel, only the first two translational {X and Y)
a relation l)e written as
modes of the building are modeled. In general such
modes will correspond to the first two normal (S)
coordinates of the structure. For future discussion it
The preceding formulation establishes the neces-
is here established that the X
and Y translational
mode
sary equations to relate the structure's normal
modes correspond to the first and second normal
displacements to its generalized (floor) displace-
modes, respectively. It is also assumed that the
ments and stresses. It is important to emphasize
building's motion in its other normal modes does not
the fact that while the knowledge of the first two
contribute to its response and are assumed to be
normal mode displacements is sufficient informa-
zero. Therefore, we obtain
tion to completely characterize the structure's
Ch + 2^,^A+WQi = F, (4) deformed shape, the error associated with such a
shape depends on the validity of the assumption
Q2+2^'M2+^iQ2 = F2 (5)
that the contribution of the third and higher normal
Q, = 0; f = 3, 4, --.iV (6) modes is negligible. This means that the designer-

146
analyst must first establish what it is that he wants ordinates, Qi and ^2- These conditions arc: (1) the
to caluclate, then calculate the building's eigen- fundamental mode shapes of the building in its X
vector matrix and decide whether or not the results and Y directions are straight lines, and (2) the ele-
obtained using only two normal modes are within ments of the first two modal vectors corresponding
his desired accuracy criteria. to the floor rotations are zero. This is shown graphi-
cally in Figure 3 for a three-story building. However,
in general, these criteria are not exactly satisfied
3. Wind Tunnel Response of Building
and dx and dy only approximate the structure's
first two normal modes.
Present procedures for modeling the wind-excited
The spring stiffnesses and viscous damping con-
motion of a high-rise building in a wind tunnel at-
stants of the wind tunnel model are selected such
tempt to model the building's first two translational
that dx and dy approximate Qi and Q2, respectively.
mode responses. Figure 2 shows a simplified diagram
With such a selection the time histories of building
of the building's wind tunnel model. This model is
response in the wind tunnel [i.e., dx{t) and dy{t)] are
allowed to move parallel to its two principle axes.
approximations to the actual time histories of first
This motion is resisted by a physically created spring
and second mode displacements [i.e., Qi{t) and
stiffener and a viscous damper at the base of the
^2(0]- The accuracy of the approximation can be
model. The dynamical equations of free vibration
studied by expanding Eq. (2) for the three-story
for the wind tunnel model are
building in Figure 3,

lox&x + CxOx + «Sa-^a- = 0 (9)

(10) Qiit) =ynqi{t) +ynq2{t) +ynqs{t) H {-ym^it)

It should be noted that the wind tunnel model is = 7n9i(0 +yuqdt) +71797(0 (X-Direction)
assumed to be a rigid body supported at its base
and the spring stiffness at the base is the only elas-
+ 71292(0 +71595(0 +71898(0 (^-Direction)

tic restraint. (Rotation)

+71393(0 +71696(0 +71999(0
Upon studying Figure 1 and Eq. (7), we see that
under certain conditions the generalized coordinates If the Y-translation displacements and the rota-
of the wind tunnel model, dx and dy, are exactly
tional displacements are zero and if the terms 711,
equivalent to the building's first two normal co-
7i4 and 717 plot a straight line "mode" shape, then
Qi{t) is exactly equivalent to dx{t). Otherwise, the
X-DIRECTION MOTION Y- DIRECTION MOTION
displacement measured in the wind tunnel, 6 (<),

is an approximate measure of Qi{t). Now we must

B 8x
define what properties of these wind tunnel time
histories must be calculated in order that we can
accurately describe the behavior of the structure.
First we must calculate the mean response of the
firstand second mode displacements. This is ac-
complished by using temporal or sample averaging
techniques. The mean displacements of the first and
second normal coordinates are

% 7/ .

UNOEFORMED
POSITION /
^^2 /

/ /

Figure 2. Wind tunnel representation of building. Figure 3. Linear mode shapes of example building.

147
 : ;

"Var(Qi) Cov(Qi, Qs)'

^[Qi(0]-^C^x(0]= ~
f exit) dt (11) =

Gov (Qi, Q,) Var {Q,)

1 f''
The three previously-mentioned statistical quan-
E[_Q,{t)^^Eldy{t)^= - / dy{t) dt (12) tities enable us to establish the probability associated
with a certain value of building response; (i.e.,

where the length of the time history is denoted by displacement, shear, or moment). If the building's
T, see Figure 4. motion has a Gaussian probability distributed about
Second, the variance of the coordinate displace- its mean response, then these statistical quantities

ments is of practical engineering importance. This completely define the distribution. However, even
statistical quantity is a measure of the variation if the response does not have a Gaussian probability
about the mean structural response. By taking the distribution, we can still obtain valuable informa-
square root of the variance, we obtain the standard tion about the probability of any response by using
deviation. A large standard deviation to mean Chebyshev's inequality [5].

displacement ratio denotes a very oscillatory behav-

ior whereas, a small ratio indicates a nearly static
4. Probabilistic Response of Analytical
response. To calculate the variance of the first and Building Model
second normal coordinates, we use the equations
In the previous section we calculated the building's
Var (Qi(0)== Var (dxit)) mean, variance, and covariance response in its first
two normal coordinates. Physically these normal
=
^^ f (exit)-Eldx{t):\ydt
•'o
(13) coordinates can be approximated in the wind tunnel
however, from the designer-analyst's viewpoint,
Var (Qiit))^ Var {dyit)) they are only a convenient mathematical quantity.
The real items of his concern are the shears and
moments in the building's beams and columns be-
eY{t)-E[_ey{t)']ydt (14)
cause it is these generalized forces which determine
the building's stress level. Therefore, we must now
Third, the covariance between the first and second relate the statistical quantities we can calculate to
normal mode displacements gives an indication of
the building's generalized coordinate displacements
the correlation between the two modal displace-
and forces.
ments. If the two motions are not very correlated
In order to completely define the deformed shape
then the covariance term has a small magnitude.
of the building, we must completely define the dis-
The covariance is calculated using the following
placement of normal coordinates. This is indeed
all
equation
a major task. However, as previously noted, it is
Gov (Qi(0,Q2(0)- Gov {ex{t),ey{t))
sometimes possible to calculate the building's re-
sponse with a "fair" degree of accuracy by only
using two normal modes. In other words, the response
= {ex{t)-Elexm)
\j^ of the higher modes is assumed to be zero. It is im-
portant to realize that such a two normal mode
{ey{t)-Eley{t)^) dt (15) description of the building's response is only an
The variances and covariance can be collected into approximation and may be in error when higher
a 2 X 2 matrix called the covariance matrix, it is modes significantly contribute to local shears or
moments.
Equations (7) and (8) relate the first two normal
coordinate displacements to the building's genera-
lized coordinate (floor rigid body) displacements
and its stresses. Repeating these equations, we write

(7, repeated)

and

Figure 4. Modal response of wind tunnel model. [

^ ! = [5] 1 3 }
= { Q = [L] Q
I
! ! (8, repeated)

148
 The statistical properties of the normal coordinate 6. Nomenclature
displacements calculated as defined in Eqs. (11)-
[q] = vector of building's generalized coor-
(15) can now be used to calculate the corresponding
dinate displacements
properties of the generalized coordinate displace-
[yl/] = diagonal inertia matrix
ments and stresses. The mean values of these quan-
[C] = damping matrix
tities are
[S] = building stiffness matrix
^tlg!] = [i^M{Q)] (16) {A} = forces corresponding to the generalized
and coordinates

^[{<rn = [LM{Q)] (17) {Q} = vector of building's normal coordinate

displacements
It can also be shown that the corresponding co- [$] = normalized eigenvector matrix
variance matrices are = inverse of normalized eigenvector matrix
/3, = damping in i^^ normal mode
[F"]=m[F^^][AT (IS)
= natural frequency (rad/sec) of i"' normal
fli
and
m = [.LjyQj_Lj
The means and covariances calculated as described
(19) Fi =
mode
force corresponding to the
ordinate
^"' normal co-

now be used to completely define

in (16)-(19) can
N = number of generalized displacements for
the building, three per story
the Gaussian probability distribution or Chebyshev's
inequality.
{a} = vector of stresses that exist in the build-

Special attention should be paid to the following

ing's beams and columns
items: (1) only two normal modes are used and,
[B] = transfer matrix relating generaUzed dis-

therefore, [V^\ is a 2X2 matrix; (2) the building

placements and member stresses

matrix is a separate part of the analysis and can be lox, IoY= mass moment of inertia of the wind
obtained using "state of the art" techniques; the
tunnel model about an axis passing
(3)
through the centroid of the base and
rotational motion of the floors in the actual building
are approximated by using such rotations as they
X- and F-axis, respectively
parallel to the

exist in the first two normal modes. Cx, Cy = viscousdamping of wind tunnel model in
the X- and F-direction, respectively
Sx, Sy = rotational spring stiffness at the base of
the wind tunnel model in the X- and F-
5. Conclusion
direction, respectively

The procedure outlined in the preceding pages of

[K]^ = transpose of the matrix [/v]

this paper is intended to help improve the wind

design of high-rise buildings whose dynamical be- 7. References
havior is only slightly asymmetric and whose first
[1] Clough, R. W., and I. P. King, "Analysis of Three-
two normal mode shapes are nearly linear. By using Dimensional Building Frames," Publications, I A BSE,
the building's first two actual modal vectors with the Zurich, Switzerland, Vol. 24, 1964.
approximate time histories of normal coordinate [2] Weaver, W. W., and M. F. Nelson, "Three-Dimensional
response we can impi'ove the accuracy of the com- Analysis of Tier Buildings," Jour, of the Struct. Div.,
Proceedings of the ASCE, Vol. 92, No. ST6, December
puted structural member stresses.
1966.
Separate modeling of the aerodynamic response
[3] Hart, G. C, "Response of Thrcc-Dimensional Buildings
calculations and the building stiffness characteristics to Multiple Random Wind Forces," Stanford University
enables us to utilize the continuously improving Technical Report No. 92, Dept. of Civil ICngineering,
techniques of each. Stanford, California, July 1968.
Rubinstein, M. F., and W. C. Hurty, "I^ffect of Joint
The validity of the procedure for design of high- [4]

Rotation on Dynamics of Structures," Jour, of the Engr.

rise buildings which possess the dynamic charac-
Mech. Dir., Proceedings of the ASCE, Vol. 87, No. EM6,
teristicassumed herein must be proved by future December 1961.
design and full scale measurements. Such studies are [5] Parzen, K., Stochaatic Processes, Holdcn-Day, Inc., San
very strongly recommended. Francisco, California, 1962.

149
THE ENGINEERING INTERPRETATION OF WEATHER BUREAU RECORDS
FOR WIND LOADING ON STRUCTURES
S. C. Hollister

Cornell University
Ithaca, New York 14850

This paper utilizes the records of the fastest mile as published by the United States Weather
Bureau from data obtained at their airport stations, to develop wind loadings on engineering
structures. It analyzes gusts and shows how gust loadings should be dealt with in structural
design. Roughness of terrain and extent of cover in rural and urban localities are systemized for
engineering purposes. Occurrence of extreme winds, as studied by the Weather Bureau, is extended
to a stage where a practical code may be written. Finally, designing for a given structural life
and for a desired level of risk is discussed.

Key words: Buildings; climatology; extreme value theory; gust factors; structural engineering;
wind loads; wind profile.

1. The Wind Records preparation of probability isotachs and estimates of

extreme value forecasts. Thus, such records make
Wind records in other countries, and older records
possible for the first time the engineering interpreta-
in this country, simply give the highest velocities
tions necessary for designing to resist wind.
observed, without at the same time describing either
This paper deals with the means by which the
the terrain or the roughness of cover, or the capability
information needed for rational design may be
of the instrument; and usually without the duration
obtained from the fastest-mile records published by
of the reading or the location of the instrument above
the Weather Bureau.
the ground. Such a record is nearly useless for
engineering purposes, since it is not capable of
analysis. Responsiveness of the instrument must be
2. The Occurrence of Gusts
known to evaluate accuracy in recording gusts. Time
ofmeasurement of gusts is required to deal with gust A record of wind velocity consists of a more or less
content.Knowledge of elevation of anemometers rapidly waving line inscribed on a moving tape. Each
above ground is necessary to compute a profile of oscillation is a gust. Means over an interval of one
pressure against a structure. A careful description of hour do not reveal gusts, but give the velocity of a
the terrain and of the cover along the axis of the steady background wind. The ratio of the mean
principal fetch for a distance of 10 miles is necessary velocity over a short period, as one second, to the
to evaluate the nature of the oncoming windstream, hourly mean gives the gust factor F„ for that period.
and to compute the relation of velocity and pressure Measurements by Giblett, et al. [1]* in 1927-30 at
to elevation above ground. Cardington, England; by Sherlock and Stout [2] in
In this country in recent years, records have been 1933 at Ann Arbor, Mich.; and by Huss [3] in 1946 at
made at airports of extreme winds, recorded as the Akron, Ohio, clearly show that the intensity of gusts
average in miles per hour for the fastest mile of is greater for shorter than for longer durations; and

windstream. Such records infer character of terrain that for heights to 225 ft, at least, the gust factor Fg is

and degree of smoothness (although it would be not a function of height above ground.
incorrect to assume that the profile of the fetch Figure 1 shows a plot of the results of Giblett's
uniformly justifies use of the seventh-power law). The observations, as further studied by Durst and of
[1],
use of the mean wind
velocity over the fastest mile of Sherlock's study of gusts [5]. Giblett used a Dines
involves distance and time as well as velocity, and anemograph, which according to Scrase [6], loses
thus gives immediately the opportunity for gust accuracy at intervals below 10 sec. (The 5-sec. value
analysis. The Bureau also standardizes the reported plotted on Figure 1 shows the tendencj'' to read low on
observations as at 30 ft above the ground, so that

they may be compared statistically with data * Figures in brackets indicate literature references at the
similarly reported from other places, making possible end of this paper.

151
 az 0.S I 2 5 10 30 60 100 300 900 1000
Gust Duration, sec

Figure 1. Relation between gust intensity and gust

duration. 30 " ^ ^ 1 ^ L 1

30 40 50 60 80 100 150
Hourly Mean Velocity, mph
short intervals.) Sherlock and Stout used a pressure-
plate anemometer of their own design, with a Figure 2. Relation between observed velocity for fastest
mile, fastest tenth mile and fastest 100 ft of wind.
response of 0.15 sec. [7]. Huss used a cup anemometer
with a response of 1 sec. or more. One value of Huss's
is shown on the figure.
being more intense the shorter their duration.
Figure 1 indicates that a fastest mile with a mean
The equation for the curve in Figure 1 is, when t is
velocity of 60 mph (hence lasting 60 sec.) would have
the gust duration,
a gust component of 12 mph. Some longer period of
time, say 1 hr., would then have no gust component; /^,= 1.73 A' -2 (1)
and if it included the 60-sec. period just mentioned,
or in a more convenient form for computing:
would have a mean velocity of 48 mph. The fastest
5-min. duration of the hourly period, according to log = 0.23805 -0.07935 log < (la)
Figure would have a gust factor of 1.09; or a gust
1,

of 9% of 48 mph, or 4 mph, making a total mean The present writer knows of no study of probability
velocity of 52 mph. of occurrence of winds of shorter duration than the
Figure 2 shows the relation between the observed fastest mile. If it isassumed that the frequency of the
fastest mile and the hourly mean of which it is a part. fastest 1^ mile or the fastest 100 ft are the same, one
Thus, an observed fastest mile of 100 mph would be could use the two lines so marked in Figure 2 for
a part of a fastest hourly mean of 77 mph. design purposes. Thus, an observed fastest mile of
The form of the curve in Figure 1 for gust 90 mph would
be assumed to contain a fastest 100 ft
durations greater than 300 sec. is not known of 126 mph, while the hourly average would be 70
accurately; it may well curve to the right and mph. It would be hoped that the Weather Bureau
become tangent to Fg = 1.0. In any case for a 10-min. could mount instruments at a few chosen stations,
average wind, the gust factor would be little more alongside those recording the fastest mile, to deter-
than 1.05; and an hourly average would be devoid mine whether the many factors causing extreme gusts
of gusts. This justifies the concept of the wind being would cause them with the same frequency as those
made up of a steady component represented by the of the fastest mile. Such gust frequency might also be
hourly average, to which is added fluctuations, or different from that of the fastest mean hourly
gusts, both positive and negative, these fluctuations velocity. Information on these factors would have use

152
in the economical design of structures. In the and V the velocity of the wind at Z. If the velocity Va
meantime, we must infer that gusts as shown in is known at Za, the velocity Vn at Z/i is

Figures 1 and 2 have the same probabiUty of

v^ = Va{Zu/Za)"'^ (2)
occurrence.
where n is a function of the roughness. This is known
as Hellman's equation [8]. When the terrain is a
3. The Variation of Wind Velocity with
plane, either level or very gently inclined, with no
Elevation
trees, shrubs or structures, the experimental evidence
It is seen from the foregoing discussion that an gives re = 7. Large airports at which there is a long
instantaneous profile would have gusts distributed unobstructed fetch over level terrain achieve this
along it and hence would not be a smooth curve. From condition. (Some airports, with cities up.stream, may
Figure 1 it is concluded that a mean velocity of 10 not achieve this smoothness.) As the roughness
min. or more is necessary to obtain a smooth profile. increases, by addition of trees, structures, or irregular

To such a profile an envelope of gusts may be added, terrain, the value of n grows smaller.
thus producing a synthetic profile of extreme velocities As the lower parts of the profiles of Figure 3 meet
that looks smooth. the ground, they are affected by friction so that the

Before proceeding further, it is necessary to profile schematically has the form shown in Figure 4.

consider the pattern of wind variation well above the At the junction T of the "free air zone" with the

ground. Omitting the effect of the roughness of the "friction zone," there is a certain velocity Vi, and a

earth's surface on the wind velocity near the ground, slope a of the tangent to the profile at T. Below T,
the pattern of velocity occurrences is shown in the form of the profile is given by Hellman's equation,
Figure 3 for the windiest and the calmest areas of the Eq. (2).
United States to altitudes to 130,000 ft. The lower The junction of the free-air profile at T with the
portions of the curves are seen to be concave down- profile of the friction layer imposes two conditions at
ward, from near the ground to about 35,000 ft, where
strong jet streams are encountered. These curves are
envelopes, and hence are synthetic profiles. It is the
form of these curves that is important here rather
than the extreme velocity, except to note that the
velocities increase at an accelerating rate.
As air moves over a surface, it is restrained
depending upon the roughness of the surface.
Turbulence is caused not only by the roughness, but
by thermal currents rising from the surface but these ;

currents are less significant in high winds. Let Z be

the distance from the surface measured normal to it,

0 so 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Wind Speed in ft/sec Wind Speed in ff/sec
Synthttlc Wind Spitd Prollln EicMd«il 1% Synthetic Wind Speed Prodlei EicMded %
9%,IO%,20%<ind!0%ot the Winter for the WIndleet 5%,l0%,2O%<»«' 50% ol the Winter for the Colmeet
Areo(Northeoettrn Port) o( the United Stolee. Areo ( Northoeetern Port) of the United Stotee. 0 V

Figure 3. Synthetic probability profiles to 130,000 ft (From Figure 4. Schematic junction of synthetic profile in friction
US AD handbook'). zone with sj'nthetic profile in lower troposphere.

153
 Figure 5. Schematic effect of cover on boundary flow.

T: and a are the same at T for both curves. These

Vi also studied the Ekman problem, which was that of
conditions become important as the wind is followed generating vortices in a body of water over the free
from the relatively smooth conditions, say, at a large surface of which wind was blowing. Huss [3] shows
airport, to a rougher terrain and cover, say, over a that Ekman's, Lamb's and Taylor's work coincided.
small town (Fig. 5) [10]. Sherlock simply inverted the spiral of Ekman.
At the airport, shown at the left of Figure 5, we But the profile oT, Figure 4, is not an instantaneous
assume n = 7 in eq. (2), and consider (arbitrarily) profile. Rather, must be considered to be an
it

that T is at 1200 ft. above the ground. The velocity envelope of the gusts that may occur over the same
30 ft. above the ground is v^, and from this and height, and, through the relationship shown in
Eq. (2), v/ may be found. As the wind moves from Figures 1 and 2, this envelope is related to a mean
left to right, encountering undulating terrain with hourly curve over this height. The concept here is
trees and' buildings, turbulence builds up in the that the Hellman curve is attached at T with a
friction layer, and at the same time it rises, so that smooth continuity to an envelope of the gusts
if C is the thickness of the undulations with cover, the occurring in the lower troposphere; and by having at
boundary of the friction layer at the airport being at T constant vlues of Vt and a, for various values of n,
a height oh' above the ground, rises to oh" at the an interrelated family of curves for the friction layer
small town. A study of data taken over varying is derived.
roughnesses seems, for engineering purposes, to Figure 6 shows the profile with n = 7 and f3o=100
justify the empirical relation
mph carried to 1,200 ft above the ground, where
oh" = oh'+4C (3) ^(=169 mph. It also shows a family of profiles for

various values of n from 7 to 2, each having the same

Since v/ and a are the same, both at T and T", it is
Vi and a at T The slopes at T were made
(Fig. 4).
possible to compute the profile oT", and thus to
determine n" and Vso"- similar (nearly) by making the chord of the top

Sherlock [16] and Davenport proposed attach- 100 ft have the same slope, so that (vi — Va-wo)) was
[10]
ing the friction curve (Fig. 4) to the gradient wind. the same for all other curves as it was for (2^1200 — i'lioo)
Sherlock used the Ekman spiral [17] to describe the when n = 7. The value of n was determined from the
profile below T. Both Lamb [18] and Taylor [19] had equation

154
 .

-* Vq

Figure 7. Relation between two Hellman's curves of same

value of N but different values of Va.

Vh=Vh — (5)

In other words, Figure 6 may be used for a city

where vaoT^lOO and n = 7 by multiplying the abscissa
of all curves by the ratio of the value of ^30 for that
0 I —1 1 1
city to 100. Hence, if for a given city, 1^30 = 90 mph,
0 50 100 150 200
Wind Velocity mph
Figure 6 may be used by multiplying any abscissa
,

by 0.9.
Figure 6. Family of Hellman's curves based on mean
fastest observed mile of 100 mph 30 ft above 4. The Occurrence of the Extreme Fastest Mile
ground at airport (n = 7)
The Weather Bureau has established at airports
instruments for measuring the fastest mile of wind,
logVt- log z;(,_ioo)= - (log/l(- log -100)) (4) and reports the observations, adjusted by Hellman's
n
seventh power law to the elevation of 30ft above the

Figure 6 may be used for locations where v^o is other ground, by months and by years. The data may be

than 100 when n = 7, by using a simple multiplier obtained from each station by applying to that
station.
that is easily determined. Figure 7 shows two
profiles having the same value of n, but with different
In 1954 Thom [11] published a method by which
annual extreme wind data could be used to estimate
values of Va. From Eq. (2), at any height h,
the frequency of such winds. In 1960 he published [12]
isotach maps 48 states, for 0.50, 0.02 and 0.01
for the
«ft = Wol-) ; " quantities of annual extreme winds 30 ft above the
\a)
ground. Using a maximum-value probability
hence, paper [12] (Fig. 8) with Fisher-Tippett Type II
VhVh='Va/Va distribution [13], a curve could be constructed for a
whence locality by plotting the values read from the isotachs.

155
 2500
2000 shows the risk attendant upon the likely occurrence
1000
of a wind having a mean recurrence interval once
500

200
within the expected life of the projected structure.
995 ^
990 100 3 Thus, for an expected 100-yr. Ufe, there is a 10% risk
_ 960 50
I of one occurrence of a storm of an intensity of a
~ 960 2' S
,0 1
1,000-yr. mean recurrence interval. Using the paper
900
shown in Figure 8, a straight line plot for a given city,
using the isotachs of Thom in Figures 9-13, can be
projected to forecast the velocity of a wind having

0 50 60 70 80 90 KX) 200 250 300

1,000 yr. By using Figure 2, the hourly mean may
Wind Velocity, mph
be determined, corresponding to the 72 = 1,000 wind.
Having done this plotting for each of the 83 cities,
Figure 8. Extreme value probability plotting paper,
Type distribution (after it was found that they could be grouped into nine
Fisher-Tippett II
Thorn. [11, 12]). classes, as shown in Table I. Table II gives the same
information with the cities arranged alphabetically.
Such a curve (a straight Une) would make possible The mean hourly velocities for Classes I-IX
the estimation of the velocity of an extreme wind of correspond to fastest mile velocities of 100, 105, 115,
any selected mean occurrence interval for the given 125, 135, 145, 155, 170, and 190 mph, respectively.
locality. These are the 1,000-yr. mean recurrence interval
The separate annual extreme mile values for a velocities estimated from plotting the isotach values
given station may be plotted on the paper of on the paper shown in Figure 8. These classes are also
Figure 8 by using the plotting order based on mean hourly velocities (see Fig. 2) of 77, 81,
83, 95, 102, 108, 115, 125, and 128 mph, respectively,
p = m/ (n+1) (6)
likewise at a mean recurrence interval of 1,000 yr.
in which m is the order of a given observation, These values are for the airport station at each city
counting from the smallest to the largest observed at 30 ft above the ground. The effect of terrain and
value (equal readings are arranged serially), n is the cover within the city itself is not included. Variations
total number of observations, and p is the probability in conditions within a given city are likewise matters

Fix). that must be included in interpreting the basic data

In his 1954 paper, Thom chose the Type II given in Tables 1 and 2.

distribution function During the life of a large building, the cover may
-(.t//3)-7
be materially changed from time to time. As the city
Fix) (7)
gains in the number of tall buildings, the height of
to express the probability of a wind speed being less cover is increased; and from Figure 6, it is shown that
than X. The method of maximum likelihood was used n is reduced and the average wind velocity acting on
to determine the parameters /S and 7. a building is likewise reduced. Some cities are
The mean recurrence interval R is given by undergoing considerable alteration, with the removal
of large buildings, altering the exposure and in not a
/e=i/[i-f^(x)] (S)
few instances increasing the exposure of a given
The probability paper [12] shown in Figure 8 thus remaining structure. Thus, in fixing a value for code
shows Fix) on the left margin and R at the right, purposes, it is necessary to provide for such possibility
while the velocity v is shown as the abscissa. by including the effect of such alteration in city
In 1966 Thom [14] published revised isotachs, planning.
giving 0.50, 0.10, 0.04, 0.02 and 0.01 quantities, and
the corresponding mean recurrence intervals of 2, 10,
5. Determination of Extreme Velocity
25, 50, and 100 extreme winds in mph
yr. for
for Design
(Figs. 9-13, respectively). The revisions took into
account six additional years of records, bringing the From Figure 1 it is seen that the gust factor Fg
average total to 21 and improving the accuracy by depends on the duration of the gust. The response of
about 15 percent. a structure to the gust cannot develop fully unless
Based on Thom's method of extreme values and the gust deviation is long enough to establish the
his latest isotachs, the extreme wind probabilities of particular regime of the response. The only data
83 representative cities have been studied. Figure 14 available bearing upon the time required to establish

156
159
161
 Table I. Cities grouped by classes according to extreme Class VIII
fastest mile at 1,000-yr. mean recurrence inter oal
(Extreme fastest mile 170 mph; mean
fastest hourly 125 mph)
Class I Jacksonville Savannah
(Extreme fastest mile 100 mph; fastest hourly mean 77 mph;
T • i. T> «
Class IX
Birmingham Little Kock 1

Bismarck Los Angeles (Extreme fastest mile 190 mph; fastest hourly mean 128 mph)
Dallas Memphis Key West Tampa
El Paso Phoenix Miami Wilmington, N.C.
Ft. Worth San Diego St. Petersburg
Great Falls Shreveport

Class II

(Extreme fastest mile 105 mph; fastest hourly mean si mpn;

Table II. Cities in alphabetical order with
Albuquerque Las Vegas
class designation
Baltimore Philadelphia
Burlington, Vt. St. Louis
Chicago Spokane City Class City

Concord, N.H. Springfield, 111.

Duluth Mass.
Springfield,
Hartford Wilmington, Del. Albuquerque II Miami
Jackson, Miss.
Amarillo III Milwaukee
Atlanta V Minneapolis
Class III
Atlantic City VI Mobile
(Extreme fastest mile 11.5 mph; fastest hourly mean 83 mph) Baltimore II Nashville
Amarillo New York City Birmingham I Newark
Buffalo Omaha Bismarck I New Haven
Cheyenne Pendleton Boston IV New Orleans
Denver Pocatello Buffalo III New York City
Des Moines Rapid City Burlington II Norfolk
Fresno Roanoke Charleston, S.C_-. VII North Platte
Kansas City Sacramento Charleston, W. Va IV Omaha
Lincoln Salt Lake City Cheyenne III Pendleton
Milwaukee San Francisco Chicago II Philadelphia
Minneapolis Washington, D.C. Cincinnati IV Phoenix
Nashville Wichita Cleveland IV Pittsburgh
Newark Concord, N.H II Pocatello
Dallas I Portland, Maine
Class IV
Denver III Portland, Oreg
(Extreme fastest mile 125 mph; fastest hourly mean 95 mph)
Des Moines III Providence
Boston Louisville Detroit IV Raleigh
Charleston, W. Va. Madison Duluth II Rapid City
Cincinnati New Haven El Paso I Richmond
Cleveland North Platte Fort Worth I Roanoke
Detroit Raleigh Fresno III Sacramento
Green Bay Richmond Great Falls I Saint Louis
Houston Seattle Green Bay_ IV Saint Petersburg
Knoxville Hartford II SaltLake City
Class V Houston IV San Diego

(Extreme fastest mile 135 mph ; fastest hourly mean 102 mph)
Indianapolis V San Francisco
Jackson, Miss II Savannah
Atlanta Pittsburgh
Jacksonville VIII Seattle
Indianapolis Providence
Kansas City III Shreveport
Mobile
Key West IX Spokane
Class VI Knoxville IV Springfield, 111

(Extreme fastest mile 145 mph; fastest hourly mean 108 mph) Las Vegas II Springfield, Mass
Portland, Oreg.
Lincoln III Tampa
Atlantic City
Little Rock I Washington, D.C
Portland, Maine
Los Angeles I Wichita
Class VII Louisville IV Wilmington, Del
(Extreme fastest mile 155 mph; fastest hourly mean 115 mph) Madison IV Wilmington, N.C_--
Charleston, S.C. Norfolk Memphis I

New Orleans

162
 the regime are due to Farren [15], from research
\i conducted on airplanes. He found that the time
required to achieve the regime was that needed by
the windstream to pass through a distance equal to
eight times the greatest width of the structure.
Suppose a building 500 ft high is to be constructed \*
N
in Chicago with a life of 100 yrs., in an area where the NO/'

undulations of the terrain together with the envelope

of average building heights is 220 ft (C = 220 in
Eq. (3) and in Fig. 5). Then, fromEq. (3), o/i" = 2,080
ft, and we will choose, from Figure 6, n = 4. From
Table 2 it is noted that the wind velocity for design is

in Class II, with the mean fastest mile of 105 mph.

To determine the gust factor, we use Farren's rule
of eight times the largest dimension of the building, Nx \
or 8X500 = 4,000 ft of windstream, which at 105 mph
(154 fps) will pass a point in 26 sec. From Figure 1 we 3
find at a gust duration of 26 sec. a gust factor of 1.33.
From Figure 2 we find the mean hourly velocity
corresponding to an observed fastest mile of 81 mph;
and this multiplied by 1.33 gives gust velocity of 108
mph wind within the mean
for the fastest 4,000-ft
fastest mile of 105 mph. This is the velocity at the
airport at 30 ft above the ground. At the site we may
use the curve for n = 4 in Figure 6, by multiplying its
abscissas by 1.08.
V
The pressure produced by this velocity in standard
air, q, is (in psf)
1,000 900 290 100 90 29 10 9 3 2 I

Expected Life of Project, yrs

g = i^V391 (9)
Figure 14. Risk of occurrence of winds of various mean
The velocity at the site is 1.08 times 58 mph (n= 4. recurrence intervals, within the expected life of
Fig. 6) or 63mph. At 500 ft elevation, it is 69 X 1.08 = the project.

75 mph. The corresponding pressures are 10 and 14

psf distributed up the building in accordance with location be a Class I city (Table 1). For a 100-yr.
the curve n = 4. Figure 6. life, we choose from Figure 14 a value of R of 1,000
At leeward corners of buildings negation pressures yr., for which ^30= 100 mph. From Figure 6, we find

are experienced equal to the velocity pressure but of that with 4X200+1,200 = 2,000, n = 4, about, when
opposite sign (suction). Some buildings have lost ^30 = 58 and ?^8oo= 134 mph. To estimate the overturn-

windows, blown outward. Gusts can of short duration ing moment, a wind load due to these velocities
cause loadings of impact suddenness. A window 8 ft should be distributed from base to top. The actual
high, by Farren's rule, would require 64 ft of wind, velocity pressures, in psf, vary from 9 psf to 45 psf,
which, at 100 mph (or 147 fps) would pass in 0.44 sec. before taking into account the shape factor.
From Figure 1, we find a gust factor of 1.84. The The collapsing pressure distributed around the
fastest mile of 100 mph would have a gust factor of ring at, say, the 700-ft level, is due to a fastest-mile
1.30 (Fig. 2) ; hence the short gust would have a gust wind of 130 mph (Fig. 6, n = 4). If we consider a
factor 1.42 larger. Since the pressure q varies as v'^ length of tube of 3d, or 75 ft, and multiply this by 8,
(Eq. (9)), the velocity pressure is doubled. we have a down-wind travel of 600 ft. Since 130
mph = 176 fps, this wind would traverse 600 ft in 3.4
6. Selection of Appropriate Gust Factors sec. A gust of this duration, according to Figure 1,
for Design gives a gust factor Fg = 1.57. From Figure 2, a fastest
Consider a chimney 800 ft high, with a mean mile of 130mph corresponds to an hourly mean of 98
external diameter, d, over the top quarter of its mph, which, when multiplied b}^ 1.57, gives a speed
height of 25 ft; and a mean cover of 200 ft. Let the of 154 mph for the gust. We must now make a second

163
approximation of the gust factor. 154 mph = 226 fps, design stress for wind is based on a 1,000-yr. wind, „i

which will traverse 600 ft in 2.67 sec. From Figure 1 the higher wind would cause an increase in velocity
we correct the gust factor to 1.60, so that the mean from 100% (at 161 mph) to 125% (at 202 mph), with
gust velocity will be 1.60X98=157 mph. This gives a pressure increase of 57%.
a velocity pressure of
8. References
g = j;2/39i = 1572/391 pgf (iq)
[1] Giblett, M. A., et al, The structure of wind over level
This is the velocity pressure intensity at the stagna- country. Meteorological Office (Brit.), Geophy. Mem.
tion point on the circumference of the cylinder. No. London, H.M.S.O., 1932, 119 pp., 21 pis.
54,

Having this pressure, the bending moment in a ring [2] Sherlock, R. H., and M. B. Stout, Wind structure in
winter storms, Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 53-61, 1937.
1 ft high may be computed from
[3] Huss, P. O., Relation between gusts and average wind
speeds, Daniel Guggenheim Airship Inst., Univ. of
M=±0.5qr'- ii:
Akron, Akron, O., Rept. No. 140, 1946, for U.S. Weather
in which r is the mean radius of the ring. Bureau, Contr. No. Cwb-6103. (Mimeo.)
[4] Durst, C. S., Wind speeds over short period of time,
7. Setting Stresses for Wind Loads Meteor. Mag., Meteor. Offc. (Brit.), vol. 89, no. 1056,

pp. 181-186, July 1960.

Figure 15 shows the plot from the isotachs for the
[5] Sherlock, R. H., Gust factors for the design of buildings,
cities Chicago, Jacksonville and Los Angeles. Con- Bridge & Struct. Engrg., vol. 8, pp. 207-230,
Int. Assn.
sider a structure with a life expectancy of 20 yrs. 1947.
From Figure 14 we see that there is a 10% risk of a [6] Scrase, F. J,, Some characteristics of eddy motion in the

wind having a mean recurrence interval of 200 yrs. atmosphere, Meteor. Offc. (Brit.), Geophys. Mem.
No. London, H.M.S.O., 1930, 16 pp.
.52,
occurring once in the of the structure. There is an
life
[7] Sherlock, R. H. and M. B. Stout, An anemometer for the
18% storm occuri-ing and only a 4%
risk of a 100-yr.
study of wind gusts, Engr. Res. Bull. No. 20, Univ. of
chance of a 500-yr. storm occurring. Figure 15 shows Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich., May 1931, 36 pp.
that for 100-, 200- and 500-yr. storms, the extreme [8] Hellman, G., Uber die bewegung der luft in den untersten
velocities at 30 ft above the ground at the airport schichten der atmosphare, Meteorol. Zeit, vol. 34,

p. 273, 1916.
would be 82, 90 and 100 mph. Suppose the design is
[9j Handbook of geophysics for Air Force designers. Geophys.
based on 82 mph and a 90 mph wind occurs. Then
Res. Directorate, A. F. Camb. Res. Comd., USAF,
there is an increase of from 100 percent to 110%; Lst ed., 1957, pp. 5-17, 5-41.
and since the pressure increases as the square of the [10] Davenport, A. G., Wind on structures, Natl. Res. Counc.
velocity (Eq. (9)), the wind load is increased to 121%. of Canada, Div. Bldg. Res., Tech. Paper No. 88, Ottawa,
Mar. 1960. (No attempt was made to connect the
If a 500-yr. storm should occur, the wind load would
separate curves as has been done in Figs. 4-6.)
be increased to 149%. With this information, the
[11] Thom, H. C. S., Frequency of maximum wind speeds,
design stress for wind can be set to allow a certain ASCE Proc, vol. 80, 1954, 11 pp.
encroachment on the factors of safety for the possible [12] Thom, H. C. S., Distributions of extreme winds in the
rare occurrence of the higher loading. United States, ASCI': Trans., vol. 126, 1961, pp. 450-466.
[13] Fisher, R. A., and L. H. C. Tippett, Limiting forms of
The flatter curve for Jacksonville produces greater
the frequency distribution of, the largest or smallest
intervals. A building with a projected life of 100 yrs.
member of a sample, Camb. Phil. Soc, Proc. vol. 24,
has a 10% chance of a 1,000-yr. wind and only a 4% 1928, p. 180.
chance of a 2, 500-yr. wind occurring in its life. If the 114] Thom, H. C. S., New distributions of extreme winds in
the United States, Jour. Struct. Div., Proc. ASCE,
1 I
\y 1111 1 M 1

paper no. 6038, July 1968, pp. 1783-1801.

1000
998 500 [15] Farren, W. S., Apparatus for measurement of two-
dimensional flow at high Reynolds numbers with
.995

,990
application to growth of circulation around wing started
.980
t
d impulsively from test, Proc, 3rd Int. Cong. .\ppl. Mcch.,
960
y 1930, p. 329, fig. 8.
900 [16] Sherlock, R. H., Variation of wind velocity and gusts
with height, ASCE Proc, Sep. No. 126, April 1952,
c
f/
.500 pp. 1-26.
[17] Ekman, V. W., On the influences of the earth's rotation
on ocean currents, Arkiv f. mat., astron, etc., Stockholm,
.010 1. L,L1 1 1 1 I

D 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 250 300 1905.

Wind Velocity, mph
[18] Lamb, Horace, Hydrodynamics, 5th ed., Camb, Univ.
Figure 1.5. Plot of probability curves for three cities, from Press, 1924, p, 655.
isotachs, for extreme velocities at 30 ft above [19] Taylor, G, I., Eddy motion in the atmosphere, Phil.
ground at airport.s. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., Ser, A,, Vol. 215, 1915, p. 14.

164
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