Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Copy-Criminal Litigation 2015
Copy-Criminal Litigation 2015
COMMERCIAL TRANSACTIONS
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ATP 101
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4TH AUGUST 2012
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KENYA SCHOOL OF LAW
(2012/2013)
CRIMINAL LITIGATION
COURSE OUTLINE
Course Instructors: Mr. Simiyu Murambi
Mr. Justice Benjamin Kubo
Mr. Abdi Hassan
FIRST SEMESTER
1. INTRODUCTION
• Criminal Litigation Content
• Overview of Criminal Law principles
3. ARRESTS
• Arrest without warrant.
• Arrest with warrant.
4. IDENTIFICATION PARADES
• What are identification parades?
• Conduct of the ID parades;
• Production of ID parade evidence.
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6. COMPLAINT AND CHARGE
Methods and Rules of framing charges
• Defects in drafting charges: Duplicity &Lack of Ingredients;
• Capital charges;
• Alternative charges;
• Conspiracy;
• Attempts;
• Joinder of persons;
• Joinder of counts;
• Amendment of charges;
• Motion to quash( application to dismiss)
7. PLEAS
8. BAIL ANDBOND
(a) Bail
- Police bond;
- Anticipatory bail;
- Bail pending or during trial;
- Bail pending appeal.
(b) Sureties and Discharge of sureties;
(c) Forfeitures/Noncompliance with bail terms;
(d) Recognizance.
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• Verification process;
• Sureties and Discharge of sureties;
• Forfeitures/Noncompliance with bail terms.
9. PRE-TRIAL CONFERENCING
• Meeting accused person before arraignment;
• Advocate-prosecution communication;
• Recording of witness statements;
• Application for witness statement;
• Pre-Trial Management.
SECOND SEMESTER
10. TRIAL PROCESS AND MATTERS ARISING
a) The trial process
• Right to a fair hearing;
• Opening statement/address;
• Examination of witnesses (ordinary or special witnesses, e.g. minors, expert
witnesses, refractory or hostile witnesses);
• Production of exhibits;
• Trial within a trial;
• Close of prosecution case;
• Submissions (no case to answer, case to answer);
• Ruling;
• Defence (as the case may be);
• Final submissions.
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d) Other processes
• Transfer of cases;
• Termination of charges;
• Amicus curiae;
• Watching brief.
THIRD SEMESTER
11. HIGH COURT
• High Court Criminal Jurisdiction;
• Mode of Trial;
• Revision.
SPECIAL PROCEEDINGS
13. PRIVATE PROSECUTIONS
14. INQUESTS
15. EXTRADITION PROCEEDINGS
16. MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS; freezing accounts, search and confiscation and
summons.
17. HABEAS CORPUS
18. PROCEDURES IN SPECIAL COURTS
• Children’s court
• Anti-corruption court
• Municipal court
• Courts-Martial
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CHAPTER ONE
CRIMINAL LITIGATION
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 WHAT IS THE ROLE OF A LEGAL PRACTITIONER IN A TRIAL?
• The facts of a case exist in jumbled pieces: in the memories of witnesses, buried in
documents and reflected in physical exhibits.
• The legal practitioner must make sense of these pieces of facts by conceptualizing the
theme of the case, determining what facts will form evidence in court, plan the
presentation and effectively communicate the client’s story.
• The Advocate and the Prosecutor are central figures to the trial, they each have to
communicate their side of the story to the Court for determination.
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1.5 CRIMINAL LAW PRINCIPLES
1.5.1 DEFINITION OF A CRIME
A public wrong - An act which generally has a particularly harmful effect on the public. Acts are
made crimes by legislation and judicial decisions.
A moral wrong - The traditional Common Law attitude was that crimes were immoral acts that
deserved punishment. Today, immoral acts are not all crimes.
Criminal proceedings - Due to the difficulty in defining the criminal quality of an act the
definition is sought from criminal proceedings; is the act prohibited by criminal consequences?
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CHAPTER TWO
NATURE OF CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The criminal process is undertaken by the State, which is the prosecutor; it investigates and is in
charge of criminal proceedings. The criminal process is believed to attach on public interest as
opposed to the civil process that attaches on individuals. Criminal proceedings are believed to be
of a public nature. Whenever criminal acts are committed the public generally is affected and the
public needs to be protected from criminal activity.
Protection of Public Interest - Underscoring the security that the general public would like to feel
that the State has capacity to protect the public. To secure the rights of the accused person – the
rights of the accused are found in Chapter 4 of the Constitution. The right of the victim to crime is
also to be considered. Increasingly there is need to recognize that the victim of crime has certain
rights that need to be protected.
The parties to criminal proceedings are the State as the main complainant and therefore it is
always the State versus the individual with the state representing all the citizens. In this regard
there is room allowed under the Criminal Procedure Code for individual prosecution. Citizens
who feel that the state is not willing to take up their cases and have to tender evidence in court
can approach court and the court at its discretion has to agree to allow the person bringing the
private prosecution whether to proceed. In criminal process there is the regime of criminal courts,
the structure and jurisdiction of the courts are clearly indicated firstly within the constitution.
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2.2.2 THE SUPREME COURT & ITS COMPOSITION
The Supreme Court consists of 7 judges-
i. the Chief Justice who is the President of the Court;
ii. the Deputy Chief Justice who is the Vice-President of the Court;
iii. 5 other Judges [Art. 163(1)].
As far as appeals from the Court of Appeal to the Supreme Court are concerned, they-
i. lie as of right in any case involving the interpretation or application of the
Constitution; and
ii. lie in any other case in which the Supreme Court, or the Court of Appeal, certifies
that a matter of general public importance is involved.
NB: It should, however, be noted that the certificate by the Court of Appeal is subject to
review by the Supreme Court, which may either affirm or overturn the said certificate.
It is submitted that the appeals alluded to in this part (c) may include appeals in criminal matters.
Likewise Section 28 of the Supreme Court Act vests criminal jurisdiction in the Supreme Court by
empowering it, inter alia, to punish forcontempt of itself committed through assaults upon,
threats, intimidation or willful insults to its Judges or other officers by sentencing contemnors to
imprisonment for a period not exceeding five days, or to pay a fine not exceeding five hundred
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thousand shillings, or both, for every offence [Subsection 3].
NB: Subsection (4) of the Act also vests the Supreme Court with the same power as the High
Court to punish for contempt of court in any case not covered by Subsection (1) while Subsection
(5) clarifies that Subsections (1) to (3) do not limit or affect the power and authority referred to in
Subsection (4).
Section 5(1) of the Act empowers the Rules Committee to make rules of court for regulating the
practice and procedure of the Court of Appeal with respect to appeals and also for regulating the
practice and procedure of the High Court. Subsection 5(2)(c) introduces the issue of criminal
jurisdiction by adding that the aforesaid rules may include rules for prescribing cases in which
and the conditions upon which an appellant in a criminal appeal to the Court shall be entitled to
be present at the hearing of the appeal.
The Court of Appeal Rules promulgated under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act make elaborate
provisions vide Part III for Criminal Appeals from superior courts acting in both original and
appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases and also stipulates the mode of invoking the appellate
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court’s jurisdiction in criminal matters.
The Court of Appeal also has jurisdiction to punish for contempt of court similar to the
jurisdiction exercised by the High Court in that regard. Section 5(1) of the Judicature Act, inter
alia, provides that the Court of Appeal has “the same power to punish for contempt of court as is
for the time being possessed by the High Court of Justice in England”, and that such powers
extend to upholding the authority and dignity of subordinate courts.
In the latter regard, it is instructive to note that in England the Contempt of Court Act, 1981 vests
jurisdiction in a magistrates’ court to order any person who-
i. wilfully insults the justice or justices, any witness before or officer of the court or
any solicitor or counsel having business in the court, during his or their sitting or
attendance in court or in going to or returning from the court, or
ii. wilfully interrupts the proceedings of the court or otherwise misbehaves in the
courtto be taken into custody and detained until the rising of the court; or to
commit the offender to custody for a specified period not exceeding one month;
or to impose on him/her a fine not exceeding £500 (approx. Kshs. 65,000/=), or
both.
Further, Section 5(2) of the Judicature Act provides that an order of the High Court made by way
of punishment for contempt of court shall be appealable as if it were a conviction and sentence
made in exercise of the ordinary criminal jurisdiction of the High Court. It seems to follow,
therefore, that the Court of Appeal is vested with jurisdiction to entertain appeals from orders
made by the High Court by way of punishment for contempt of court as if made in exercise of the
High Court’s original criminal jurisdiction.
NB: What may not be clear-cut is what happens if an act of contempt of court is committed
against or in the face of the Court of Appeal. Would an order of the Court of Appeal by way of
punishment for contempt of itself be appealable to the Supreme Court as if it were a conviction
and sentence made in exercise of original criminal jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal? I don’t see
why not. However, it would be advisable for the ambiguity to be cured through express
legislative provisions.
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class made by those courts in exercise of their criminal jurisdiction and such appellate jurisdiction
may be on matters of fact or law (Section 347).
The Judicature Act also vests the High Court with admiralty jurisdiction in all matters arising on
the high seas, or in territorial waters, or upon any lake or other navigable inland waters in Kenya
[Section 4(1)].
NB: Black’s Law Dictionary, 8th Edition by Brian A, Garner, and Editor-in Chief defines
“admiralty” as a court that exercises jurisdiction over all maritime contracts, torts,
injuries, or offences.
As earlier noted with regard to the Court of Appeal, the Judicature Act also vests in the High
Court “the same power to punish for contempt of court as is for the time being possessed by the
High Court of Justice in England”, and that such power extends to upholding the authority and
dignity of subordinate courts [Section 5(1)].
As recorded earlier, Subsection (2) adds, instructively, that an order of the High Court made by
way of punishment for contempt of court shall be appealable as if it were a conviction and
sentence made in exercise of the ordinary original criminal jurisdiction of the High Court.
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preceding part (h) while a “magistrate’s court” is defined to mean the Resident Magistrates’
Court or a District Magistrates’ court [Section 2(f)].The Resident Magistrates’ Court has
jurisdiction throughout Kenya and exercises such jurisdiction and powers in proceedings of a
criminal nature as are for the time being conferred on it by-
i. the Criminal Procedure Code; or
ii. any other written law (Section 4).
A district magistrate is empowered to hold a magistrate’s court of such class as is designated by
the Judicial Service Commission (Section 6).
A district magistrate’s court has and exercises such powers in proceedings of a criminal nature as
are for the time being conferred on district magistrates’ courts by-
i. the Criminal Procedure Code; or
ii. an order by the Chief Justice; or
iii. any other written law (Section 8).
NB: Any person convicted of an offence on a trial held by a magistrate’s court of the third class,
or where a person charged with an offence has been acquitted on such a trial, the “Attorney-
General” (read “Director of Public Prosecutions”) may appeal, by way of Petition, against the
conviction or sentence, or both, or against the acquittal, as the case may be, to the Resident
Magistrates’ Court (Section 10).
2.2.6 TRIBUNALS
Topic 2 of the Criminal Litigation Course Outline lumps magistrates’ courts and tribunals
together. The terms “court” and “tribunal” are frequently used interchangeably. For instance,
Black’s Law Dictionary (supra) defines ‘Tribunal” as a court or other adjudicatory body.
The interchangeability of the terms “court” and “tribunal” may be further exemplified by the
1994 Rwanda genocide’s adjudicatory body bearing the name International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda while a similar adjudicatory body for Sierra Leone over alleged violation of international
humanitarian law and Sierra Leonean law bears the name Special Court for Sierra Leone.For
purposes of the present discourse, “tribunal” is assigned the general meaning given in Black’s
Law Dictionary, so no in-depth treatment of the subject is undertaken here.
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Rome Statute (so called because Rome is where the Diplomatic Conference on the Establishment
of the Court was convened, eventually leading to adoption of the Statute in July, 1998).
The Court’s criminal jurisdiction is complementary to national criminal jurisdictions.
NB: Otherwise the 6th& 10 recitals of the Preamble to the Statute acknowledge that it is the
duty of every State to exercise its criminal jurisdiction over those responsible for international
crimes.
The Court’s jurisdiction and functioning is governed by the provisions of the Statute (ratified on
11th April, 2002).
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• Is responsible for receiving referrals and any substantiated information on crimes
within the jurisdiction of the Court (Ref. Art. 5), for examining them and for
conducting investigations & prosecutions before the Court.
The Registry (Art. 43)-
• Is responsible for the non-judicial aspects of the administration & servicing of the
Court, without prejudice to the functions & powers of the Prosecutor in
accordance with Art. 42.
• Sub-Article (6) enjoins the Registrar to set up a Victims & Witnesses Unit within
the Registry to provide, in consultation with the Office of the Prosecutor,
protective measures and security arrangements, counseling and other
appropriate assistance for witnesses, victims who appear before the Court, and
others who are at risk on account of testimony given by such witnesses.
The Kampala Review Conference defined the crime of aggression at individual level as-
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• The planning, preparation, initiation or execution by a person in a leadership
position of an act of aggression.
NB: This is not very illuminating as it purports to define “aggression” in terms of itself!
At State level, the Kampala Review Conference defined aggression as-
• The use of armed force by one State against another State without justification of
self-defence or authorization by the Security Council.
Section 4 of the International Crimes Act specifies the provisions of the Rome (ICC) Statute
deemed to have the force of law in Kenya, namely-
• Part 2 (relating to jurisdiction, admissibility & applicable law);
• Part 3 (relating to general principles of criminal law);
• Articles 51 & 52 (relating, respectively, to the Rules of Procedure & Evidence, and
Regulations of the Court);
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• Part 5 (relating to the investigation & prosecution of crimes within the
jurisdiction of the ICC);
• Part 6 (relating to the conduct of trials);
• Part 7 (relating to penalties);
• Part 8 (relating to appeals & revision of acquittals, convictions or sentences);
• Part 9 (relating to international co-operation and judicial assistance);
• Part 10 (relating to enforcement of sentences and other measures imposed by the
ICC).
Section 4 also clarifies that the aforesaid provisions shall have the force of law in Kenya in
relation to the following matters-
• The making of requests by the ICC to Kenya for assistance and the method of
dealing with those requests;
• The conduct of an investigation by the Prosecutor or the ICC;
• The bringing and determination of proceedings before the ICC;
• The enforcement in Kenya of sentences of imprisonment or other measures
imposed by the ICC, and any related matters;
• The making of requests by Kenya to the ICC for assistance and method of
dealing with these requests.
NB: It is worth noting-
i. That the Constitution of Kenya, 2010 provides vide Article 2(5) that the general
rules of international law form part of the law of Kenya.
ii. That the said Constitution provides vide Article 2(6) that any treaty or
convention ratified by Kenya forms part of the law of Kenya under the
Constitution.
iii. That the ICC Statute is a multilateral treaty to which Kenya is a party.
iv. That Article 12(1) of the ICC Statute unequivocally ordains that a State which
becomes a Party to the Statute thereby accepts the jurisdiction of the Court with
respect to the crimes referred to in Article 5.
v. That although the ICC Statute is appended to and forms the First Schedule to
Kenya’s International Crimes Act, the ICC Rules of Procedure & Evidence are not
so appended; and that students are advised to download the Rules from the
internet and acquaint themselves with them alongside the ICC Statute.
vi. That the ICC has jurisdiction only with respect to crimes committed after the
entry into force of the ICC Statute [Art. 11(1)].
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CHAPTER THREE
ARREST
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Criminal cases are initiated by a complaint being lodged. A complaint can be lodged with the
police. The complaints can also be lodged with magistrates and the proper clinical way is by way
of lodging a complaint with the police station which is recorded in the Occurrence Book in the
Police Station, it will record who the complainant is and what the complaint is. The decision to
file a case depends on the information in the OB, the police will take a statement from the
complainant, visit the scene of the incident and the police will lift finger prints, they will take
notes of any breakages if any, if it is a murder scene, they will make photographs of the scene and
make arrangements for the body to be examined by a pathologist. Once the police decide what
kind of offence has been committed, they draw a charge sheet.The police after all these decisions
have made can proceed and make an arrest of the suspect. The provisions are such that in most
cases the police can arrest a suspect without a warrant of arrest.
Arrest consists of the actual seizure or touching of the person’s body with a view to his detention.
It is a forcible restraint on a person’s liberty either on the basis of a warrant of arrest or power
donated by law. Arrest is the beginning of imprisonment. Arrest deprives the person the right to
personal liberty during the entire period of confinement.
1The First Schedule to the CPC lists the following as the offences in respect of which an arrest may be effected without a warrant: aiding,
abetting, counselling or procuring the commission of an offence, treason, misprision of treason, treasonable felony, treachery, promoting
warlike undertakings, dissuasion from enlistment, inciting to mutiny, aiding prisoner of war to escape, printing, etc., prohibited
publications, sedition, possessing seditious publication, using or attempting to use printing machine which has been confiscated, printing or
publishing newspaper in contravention of order, presence at and consent to administration of, or taking, oath to commit capital offence,
administration of unlawful oaths to commit capital offence, administering or taking unlawful oaths to commit other offences, compelling
another person to take an oath and piracy.
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(c) breach of the peace;
(d) obstruction of police officers executing their duties;
(e) possession of suspected stolen property;
(f) deserter from the armed forces;
(g) possessors of implements of house breaking; and
(h) persons found in highways and streets in hours of darkness and suspects he is there for
an illegal purpose
(i) A person reasonably suspected of an offence outside Kenya and is to be extradited
(j) Possession of any implement of housebreaking
(k) Released convict in breach of supervision order (repealed)
(l) Reasonably suspected to have a pending warrant of arrest.
Section 30: An officer in charge of a police station may in the same manner arrest or cause to be
arrested—
Any person found taking precautions to conceal his presence within the limits of the station
under circumstances which afford reason to believe that he is taking those precautions with a
view to committing a cognizable offence.
Section 31-When an officer in charge of a police station requires an officer subordinate to him to
arrest without a warrant (otherwise than in his presence) any person who may be lawfully
arrested without a warrant under section 30. He shall deliver to the officer required to make the
arrest an order in writing specifying the person to be arrested and the offence or other cause for
which the arrest is to be made. It is only an officer in charge of a police station who can arrest a
person without a warrant. It must be in writing indicating the offence committed or likely to be
committed.
Section 32 – When a person who in the presence of a police officer has committed or has been
accused of committing a non-cognizable offence refused on the demand of the officer to give his
name and residence, or gives a name or residence which the officer has reason to believe to be
false, he may be arrested by the officer in order that his name or residence may be ascertained.
When one is arrested by police, they are supposed to give their true name and residence. The
police can charge one for giving false information or failing to cooperate.
Section 33- A police officer making an arrest - this means that if a person has been arrested
without a warrant of arrest then they should take the person to a police station. This usually
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happens mostly in Traffic Cases where one can be arrested and taken direct to the court. In most
cases where evidence is required, the police must take one to police station for proper
investigations.
Under section 41(2), upon reasonable suspicion that any person has deserted from the police
Force (i.e absents himself from duty without leave or just cause for a period exceeding twenty-
one days), any police officer may arrest him without warrant.
Under section 60(2), any police officer may arrest without a warrant any person who, within his
view, in any police building, police office, lock-up or cell behaves in a riotous, indecent,
disorderly, or insulting manner.
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Under section 11(2), a person who fails to produce a licence, permit, certificate or pass when
called upon by an officer so to do may be arrested without a warrant.
Under section 13, a [police] officer may without a warrant arrest a person:
(b) Chiefs
Section 8(2) of the Chiefs’ Authority Act (Cap. 128) provides thatany chief or assistant chief
knowing of a design by any person to commit an offence within the local 1imits of his jurisdiction
may, if it appears to him that the commission of the offence cannot be otherwise prevented, arrest
or direct the arrest of such person who, without delay, should be taken to the nearest police
station.
In Lamabutu v R the court recognized chiefs, assistant chiefs, PCs and DCs as police officers.
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(d) Arrest by Private Person
Under Section 34(1) of the Criminal procedure Code a private person may arrest any person
who in his view commits a cognizable offence, or whom he reasonably suspects of having
committed a felony.
Under Section 34 (2) persons found committing an offence involving injury to property may also
be arrested without a warrant by the owner of the property or his servants or persons authorized
by him.
The private person arresting another person without a warrant is then required without
unnecessary delay to make over the person so arrested to a police officer, or in the absence of a
police officer shall take that person to the nearest police station as provided for under section
35(1) of the CPC.The police, depending on the circumstances, should re-arrest him or set him
free. Under section 38, a magistrate may order any [private] person to make an arrest.
Private persons should use reasonable force just like police where the person to be arrested
resists. Use of excessive force may lead to prosecution for assault and unlawful confinement
contrary to section 250 and 261 of the Penal Code (Cap. 63) respectively
In Uganda v. Muherwa2, a private person who used a weapon to incapacitate the deceased
suspected to be a thief in the process of which he died was prosecuted and convicted of
manslaughter.
In Beard and Another v R, the appellants (two private persons) who had arrested the
complainant, tied him and assaulted him although he made no attempt to escape were
prosecuted for and convicted of assault and unlawful confinement as they used unreasonable
and unnecessary force.
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or police officer is authorized to arrest and in the prevention or suppression of a breach of the
peace, or in the prevention of injury attempted to be committed to any railway, canal, telegraph
or public property.
It was stated in the case of SaidiBakariKionywaki v. Republic3that in effecting an arrest,
magistrate acts as a judicial officer and not in an administrative capacity and cannot be subject to
civil and criminal proceedings.
Under section 100 a warrant of arrest may be issued to a person served with summons to appear
in court.Under Section 101 warrants of arrest are issued where the accused disobeys summons.
Section 102 provides for a warrant of Arrest. It states that every warrant of arrest shall be under
the hand or a Judge or a Magistrate issuing it. This means it must be in writing and bear the seal
of the court and state the offence for which it is being issued. It shall also state the name and who
is supposed to implement that warrant of arrest, it can be addressed to the Officer in charge of a
police station and it will also state that whoever the warrant is addressed to shall apprehend the
person against whom it is issued and that person will then be taken to court.
The warrant is directed to the Police Officer against the suspect and the witness. The warrant
will stay in force until it is executed or cancelled by the court which issued it . If the warrant is
issued the court will make an order and it shall be mentioned in 14 days time, if the person is not
apprehended the court will keep on mentioning until the suspect is brought before court.
InKingori s/o Kiranditu v R, it was stated that any person or police officer to whom warrant is
issued is bound to execute it like the court which issues the warrant, he is protected by judicial
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immunity.
Under Section 103(1) the court issuing a warrant in respect of an offence other than murder,
treason or rape may direct by endorsement on the warrant that, if the person executes a bond
with sufficient sureties for his attendance. An omission is that if somebody was charged with
robbery with violence the police would not be able to release them since the offence is not
bailable. The endorsement will state the number of sureties and the time at which the suspect is
to attend court will be indicated. The court is the one that sets the bail terms. Court has
discretion to determine the kind of bail they can award to the suspect. Whenever security is
taken the officer to whom the warrant is directed shall forward the bond back to the court. Bail is
an agreement between the accused and court that the accused shall appear when required in
court. Sureties are also an agreement that they guarantee that the accused shall appear in court
when required.
Section 104 says that the warrant may be directed to one or more police officers within which the
court has jurisdiction or generally to all police officers of the area.
For example if it is desired that one has to be arrested immediately and the court cannot get the
police officer to execute the warrant the court can direct the warrant directly to the Kenya School
of Law to execute it. Even land owners can have warrants directed at them for execution. in
practice the court will issue a warrant and direct it to the OCS, it is the OCS who direct a certain
officer to execute the warrant.
Section 106: The officer shall notify the substance thereof to the suspect to be arrested, it means
that when one is to be arrested they must go to the suspect and tell them they have a warrant and
explain for what the warrant has been issued. The idea is that the practice should be to show the
suspect the warrant of arrest, it is fundamental that a suspect should know the substance of the
complaint against them. There should be no ambush by the process, a suspect must be well
aware of what they are being arrested for.
Once somebody has been arrested, the police officer shall without unnecessary delay bring the
suspect to court without delay. If the warrant of arrest is issued in Nairobi and it is circulated all
over the country so that any police officer who receives the warrant wherever they are can arrest
the suspect. The police if they cannot take you back where the suspect is required can take you to
the nearest court so that a suspect is not unduly kept in police custody awaiting action by a
specific court.
By virtue of section 107 the person effecting arrests should notify the substance of the warrant to
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the suspect and if he is required b y the suspect and show him the warrant.
Section 21 CPC makes provisions for what an arrest is, the police officers are allowed to have
bodily contact with the person that they are arresting. Section 21 (1)In making an arrest the police
officer or other person making it shall actually touch or confine the body of the person to be arrested, unless
there be a submission to custody by word or action. They will touch you and handcuff the suspect.
Section 21(2) is if a suspect resists arrest, the police officer may use all means necessary to effect
the arrest. The key word is forcibly resisting arrest, if one is not forcibly resisting arrest, the force
used by the police to arrest the suspect will be different from when arresting a suspect trying to
evade arrest, reasonable force is measured against the kind of resistance that a person is
demonstrating against the police. The police cannot justify shooting a suspect on the head if
they are running away but if they shot on the leg they can argue that that was reasonable force.
What is reasonable depends on the particulars of the case, there are no hard and fast rules to
govern all inevitable circumstances. Where the force used is unreasonable, the police officer is
liable to be charged with offences arising from their attempts to arrest a suspect.
Sometimes apprehension is by the citizens and where this happens the police have to re-arrest
the person and make a report in the OB as pertaining to the circumstances of the arrest. The
police have to establish whether an offence has been committed. In the case where somebody is
supposed to be arrested and they are hiding, Section 22(1) gives provision that if any person,
acting under warrant of arrest or any police having authority to arrest, has reason to believe that
the person to be arrested has entered into or is within any place, the person residing in or being
in charge of that place shall, on demand of he person so acting or the police officer, allow him
free ingress thereto and afford all reasonable facilities for a search therein. A warrant of arrest
must be issued by the Court. The police go to court and make an application to be issued with a
warrant of arrest and if satisfied the court will issue a warrant of arrest.
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Under section 22(2) women in occupation of premises who are not suspects and who by custom
do not appear in public should be given reasonable facilities to withdraw (Muslim Women). This
provision is to protect a cultural right that some women have so that it may not be violated.
Section 23 makes provision where the police may have entered into the house and they are
locked in. Once again they are given authority to break out.
Section 24 makes provisions for persons already arrested not to be subjected to more restraint
than necessary. It means that if somebody is cooperating there is no reason to actually use
restraint like handcuffs on them. Where members of the public make arrest, since they don’t
have handcuffs they usually tie suspects in ropes, this provision do not allow use of violence in
the arrest of a suspect and the only authority to use force is only where there is resistance.
After somebody is arrested, Section 25 makes provisions for the search of anyone who is
arrested. These provisions will later be tied to the provisions on bail. Police have power to release
a suspect on bail and it is only where offences are not bailable or where the law states that the
offences are not bailable, the police can give bail.
Where upon search the police finds something else not part of what they were searching, the
police have power to arrest the suspect on this other offence, for example if they were searching
for drugs and found a gun they are allowed to charge you for having an illegal firearm. The
police are given power to make searches of places that could be used to conceal criminal
activities.
Under Section 26 police are given powers to detain and search vehicles, aircrafts etc. They may
stop, search and detain. These powers are not given generally to the public the power to arrest is
not given to private citizens, these powers can only be exercised by police or private citizens who
have been authorised by the commissioner of police and they can stop, search and detain, but
they must have reasonable suspicion that something illegally acquired is in the vehicle.
Section 26(b) – any aircraft, vehicle or vessel which there is reason to suspect has been employed
in the commission or to facilitate an offence – the powers can be used even after the fact where it
is suspected that an offence has already been committed.
Section 26(2) No person shall be entitled to damages for loss suffered by him in respect of
detention of an aircraft or vehicle. These provisions appear draconian as they give police a lot of
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powers, where police can detain a vehicle for even up to a week and if one is in business they are
likely to suffer and have no way to challenge the decision or apply for compensation.
Section 28 makes specific provisions about the power to seize offensive weapons so that in the
course of making an arrest the officer can take the offensive weapon, and hand them over to the
respectful persons. The lacuna is that there is no guarantee that the person from whom the
offensive weapon is taken will be charged with possession of offensive weapon, what really
consists an offensive weapon? If the police consider that it amounts to a criminal offence to be in
possession of the weapon, they may charge one with possession of an offensive weapon.
In Kenya if the police wanted to search a premise without a warrant, one can go to court and
complain, but usually police will go to court and obtain a warrant. Under the Evidence Act there
are provisions that where evidence is unlawfully obtained it cannot be used in court.
Section 123 gives power to the police to issue bail at the police station. Once a suspect is taken to
court depending on why the warrant was issued, a plea will be taken and depending on the kind
of charges a suspect may be released on bond. If one is a witness and they didn’t come to court
having been bonded the court deals with one based on the confines of the law and the court can
decide whether or not to penalise for failing to come to court or to just warn. If the court decides
to penalise, they can fine one, or imprison one or whatever it deems fit.
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3.5 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS OF ARREST
• Universal Declaration on Human Rights 1948, Article 3 prescribes guarantee to personal
liberty.
• International Convention on Civil and Political Rights (ICCCPR) 1966, Article 9 provides;
“no-one shall be deprived of his liberty except on such grounds and in accordance with such
procedure established by law.”
WanyiriKihoro vs. A.G CA 151 1988 – It was held that the Court should note the condition of the
suspect as to whether he/she has injuries, complaints or requests made by him. The Court record
of the Trial Court should be legible and clear to reflect all matters raised at the initial stage as it
considers the period of detention.
The land mark case on pre arraignment detention isAlbanusMwasiaMutuaVs Republic CA 120 of
2004 -2nd appeal. The accused person was convicted on attempted robbery with violence. The
accused was arrested on 17/6/2000 and arraigned on 19/2/2001.There was delay of 8 months,
the prosecution offered no explanation. Section 72 (3) of the Constitution was upheld.
NdedevsRepublic CA 1991 KLR 567 -2nd Appeals, the accused person was arrested on 29/9/97
and held in comunicado for 30 days and not charged. He was brought to court and he pleaded
guilty and was sentenced. On appeal sentence was reduced. 2nd appeal, Court held Section 348
CPC not a bar. Appeal allowed as constitutional right was violated.
Gerald MachariaGithukuvs Republic CA 119 of 2004, 2nd appeal; accused person convicted on
robbery with violence. Arrested on 13/1/95 arraigned on 30/1/95. The delay of 3 days was not
explained. The appeal was upheld. The court said it had the duty to punish crime, but also
uphold constitutional rights.
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Republic vs James NjugunaNyaga HCT Cr Case 40 of 2007, Counsel for the accused person raised
a preliminary objection against the Attorney General. The suspect was arrested on 12/2/07 for
being in an illegal organization and was kept in custody for 5 months. A habeas corpus Misc
application 436 of 2007 was filed and the suspect was produced and charged with the offence of
murder on 14/6/07. The suspect was held in custody illegally for 105 days after the mandatory
14 days. The preliminary objection was upheld by the High Court and the proceedings of the case
were stopped. They were a nullity. No stretching of argument can justify illegal detention.
Anne Njogu& 5 others Vs Republic HCT Misc Criminal Application 551 of 2007, on 1/8/07 the
Misc. application was filed, heard on 2/8/07. The applicants were arrested on 31/7/07 at 12 noon
and were not brought to court until 2/8/07 when advocates blocked taking of pleas in the
magistrate’s ct pending the outcome of the High Court application. The applicants were not
arraigned in court within the statutory 24 hours. The Misc. application was upheld and
proceedings held to be a nullity.
David KarobiaKiiruvs Republic HCT Misc App 863 of 2007 .The applicant sought the trial in the
magistrate’s court quashed due to unlawful detention. Similarly the High Court directed that an
application on the arrest and detention of a suspect is a matter of fact to be raised in the Trial
court as it is the tribunal of fact; so as to allow for an explanation and if a question of
interpretation of the Constitution arises then it is referred to the High court.
Samuel NdunguKamau and anothervs Republic C.A.223 of 2006, 1st appeal, the accused persons
were convicted of murder. The appellant raised issue of unlawful detention. The Court of Appeal
stated that the court exercised appellate jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters. Therefore
the question of arrest and detention should be raised first in the Trial court. At this stage it may
not be possible to verify the truth. This ground of appeal was dismissed.
The Court of Appeal delivered on 22nd February 2008 and the accused was convicted of robbery
with violence. On appeal raised unlawful detention ground. Paul MwangiMurungavsRepublic
(UR) Criminal Appeal No. 35 of 2006 and stated;
“…Under section 72 (3) of the Constitution, the burden to explain the delay is on the prosecution, and we
reject any proposition that the burden can only be discharged by the prosecution if the person accused
raised a complaint. But if in the case the prosecution does not offer any explanation, then the court, as the
ultimate enforcer of the provisions of the Constitution must raise the issue.”
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Dominic MutieMwalimuVs Republic C.A. 217 of 2005, the appellant was convicted of robbery
with violence. The 2nd appeal and raised issue of unlawful detention. He was arrested on
4/2/2004 and arraigned on 20/2/2004. He did not complain and prosecution did not explain.
The Court of Appeal stated, the issue of unlawful detention of 2 days beyond the mandatory 14
days was not raised in the trial court or in the 1st appeal. The prosecution was not given an
opportunity to explain the delay. The ground of appeal had no merit. The mere fact that one was
unlawfully detained is not ipso facto violation of a constitutional right.
Republic Vs Samuel MbogoNdwiga&another HCT 55 of 2001, the accused persons charged with
murder, raised preliminary objection of arrest from 2000 and charged in 2007. The explanation
was, there were committal proceedings (now repealed) they were charged in court, a nolleprosequi
wasentered on the murder charge. An inquest was conducted, a ruling was given and accused
persons were charged again. The record was not clear on when the accused persons were
arrested. The High Court held , the mere fact of detention beyond the requisite period is not
unconstitutional, there should be reasonable explanation for the court to determine if the accused
persons were brought to court as soon as was reasonably practicable.
David WaiganjoWanainaVs Republic C .A .113 of 2005, The Court of Appeal allowed the appeal.
There was a delay of 9 months between arrest and arraignment. The court stated the long delay
was not explained. The Accused person was set free.
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criminal ones; Criminal trials are matters of public interest, and each case determined on its
peculiar circumstances. The application / objection be raised at the earliest stage. The court has to
balance rights of accused persons and victims. The preliminary objection dismissed.
Republic VsTalibAbubakar&others Criminal Revision No 1 of 2008, the High Court dealt with
the following issues;
The suspects were arraigned in Magistrate’s court on being in possession of explosives. The
courts declined to admit the case. The Director of Public Prosecution (DPP) invoked revisionary
jurisdiction of the High Court. The basis was right to prosecute under section 26 of the
Constitution. The prosecution could explain unlawful detention.
The High Court held;
The Magistrates’ courts should take pleas in spite of the unlawful detention issue, and afford, the
prosecution an opportunity to explain the delay.Section 72(3) outlaws unlawful detention but
with an exception; an opportunity to explain the delay.Whether, the detention is unlawful is a
judicial question to be determined on legal principles after hearing parties.Whereas the High
Court determines questions of interpretation of the Constitution, facts that affect the
Constitutional decision are best determined in the Magistrates’ court.
3.7 CONCLUSION
• Pre arraignment detention must be in accordance with the stipulated timeframe provided
in the Constitution.
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• In case of delay; the issue may be raised as a preliminary objection at the earliest
opportunity in the Trial court; by way of an oral or written preliminary objection.
• The Trial court on its own motion may also question the delay based on the contents of
arrest in the Charge/Sheet.
• The Court of Appeal will deal with unlawful detention after it is raised in the Trial court
and/or 1st appeal.
• The prosecution/police/state counsels have an opportunity in law to give an
explanation.
• The court will determine on the basis of specific circumstances of the case, if the delay
was unconstitutional. The explanation should be to the satisfaction of the court.
• Although, preliminary objections can be raised at any time in the proceedings; it is not
designed to terminate proceedings and should accord the prosecution an opportunity to
explain.
• The application for unlawful arrest can be filed in the High Court. By which means?
• The Constitution allows compensation for unlawful detention
• The application for unlawful detention where one has not been produced in court can be
lodged as a miscellaneoushabeas corpus application and also violation of unlawful
detention.
CHAPTER FOUR
IDENTIFICATION PARADES
4.1 DEFINITION
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An identification parade is a process or forum organized by the police in which a suspect is lined
up together with eight other persons who are of the same height, age, general appearance and the
same class of life as the suspect and, a witness or witnesses are asked to identify whether or not
the accused or the suspect is present in that line-up in a bid to ascertain if it is the suspect who
committed the crime he/she is accused of.
In Njihia v Republic4where the complainant stated that he had identified the appellant then at an
ID parade in which the appellant and two other suspects had been lined with eleven other
persons and in the court during the trial, the Court of Appeal held that the ID parade conducted
in this case was not proper because contrary to the ratio of one suspect to eight persons which is
stipulated in the Police Force Standing Orders, three suspects had been lined with eleven others.
This was mathematically too low a ratio to exclude the chance of random guesswork.
The court observed that Police Force Orders require a ratio of one to eight as the minimum; and
indeed in many parades the ratio is between one to ten and one to twelve.
4.2 PURPOSE
The importance of identification evidence cannot be negated in criminal procedure. Without
prior identification of a suspect who later becomes the accused person, there cannot be a proper
conviction. Therefore, it is a trite law that an accused person must be clearly identified. If there is
no identification then the accused cannot be convicted unless there are other factors connecting
him with the offence.
In R v. Mwango5, it was held that an identification parade must be conducted when the identity
of an accused is doubtful. However, where a suspect is known to the witness then there is no
need for an ID parade to be conducted as this becomes an instance of recognition as opposed to
identification of the suspect.
In Ajode v. Republic6, the Court of Appeal comprising Gicheru CJ, O’Kubasu JA and Otieno
Onyango Ag JA, held that it is established law that there is no need for an ID parade to be
conducted in cases where the witness knows the suspect as the witness will merely be merely
demonstrating his recognition of the suspect and will not be identifying him.
So that in
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This is fundamental because dock identification is generally considered to be valueless unless a
properly conducted ID Parade is held to justify the suspects being charged with the crime as
stated by the Court in Ajode vs. Republic7. The court further held that a court should not place
much reliance on dock identification unless it has been preceded by properly conducted
identification parade.
In Wafula& 3 Others vs Republic8the court held that there had been a failure on the part of the
police to investigate the case properly, particularly the failure to conduct identification parades
so that the dock identification by the witness nearly 14 months after the commission of the crime.
This identification was therefore valueless.
b) They are held to facilitate due process which is a fundamental requirement in criminal
law.
Article 50(2) of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 cements an accused person’s right to a fair trial.
This right can be said to include the right to have an ID parade conducted in accordance with set
down procedure prior to the accused being charged.
The Kenya Police Force Standing Orders at Form no 156 has set down procedures which if
flouted will negate the validity of an ID parade and will lead to the release of the accused as they
cannot be properly convicted because their constitutional rights were trampled upon.
In the case of John MusyimiMutua&WambuaMutie V Republic9 where witnesses identified one
appellant in an identification parade two years after the crime and no Identification parade was
conducted for the second appellant. The court held that the Admissibility of such identification
was shaky and could not be relied upon. The conviction of both was quashed. In essence this
illustrates that identification evidence is an essential aspect in criminal procedure, for a proper
conviction.
Identification parades are held where:
The police have sufficient information to justify the arrest of a particular person for
suspected involvement in an offence, and;
An eye witness has identified or may be able to identify that person, and;
The suspect disputes his identification as a person involved in the commission of that
offence or where a dispute as to identity may reasonably be anticipated.
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b) Where it is impracticable to assemble people who resemble the suspect.
c) Where the eye witness cannot identify the offender,
d) Where the case is one of pure recognition of someone well known to the witness.
‘64: Every police officer shall be subject to the Force Standing orders and to the provisions of the code of
regulations for the time being in force, so far as the same are not inconsistent with the provisions of this
Act or of any regulations or Standing orders made thereunder.’
The method of identification was first set out by the rules in the Kenya Police Order 15/26.This
was the initial law governing the conduct of identification parades in Kenya. It was set out by the
Police Commissioner with initial instructions from the Chief Justice early in the 1950’s. It was
recently amended in 1974 and labeled as Chapter 46 of the Police Force Standing Orders,
paragraph 6. They are contained in a separate book containing the rules guiding the police force
in administrative matters. Police Form 156 is used for the conduct of identification parades and is
designed pursuant to the Force Standing Orders. Such administrative orders are not required to
be published in the Kenya Gazette.
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4.3.4 FORCE STANDING ORDERS
This order provides for the procedure for conducting identification parades under Order 6, and
are as follows:
a) Suspect must be informed of the reason for the parade,
b) Suspect may have a solicitor or friend present,
c) Investigating officer should not conduct the identification parade, though he may be
present,
d) The accused should be placed amongst at least eight persons,
e) Such persons should be of similar age, height, general appearance and class of life as
himself,
f) If accused is suffering from any disfigurement steps to be taken to ensure that its not
apparent,
g) Accused should be allowed to take any position on the line up and allowed to change the
same after the first identifying witness has left, if he so wishes,
h) Care should be exercised that witnesses do not communicate with each other,
i) Every unauthorized person should be excluded,
j) If witness desires accused to walk, speak or put on his hat, then he should do so, but the
whole parade should do the same,
k) The conducting officer to ensure that witness identifies the person without possibility of
error,
l) At termination/during the parade conducting officer should ask suspect if he is satisfied
with the manner in which the parade is being/has been conducted,
m) Make a note in writing in his reply,
n) Witness should be told he will see a group of people and suspect may or may not be
there,
o) Witness should not be told to pick out somebody, or be influenced in any way
whatsoever,
p) Careful note must be recorded after each witness has left, stating whether witness
identified the person and state the circumstances at hand,
q) Comments by accused should be recorded by the conducting officer, especially after he
has been identified,
r) Parade must be conducted with scrupulous fairness, or else value of the identification
parade will be lessened or nullified,
s) Police officers should not make up the parade, unless they are accused.
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4.4 PRELIMINARY ISSUES
Evidence of identity (visual identification of the suspect) is often an expression of an opinion that
a person seen at one time (in Court) is the same person as was seen at some other time (during
the commission of the crime). This evidence is admissible in a criminal trial, whether the
identification took place during the crime or at an identification parade.The criminal process
commences when a report / complaint is lodged at the Police station or an arrest of a suspect (s)
is made and he is detained at the Police Station.
Once the report is made by the Complainant, the police officer records the information in the
Occurrence Book (OB). Investigations are launched to determine whether an offence is disclosed,
whether there is sufficient evidence and if the matter should be resolved in court.Often times,
complaints that disclose sufficient evidence that offences were committed after investigations are
conducted by the police are lodged in court for determination.
Identification parades to establish the suspect (s) in the commission of the crimes is crucial and it
is one of the most important processes in the conduct of investigations. If the police have arrested
a suspect on the basis of other evidence and there are witnesses who indicate that they might be
able to make an identification of the suspect, then an identification parade should be conducted
for positive identification.Where a witness confirms that he witnessed the commission of the
crime and witnessed a suspect committing the said crime and could identify him, then an
identification parade is conducted by Police to verify the witness’s claim and test its
veracity.Evidence of identification of suspects may take different forms. Difficulties arise in
respect of visual identification by witnesses.
If the witness states that he recognized the suspect during the commission of the crime, the
identification parade is not conducted. During trial, the court will evaluate the circumstances
under which the crime occurred and determine if there was positive recognition of the suspect by
the witness. Recognition maybe more reliable than identification of a stranger, but even where a
witness purports to recognize close relatives and friends, mistakes are sometimes made.Where
the offenders are identified close to the time and scene of the crime, identification parades are not
useful. In terms of the timing it is unlikely that there is mistaken identity of the suspect as he is
caught in the act.
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Before the procedure that takes place at the identification parade is ventured into, certain
important factors must be addressed. These are the factors that the court will take into account in
finding out whether the accused is the perpetrator of the crime. Also when an issue arises
concerning the conduct of the identification parade, these factors will be addressed.
The most basic and key question that the identification parade must address is, ‘Does it [the
identification given by the witness] place the accused at the scene of the crime?’ This is the
question that will be answered by the factors that shall now be discussed.
The guilt of the accused should not be based on suspicion. Suspicion, however strong cannot
provide a basis for inferring guilt which must be proved by evidence.13 In the case of R v
Manyara14 it states that there must be evidence pointing out the guilt of each and every person
otherwise it will be a case of ‘mob justice’. The case also points out that;
‘It must be remembered that it is not enough for the police to round up as many suspects as possible when a
serious crime occurs and arraign them in court without having carried out sufficient investigations as
would reveal the involvement of each and every accused person in the commission of the offence as charged
with.’
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The question here is usually whether there was sufficient light to enable identification of the
assailant.17 This will then determine whether the witness had an opportunity to observe the
perpetrators so as to be able to comfortably identify them subsequently.18 In Maitanyi v R19 it
was stated that;
‘It is at least essential to ascertain the nature of the light available. What sort of light, its size, position
relative to the suspect are all important matters helping to test if one of these matters are unknown because
they were not inquire into by the trial magistrate.’
Other considerations of light could be; how bright was the light? How far was the light from the
persons identified? What was the intensity and size of the torchlight?’20The nature of the light has
a lot of bearing on the credibility of the identification. For example if the only source of light was
torches being shown from side to side.21 There is a high possibility of error in such identification.
In Muiruri& 2 others,22a correct ID of the attackers was facilitated by the fact that the torchlight
was adequate as the inner walls of the house of the witnesses were painted white and the light
was reflected on the faces of the attackers as a result. Another example is where there are security
lights outside a place such as a bar and electricity lights inside the bar then such a bar can be said
to be well-lit.
This can be answered depending on whether the witness spent sufficient time with the
perpetrators and whether they were alert during the whole ordeal so as to observe each and
every move of the accused persons’.
17 In R v Manyara it was stated ‘ There was no indication whether at Kivumbini area where accused number 8 and…were arrested there was sufficient light as
would have enabled the police to identify the accused number 8 appropriately.’
18Paul ThuoMburu&another v R (2008) eKLR; Criminal Appeal 329 of 2006 in the Court of Appeal of Kenya at Nairobi
19 (1986)KLR 198
20 Simon KihanyaKairu& Another v R 2006 eKLR; Criminal Appeal 99& 100 of 2004
21Nicodemus Mwita &another v R Criminal Appeal 328& 323 of 2006; 2008 eKLR
22 Criminal Appeals No’s 117,131,133 of 2000(consolidated). See also John WachiraWandia, Fredrick JumaMuriuki v R Criminal Appeal 57 and
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The evidence of identification at night must be tested with the greatest care.23
The appearance of the robbers is important. The issue here is whether they had concealed their
identity, for example, by wearing disguises.The length of time spent with the robbers is also vital.
In R v Turnbull,24it was stated
‘…when the identification is made after a long period of observation, or in satisfactory conditions by a
relative, neighbour, close friends, workmate, the jury can safely be left to assess the value of the
identification evidence even though there is no other evidence to support it; provided always, however, that
an adequate warning has been given about the special need for caution…if the identifying evidence depends
on a fleeting glance or a longer observation in difficult conditions [an error exists]’
If the witnesses had a conversation with the robbers at close proximity, then the identification
islikely to be more credible.25
(c) For the identification parade evidence to be free from error, the identification parade
should be conducted in accordance with the law.
23 The guidelines are set out In R v Turnbull (1976) 3ALLER pg 549. See also; Nzaro v R (1991) KAR 212; Kiarie v R (1954) KLR 739
24 (1977) QB 224; See also Joseph NgumbaoNzaro v Republic Criminal Appeal No 44 of 1987; (1991) KAR
25 In John MulingeNduati v R Criminal Appeal No. 286 of 2004; 2006 eKLR; the robbery took place at daytime for a period of thirty minutes,
the attackers wore no disguises nor conceal their appearance and they had a conversation with the witnesses at close proximity.
26Jimmy Wanjohi v R Criminal Appeal 128 of 2006; (2006)eKLR
27 Ibid 19
28Toroke v R (1987) KLR 204
29 Ibid 24
30 Ibid 18
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In Muiruri v R31it was stated by the court that where the witness has become used to the
circumstances, they cannot be said to have been under extreme fright so as not to be able to
observe their attackers well.
Reasonable Time
In Nicodemus Mwita & another v R34 it was stated that it was doubtful that the witness could retain
in their minds a clear description of the robbers whom they had not known before, for such a
long time and in the absence of any special and outstanding features in their bodies. This is
because the identification parades were conducted 10 months after the first robbery and 8 months
after the second robbery.
The assumption is that it must be done as soon as is practicably possible. In John Mulinge,35 the
assailants were identified 2 weeks after the commission of the crime and the witnesses were able
to identify them separately and without hesitation.
31 Ibid 21
32 (1953) 20 EACA 166
33 As stated in Section 143 of the Evidence Act. See also Mburu& Another V Republic(2008) 1 Klr (g&f) 1229(Criminal Appeal No 329 of
2006)
34Ibid 20.
35Ibid 24.
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• Witnesses to crime are able to see the perpetrators fleetingly, often in stressful
circumstances
• Visual memory may fade with time and may become confused or distorted
• There is evidence that ‘unconscious transference’ may occur; where a witness confuses a
face he recognizes from the scene of the crime
• Witnesses rarely remember more than portions of events and their recollection may
change through self-interest or suggestion
• Witnesses are not always articulate and descriptive
• Though understandable, but often misguided many witnesses are eager to help police by
making positive identifications.
The courts then sought to elucidate this position further and in the case of Amolo vs.
Republic38the court explained the rationale for the courts reluctance to accept dock identification
without other evidence as follows,
‘The reason for the courts reluctance to accept a dock identification is part of the wider concept, or
principle of law that is not permissible for a party to suggest answers to his own witnesses or, as it
sometimes put, to lead his own witness.’
Thus, it is generally believed that if an accused sits in the dock while the witness gives evidence
in a criminal case against him undue attention is drawn towards his. His presence there may in
certain cases prompt a witness to point him out as the person he identified at the scene of the
crime even though he might not be sure of that fact.It is also believed that the accused presence in
the dock might suggest to a witness that he is expected to identify him/her as the person who
committed the offence. This was particularly discussed in the case of Mwiruriand 2
36 1982-1988 1 KAR, 34
37 Criminal Appeal No. 93 of 1983 (Unreported)
38 1991 2 KAR, 254
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othersvsRepublic39 .
It is important to note that in circumstances where the witness/ complainant personally know
the witness, their evidence after dock identifications is admissible in court. However, great care
must be taken concerning testimonies of single witnesses.The striking difference between dock
identification evidence and identification parade evidence is that the latter carry a lot of weight
and are more credible in their admissibility in a court of law. However, it cannot be said that all
dock identifications is worthless. The court might base a conviction on such evidence if satisfied
that on the facts and circumstances of the case the evidence must be true and if prior thereto the
court duly warns itself of the possible danger of mistaken identification.40
The case of NtelejoLokwam v Republic44underscores the above point. In this case, the police
identification was held three years after the said robbery. The court held that in the absence of a
description being given to the police when the first report was made after the robbery had taken
place, it would be impossible for an independent tribunal evaluating the evidence to arrive at a
determination that the complainants had in fact made a positive identification of the appellant
which identification was confirmed when they identified the appellant in an identification parade
conducted by the police.
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At the parade the witness shall identify the suspect /perpetrator by touching him. This is done so
that the accused can be aware that he is the one who has been identified as the perpetrator of the
crime. It also helps the police to get the initial reaction of the accused which may communicate
his guilt of the crime.
The identification parade shall then be conducted by the police officer appointed to be in charge
of the parade. He is the one responsible for informing the witness and the accused what to
expect. No opportunity should be availed for the accused to see the accused before the parade.
The officer in charge of the parade is required to fill out the police form no. 156 as to the conduct
of the parade.
At an identification parade where the victim is a rape victimthe preliminaries already pointed
out will be followed. The difference comes in pointing out the perpetrator of the crime. The
procedure can be like for any other general identification parade. The difference comes in where
the witness desires to keep their identity secret. The victim shall then view the parade from a
concealed vantage point.45The witness shall then point out to the police officer where the
perpetrator is positioned in the line and this person or persons shall be removed from the parade
and taken to a room where they shall be confronted by the witness who shall then pat them so as
to confirm the identification of the accused/accused persons. The patting is important as it
enables the police officers to see the initial reaction of the perpetrator which can be vital in
determining whether such a person is actually guilty of the crime.
Pursuant to chapter 46 of the Police Force Standing Orders paragraph 6 (iv) whenever it is
necessary that a witness be asked to identify an accused/suspected person, the following
procedure must be followed in detail:
a) The accused /suspected person will always be informed of the reason for the parade
and that he may have a solicitor or friend present when the parade takes place;
It offers the accused with a certain level of security. The solicitor’s role is not spelt out clearly
under the standing orders. It is better to have your solicitor present together with a friend who
can seek to record or take photos of the identification parade procedure, upon request from the
police officer in charge of the parade. Refusal of such a request by the police officer in charge of
the parade can be raised as a ground of objection by the accused person when giving feedback
about the conduct of the identification parade.
The advocate’s role is best as an observer because the participation of the advocate could result in
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the advocate playing the role of a witness thus resulting in a conflict of interest.
In David Mwita Wanja & 2others v Republic here the court held that the omission was on the 1st
appellant for failure to provide an address or name of the friend he wished to call.
b) The police officer in charge of the case ,although he be present will not conduct the
parade;
In a paper written by Annegret Rust & Colin Tredoux titled ‘Identification parades: An Empirical
Survey of Legal Recommendations and Police Practise in South Africa’ It was stated in point that ‘…an
officer conducting the parade should state that he is independent and that he knows nothing about the
case…’
It also ensures fairness in the sense that if the officer in charge of the case were the one present,
such would be prejudicial to the accused.
c) The witness or witnesses will not see the accused before the parade;
It may be prejudicial to the accused and may undermine the value of the evidential value of the
parade.In Ajode v Republic46the court held that it would not be proper for a complainant to be a
witness at an identification parade two days after the arrest for he had already seen the accused.
The court further held that once a witness has seen the suspect before the parade, he will be
doing no more than demonstrating his recognition of the suspect and not identifying the suspect.
In AthumaniManzongo& another v Republic47the court held that in cases where the witnesses
say they do not know the suspects but are able to identify them, the suspects should not be
shown to the witnesses immediately after the arrest or while in the police station before they are
identified at a properly conducted parade.
In Njuki&4 others v Republic48the court held that there were discrepancies because the witness
saw the accused persons before the identification parade.In Joseph KamauKimani v Republic49the
court held that the rules of the identification parade were contravened because the witness saw
the accused after his arrest.
d) The accused/suspected person will be placed among at least eight persons, as far as
possible of similar age, height, general appearance and class of life as himself. should
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the accused/suspected person be suffering from disfigurement, steps should be taken
to ensure that it is not especially apparent;
The ratio is one suspect to eight persons.In Njihia v Republic50the court held that the
identification parade was not conducted properly because contrary to the ratio stipulated in the
Force Standing Orders, three suspects had been lined with eleven others. This is mathematically
too low a ratio to exclude the chance of random guesswork.
David Mwita Wanja & 2others v Republichere the witness could readily tell by elimination that
the two appellants were the only new faces in the parade. The two parades were conducted by
including the same persons in the earlier parade except for the positions they stood.
e) The accused/suspected person will be allowed to take any position he chooses and will
be allowed to change his position after each identifying witness has left, if he so
desires;
This ensures that the suspect does not feel noticeable and for guaranteeing protection to the
accused.
f) Care will be exercised that witnesses do not communicate with each other;
It ensures that the accused feels safe and protected from bias that is likely to arise from the
information received.
h) If the witness desires to see the accused/suspected person walk, hear him speak, see
him with his hat on or off, this should be done, but in this event the whole parade
should be asked to do likewise;
This ensures that the suspect does not have undue advantage over the others. Example where the
only person in the parade is the only one wearing a scarf or is the only one asked to speak. (The
South African case of ‘Two hats parade’)
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j) At the termination of the parade, or during the parade, the officer conducting it should
ask the accused/suspected person if he is satisfied that the parade is being/has been
conducted in a fair manner and make a note of his reply;
In Jimmy WanjohiWanjiku v Republic51the court held that the parade was properly conducted as the
accused signed the report indicating that he was satisfied with the manner in which it had been
conducted.
k) When explaining the procedure to a witness the officer conducting the parade will tell
him that he will see a group of people which may or may not contain the person
responsible .the witness should not be told “to pick out somebody” or be influenced
in any way whatsoever;
In Ndiku& 2 others v Republic52the court held that the identification parades were conducted
unprocedurally because the police officer suggested to the witness the presence of the
accused/suspected person in the parade.
In Oluoch v Republic53the court held that in an identification parade it is dangerous to suggest to
a witness that the person to be identified is believed to be present at the parade. The value of the
parade as evidence is depreciated by this fact.In Simon KihanyaKairu& another v Republic54the
court held that the police officer while introducing the complainant to the parade suggested the
presence of the suspect in the parade. This depreciated the value of the parade as evidence.
l) A careful note must be made after each witness leaves the parade, to record whether he
identified the accused /suspected person and in what circumstances;
This has the effect of making the accused part of the process with the ultimate goal of conducting
the parade fairly. It also provides him with an opportunity to objection how the parade process
was conducted.
m) A record should be made by the officer conducting the parade of any comment made by
the accused /suspected person during the parade, particularly comments made when the
accused/suspected person is identified;
This is done for the purpose of keeping proper records and to determine the question of positive
identification.
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n) The parade must be conducted with scrupulous fairness; otherwise the value of the
identifications as evidence will be lessened or nullified.
This point is well captured in the case of R V Mwango s/o Manaa (1936) 3 EACA 29.
It is also important to note that parades should be conducted with as much privacy as possible.
They should not, unless unavoidable, be held in view of the public but in a closed compound or
yard from which spectators and unauthorized persons have been excluded.55
The Force Standing Orders also provide that if a witness desires to keep his identity secret, and
the circumstances are such that the officer in charge of the case deems such a course advisable for
reasons of security, victimization, etc, arrangements will be made for the witness to view the
parade from a concealed vantage point (e.g. through a window, from behind a screen). If the
witness identifies one or more of the persons on the parade, the persons so identified will be
removed from the parade and brought before and confronted with the witness, who will be
asked to confirm the identification in the normal way, i.e. by touching the person.56
The court in some cases may look the discrepancies in the conduct of identification parade. This
point was illustrated in the case of Njuki& 4 othersvs Republic57.In this case, the parade
conducted had discrepancies in that the witnesses saw the accused persons before the parade
itself was conducted. The court held ‘…the main factor to be considered in such cases is whether
the discrepancies are of such nature as would create doubt to the guilt of the accused. However,
where the discrepancies in the evidence do not affect an otherwise proved case against the
accused, a court is entitled to overlook the discrepancies.
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considered as to their weight and relevance. The cases discussed under the conduct of the
identification parade and the issues they raise shall be considered when evidence is being
produced.
To do this, the court relies on the often cited case of the case of R vs. Turnbull 1977 QB 224.The
Court of Appeal laid down important rules for guidance of trial courts faced with contested
identification evidence and to cross check the pretrial identification procedures are conducted as
fairly as possible to avert the possibility of mistaken identity.
If there is no identification evidence the Turnbull guidelines will not apply. A witness who
has had a proper sight of the culprit’s face and who may be able to make an identification of the
suspect, should be invited to attend an identification parade if the police have a suspect available.
Where the identity of the suspect is known, the witness may participate in an identification
parade.
In the Turnbull case;Turnbull was convicted of conspiracy to burgle and sentence d to 3 years
imprisonment. The appeal raised problems relating to visual identification as he claimed there
was mistaken identity. The witness who identified him was alleged to have a fleeting glance. The
witnesses described the suspect, bystander and the vehicle the suspects left in. Shortly thereafter,
a police officer on duty passed by and recognized Turnbull. The court found the evidence of
recognition sufficient and dismissed the appeal. The court went on to state as follows;
“ First, whenever the case against an accused depends wholly or substantially on the correctness
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of one or more identifications of the accused which the defense alleges to be mistaken, [the court]
should warn itself of the special need for caution before convicting the accused in reliance on the
correctness of the identification (s).
The court should emphasize on the need for such a warning and should make some reference to
the possibility that a mistaken witness can be a convincing one and that a number of such
witnesses can all be mistaken.
Secondly, [the court] should examine closely the circumstances in which the identification by
each witness came to be made.
• How long did the witness have the accused under observation?
• At what distance?
• In what light?
• Was the observation impeded in any way?
• Had the witness seen the suspect before?
• How often?
• If occasionally, had he any special reason for remembering the accused?
• How long elapsed between the original observation and the subsequent
identification to the police?
• Was there any material discrepancy between the description of the accused given
to the police by the witness when first seen by them and his actual appearance?
[first report] “
All these go to the quality of the identification evidence. If the quality is good and remains good
and remains good at the close of the accused’s case, the danger of a mistaken identification is
lessened; but the poorer the quality, the greater the danger.
When in the judgment of [the court], the quality of the identifying evidence is poor, as for
example when it depends solely on a fleeting glance on a longer observation made in difficult
conditions, the situation is very different”. The English decision is persuasive and has been
considered in the local cases.
58C.A.554 Of 2004
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The court held;
“Thecircumstances for identification at the scene of crime was clearly unfavorable. It is trite that
identification by a single identifying witness in the circumstances such as those in our present case has to
be treated with great caution- especially where the circumstances are not conducive to positive
identification”
The evidence of PW1 shows that he could not identify all the suspects at the scene. He did not give a
description of the appellant or any of the robbers when he reported to the police shortly thereafter”
The identification parade was not conducted in accordance with the Police force standing orders.
Although an identification parade was conducted, PW6 testified that the Complainant actually
met the accused some days before the identification parade was conducted.
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4.9 KENYAN JURSPRUDENCE ON IDENTIFICATION PARADES
Most of identification parades in Kenya have not been conducted with scrupulous fairness as is
required by the Police Force Standing Orders. The police as custodians of identification parades
have flouted most if not every rule in their own standing orders if the cases on identification
parades are anything to go by. This has generally occasioned bias on accused persons and to a
great extent occasioned the accused persons miscarriages of justice. The worst form of
punishment is punishment that an individual does not deserve. Mistaken identity causes the
worst form of injustice and it is with this in mind that identification parades should be carried
out with the utmost care and fairness.
Kenyan jurisprudence on identification parades has proved that in most circumstances, the rights
of the accused have been wantonly trampled on with reckless abandon when the said
identification parades are conducted. The question that begs to be answered is; can justice be
achieved when one’s rights are grossly violated? It should be noted that identification parades
were formed on the basis of protecting the accused. In the Kenyan scenario this is a far cry from
that basis as most identification parades instead tend to injure the accused person more than
protect him.
For purposes of proper grasping of the foregoing argument we shall discuss a few selected
Kenyan cases and as far as possible highlight the injustices. The cases have been discussed in the
rules above and we shall therefore give a summary.
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obtained from the flawed parade
Oluochvs Republic, Criminal Appeal No. 66 of 1984
In this particular case a certain witness who attended the identification parade stated that he had
been told to “identify the people who robbed him.” The tragedy of the case is that the trial
magistrate and the High court Judge in their wisdom or lack of it thereof found the parade to
have been properly conducted. This Court however held that:
“In an identification parade, it is dangerous to suggest to an identifying witness that the person to be
identified is believed to be present in the parade. The value of the parade as evidence in this case was
considerably depreciated by that fact.”
In a similar case of Njihiavs Republic, Criminal Appeal No. 13 of 1986; there where three (3)
suspects who were mixed with eleven (11) others for an identification parade. The court held
that:
“Mathematically that is too low a ratio (something like one to nearly five) to exclude the chance of random
guesswork.”
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The accused in this case was identified by two witnesses; the witnesses had seen him prior to the
parade. The court held:
“Though the parade had been properly conducted, the appellant’s success in proving that he had been seen
by the witnesses prior to the parade meant that the parade was useless.”
Can it be clearer that overlooking such discrepancies is in itself highly prejudicial to the accused?
David Mwita Wanja and 2 Othersvs Republic, Criminal Appeal No. 117 of 2005
In this case, the same eight (8) persons where used for three (3) identification parades and as such
the identifying witness could easily tell by elimination that the appellants were the only new
faces in the parades. The parade was rendered worthless by the court since it was extremely
prejudicial to the appellants.
These are just but a few selected cases to prove that most identification parades conducted by the
police in Kenya have been extremely prejudicial and in some cases, the courts have tried to cure
these prejudices by invoking other legal provisions in cases where the rights of an accused have
been violated though evidence heavily points to the guilt of the accused. It is for these reasons
that major reforms should be undertaken to improve the fairness of these identification parades
as will be proposed hereafter.
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brought in one by one. This enables a proper reflection as to the identity of the perpetrator rather
than comparing the people in the parade to one another.
CHAPTER FIVE
PREPARATION OF FILES FOR TRIAL
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A file is a folder that holds loose papers together for organization and protection. File folders
usually consist of a sheet of heavy paper stock or other thin, but stiff, material which is folded in
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half, and are used to keep paper documents. They are often used in conjunction with a filing
cabinet for storage.
Successful practitioners (prosecutors and counsels) need to have the ability to think on their feet,
muster the art of persuasive talking and impress by their charisma. Mastery of these skills give
practitioners confidence. However one has to effectively prepare for the task of representation
for them to exude the kind of confidence expected of a practitioner. Preparation will entail
knowing the facts of the case thoroughly, considering the potential relevance of all the facts in
their legal context, considering possible responses to any point made, planning and thinking
through arguments beforehand. Having gone through this, the practitioner can deliver a
convincing address while addressing all the relevant questions that may arise. For effective
preparation, the prosecution/defense has to maintain a file that must have basic documentation.
b) Sketch Plans and Documentary Exhibits - Photographs, sketches, plans and such
other material referring to the scene of crime together with copies of any other
documentary exhibits should follow the reports. These documents should be
marked as B (1), B (2). Photographs should be mounted on foolscaps. In case they
are not mounted on foolscaps, then they should be placed in envelopes of a suitable
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size and the contents thereof clearly listed on the outside.
c) Copies of reports (Expert reports) such as post mortem, ballistic report, finger
print, expert report, handwriting expert and all other expert reports should then
follow marked C(1), C(2)..
Contents of medical reports and such other experts whose language is technical
must be supported by a statement from the expert setting out in detail and simple
language the contents of the report.
d) Statements of Prosecution Witnesses -prosecution files must have prosecution
witness statements. The complainant’s statement that forms the substratum of the
charge must be on the file. The arresting officer’s and Investigation Officer’s
statements as well as all expert witnesses’ statements and all material witnesses’
statements should be in the police file. Every statement recorded by police will :
i) show the date, time and place it was taken;
ii) bear the full names age, registration and full address and all other available
identifying particulars relevant to the individual making the statement;
iii) The language used by the person making it will be indicated at the head of
the statement by adding the words “in the…language”. If other than English
and an interpreter is used, a certificate shall be completed by the interpreter.
iv) The statement must be endorsed to the effect that the author has been
invited to effect corrections he wishes to make after reading it. The
statement must be signed by the witness or if illiterate thumb printed. If the
witness declines to authenticate the statement, then the reason thereof is
recorded, if given by the witness.
Copies of all other prosecution witnesses should then follow, including evidence of
identification parades which follows the main identifying witness. The statement of the Police
Officer conducting the ID parade will be cross referenced with statements of each identifying
witness for ease of reference, and will itself include as an addition to the statement a copy of
police form P. 156. All statements are marked D (1), D (2).
e) Then follows theCharge and Cautionary, Statement under Inquiry and Statements
of the Accused Persons (including statements made under caution and all
supplementary statements) to be marked E (1)…The Investigation officer will
interrogate the suspect on the alleged offence any statement made will be kept in
this sub-file.
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NOTE: Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2003 section 99 repealed Section 25 of
the Evidence Act and inserted Section 25A ‘Any confession or admission of fact
shall not be proved unless made in court.’ Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2007
section 25A was amended to include statements made by the suspect at the police
station in the presence of a representative and the statement be taken by an officer
above the rank of Assistant Inspector or statement made in court.
f) Investigation diaries of all police officers conducting the investigation which must
be full and accurate setting forth times, dates and places visited and action taken
should be marked F (1)...
g) Copies of charge sheet and related documents that will be read in court to the
accused person should follow. The same should be marked G (1)...Upon completion
of investigations, the Investigation officer will prepare the charges in a charge sheet
and place in this file.
During the trial, the charge sheet maybe amended or substituted and such copies
will be kept in the sub file. Section 214 CPC allows the prosecution to amend or
substitute the charge sheet anytime before the close of the prosecution case.
i) The document that follows thereafter is the covering report drawn up by the officer
in charge of the investigation setting forth in detail the prosecution case as it stands.
This report is by the Officer in charge of investigations giving the chronology of
events and conduct of investigations culminating to the decision to charge the
suspect and arraign him in court with specific charges. The Investigation officer in
giving the findings will cross reference with relevant witness statement and exhibit.
Reference must be made to the contents of the file e.g. F1 for quick reference.
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j) Correspondence or minute sheet:On the left hand side of the police file cover a
correspondence sub-file will be kept.The sub-file contains correspondence between
police personnel with regard to the case. Correspondence between the Investigation
officer & Officer In charge of the Station State Counsel, Attorney General’s office,
DPPs office.
This sub-file deals with requests for advice from the IO to the in charge or any other
correspondence on the matter. The sub-file also contains instructions from gazetted
officers/state counsels to IOs. Commendatory remarks and other matters on
interest arising out of the case are also recorded in the sub-file. This sub-file is
marked J (1).
SUB-FILE
‘A’
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INITIAL REPORT
- Report of the offence, subsequent reports, and amended reports.
- A (1), A (2), A (3) e.t.c.
SUB-FILE
‘B’
SCENE OF CRIME
- Photographs (Mounted on foolscap/ placed in envelopes-clearly marked).
- Sketches
- Plans
- Documentary exhibits
- B (1), B (2), B (3) e.t.c
SUB-FILE
‘C’
EXPERTS’ REPORT
Post-mortem reports
Government analyst (Chemist)
P3 forms e.t.c.
C (1), C (2), C (3) e.t.c
SUB-FILE
‘D’
Statements of prosecution witnesses
- In case of identification parades form P.156 to be included
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- D (1), D (2), D (3) e.t.c
SUB-FILE
‘E’
Charge and cautionary statements of accused persons
- Statement under inquiry
- E (1), E (2), E (3) e.t.c
SUB-FILE
‘F’
INVESTIGATIONS DIARY
- All investigating officers’ diaries
- Must set out fully and accurately, times, dates, places e.t.c.
- F (1), F (2), F (3) e.t.c
SUB-FILE
‘G’
-Copy of charge sheets and related documents
- G (1), G (2), G (3) e.t.c
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SUB-FILE
‘H’
ACCUSED PREVIOUS RECORDS
-List of exhibits
-List of witnesses
-Accused property
- Statistics forms e.t.c
- H (1), H (2), H (3) e.t.c
SUB-FILE
‘I’
COVERING REPORT
- Prepared by the investigating officer.
- Outlines the prosecution case.
- Cross-referencing to other sub files is madefor ease of reference
SUB-FILE
‘J’
CORRESPONDENCE
- Kept on the left hand side of the file.
- Requests-for advice-amongst-investigators/state counsel.
- Instructions from senior/ experienced
Investigators/ state counsel.
- Minute Sheet of events of interest to theinvestigation
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The advocate has a pivotal role in a trial. He is the central figure who communicates his client’s
story to the court. Just as the quality of a story depends on the author, the persuasiveness of a
case depends on the author. A case presented in court is as much a product of the lawyer’s
conceptual skills as it is a re- capitulation of evidence. The facts are jumbled in pieces; in
memory of witnesses, buried in documents or reflected in physical exhibits. The advocate makes
sense of these pieces, he/she:
a) Conceptualizes the theme of the case
b) Plans its presentation
c) Narrates the client’s story
d) Documents it is correct
e) The case is presented with vividness and strength
Making a compelling case requires work. The advocate will marshal evidence to prove facts that
support the ultimate findings and make it understandable and convincing to the court.
Preparation is essential to success in litigation. An advocate cannot rely on natural ability and
charm to produce a winning case nor expect fate to produce the winning point in an inspired
cross-examination. Instead, good litigators depend mostly on hard, painstaking work.
To adequately prepare for trial, an advocate must know the case itself as much as possible and
what the other parties have. To do this, one must know what court and police files have and then
build a comprehensive defence file.:-The defence trial file serves an administrative function,
keeping all documents on the evidence gathered, documents relating to the trial and the bill of
costs, The advocates file must have the following documents;
a) Instruction note: - It contains a note of the exact action required of the advocate,
advocate’s name, name and address of the person giving instructions and retainer.
b) Client attendance form: - this form indicates name of client, date of attendance, length of
time spent attending the client/representative and Purpose (s) of attendance.
c) Court attendance form:- It contains date of attendance, length of attendance, file
reference, name of client, case number and parties, name of advocate in attendance,
counterpart in attendance, name of judicial officer, purpose of the court attendance,
instructions for the said attendance, what transpired in court and further instructions as
a consequence of the court attendance.
d) Charge sheet: - after taking the plea (not guilty), the advocate will be given a copy of the
charge sheet.
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e) Bail/bond documents: - if the offence is bailable, then the advocate’s file will have the
necessary copies of documents necessary for the admittance of the client to bail. They are
copies because the originals are deposited in court.
f) Legal Opinion/Brief; It is also appropriate for the advocate to render a preliminary legal
opinion to client on the strengths and weaknesses of the case. This may be important for
out of court settlement.
g) Witness statements and documentary exhibits:- on attending court, after taking plea, the
advocate would ordinarily apply to court for copies of the statements and documentary
exhibits to be relied on during trial.
George NgotheJuma, Peter OkothAlingo, and Susan MuthoniNyoikeVs Attorney General
Misc App 345 Of 2001
h) Legal research; After, the lawyer has gathered evidence, legal research is conducted and
a list of cases to be relied on during the trial is placed in the file
i) Case concept/battle plan; the advocates file will contain notes on the fact/case analysis
of the evidence gathered and the legal principles that apply. The outcome will be the
strategy which will be the case concept/battle plan for the trial process.
j) Defence case; Copies of reports such as post mortem, ballistic report, finger print, expert
report, handwriting expert and all other expert reports should be on the defence files.
k) Defence witness statements- defence files must have defence witness statements. Lists of
defence witnesses and exhibits should also be on the file. The advocate should have a list
of authorities that he intends to rely on while submitting.
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Inside the file 1st page, the Court Clerk will indicate
The date
Names and rank of judicial officer to conduct trial
Names and rank of prosecutor.
Names of Court Clerk
When the court proceedings start, the judicial officer will record the following;
Names of counsel/advocate (s)
Names of Interpreter (if present)
Language used in the proceedings
NB: Article 50(2) (m) of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 provides mandatorily that a person
charged with a criminal offence shall be permitted to have, without payment, the assistance of an
interpreter if he/she cannot understand the language used at the trial.
The language of a subordinate court is English or Kiswahili – see s. 198(4) Criminal Procedure
Code, Cap. 75. If accused does not understand either, he/she is entitled to an interpreter at
public expense.
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NB
Section 23(1) of the Police Act, Chapter 84 provides:
‘(1) A police officer investigating an alleged offence (not being an offence against discipline) may require
any person to execute a bond in such sum and in such form as may be required, conditioned on his due
attend.
The charge sheet is read out to the suspect/accused in a language he/she understands – a
requirement under Article 50 (2) (b) of the Constitution of Kenya 2010. The suspect’s reply is
recorded as clearly and directly as possible.
Applications
The suspect/accused may have some applications or complaints to make, e.g.:
a) If he/she has been in custody, he/she may apply, through counsel or on their own, for
bail pending trial;
b) He/she may complain about torture, other ill-treatment or neglect while in police
custody;
c) Suspect’s/accused’s advocate may address the court regarding the suspect’s/accused’s
complaints;
d) After due inquiry, the court makes necessary rulings and gives appropriate orders;
e) The court orders may relate to bail/bond for the suspect/accused; may direct medical
examination and treatment of the suspect/accused; may fix mention and/or hearing
dates; etc.
The first step, the judicial officer conducts and records Plea Taking Proceedings
• The charge(s) are read from the charge-sheet to the suspect in a language he/she
understands
• The suspect(s) reply recorded as clearly and directly as possible
• The Advocates Address:the suspect (s) have an opportunity to make
applications to the court. These maybe complaints requests or inquiries. where
the suspect is represented by counsel/advocate, then the advocate will address
the court on the suspect’s instructions, with regard to bail/bond or preliminary
objections and the address will be recorded in the court file.
• The Prosecutors Address: The prosecutor will reply to the applications made by
the suspect or advocate and the same will be recorded in the court file.
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• Courts orders:The applications made by the suspect or advocate and reply by
prosecutor are recorded and the court makes and records orders on bond/bail,
mentions and hearing dates and allocation of courts for the hearing of the case.
• Any preliminary applications and proceedings made after plea taking and before
the hearing of the case will be recorded in the court file.
• On the hearing date the court will record the proceedings of all parties in the
sequence they address the court.
The following are court documents found in the in the Court file;
• Charge sheet
• Remand Warrant
• Bail/bond documents
• Particulars of surety documents
• Release order of the Suspect
• Court Exhibit list
• Court list of witnesses list
• High Court orders relating to the case
Bail consists of the temporary release of an accused person from imprisonment on finding
sureties or security to appear for trial. The accused is to make a written promise that in return for
his temporary release he will appear in court at a specified time and date. It is an agreement
between the accused and the court that the accused will pay a certain sum of money fixed by the
court if he/she fails to appear to attend trial on a certain date.
The object of bail is to ensure that the accused will attend his trial without his/her being detained
in prison or remand. The recognizance is termed a bond and the term bail bond is frequently
used. See ‘Criminal Procedure in Uganda & Kenya’ by Douglas Brown, East African Publishing
House, and Nairobi 1965 pp.27/28).
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Particulars of surety documents – a surety is a pledge by another person guaranteeing that if the
accused person does not appear before the court at the specified time and on the specified day,
he/she will pay a certain sum of money to the court.
Release order of the suspect – if the suspect’s/accused’s request for temporary release pending
hearing is granted, a release order will be made and will appear in the court file.
Court Exhibit List – it is unlikely that at the initial stage there will be any exhibits. If there are,
there will be an Exhibit List enumerating them. If they come in subsequently, similar listing will
apply.
Court List of Witnesses – the police charge sheet has a column for names of witnesses. Unless
there is good reason not to disclose them, it is expected that they will be
named and shown in the charge sheet.
High Court Orders – examples of situations where a Magistrate’s Court file may house High
Court Orders include cases where a reference has been made to the High Court for
certaindirections to the Magistrate’s Court. Where such directions or orders are given, they
would be transmitted to the Magistrates’ Court and housed in the Magistrates’ Court file.
Hearing Proceedings
Criminal proceedings commence from when a suspect is arraigned in court and takes plea. The
plea taking process is recorded. When the hearing starts the proceedings are recorded of all that
is said by each witness, cross examination thereof and comments made during the proceedings.
All pages of the proceedings are marked serially except the court rulings and judgment that are
marked separately. During trial the exhibits are marked and produced but are kept separately
from the court file, the documentary exhibits are kept in the registry, and the physical exhibits in
the exhibits’ store.
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CHAPTER SIX
COMPLAINT AND CHARGE
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In most criminal cases, proceedings commence at this stage i.e. by way of indictment or charge.
The formal document is usually referred to as charge in the subordinate courts whereas
indictment refers to the form of charge in the High court. The CPC61 refers to these as charge and
information.
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Consequently as a statutory requirement the charge sheet must contain the following:
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3. Duplicity of charges
Charging of the same offence in more than 1 count or joining 2 or more offences in the same
count except where the law expressly allows the same.
4. Descriptive provisions
The main guide to drafting charges is to read the prescribed offences and ensure each charge
contains essential ingredients and ensure that the statement of offence discloses an offence and
the penalty.
• There provisions that are descriptive of the offence but do not constitute the statement of
offence; theft is described in section 267 and 268 of the Penal Code. The general offence of
stealing is disclosed in section 275 and the penalty thereof. The charge of theft is in
section 275 and not the other descriptive provisions.
• For the offence of robbery, section295 of the Penal Code describes the offence, but the
essential ingredients are in the specific types of robbery, section 296 (1) or296 (2) of the
Penal Code
• The offence of obtaining by false pretences is described in section 312 but the essential
ingredients are in section 313 Penal Code.
• The charge of handling stolen goods c/s 322 (1) gives the essential ingredients of the
offence, yet the penalty is in section 322 (2) of the Penal Code. The charge would include
both 322 (1) and (2).
• Similarly in murder cases sections 203 and 204 of the Penal Code are combined in the
statement of the offence.
5. Alternative Charges
Usually in the course of investigations, the evidence will disclose various offences from the same
set of facts and sometimes due to the time span and other intervening circumstances it is not clear
cut what specific offence was committed. Therefore, the investigating officer will draft the main
charge and another one that may be possibly proved by the same facts incase the first charge
fails.
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offence and the provision of the attempted commission are combined.
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the charge or count charges the accused of having committed two or more separate offences68; it
is said to be duplex and barred for duplicity. Duplicity can be avoided where a statute creates
offences in the alternative, Section 86 of the Traffic Act provides for offences created in the
alternative e.g. causing death by driving a motor vehicle:
a) driving recklessly;
b) Driving at high speed.
c) Driving in a manner dangerous to the public.
d) Leaving the motor vehicle on the road in a manner dangerous to the public.
All these are stated in the alternative so that you cannot be charged of two or more but only one
of the alternative. A count charging the accused of causing death by driving the motor vehicle
recklessly and at high speed is duplex. The charges should be expressed in the alternative:
Mwamdalafu vs. R69the appellant was charged with the alternative counts of the offence of arson
and attempted murder. The particulars of the charge of arson alleged that the appellant had set
on fire two houses, one belonging to A and the other belonging to B. The houses stood more than
100 yards apart. He was charged with one count of murder and one count of arson. The
particulars stated that he attempted to cause the death of A and his wife by setting on fire 2 house
one A’s and the other B’s. Evidence showed that the appellant had attempted murder on 2
occasions. The first, he burnt A’s house and when A took refuge in B’s house, he burnt B’s house
as well. The question was whether there was duplicity.
It was found that yes there was duplicity, with respect to the arson charge as there were two
offences arising from two acts of arson. Secondly, there was also duplicity with respect to the
attempted murder hence there ought to have been two charges of attempted murder. Thirdly, the
attempted murder counts should be framed in the alternative. There ought to be four counts and
not two but the second attempted murder count should be in the alternative.
In Saina v R70, The appellant was charged on a single count with the offence of housebreaking,
theft and handling stolen property. He was convicted but on appeal the High Court found the
charge barred for duplicity. It was found that one count charged 3 separate offences i.e. shop
breaking contrary to section 306(a) of the penal code, handling stolen goods contrary to section
68ArchboldJf: Pleadings, Evidence and Practise in criminal cases, London, Sweet and Maxwell ,(5thed), 1962 at page 53
69[1966] EA 459
70[1974] EA 83
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322 of the penal code. It was forth held that each offence should be set out in a different count.
The charge of handling stolen property is in the alternative.
In Bhatt v R71, The appellant was charged with being in possession of obscene material, contrary
to section 181(a) of the penal code. It was alleged that the appellant for the purpose of or by way
of trade for the purpose of distribution or public exhibition had in his possession 37 photographs
of an obscene nature which could tend to corrupt the morals of any person etc. Section 18172 talks
of alternative purposes.
It was held that (on appeal) the particular motive why the appellant had the photos should have
been averred to the purposes. It was wrong for the charge to refer to many purposes. The
averment of several purposes made the charge barred for duplicity. Each of the several
particulars set out in the charge constituted a separate offence. Charging the accused in this
manner prejudices his defense.
In Koti v R73, the appellant was charged and convicted of wrongfully attempting to interfere with
or influence witnesses in a judicial proceeding either before or after they had given evidence
contrary to section 212 (1) of the penal code. On appeal, it was held that the charge was duplex,
i.e. it charged with two offences; interfering with the witness before and after. They should state
if it was before or after. If it was before and after there should been two counts. Duplicity is
allowed in certain circumstances. There are exceptions to the general rule that count should not
charge an accused with more than one offence.
In Pope vs. R74the accused was charged with fraudulent accounting false accounting contrary to
71(1960)
72 Criminal procedure code
73(1962) EA 439
74(1960) EA 132
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section 330(a) of the penal code. In the particulars it was alleged that he falsified or was privy to
the falsifying of a document .He was convicted. On appeal he argued that the charge was bad for
duplicity because it charged two offences in one count. The court of appeal held that the charge
was not duplex for it only charged one offence and was in the form authorized by the second
schedule to the criminal procedure code.
2. Where the separate offences are charged conjunctively using the word ‘and’ as
opposed to ‘or’ if the matter relates to one act. In Gichinga v Rthe appellant was
charged with driving a car recklessly. In the particulars, it was stated that he
drove in a reckless manner and at a speed which was dangerous to the public
having regard to all the circumstances of the case contrary to section 86 of the
Traffic Act.75 The Act employs ‘or’ rather than ‘and’. The magistrate acquitted the
accused because of duplicity as it alleges the commission of two offences. On
revision by the high court, it was held that the charge was not duplex and it had
been expressed conjunctively and it referred to one incident or act i.e. appellants
manner of driving at the relevant time. If it had been expressed using the
disjunctive OR. In a. reckless manner or at a high speed it would have been
duplex.
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test being whether the accused was able to understand the charge. Held the appellant
was convicted on a duplex charge and no one can state for sure which of the two offences
was committed.
2. The other view holds that the true test should be whether injustice or prejudice has been
occasioned on the accused by the duplicity so that where the accused suffers no
prejudice; conviction of duplicity should stand. This school relies on section 382 CPC
which provides for finding of a sentence or order issued by a court should not be
reversed or altered on appeal or revision on account of error omission or irregularity in
the charge unless the error omission or irregularity has occasioned a failure of justice.
This school of thought was followed in:
a. Kababi v R80. The appellant was charged in a single count with causing the death
of three persons by dangerous diving. He was convicted. He appealed,
challenged the decision of the court that it was based on a barred charge. It was
held that the failure to charge or to file three separate counts did not occasion
injustice though there was duplicity. The conviction was upheld.
b. Koti v R81: Appellate court found the charge was duplex but declined to interfere
because it did not occasion any injustice. It was held that the test in deciding
whether a failure of justice had occurred was whether the accused had been
prejudiced in his trial.
c. Mwandalafu v R82 : the appellate court found that the arson charge was duplex
but that it did not occasion any injustice. The court relied on section 382 of the
Tanzania Criminal Procedure Code.
d. Mwangi v R83. In this case, the appellant had been found in possession of a
firearm stolen thirteen months earlier when he was in prison. He had been
convicted on a single charge of being in possession of the revolver and the
ammunition without a firearms certificate and of receiving the revolver knowing
it to have been stolen. The appellate court found that the charge was duplex but
that it had occasioned no injustice. Bennet J opined that the firearm and the
ammunition could be charged in one count.
80(1980) KLR 95
81(1962) EA 439
82 [1966] EA 459
83 [1974] EA 83
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6.4 CAPITAL CHARGES
A capital charge is a formal written accusation of an offence drawn by a magistrate or by a police
officer and signed as required by law for the purpose of use in preliminary proceedings or in a
proper trial. It lies against all persons who actually commit, who procure or assist in the
commission of any crime or who knowingly harbor a felon.84Accordingly a capital charge refers
to a formal written accusation drawn against a person who if found guilty will be liable to face
the death sentence.
With regard to robbery with violence, the case of Wanjala & another v. R88applies. In that case
the appellants were charged with two charges of capital robbery which was a departure from the
general rule but the Court of Appeal was of the view that no prejudice could have been caused to
the appellants as the robberies formed part of the same transaction and the evidence in support
of one charge was relevant to the other.
84 Dr. P.L.O. Lumumba[2005]A Handbook on Criminal Procedure in Kenya, LawAfrica Publishing (K) Ltd,Nairobi,48
85 Mongolia v. R [1934] 1 EACA 152
86ValeziKashiza v. R [1954] 21 EACA 389
87 [1965]EA 685
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In the case of treason, whether the same rule applies is a matter of conjecture. In practice,
however, the treason charges brought in Kenya have not contravened this rule. It is noteworthy,
however, that in a treason charge, apart from alleging the particulars of the offence, the
prosecution must also state the overt acts in the information. For instance, in the case of R v.
Raila Amolo Odinga & two others89the treason charge was drafted as follows:
CHARGE SHEET
Count 1
Statement of Offence
Treason contrary to Section 40(1) (a) (iii) and (b) of the Penal Code
Particulars of Offence
1. RAILA AMOLO ODINGA AND 2. OTIENO MAK-ONYANGO.
On diverse days between THE 15TH DAY OF July 1982 and 1st day of August,1982, in
Kenya, being persons owing allegiance to the Republic of Kenya, jointly compassed,
imagined, invented, devised or intended to overthrow by unlawful means, the
government and expressed, uttered or declared such compassings, imaginations, devices
or intentions by the following overt acts or deeds:
2.RAILA AMOLO ODINGA: On or about 18th day of July, 1982 visited the house of Senior
private Hezekiah Ochuka at Umoja estate in Nairobi and discussed plans to overthrow the
government with Senior Private Hezekiah Ochuka and others
3.OTIENO MAK-ONYANGO: On or about 20th day of July, 1982 inspected the house of
Albert Vincent Otieno at Ngong Road in Nairobi with a view to obtain the use of the house as
Command Headquarters for a group planning to overthrow the government.
The requirement that overt acts be stated in the information is intended to avoid uncertainty
insuch a serious and sensitive charge so as to enable the accused to prepare his defence. Further,
89
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it has been submitted that the reason for the requirement that no other count should be joined to
a capital count is that such a charge is so serious and complicated that the defence ought not to be
embarrassed by the necessity of dealing at the same time with other matters, whether of equal or
of minor gravity.90
In cases where an offence is created by one section of the law and the punishment is provided for
in another section, it is the practice to specify in the count both the punishment and the section
creating the offence. This is the practice in murder cases. In Pitalis Oval Mambia v. R,91 the
appellant was charged with murder which was expressed in the following terms:
Statement of offence
MURDER contrary to Section 204 as read with 203 of the Penal Code
Particulars of offence
PITALIS OLAL MAMBIA: On the 19th day of June,1984 at Wang’aya sub-location, South West
Kano Location in Kisumu District of the Nyanza Province, Kenya, Murdered Morris Babu….
The rule that it is better to specify in the count the punishment section rather than the definition
section has a long history.92
90Alkaeli
v. R
91Criminal Appeal No.206 of 1987, C.A, Kisumu
92Cosma s/o Nyadago v. R [1955] 22 EACA,450 (C.A)
93Lumumba PLO, A handbook in criminal procedure in Kenya (Law Africa, Nairobi 2005) pg.62.
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In Bennault Oinamo vs. R (KLR HCK)the appellant was charged with unlawfully obtaining
credit by false pretences and on appeal it came to light that the offence with which he was
charged with could not amount to a false pretense in law but there was evidence that might have
supported obtaining credit by means of fraud other than by false pretenses.
The High court ruled that in those circumstances the prosecution should have laid two separate
charges namely; one by obtaining credit by false pretenses and two by obtaining credit by fraud
other than by false pretenses.
It is also proper to charge in one count the offence of incitement to violence with an alternative
charge of creating disturbance in a manner likely to cause a breach of peace .However the trial
court is not in law permitted to make a finding on the alternative charge when a finding has been
made in the main charge(this was held in the case of Wainaina v R94)
In Kigen Arap Chemoiwa v R95, the court determined that if the prosecution is in doubt as to
whether the accused has completed an offence, it is desirable to charge him with an attempt of
the completed offence because it is always open to the trial court to convict on an attempt upon a
charge of the completed offence.
Alternative charges may be waived if the offence preferred arose from one transaction
In R v Chow (1965) 1QB 598, an English court considered that where a statute creates two rather
than three offences that is (recklessly or dangerously driving) held that “even if there are separate
offences, it is impossible to charge them conjunctively if the matter relates to one single incident.
From the foregoing, it is clear that alternative charges are a means to the end of achieving justice,
without the mischief of duplicity.
6.6 CONSPIRACY
Definition of Conspiracy given in the case of Crofter Hand Woven Harris Tweed Co Ltd
vs.Veitch, Viscount L.C said:
“Conspiracy when regarded as a crime is an agreement of two or more persons to effect any
unlawful purpose . . . and the crime is complete if there is such agreement.”
There can also be conspiracy to do a lawful purpose by unlawful means. Conspiracy is an
inchoate offence. Inchoate meaning just begun or undeveloped. Inchoate offences permit
intervention at an earlier stage before any harm has been done but where the accused begins to
manifest his criminal intention overtly. For the Actus Reus, parties must have at least reached a
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decision to carry out the unlawful object.
However reaching an agreement /decision is essentially a mental operation, though manifested
by some acts of some kind. What has agreed to be done and not what in fact has been done.
Section 393 of the Penal Code 96 states:
“Any person who conspires with another to commit any felony or to do any act in any part of the
world which if done in Kenya would be a felony, and which is an offence under the laws in force in
the place where it is proposed to be done, is guilty of a felony and is liable if no other punishment
is provided to imprisonment for seven years, or if the greatest punishment to which a person
convicted of the felony in question is liable is less than imprisonment for seven years then to that
lesser punishment.”
Common Elements
• Agreement: There must be an agreement between two or more persons to effect the
particular prohibited purpose. The agreement could be express or implied. In the case of
R v Karia,97 it was held that the existence of an agreement may be inferred from the facts.
• The offence of conspiracy is complete as soon as the parties agree to effect the unlawful
purpose. Conspiracy will continue to subsist as long as they agree. It will only terminate
on its completion by performance or by abandonment or frustration.
One can join the existing conspiracy (i.e. become party to it and it is not necessary for all
the parties to a conspiracy to be in contact with each other. What is necessary is that all
parties to a conspiracy have a common purpose communicated to at least one other party
to the conspiracy.
• There must be at least two parties to the agreement but the other need not be identified.
If all the other conspirators are acquitted, the one remaining conspirator must also be
acquitted.
In the case of Mawji v R,98 the Privy Council held that the English rule that a husband and a
wife could not commit conspiracy applied to all valid marriages, including polygamous
marriages. In conspiracy both husband and wife are regarded as one person.
Under Section 394 of the Penal Code,
“Any person who conspires with another to commit a misdemeanor, or to do any act in any part of the
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world which if done in Kenya would be a misdemeanor and which is an offence under the laws in force
in the place where it is proposed to be done, is guilty of a misdemeanor.
An example of a criminal conspiracy to make lawful protests by unlawful means was seen in the
case of R v Zulu99. In this case the accused was charged with conspiring to injure the Ndola
Municipal Council in its trade contrary to the Zambian Penal Code, by urging people to boycott
its beer. The court held that it did not matter that the ultimate object of the accused was to make a
lawful protest, if they did this by employing unlawful means, i.e. boycotting to cause financial
injury to the Council.
Under Section 317 of the Penal Code, Any person who conspires with another by deceit or any
fraudulent means to affect the market price of anything publicly sold or to defraud the public or
any other person whether a particular person or not, or to extort any property from any person is
guilty of a misdemeanor and is liable for imprisonment for three years.
In the case of Scott vs. Metropolitan Police Commissioner,100 D agreed with the employees of
cinema owners that in return for payment, they would abstract films without the consent of the
employers or owners of the copyright, so that D could make copies and distribute them for profit.
99 R v Zulu [1961]R.&N.645(N.R)
100 [1975] AC 819[1974]3 All ER 1032
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The Court held that D was guilty of conspiracy to defraud. The House of Lords said:
“ an agreement by two or more by dishonesty to deprive a person of something which is his or to
which he is or would be or might be entitled and an agreement by two or more by dishonesty to
injure some proprietary right of his suffices to constitute the offence of conspiracy to defraud”
The general rule of practice is that it undesirable to charges offences of conspiracy where specific
offences are available. This position is mainly for two reasons; first is because conspiracy has
matured into a known specific offence hence preferable to charge the offence disclosed by the
evidence101.; secondly, in a charge of conspiracy, there has to be at least two accused persons. It
has held to be improper to join other offences to a charge of conspiracy especially where the
conspiracy charge covers the substantive offences.102
In Kamwana s/o Mutia vs. R104, the question which arose was whether the trial would be a
nullity where there was a joinder of counts for dissimilar offences in one charge sheet. The
appellant appealed against conviction and sentence on three counts involving “theft”, “breaking
and entering premises”, and “possession of bhang.” The fourth charge was not treated as an issue
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at the trial but when the appellant had been convicted on the other three counts, he asked that
this offence be taken into consideration whereupon the magistrate purported to convict him of
this offence and composed for it a separate sentence.
On appeal, the supreme court of Kenya held that the count charging the appellant with
possession of bhang shouldn’t have been included in the same charge sheet with the other three
dissimilar counts .but since no injustice resulted from the improper joinder, the trial of the other
three should not be treated as a nullity
So long as the anomaly of misjoinder does not occasion an injustice courts are ready to disregard
the impropriety of technicalities and deal with substantial justice. This position prevails even in
English courts .In R v. M (1938)105the appellant was convicted upon an indictment which charged
four offences, 2 of rape of a young girl on 2 occasions, a third of stealing from the girl’s father and
a fourth of indecent assault on a married woman. He appealed on the ground that the two
charges of rape and indecent assault should not have been tried together.However, the court only
ruled as to the desirability of the two dissimilar offences being tried and charged separately and
upheld the conviction noting that the impropriety did not occasion a miscarriage of justice to the
accused.
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first appellant occurred on a different date and place and with a different weapon from the one
said to involve the second appellant. The complainant was however the same in each count.. On
appeal, Sir UdoUdoma CJ ruled that the charge as laid down was bad in law for misjoinder.
Where such an amendment is made, the accused shall be required to plead afresh to the charges.
The court is thus required to inform the accused of his right to plead to the new charges and also
to recall any of the witnesses who have already given evidence for the prosecution for purposes
of cross examination in light of the amended charges.
The purpose of this is to give the accused an opportunity to prepare his defense in the light of the
amended charge. The position at Kenyan law is that the courts can amend the charge in the
course of a trial but this should be done at the earliest opportunity before the close of the
prosecution case.111
However some East African cases suggest that an amendment can be done even after the close of
the prosecution case. In MaulidiAbdalla Change vs. R112a charge was amended at the close of the
defence case with the result that a new charge with a heavier penalty was introduced. Sir Ralph
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Windham stated interalia that a charge can be substituted even after the close of the defence case,
but the substituted charge can only be allowed if it will not occasion injustice to the accused
person.
In Benjamin Sauzier vs. R113, the appellant appealed against his conviction of attempted arson.
The appeal was dismissed but the appellate court commented on the aspect of amending the
charge even after the prosecution case .In this case, at the end of the prosecution, the evidence
had disclosed attempted arson only. The trial judge then upheld a submission of no case to
answer, but having regard to the provisions of the C.P.C ordered that the charge be amended to
attempted arson and took the appellants plea on the amended charge.
The court held interalia that it is not necessary to amend a charge of committing a full offence in
order to convict an accused person of an attempt. However, in amending a charge, the court is
not entitled to make a new case other than the one put forward by the prosecution.
113 (1962) EA 50
114 See Arch bold Jf: evidence, pleadings and criminal practice, London, sweet and Maxwell, (5th edition) 1962 at 88.
115 4 Burr 2046
116 2 str 921
117 1954 1 QB 1
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delivered to the registrar or other officer of the court by or on behalf of the accused and shall be
entered upon the record.
If an information does not state and cannot even after amendment be made to state an offence for
which the accused has had notice, it shall be quashed either on a motion, made before the
accused, pleads or on a motion in arrest of judgment (276(1)) CPC. The motion shall be written
and delivered to the registrar or other officer of the court (section 276(2) CPC.
CHAPTER SEVEN
PLEAS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A plea is a formal statement made by or on behalf of a person charged with an offence in a law
court. The basis of plea taking in Kenya is Article 50 (2) (a)of the Constitution of Kenya 2010.
According to Article 50 (2) (a)(2) Every accused person has the right to a fair trial, which includes the
right— to be presumed innocent until the contrary is proved;
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Arraignment of an accused person consists of three parts. First being called to bar by name,
secondly having the indictment or charge read to him and thirdly being asked whether he is
guilty or not.
According to Article 50 (2) (b) of the Constitutionof Kenya2010,to be informed of the charge,
with sufficient detail to answer it;”Article 50(2) (g) “to choose, and be represented by, an advocate, and
to be informed of this right promptly;
According to sub-section (3) of section 207, if the accused person does not admit the truth of the
charge, the court shall proceed to hear the case. If the accused person refuses to plead, the court
shall order a plea of “not guilty” to be entered for him.
If the accused person pleads under sub-section (5), that he has been previously convicted or
acquitted on the same facts of the same offence; or that he has obtained the President’s pardon for
his offence, the court shall first try whether the plea is true or not, and if the court holds that the
evidence adduced in support of the plea does not sustain it, or if it finds that the plea is false, the
accused shall be required to plead to the charge.
In Koech vs. R118, the appellant was charged with having in his possession 13 gramophone
records which the police alleged had been stolen. The appellant about these facts had said, “It is
true, I admit the charge as read out to me”. He was thereupon convicted and sentenced. He appealed
against the conviction and the appeal was upheld on grounds that, first, the admission of all facts
in the charge is not necessarily a plea of guilty and, secondly, if an accused admits the assertions
of fact but proffers an explanation, the accused’s statement should be treated as a plea of “Not
guilty” and then the prosecution will be required to lead all their evidence.
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7.3 TYPES OF PLEAS
There are number of ways in which an accused can plead to the charge of a criminal offence.
These include;
1. Plea of Guilty
2. Plea of not guilty
3. A plea to the jurisdiction of the court
4. A plea in abatement of an indictment
5. A plea in bar of an indictment or charge
According to section 281 of the Criminal Procedure Code, if an accused person pleads guilty, the
plea shall be recorded and he may be convicted thereon.
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In a Tanganyika case of R vs. Bubu (dumb man) 1959the high court held that where an accused is
deaf or mute should first of all the court should find whether the accused can be made to
understand substantiality the whole of proceedings before proceeding with the case. The judge
stated that; in the first place, as soon as a magistrate becomes aware that the accused is deaf, he should
apply his mind to the question of whether the accused can be made to understand the proceedings, which in
my opinion, is understanding substantially the whole of the proceedings. I say this because obviously few
accused persons will understand technical evidence but they can be made to understand its effect. A
deaf/mute can be made to understand the proceedings if he can read and write or communicate by sign
language and for the latter purpose, arelative/friend duly sworn may be employed to interpret if the
magistrate finds that the accused can be made to understand the proceedings
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Magistrate as having pleaded guilty convicted and sentenced on 2nd appeal on ground that the
plea wasn’t unequivocal the East Africa Court of Appeal held inter-alia that the charge and all the
essential ingredients of the offence should be explained to the accused in a language he
understands.
Spry V.C stated, “When a person is charged, the charge and the particulars should be read out to him. The
magistrate then explains to him all essential ingredients of the offence charged. The reason for this
requirement is that often people misunderstand the proceedings and end up pleading to things they don’t
understand.”
A defect in a charge may arise from the fact that a charge has charged more than one offence in
one count for example in Renyai Ole Mesami v. R. [1985] the High Court held that the conviction
of the applicant was wholly erroneous and not supportable. The applicant had been convicted on
his own purported plea of guilty on a charge whose particulars stated that on 4th march 1985 at
about 7.00pm the applicant knowing that Awori Pius a girl aged 15 years was an idiot or imbecile
had attempted to have unlawful carnal knowledge with her. On appeal Omollo J in his holding
observed that the charge was defective because it charged the applicant with two offences in one
count the offence of defiling an idiot or imbecile and on the other offence of attempting to defile.
The judge said at the end of his judgment “the magistrate wisely said that he found the accused guilty
as charged and convicted him. It is not stated which of the two offences charged the Magistrate convicted
him of”
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the girl was an imbecile. The High Court stated “Indeed it would appear that the applicant and
Lokoline were strangers to each other and from the fact stated by the prosecutor there was nothing which
would lead anyone to the conclusion that seen through the applicant didn’t know Lokolino, the applicant
must have known that she was an imbecile If the applicant e.g. had met her walking about naked that may
well be a fact which would have indicated to him that she was an imbecile But there was no such allegation
and indeed despite her alleged imbecility she still resisted the applicant shouting for help and there was
really nothing to make the applicant know she was an imbecile’’.
6) The accused must admit to both the charge and the facts read to him before he can be said to
have pleaded guilty. Such admitted facts must disclose and or reveal the offence charged. He
must admit all ingredients of the offence charged both the actusreus and the mensrea.
According to section 208 of the Criminal Procedure Code, if the accused person pleads not guilty,
the court shall proceed to hear the complainant, witnesses and other evidence if any.The accused
person or his advocate may cross examine each witness of the prosecution. If the accused is not
represented, at the end of each prosecution witness’s evidence; the magistrate asks the accused if
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he has nay questions for the witness. If the accused asks questions, the answers are recorded and
if he says that he has none the same shall be recorded too.
A court that has no jurisdiction to try the case cannot take the plea of an accused and cannot
therefore be arraigned by such a court. In the trial case of R v. AmbariJuma (1959) the court held
that in views of the provisions of section 203 of the Tanzania Criminal Procedure Code the plea of
an accused person couldn’t lawfully be taken by a court, which has no jurisdiction to try the
offence. In this case the accused was charged with defilement of a girl under 12 years contrary to
section 136 of Penal Code he was taken before a 3rd Class Magistrate who convicted him of
indecent assault contrary to section 135(d) of Penal Code.
There was no record on evidence that the accused was asked to plead to the charge at the trial,
nor was there any record that he was reminded of his earlier plea. In the exercise of its
jurisdiction of revision the High Court considered the validity of the proceedings and held that
the 3rd Class Magistrate court had no jurisdiction to take the plea of the accused since it had no
jurisdiction to try the case. Mohan Achieng C.J said “But with respect I don’t think that it was even
intended to suggest that a plea should be taken by a magistrate with no jurisdiction to try the offence
charged. To conclude the opinion after considering section.4, section 203 and the first schedule of the CPC
that an accused can’t be lawfully arraigned in this territory before a court which has no jurisdiction to try
him although such a court would remand him or admit him to bail”. An accused can therefore plead
that the court has no jurisdiction to try him.
Mayende Page 96
7.3.6 A PLEA IN BAR OF AN INDICTMENT OR CHARGE
This is a plea which goes to bar the other party’s action and thus defeating it absolutely and
entirely. A plea in bar sets forth matters which per se destroy the right of action and bars its
prosecution absolutely e.g. a bar by the statute of limitations. A plea in bar of an indictment or
charge denies the other party the right to maintain an action and if established destroys the
action. In English Common Law there are four special pleas in bar of an indictment. These are;
2. If either of those pleas are pleaded and denied to be true, the court shall try whether the
plea is true or not.
3. If the court holds that the facts alleged by the accused do not prove the plea, or if it finds
that it is false, the accused shall be required to plead to the information.
These two pleas are premised upon the common legal maxim (res judicata)which states no man
shall be tried for one and the same offence more than once. These pleas have been on several
times referred to as plea of prior jeopardy.
The essence of this plea is that where a criminal charge has been adjudicated upon by a court
having jurisdiction to hear and determine it, that adjudication, whether it takes the form of an
acquittal or conviction is final to the letter and may be pleaded in bar to any subsequent
prosecutions for the same offence.
In order to ascertain whether the offence is the same as that of which the accused has previously
been found guilty the court will pay attention to the essence of the offence and not to
technicalities. It’s the ratio decidendi of the previous judgment, which is binding. It will be
sufficient if the offence is substantially the same. The test is not a formal one. This was held in R
v Duadji (1948) 15EACA 89
Mayende Page 97
7.3.6.2 PLEA OF PARDON
A plea of pardon may also be specially pleaded to bar the proceedings against the accused
person. This plea may be raised in bar of an indictment or after judgment, in bar of execution.
There may be pardon by statute or what has been called a loyal pardon. In Kenya the Constitution
stipulates that a person shall not be tried for a criminal offence if he can prove that he has been
pardoned for that offence. Under Article 133 of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 situations are
listed under which pardon maybe claimed. This section incorporates what is commonly referred
to as prerogative of mercy.
In Kamundi v. R (1973) EA 540, the court held that, there are no provisions regarding change of
plea, there are equally no provisions to prevent a change of plea before the court becomes
“functus officio”. The same was held in Maumba v. R (1966) EA 167, It was stated that a
magistrate powers to allow amendment including plea exists only during trial before conviction
and before court becomes “functus officio”.Therefore, when a court has determined a case by
passing a sentence it is functus officio and has no power to re-open the case either of its own
Mayende Page 98
motion or on an application of the prosecution or defence.
CHAPTER EIGHT
BAIL AND BOND
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The law guards against interference with the liberty of an individual. Bail protects a person’s
liberty during the pre-trial and trial stages. The law on bail is based on the Constitution,
Criminal Procedure Code and rules derived from Court Practice.
Section 29 of the CPC allows a police officer to arrest without a warrant a person whom he has
reasonable suspicion is about to commit a felony or has committed it. The interpretation of
Mayende Page 99
reasonable suspicion is very wide as illustrated by M’Mbui vs. Dyer 1967 E.A. 315 the case
suggests that even where the suspicion is incorrect it does not matter except that the
circumstances were reasonable.
Bail means an agreement between the accused person and the court that he /she will deposit a
certain amount of money fixed by the court (Cash Bail) to guarantee his attendance until the
determination of the matter.
Bond means an official document/agreement between a 3rd party (surety) on behalf of the
accused person; and the court that he/she will pay/ forfeit the agreed sum in the bond to the
court or surrender the security if the accused persons absconds and does not stand trial. The
surety will deposit sufficient security (Bond) as determined by the court and if the accused
person absconds, the same shall be surrendered to court.
Surety is the person who takes responsibility for the attendance of the accused person until the
determination of the trial.
Objects of Bail
• To shield the individual from pre-trial incarceration.
• To minimize the interference with an accused person’s freedom.
• To avoid anticipatory punishment before conviction and sentence.
• To give force to the presumption of innocence i.e. an accused person should not be
punished for an offence for which he has not yet been convicted.
Proceedings
At the close of the plea-taking proceedings, where the accused person pleads not guilty to the
charges, the court will impose an amount of money to be paid to directly in court (cashier’s
office) to secure the release of the accused person(s) awaiting trial. The amount is called Cash
bail.
Art. 49 prescribes
• Mode of arrest
• Timeframe
• Arraignment process
Article 49 (g)
• At the first court appearance, to be charged or informed of the reason for the detention
continuing, or to be released; and
Article 49 (h)
• To be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial,
unless there are compelling reasons not to be released.
Article 2 (5)
• The General rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya
Article 2 (6)
• Any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under
this Constitution.
SUBSIDIARY LEGISLATION
• Judicature Act- sources of law
• Police Act- pre-trial processes
• Criminal Procedure Code- mode of arrest, drawing charges, bail and bond, plea-taking
and trial process
• Evidence Act- types of evidence, collection & presentation of evidence
• Penal Code- describes offences under the criminal justice system
CONSTITUTION
• The subsidiary legislation shall be read, interpreted and applied in line with the
Constitution.
• Sixth Schedule Part 2 Art 7
• “All laws in force immediately before the effective date continues in force and shall be
construed with the alterations, adaptations, qualifications and exceptions necessary to
bring it to conformity with the Constitution.”
• The constitution implementation process includes harmonization of laws to align the
law with the provisions of the Constitution
Under the Constitution of Kenya 2010 the legal position of on bail has reverted. Article 49(1) (h)
of the Constitution sates that a person who has been arrested has the right to be released on
bond or bail pending charge or trial.120 The terms of bond or bail are to be reasonable without
Section 123 provides that a person other than a person charged with robbery with violence,
attempted robbery with violence murder, treason and drug related offences are arrested or
brought before court after being charged may apply for bail. Consequently this provision does
refer or apply to applications for bail pending arrest. Further section 355 and 356 of the Criminal
Procedure Code relate only to applications for bail pending appeal. Section 22 of the Police act
provides allows police officers investigating an alleged criminal offence to require the bond be
deposited so as to ensure court attendance.
Some of the things taken into account before granting or refusing to grant bail include:-
1. Fear of absconding
The requirements as to bail, are to secure the attendance of the prisoner at the trial whenever he
is required to do so. Where the court can call for adequate and sufficient sureties and impose
suitable requirements to ensure the attendance of the accused, bail should be granted. The risk
that the accused might take flight should be weighed in light of factors such as mobility of an
accused and his access to overseas travel.
6. Illness
In Charles Ogutu V. R, it was held that an accused person who fails to attend his trial because he is
undergoing medical treatment and sends a person to inform the court about it cannot have his
bail cancelled.
7. Delays
It can be by the prosecution or the accused. The prosecution can cause delays by failing to indict
or try the accused. This can lead to an accused being released on bail. The accused can also cause
delays by postponing the date for the trial if he is already out on bail. The court can in this case
withdraw bail where it had been granted.
The court in R vs. Muturi Kigano held that if the court for any reason believes that the
adjournments sought by the defence are not genuine, they can cancel bail and have the case
proceed with expediency.
In Shah V. R [1976] CA (UR) it was held that rather than grant bail, steps should be taken to see
that the hearing of the appeal is expedient and that bail should be granted only in exceptional
R vs. Heifer [1951] 1 KB, 29 – It was held that the bar by section 348 CPC is only to the extent that
the plea is not bereft of legality i.e. it must be unequivocal and be freely given by the accused. The
accused himself must in fact plead and it is not enough that counsel pleads on his behalf by
indication or otherwise. Harris J gave four conditions to be considered:-
The character of the Applicant.
The possibility of substantial delay in the hearing of the appeal.
Whether the offence with which the applicant was charged involved personal
violence.
That the appeal is not frivolous or vexatious and has a reasonable possibility of
success.
In Raghbin Singh Lamba vs. R [1958] EA, 337, Spry J held that the principle to be applied is that
bail should only be granted for exceptional and unusual reasons. Neither the complexity of the
case nor the good character of the Applicant or the alleged hardship to his dependants could
justify the grant of bail. When a person has been convicted, the onus is on him to show cause why
the conviction should be quashed and it is upon him to show cause why he should be released on
bail. This decision was later denied force by Muli J in Motichand V R [1972] EA, 399.
In Hasham vs. R it was held that a short custodial period is not in itself a special ground for
The question whether the Court of Appeal can grant bail pending appeal in the High Court was
discussed in the case of Michael Otieno Adembe V. R [1983] 1 CAR, 187. The Appellant pleaded
guilty to a charge of personating a civil servant and was sentenced to 12 months’ imprisonment.
He appealed against the sentence in the High Court which declined to grant bail pending appeal.
He appealed to the Court of Appeal against the judge’s refusal to grant bail. The Court of Appeal
held that it had no jurisdiction under the CPC or the rules of the Court of Appeal to entertain an
appeal from a refusal of the High Court to grant bail pending an appeal to that court.
In Islam Ali Abdulla vs. R it was held that an appellate court can only grant bail pending appeal
where it is satisfied that there is a substantial point of law to be argued which could, result in the
conviction being quashed.
R vs. Nottingham Justices ex parte Davies [1980] All ER, 775.The Applicant, who had been
remanded in custody pending trial on a charge of rape made two successive applications for
remand on bail. Each was refused on the grounds that his case came within the exceptions to the
right to bail in the Bail Act of Britain. When he subsequently applied to a differently constituted
bench for remand on bail, he was asked whether there had been any change(s) in the
circumstances since the previous application. He informed them that there was none but asked
for a full hearing of the case on its merits. It was held that since there had been no change in the
circumstances, there were no grounds on which to re-consider the application. Leave to appeal to
the House of Lords was refused on the grounds that although an accused has a prima facie right
to bail and although the matter must be considered on every application, the earlier or previous
finding refusing bail was a finding to be treated as res judicata or analogous thereto. The court
should therefore start at the point when the matter was last considered and need only investigate
The effect of the Nottingham principle means that a refusal of bail is indefinite unless something
new turns up. This is bad law because as the passage of time is not in itself a change of
circumstances, it may lead to a change of circumstances e.g. the risk of interfering with witnesses
may diminish as the police complete inquiries and the taking of statements.
In some cases, the renewed or successive application for bail may be hopeless as the reason(s) for
refusing bail in the last application may have been overwhelming. However, the accused whose
liberty is at stake should be entitled to a full and proper hearing as the earlier decision could have
been bad e.g. if the evidence was misunderstood or the reasons for refusing bail were not justified
by evidence or were spurious. Therefore, a lawful bail application should always be treated on its
merits.
8.5 SURETIES
8.5.1 DEFINITION
A pledge by some other person guaranteeing that the accused person shall appear for his trial
and if he does not, then the surety will pay to the court a certain sum which has been fixed by the
court.
In Kenya, the law as to sureties is laid down in Section 123 CPC. In considering the suitability of
sureties, regard may be had to:-
o His financial resources
o His character and previous convictions
o His proximity to the bailed person
o The person giving bail should be interested in looking after and if necessary using
powers he has to prevent the accused from escaping i.e. proximity or relationship with
the accused.
It is the responsibility of the accused and his next of kin to find suitable sureties. They are
examined by the court to assess their suitability. The prosecution is allowed to cross-examine and
cross check any details that the surety supplies to the court such as place of residence,
employment, authenticity of any documents produced e.t.c. The examination of sureties include
whether they have authority to require the accused to attend court and if they understand their
obligation to court.
The qualifications that need to be met by one in order to stand as surety were discussed in the
case of R vs. Gabhai Jessa. It was held that a person standing as surety must be a person of social
standing in the community. He must be aged 21 years or above and must be capable of meeting
his financial obligations as a surety.
NB. The age of majority is now 18 years as per the Age of Majority Act, Cap 33.
Section 128 CPC, a surety may, before the end of the case apply to be discharged wholly or in
part from the terms of the bond. A warrant of arrest for the accused may issue and he may be put
on remand until he secures an alternative surety.
Section 129 CPC, where a surety dies before the bond is forfeited, his estate shall be discharged
from liability and the accused may be required to provide an alternative surety.
Section 131 CPC, if the accused fails to honour the terms of his bond, the surety may be called
upon to show cause why he should not pay the penalty under the terms of the bond.
One must have a Kenyan surety so that the likelihood of absconding is minimized.
Section 124 CPC provides for bail bond. This is where instead of a party paying a cash amount;
he signs a bond undertaking to pay an amount if he fails to turn up in court.
5. The court gives bail as a matter of course as it is a constitutional right unless any objections
are raised. When the prosecution opposes bond/bail there must be cogent reasons and facts
7. Section 123 (3) gives the High Court power to grant, vary or reduce bail imposed by courts.
8. Where the court considers denial of bail/bond, it will look into the following issues;
Where bail/bond is denied, earliest hearing dates are given and the hearing expedited.
9. However, in court proceedings, there are different types of bail and they are granted in
different courts at different stages; namely;
• Plea taking process/ pretrial bail
• Bail pending appeal on plea of guilty
• Renewed bail application
• Bail/bond pending appeal
• Bail /bond to keep the peace
• Anticipatory bail/ bail pending arrest
Court order:
• Cash bail is Kshs. 10,000/= each of the accused persons OR
• Bond is Kshs. 400,000/= with one surety OR
• Kshs, 600,000/= with two Kenyan sureties of 300,000/= each
• Logbook of a car; with the Kenya Revenue Authority (KRA) copy of records document
to establish ownership and a current receipt. The vehicle must be physically seen by the
court;
• (Magistrate and/or prosecutor), parked within the court precincts. The details of the car
should correspond to those in the logbook and are recorded in the court file. (details
include; color, make, engine type, chassis number, valid insurance and road
license).There must be an assessment or valuation report from reputable assessors e.g.
“A.A” to show the vehicle is valued at the surety sum or above.
• Share Certificate (CDSC certificates) of shares owned and held by surety and
document from the public company confirming the number of shares, value of shares,
and undertaking not release/sell the shares if accepted by the court as security until
determination of the case. The value must be of the surety sum or more.
• Fixed Deposits of the amount imposed by court or more. The proposed surety will
present an official letter from a bank confirming the amount of deposit, date of
depositing the money and the owner of the account. The bank will undertake in writing
to hold the amount in a fixed deposit until the court issues an order of release of the
money. The amount of money is the sum of money the court gave or more but not less.
• Pay slips of the proposed surety indicating the gross/net amount which must be the
amount imposed by court.
• Co-operative (Sacco) deposits/ shares of the amount the court imposed as bond.
Then he/she attaches the security documents and places them in the court file. The details of
the proposed surety and the security are recorded in the prescribed forms. The file is taken to
plea-taking court, trial court or duty court for examination of surety.
Examination of surety
The court will examine the surety on oath to ensure a proper surety. The surety will present
valid Identity card, Passport or driving license. This is a judicial function and examination
proceedings will be recorded, in the court file.
The Court will examine the surety on oath; inform him/her of his obligation as surety and
consequences of not ensuring the accused person attends court. The examination will determine
the following; If the proposed surety is a:
• Person of good character
• Age of majority
• Permanent address/residence
• Fixed abode or
• Meaningfully employed
• Easy and efficient method of contacting and tracing the accused person
• Proposed surety well known to the accused person
• Proposed surety able to meet the financial obligation
During examination, the surety is informed of the consequences of default; the surety stands to
suffer grave consequences if the accused person disappears or absconds before determination of
the trial, the surety will pay the amount or forfeit the security pledged.The surety is obligated to
ensure that the accused person will attend court until the end of the matter. If for any reason, the
accused person cannot appear in court, the surety should alert the court on the whereabouts or
condition of the accused person.
If on bond, the accused person and/or surety will be arrested and summoned to court to show
cause why the security shouldnot be forfeited.In Mulwa vs. Republic, 1985 KLR329 the High
Court held that the undertaking by a surety to secure the presence of the accused person in court
is absolute and the liability to forfeiture or default is unqualified.
Section 131(1) of Criminal Procedure Code in line with Nsubuga v Uganda,1968 EA 10,held that
before forfeiture is effected, evidence on oath ought to be taken and not the mere statement by
the prosecutor. The court will also consider what the accused person and surety have to say and
then make an informed ruling.Where cause is not shown or payment made, the court may issue
warrant of attachment and sale of land of the surety under section 131(2) CPC.If the penalty is
unpaid and cannot be recovered by attachment, the court may order the surety to serve 6
months imprisonment as provided by section 131(4) CPC. The orders of the court under this
section are subject to appeal to the High Court as prescribed in section132 CPC.
Grounds:
• Presumed innocent till proved guilty
• Statement of offence & Particulars of offence are subject to proof during trial
• BAIL bond available even in capital offences
• The Replying affidavit by officer from Anti—Terrorism Police Unit ( ATPU) did not
disclose compelling reasons to deny bail.
• The allegation is that there was a suicide bomber, a notebook was recovered that had the
1st applicant’s phone number.
• The other allegation was that the accused persons were members of Al-Shabab,
encouraging youth to train as jihadists in Somalia.
• They travelled to and from Somalia November 2009 – May 2010
• The accused persons would abscond , interfere with witnesses and security of the state
at risk
Cr Case 26 of 2008
Republic vs. Danson Mgunya & Kassim Sheebwana Mohammed
Offence: murder c/s 203 & 204 of the Penal Code
• The accused persons were not eligible for bail , new Constitution came in all offences
bailable ,except for compelling reasons
Issue: Bail or bond
• Accused persons, Administration police officer and Chief respectively
• The accused persons contacts established
• The accused persons senior citizens
• Unless there are statements to show the accused was caught red-handed or there is a
lawfully admitted confession; the accused person is presumed innocent until proved
guilty.
Court held: Bond granted Ksh. 3,000,000/=
CONCLUSION
1. Each case bail /bond is decided based on;
• Facts
• Circumstances of the case
• Law
• Public policy
2. Await emerging jurisprudence from Supreme Court
3. Propose bill on bail and bond and include
• Guidelines and/or objective criteria to determine bond and bail applications in
implementing the constitution.
1. Preliminary objection.
A preliminary objection is an issue of law that affects the whole hearing of the case. It is an issue
Under Article 50 of the Constitution of Kenya 2010, the accused person is entitled to (see Patrick
Kiage’s Essential of Criminal procedure in Kenya)
• Fair trial within reasonable time by
• An independent and impartial court
• The person is presumed innocent till proved guilty
• The person to be informed of the charge(s) in language he understands
• The person is given adequate time, facilities to prepare for defense
George Ngodhe Juma & 2 Others versus Attorney General Misc Application 345/01
It was a constitutional reference to the High Court questioning the right to access to information
where a person facing criminal charges before the trial requests for pre-trial disclosure of
prosecution witness statements. Court held that S 77 of the Constitution dictates one being given
adequate time and facilities for preparation of defense.
9.5.3 AFFIRMATIONS
• Witness may decline to be sworn for lack of religious belief/taking oath is contrary to his
religious belief
• Witness to be allowed to make a solemn affirmation instead of taking an oath
• The legal effect of the affirmation is the same as an oath pursuant to section 15 of the
Oaths and Statutory Declarations Act125
• Words of imprecation or calling to witness are avoided
• An affirmation takes the following format
“I…………….…do solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm that the evidence I shall give in
this court, touching the matters in question, shall be the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the
truth.”
9.5.8 RE-EXAMINATION
The court prosecutor may ask the witness questions after cross-examination. This is in re-
examination; the questions are confined only to matters that arose in cross-examination. New
matters can only be introduced with leave of the court.
9.7 RULING
The court will consider the arguments and submissions and find out if the prosecution has made
out a prima facie case against the accused to require that the accused be put on his defense. If
such a case is made out, the court will deliver a ruling that the matter will proceed to defense
hearing. If the prima facie case is not made out, the court will in its ruling, dismiss the case and
discharge the accused person under section 210 of the Criminal Procedure Code (CPC). The
determination will be in writing and reasons will be given for the dismissal and discharge.
9.9.4 SENTENCE
The court will consider the facts from the pre-sentence proceedings vis-à-vis the types of
punishment in section 24 of the Penal Code and the principles of sentencing; then write and read
the sentence meted out to the accused person. The sentence is to be served either concurrently or
consecutively.
The duty on the court is to determine whether there is a reasonable apprehension which is
founded on reasonable circumstances/ incidents which warrant such a transfer or just mere
unfounded allegations. The court is duty bound to weigh such application and grant orders for
transfer of such a case if it is on the opinion that certain circumstances exist which create a
“reasonable apprehension in the applicant’s or any right thinking person’s mind that a fair and impartial
trial might not be had before the magistrate”128.
The High Court is empowered to order for a transfer of a case from one court to another; or from
one magistrate to another; or from courts subordinate to it to itself if it deems that circumstances
Some considerations to be made when transferring a case where the offence is committed
outside jurisdiction
Before the trial court makes orders for the transfer of a case on jurisdictional grounds, it is
pertinent and incumbent upon it to examine whether the accused/ applicant is already in
custody or not and whether any evidence has been brought before such court and how to deal
with it. In this regard, the court may, if it thinks fit, direct that:
(1) if the accused person is already in custody to continue with the custody. This will
only occur if the court directing the transfer is of the view that the custody be continued;
or
(2) If the accused person is not in custody, be paced in custody132.
The court is required to direct that the accused person be taken by a police officer before the court
having jurisdiction where the cause of action arose. In so doing, the court shall give a warrant to a
police officer together with the complaint and recognizances (if any) to be taken to that other
court where the accused person is to be taken. Such complaint or recognizances (if any) shall be
129 Grounds that give rise to such transfer include: where the trial court has no jurisdiction; where it appears that an impartial and fair trail
cannot be had in that court; where some questions of law of unusual difficulty is likely to arise; for convenience of the parties; and for
expedience of justice. This grounds are provided for in section 81 of the CPC and are discussed in detail later in this paper
130 see section 78 (1) of the CPC
131 Ibid
132 see section 78 (2) of the CPC
133 Ibid
134 see section 78 (3) of the CPC
135 In Chagan Raja v. Gordon Gopal (1936) Vol. VII, part 1, 69, the court discharged the accused person on the premise that the court did not
In Kenya’s case the High Court is established/constituted by the Constitution [Art. 165(1)] and
vested with unlimited jurisdiction as aforesaid.
NB: The provision of Article 165(3)(a) is, however, subject to sub-Article (5) of the same Article
which ousts the jurisdiction of the High Court in respect of matters -
• reserved for the exclusive jurisdiction of the Supreme Court under the Constitution; or
• falling within the jurisdiction of courts contemplated in Article 162(2), i.e. relating to
employment and labour relations; and the environment and the use and occupation of,
and title to, land.
iii. Power of the High Court to decide venue of trial in cases of doubt
Ordinarily every criminal offence must be tried by a court within the local limits of whose
jurisdiction it was committed, or within the local limits of whose jurisdiction the accused was
apprehended, or is in custody on a charge for the offence, or has appeared in answer to summons
lawfully issued charging the offence [S. 71 CPC].
But it happens at times that by a combination of certain factors, difficulties arise in determining
where an offence should be tried. For instance, when-
• it is uncertain in which of several local areas an offence was committed; or
• an offence is committed partly in one local area and partly in another; or
• an offence is a continuing one, and continues to be committed in more than
one local areas; or
• an offence consists of several acts done in different local areas, it may be tried
by a court having jurisdiction over any of those local areas [S. 74 CPC].
Whenever a doubt arises as to the court by which an offence should be tried, the court
entertaining the doubt may report the circumstances to the High Court for the High Court to
decide by which court the offence shall be inquired into or tried; and the decision of the High
Court shall be final and conclusive, except that it shall be open to an accused to show that no
court in Kenya has jurisdiction in the case [S. 76 CPC].
v. Transfer by the High Court of case from one magistrate to another upon request by an
interested party
There are times when a party interested in criminal proceedings may have cause to want such
proceedings transferred from a particular magistrate to another. This is permissible for good
cause [S.81(l)CPC]. In such case, the interested party may apply by motion for the desired
transfer [S.81(3)CPC]. Section 81(3) CPC mandatorily requires the application for transfer to be
supported by affidavit, ‘except when the applicant is the Attorney-General’*.
NB:* The reference to the A-G was based on the old Constitution. In view of the fact that the
2010 Constitution has stripped the A-G of overall control over criminal proceedings, the reference
to the A-G must now be replaced with a reference to the Director of Public Prosecutions/ DPP
[Art.157(6)].
For guidelines as to the circumstances in which an application by an accused person for transfer
of a case from one magistrate to another may be granted, attention is drawn to Republic vs.
Hashimu [1968] E.A. 656 where the High Court of Tanzania while considering Section 80 of the
Tanzania CPC which was similar to Section 81 of the Kenyan CPC, inter alia, held that:
Before a transfer of any trial is granted on the application of an accused person, a clear case must be made
out that the accused person has a reasonable apprehension in his mind that he will not have a fair and
impartial trial before the magistrate from whom he wants the trial transferred.
The aforesaid guidelines have been applied in Kenya, e.g. by the High Court of Kenya in
Makinda & Another vs. the Republic [1979] KLR 134.
See also Shilenje vs. the Republic [1980] KLR 132.
b) Mode of trial
i. Charges and Informations
A Charge means the same thing as an Information, save that the former term is used in
subordinate courts [S. 89(4) CPC] while the latter term is used in the High Court [S. 274 CPC].
The Law provides that every Charge or Information must contain a statement of the specific
offence or offences with which the accused person is charged, together with such particulars as
NB:
1. For plea agreements, Ref. Ss. 137A – 137O, CPC
2. It is open to an accused who has pleaded guilty to change his/her plea as long as the
change is before the court passes sentence or makes an order finally disposing of the case:
see Kamundi –vs- R [1973] E.A. 540
If the accused person pleads not guilty, he/she is deemed to have put himself/herself upon the
country for trial [S. 278 CPC] and the court proceeds to try the accused either straightaway or
subsequently.
It is open to an accused person to plead-
• that he/she has been previously convicted or acquitted of the same
offence; or
• That he/she has obtained the President’s pardon for his/her offence
[S. 279(1) CPC].
If either of those pleas are pleaded and denied, the court shall try whether the plea is true or not
NB: As to types of examination of witnesses, i.e. examination in-chief, cross-examination and re-
examination, see Section 145 of The Evidence Act, Cap.80.
When evidence of witnesses for the prosecution has been concluded and before the court
considers whether or not there is evidence to put the accused on his/her defence, counsel for the
accused quite often submit that there is no case to answer, thereby necessitating a ruling on the
matter. The guiding principle on whether to put the accused on his/her defence is whether a
prima facie case has been made out against him/her.
It was stated by the then Court of Appeal for Eastern Africa in Ramanlal Trambaklal Bhatt vs. R
[1957] E.A. 322 that:
‘It may not be easy to define what is meant by a “prima facie case”, but at least it must
mean one on which a reasonable tribunal, properly directing its mind to the law and
the evidence could convict if no explanation is offered by the defence.’
The High Court of Kenya applied the above principle in R. Vs. Wachira [1975] E.A. 262 and
elaborated that if a submission is made that there is no case to answer, the decision should
depend not so much on whether the adjudicating tribunal (if compelled to do so) would at that
stage convict or acquit, but on whether the evidence is such that a reasonable tribunal might
convict, and that:
‘If a reasonable tribunal might convict on the evidence so far laid before it, there is a case
to answer.’
NB: Wachira’s case also held that a finding of no case to answer is a finding of law from which an
appeal lies.
If the court considers there is no evidence that the accused committed the offence, the court shall,
after hearing, if necessary, any arguments the advocate for the prosecution or defence may desire
to submit, record a finding of not guilty [S. 306(1) CPC].
When evidence of witnesses for the prosecution has been concluded and the court considers there
is evidence that the accused committed the offence, the court shall-
• inform the accused of his/her right to address the court, either personally or
by advocate (if any);
If the accused adduces evidence in his/her defence introducing new matter which the advocate
for the prosecution could not by the exercise of reasonable diligence have foreseen, the court may
allow the advocate for the prosecution to adduce evidence in reply to rebut it [S. 309 CPC].
If the accused person, or any of several accused persons, adduces any evidence, the advocate for
the prosecution shall be entitled to reply [S. 310 CPC].
NB: It should be noted that Section 310 CPC is subject to Section 161 CPC, which is to the
effect that where the Attorney-General or Solicitor-General is appearing personally in a
prosecution, he/she has the right of reply whether the accused adduces any evidence or not.
Section 161 CPC was based on the old Constitution which gave the A-G overall control over
v. Close of Hearing
When the case on both sides is closed, the judge shall give judgment [S. 322(1) CPC].
If the accused is convicted, the judge shall pass sentence on him/her according to law [S. 322(2)
CPC].
NB: Note may be made here for information that although the High Court has unlimited
original jurisdiction in criminal matters, the criminal offences which in practice tend to be tried
by the High Court are the capital offences of murder [S. 204 of the Penal Code (PC)] and treason
[S. 40(3) PC]. Further note may be made that murder and treason are not the only capital offences
in Kenya. Others are: robbery with violence [S. 296(2) PC], administration of unlawful oaths
purporting to bind the taker to commit a capital offence [S.60 PC] and attempted robbery with
violence [S. 297(2) PC] but these latter capital offences are tried (for historical reasons and as a
matter of practical reality) by subordinate courts.
With particular reference to criminal proceedings, the High Court is empowered to call for and
examine the record of any criminal proceedings before any subordinate court for the purpose of
satisfying itself as to the correctness, legality or propriety of any finding, sentence or order
recorded or passed, and as to the regularity of any proceedings of any such subordinate court [S.
362 CPC].
Note should be made here that Section 363(1) of the CPC confers a corresponding power on subordinate
courts of the first class to call for and examine records of any criminal proceedings of subordinate courts of
NB:
It is important to note that one of the reasons for revision by the High Court of decisions by
subordinate courts in exercise of their criminal jurisdiction is for the High Court to satisfy itself of
the propriety of any finding, sentence or order recorded or passed by subordinate courts. The
High Court has wide discretion as to when to exercise its revisionary jurisdiction and it can in appropriate
cases exercise its revisionary jurisdiction sui motu even where the matter has been brought to its notice by
an aggrieved party who has or had a right of appeal (which such party has not exercised): see R vs. Ajit
Singh s/o Vir Singh [1957] E.A. 822
With regard to sentence, where the High Court is of the view that a sentence passed by a
subordinate court is, for instance, disproportionately low, it is open to the High Court, in exercise
of its revisionary jurisdiction, to interfere with such sentence by enhancing it, as happened in
Kamau John Kinyanjui’s case aforesaid. Conversely, the High Court is also empowered, in
exercise of its revisionary jurisdiction, to reduce a sentence passed by a subordinate court if in the
opinion of the High Court the sentence is disproportionately high: See, for instance, the extracts
relating to Jennifer Wanjiku’s case at Annexure II.
Unlike is the case with regard to the High Court’s appellate jurisdiction where appeals from
subordinate courts must be heard by two judges of the High Court unless the Chief Justice directs
that they be heard by one Judge, all proceedings before the High Court in its revisionary
jurisdiction may be heard and any judgment or order thereon may be made or passed by one
judge:
Provided that when the court is composed of more than one judge and the court is equally divided in
opinion, the sentence or order of the subordinate court shall be upheld [S. 366 CPC].
VERSUS
REPUBLIC-------------------------------------------------------------------------RESPONDENT
Extracts from the judgment of the high Court illustrating an instance where the Court exercised
appellate powers to enhance sentence in the course of exercising revisionary jurisdiction: Ref.
Section 354(3)(a)(ii) CPC
On 01.12.94 prison officers who were travelling in a prison lorry from Kamiti prison to
Nairobi were involved in an accident near Ruaraka, Nairobi. Several of them died as a result
of the accident.
Kinyanjui who was an Advocate of the High Court of Kenya, through an agent, solicited
instructions from relatives of the deceased prison officers and represented to them that he
had the authority of the Government to act on their behalf to secure requisite compensation.
Kinyanjui’s agent managed to persuade some of the deceased officers’ families to give and
they gave instructions for Kinyanjui to act in the matter but other deceased officers’ families
gave no instructions. All the same Kinyanjui filed suits for both sets of families and claimed
compensation. He also commenced negotiations with a State Counsel at the Attorney-
General’s Chambers for out of court settlement in respect of the deaths of the prison officers.
Evidence adduced before the trial magistrate indicated that the State Counsel did not have
approval from his seniors to negotiate settlement.
Eventually the State Counsel presented settlement proposals to the Ministry of home Affairs
which issued two cheques in settlement: One for Kshs. 52,170,800/= which was paid to
Kinyanjui; and another for Kshs. 23,439,300/= which was stopped when it was discovered
that the payments were made without authority.
An attempt to stop the cheque for Kshs. 52,170,800/= failed as Kinyanjui had cashed the
cheque and moved the proceeds from his clients’ account to another, unknown, account.
Kinyanjui made payment to some of the family members of the deceased officers amounting
to a tiny proportion of the amounts received by him on their behalf.
On March 20, 1986 Ms Jennifer Wanjiku was arraigned before Murang’a District Magistrate II
on a charge of stealing Kshs. 350/= from one Mr. Kariuki in a room at Super Lodge
(Murang’a).
Circumstances of the offence as reported by the newspaper were –
• That on the material evening, Wanjiku was going home when she met Kariuki who asked
her to accompany him to lodging and the two ended up in a room at Super Lodge.
• That while Kariuki was asleep, Wanjiku took Kshs. 350/= from his pockets and walked
out of the room.
• That on Wanjiku’s way out she was stopped by a watchman whom she offered Kshs.
20/= but the watchman refused the money and escorted her to the lodge owners.
• That Wanjiku was questioned and taken back to the room where Kariuki was still
sleeping.
• That when Kariuki was awakened, he checked his pockets and found Kshs. 350/-
missing.
• That the police were called and they found Wanjiku with Kshs. 330/=.
• That Wanjiku was taken to court and arraigned as aforesaid where upon she pleaded
guilty to the charge.
• That in mitigation Wanjiku, who was not legally represented, said:
“I was too drunk and I did not know what I was doing.”
• That on April 4, 1986 the Magistrate had asked for a probation officer’s report but two
weeks later the probation officer reported that Wanjiku had mentioned 5 places as her
homes (Githurai, Zimmerman, Roysambu, Gatuu & Kimathi) which made it difficult to
get a report on her.
• That the Magistrate then ordered as follows:
“Since the accused has refused to co-operate with the probation officers who
would have submitted a report with a view to finding out whether she could be
placed on probation, the court is left with no alternative but to cancel the order
referring her to the probation officers.”
Section 352(2) empowers the court to reject an appeal summarily if, and only if, the appeal is
brought on the ground "that the conviction was against the weight of evidence; or that the
sentence is excessive."
K. CONCLUSION
From the above, it is clear that there are various principles upon which the appellate
court will allow or dismiss an appeal. The overriding principle is that if a failure or miscarriage of
justice has been occasioned, then an appeal would, be allowed. A simple procedural error that is
not of such. Great weight as to occasion a failure of justice cannot warrant the appeal being
allowed. Thus, the Court of Appeal in Murimi -vs- R154 noted that it does not reverse a conviction
on account of any error by the trial court unless the error has intact occasioned a failure of justice.
It must however be understood that procedural propriety is very important and that the rules of
procedure are framed to provide a fair trial. A breach of the procedural rules therefore raises a
presumption that there has been an unfair trial ,However, trivial defects which have not
occasioned a failure of, or miscarriage of justice will not be enough ground of appeal.
There are commonly known grounds of appeal. These include:
(a) Defects in the Charge.
151 (1967)E.A334
152 (1952)19 E.A.C.A 244.
153 Cr. App. No. 86 of 1965 (unreported).
154 (1967) E. A 542.
These are some of the more common grounds of appeal, but the list is not closed. As the legal
system develops, one would hope that more grounds will be continually added so that an
aggrieved party has all the legal machinery at his sentence.
NB: refer to Patrick’s Kiage, Essentials of criminal Procedure for more information on this topic.
REVISIONS
A. INTRODUCTION
Revision is a power bestowed upon a court to revise the records of an inferior court Section 362 of
the Criminal Procedure Code empowers the High Court to call for and examine the record of any
Criminal proceedings before any subordinate court. This it does to satisfy itself as regards the
correctness, legality or propriety of any finding, sentence or order recorded or passed, and also as
to the regularity of any proceedings of any such subordinate court.
The powers of the High Court when exercising its revisional jurisdiction are defined by the
Criminal Procedure Code at section 364. It is provided that in the case of a proceeding in a
subordinate court the record of which has been called for or which has been reported for orders,
or has otherwise, come to the knowledge of the High Court, it may, if in the case of a conviction
exercise any of the powers conferred on it as a court of appeal by sections 354, 357 and 358
(Criminal Procedure Code) and enhance the sentence. These powers of appeal are discussed later.
But if it is in the case of any other order other than an order of acquittal, it may alter or reverse
155 (1967)E.A39.
All proceedings before the High Court in the exercise of the revisional jurisdiction may be heard
and any judgment or order thereon may be made or passed by one judge. But if and when the
court: is composed of more than one judge and the court is equally divided in opinion, the
sentence or order of the subordinate court shall he upheld159.
Upon revision by the High Court, it shall certify its decision or order to the Court by which the
sentence or order so revised was recorded or passed and that court is to make orders in
conformity with the decision so certified and where it is necessary shall amend, the record to
accord with the decision160.
This is briefly the procedural requirements when a court either subordinate or the High Court
has to exercise revisional powers. Having so described the procedure, it is necessary to examine
how courts have exercised this jurisdiction and further how the procedure, as laid in the Criminal
Procedure Code has been applied.
156 Section 364(1) (a) (b) Criminal Procedure Code (Cap 75).
157 Section 364(5) Criminal Procedure Code (Cap 75).
158 Section 365 Criminal Procedure Code (Cap 75).
159 Section 366 Criminal Procedure Code (Cap 75).
160 Section 367 Criminal Procedure Code (Cap 75).
161 (1962)EA650.
This shows that so long as a finding, sentence or order falls within the contemplation of section
364 of the Criminal Procedure Code the High Court has jurisdiction to act upon it on revision,
other factors is remaining constant.
As seen from above, the court does not enjoy jurisdiction to revise proceedings culminating in an
acquittal. However, a finding of ‘autrefois acquit’ is treated differently. In the case of Semuyaga vs.
Uganda162, it was held that a finding of autrefois acquit is a final finding but subject to revision.
The powers of the High Court when exercising its revision jurisdiction allows it to alter a
sentence. This was observed in Juma Keshallila vs. R163. The appellant was convicted of stealing
by a Magistrate who under the powers conferred by section 305(1) of the Tanzanian Criminal
Procedure Code ordered that the appellant be released upon entering a bond to appear and
receive sentence- at any time within three years if called upon and in the meantime to be of good
behaviour. In revision, the High Court set aside the order of the Magistrate and substituted, a
sentence of one year's imprisonment. The appellant appealed on the ground that the High Court
had no power to substitute a sentence of imprisonment for an order made by the Magistrate
162 (1975)EA186
163 (1963)EA184.
The East African Court of Appeal held that firstly an order made under section 305(1) does not
amount to a sentence and that in revision the High Court has power to substitute a sentence of
imprisonment for a probation order to come up for sentence if called upon.
The above provision was judicially considered by the East African court of Appeal in R -vs- Ajit
Singh s/o Vir Singh165 The accused was tried for theft of timber contrary to the Penal Code and at
the end of the prosecution case the Magistrate held that there was no case to answer. The
accused, was acquitted and was awarded Shs. 500/- as compensation as the Magistrate regarded
it "frivolous in the extreme for him to have been re-charged". About a month, earlier the accused,
had been charged with an exactly similar charge-but it was withdrawn. The present case was
brought before the Supreme Court by way at revision at the instance of the Attorney-General., to
review the finding that the charge was frivolous. Edmunds -J- before whom this case originally
came adjourned it for consideration before a full bench. At the subsequent hearing, counsel for
the accused took preliminary point that section 364(5) of the Criminal Procedure Code, precluded
the court from exercising revisional jurisdiction because the matter was brought to the notice of
the court by a party who had a right of appeal against the Magistrate's decision byway of case
stated. The Crown made two arguments; Firstly that on the facts, this was not a frivolous or
vexatious prosecution and that the question whether it was or was not, was one of fact, and that
an appeal by way of case stated did not lie. Secondly, that, if an appeal did originally lie, the time
for preferring an appeal had expired when the crown requested the court to exercise its powers of
revision and that sub-section (5) of section 364 is not designed to exclude the power to entertain a
revision in such circumstances. In setting aside the order of compensation., Rudd Ag C-J, Connell
(a) Sub-section (5) of section 364 (Criminal Procedure Code) is not intended to preclude
the supreme court from considering the correctness of a finding, sentence or order
merely because the facts of the matter have been brought to its notice by a party who
has or who has had a right of appeal and is not intended to derogate from the wide
powers conferred by sections 362 and 364.
(ii) the supreme court can, in its own discretion, act 'suo motto' even where the matter has
been brought to its notice by an aggrieved party who had a right of appeal.
At other times, an appeal may have been lodged but it is subsequently withdrawn. This does not
deny the High Court competence to exercise its revisional jurisdiction if it considers that the
order or sentence is illegal. This was considered in Uganda -vs- Polasi166. In this case the accused
was sentenced to an illegal term of imprisonment He filed an appeal but withdrew it and it was
thereby deemed to have been dismissed. The sentence was subject to confirmation and had not
been confirmed. The High Court held that it had power to revise the illegal sentence. Dickson -J-
noted that an abandoned appeal may be restored in a proper case on application by an appellant.
He observed that in this case the appellant had not applied and a pertinent question to be asked,
was whether the court can of its motion restore an abandoned appeal. He took the view that
inasmuch as an abandoned criminal appeal may be re-stored where, the court is 'functus officio',
the High court can of its own motion, in the exercise of its revisional powers under the Criminal
Procedure Code, where there is a fundamental illegality make a revisional order without an
accused applying, in the case where an appeal had been previously dismissed by the mere
operation of the law.
Dickson -J- further observed that it would be lamentable in the circumstances of the case Uganda
-vs- Polasi if the court in the absence of an application by the accused to withdraw his notice of
abandonment of his appeal, could not reduce the sentence to its legal, limits by the exercise of its
revisional powers.
From the above, it is clear that sub-section (5) of section 364 of the Criminal Procedure Code does
not work to limit the powers of the High Court in exercise of its revision al jurisdiction if the
order or the sentence is manifestly illegal. The interpretation of the court with regard to the above
is a welcome one because it has insisted that substantive justice should not be sacrificed for mere
166 (1970)EA638.
PROSECUTION
• to bring charges against a person
• Art. 157(6) (a) vests in the DPP state power to prosecute
• Art 157(6)(b) permits DPP to take over and continue any criminal proceedings
commenced in any court (other than a court martial) that have been instituted or
undertaken by another person or authority, with the permission of the person or
authority;
• Art 157(6)(c) subject to clause (7) and (8), discontinue at any stage before judgement is
delivered any criminal proceedings instituted by the DPP or taken over by the DPP
under Para(b)
• Art.157 (7)-if the discontinuance of any proceedings under clause (6) (c) takes place after
the close of the prosecution’s case, the defendant shall be acquitted.
• Art.157 (8) the DPP may not discontinue a prosecution without the permission of the
court.
PUBLIC PROSECUTION
• There is no express constitutional provision for private prosecution
• This power is implied by virtue of art. 157(6)(b) which is on same terms as old
constitution’s s.26(3)(b)168
• conduct of criminal prosecutions is always a matter of public interest
• AG is under duty to safeguard public interest as he manages prosecutorial process
(Gregory & another v r thro’ Nottingham & 2others (2004)KLR 547
• There are instances when the AG fails/neglects/refuses to discharge his constitutional
obligations;
168
See Kimani V. Kihara (1985)KLR 79
These two cases give guidance to lower courts in exercise of their powers under S. 88(1) of the
Criminal Procedure Code.
In Amwona &Others V KBL HC. Misc. App No.19/04, at page 19 and 20 Emukule J. said: -
“In our custom and practice, where an offence is alleged to have been committed, or that there is a
conspiracy in the air to commit a crime, an offence, cognizable in law, the first public right of defence is to
hie and hasten to report the matter to the nearest Police Station. That is the exhortation of “Utumishi Kwa
Wote” that is spread all over the city “to help us fight crime.” If there is no response from the Police, or the
Police appear reluctant to take up the matter, the next course of action is to report or write to the Attorney
General who has power under Section 26(4) of the Constitution to require the Commissioner of Police to
investigate any matter which, in the Attorney’ General’s opinion, relates to any offence or alleged offence
or suspected offence, and the Commissioner is bound to comply with that requirement and is further bound
to report to the Attorney General upon such investigation. If the Plaintiff has exhausted those channels and
Emukule J. in this case was commenting on the various steps an individual may take to have his
complaint acted upon by the public prosecutorial mechanism and how they graduate from the
Police to the Attorney General and finally to private prosecution;
Kimani vs. Kahara [1985 KLR 79] 88 Simpson and Sachdeva JJ stated: -
“In the context of section 88 of the CPC, however, trying we think must include taking a plea. It is we
think clear that the trial of the case cannot start before the accused person is before the court. As soon as an
accused person is before him in court for the purpose of pleading to a formal, duly signed charge no
magistrate can properly be described as “trying that case”. It is at this stage that an application may be
made for permission to prosecute. If in the absence of the accused person permission is purportedly granted
to a private prosecutor to conduct a prosecution the power to grant permission cannot be taken to have been
exercised by a magistrate trying a case.”
Section 85 to Section 88 of the CPC deal with “Appointment of Public Prosecutors and conduct
of prosecutions”
• The Plaintiff was applying for issuance of summons in order for the court to deal with the
charge against the accused. The Plaintiff was not asking for summons to enable the presence
of the accused person as the application for permission to privately prosecute her was being
sought or urged. The prayer is very clear and it sought summons to be issued to the accused
person to answer the charges brought against her. In so far as the Plaintiff was applying to
the court to have the accused person compelled to attend court to answer the charges before
the plaintiff was permitted by the court to conduct private prosecution, then the plaintiff was
overstepping and not following the proper procedure. In order to avoid the confusion that
seems to have attended applications of this nature the court recommended that in order to
have some proper procedure that a private prosecution in criminal proceedings should be
commenced, first by an application before a subordinate court under S. 88 (1) of the CPC for
permission to conduct private prosecution. That application should be heard first and
determined. The magistrate hearing such an application should be guided by the principles
in the Kimani vs. Kahara Case and, The Floriculture International Limited Case, as set out
• After permission has been granted, only then can the Plaintiff institute criminal
proceedings.
• After the complaint is accepted, a charge should then be framed and signed by
the Complainant and the Magistrate.
• After the charge has been signed by the Magistrate, then only, can the Magistrate
issue either summons or warrant to compel the attendance of the accused person
before the court under Section 90 of the CPC, that is, if the accused has not
already been brought before the court on arrest without warrant as envisaged
under S. 89(1) of the CPC.
Private prosecution is a special kind of proceedings where an aggrieved party approaches the
court by way of an application seeking first and foremost permission to: -
(i) Privately prosecute a case; and
(ii) Institute criminal proceedings.
The proceedings are deemed to have commenced once an Applicant lodges his application for
permission under S. 88(1) of the CPC before a subordinate court. At that stage the “trial of the
accused person” cannot be regarded as having begun because: -
a) Permission to prosecute privately had not been granted and therefore the jurisdiction
of both the court to try the case and of the private prosecutor to prosecute had not
been invoked; and
b) there was no formal charge duly signed by the Magistrate even if a charge may have
been filed contemporaneously with the application for permission; and
c) The subject/accused person was not before the court.
• The application for permission to privately prosecute a criminal case is part of a process that
needs to be ventilated in full before the subordinate court.
• It is good practice and an important safeguard if the application were served on the accused
person and the accused should be free not only to be allowed in court at the hearing of the
application for permission to prosecute but also to address the court if he or she desires to do
so.
• It is at this stage that the court must apply the principles and safeguards set out above to
satisfy itself that before the Plaintiff filed the application in the subordinate court for
permission: -
a) He had reported to the Police and or the Attorney General; and
b) reasonable opportunity was accorded to either of the two state agencies to commence
public prosecution; and
c) that the two public prosecutorial machineries have declined to institute the criminal
proceedings or have acted with culpable inertia and partiality; and
d) that the decision not to institute public prosecution by the state agencies is mala fide,
without reasonable cause; and,
NOTICE OF MOTION
(Under Sections ………. And all other enabling provisions of the Law) TAKE NOTICE that this
Honourable Court shall be moved on the day of 2010 at 9.00 o’clock in the
forenoon or soon thereafter for the hearing of an application on behalf of the Respondent for
Orders:-
THAT this Honourable Court be pleased to grant the applicant permission to commence private
prosecution against XXXXX…………….
THAT ……………...
WHICH APPLICATION is supported by the annexed affidavit of ……and is premised on the
following grounds, inter alia.
THAT ……………..
THAT ……………………..
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
ADVOCATES FOR THE APPLICANT
DRAWN & FILED BY:
TTTTTTTTT
TO BE SERVED UPON
Section 385 of CPC provides that a magistrate of first and second class or one specially
empowered by the Chief Justice shall be empowered to hold inquests. Section 386 provides that a
police officer in charge of a police station or any other police officer specially empowered by the
Minister in that behalf on receiving information that a person has
(a) person has committed suicide;
(b) Been killed by another or by an accident; or
(c) Has died under circumstances raising a reasonable suspicion that some other person has
committed an offence;
(d) Is missing or believed to be dead;
Shall give such information immediately to the nearest magistrate empowered to hold inquests.
They are additionally required unless otherwise directed by any rule made by the Minister, to
proceed to the place where the body is and
They are expected to investigate and then draw up a report on the apparent cause of death
The pathologists are required to make a report on the cause of death based on the evidence that
they find. They will perform a post-mortem. The report is then forwarded to the magistrate,
empowered to hold an inquest.
In the case of a person who is missing and believed to be dead, the report is to be sent to the AG
through the Commissioner of Police detailing all supporting evidence and the grounds upon
which the death of that person is presumed to have taken place – this report must of necessity
take into account the duration for presumption of death i.e. 7 years duration where the person
has not been seen or heard of by family friends etc.
Where there are fatal tragedies i.e. the Mtongwe Ferry, the KQ, duration may be shortened since
the cause of death is known and it is only bodies that have not been traced. We use the same
process. Subsection 3 obligates any person who finds or is aware of a body of a body of a person
believed to have committed suicide or has been killed by another or by accident to make a report
immediately to the nearest administrative or police officer.
Section 387 makes special provisions where a person dies in the custody of the police or a prison
officer, or in prison, in such cases a magistrate empowered to hold an inquest may hold an
inquiry into the cause of death either instead of or in addition to the investigations held by the
police or prison officer. The process of finding out the cause of death must be transparent and
hence the need for an inquest.
While conducting inquests magistrates have powers to examine a body that has already been
interred; or to cause a body to be disinterred and examined. Where family are concerned that
evidence has come out that is circumstantial and they need to know with certainty the cause of
death.
At the hearing the prosecution will indicate all the witnesses that they have, and these witnesses
may include suspects – the reason being that an inquest is similar to an inquiry and therefore at
this stage the prosecution may not have gathered sufficient evidence to warrant the prosecution
of a specific individual. The practice is for the family of the deceased to hire advocates who work
closely with the prosecution but have the right to cross examine witnesses persons also allowed
legal representation who may be adversely mentioned are allowed legal representation with a
right to cross examination.
Since the aim of an inquest is to try and establish the truth as well as seeking information; there is
more latitude given to the prosecution in leading the witnesses, a lot of hearsay for example may
be adduced and allowed. For this reason; witnesses and new evidence that may not have been
available prior to the commencement of the inquest may be called as the inquest progresses. In
an inquest as the case proceeds, more and more evidence is adduced and investigations continue
because at the initial stage one may not have all the witnesses having been interviewed and
anybody adversely mentioned would like to interrogate the issues that arise.
Since the aim of an inquest is to try and establish the truth as well as seeking information; there is
more latitude to the prosecution in leading the witnesses. For this reason; witnesses and new
evidence that may have been available prior to the commencement of the inquest may be called
as the inquest progresses.
Section 387(3) provides that where before or at the termination… Where the person attends court
and the inquest has already commenced, then the magistrate shall commence do novo by way of
trial – if in the middle of the inquest the magistrate decides the offence has been committed by a
known person, the person will be arrested and there will be a new trial. It may not mean that the
person has committed murder; it could be even a traffic offence so the circumstances and
evidence will direct the magistrate as to what is the best offence to be preferred against the
Where the magistrate forms the opinion that death has occurred but no offence has been omitted
or that it has occurred through misadventure, then the magistrate shall record such an opinion
accordingly.
With regard to inquiries relating to missing persons believed to be dead, the magistrate at the
termination shall report the case together with his findings to the attorney general, including
recommendations whether or not the person regarding presumption of death under Section
118A of the Evidence Act should; be reduced and if so by what period. The 7 years should be
substituted; considering the circumstances of the specific case.
Thereafter the AG after considering the opinion from the magistrates shall refer the matter back
with a direction on the period of substitution and that an order be made by the magistrate
accordingly in the court file; and upon expiration of such substituted period the Registrar
General shall be empowered upon production of such order by the officer entitled to apply for
and receive a grant of representation under the Law of Succession Act to issue such person with
an appropriate certificate of death in accordance with the Births and Death Registration Act.
Under Section 388(1) CPC the AG has powers to direct a magistrate to hold an inquest in
accordance with section 387 of the CPC. Section 388(2) – CPC provides that where a magistrate
terminates an inquest under Section 387; the Attorney General where he considers that there is
need for further investigations may direct the magistrate to reopen the inquiry and further
investigations are then began, in which case the magistrate shall have full powers to reopen the
inquiry and make further investigations and proceed in same manner as if the inquiry had not
been terminated. For example in Julie Ward the case was re-opened and people charged, another
inquest still went on. As long as the truth has not been established one can continue to
investigate.
The Attorney General may also direct whether there is need for the body to be disinterred and
examined. These provisions do not apply where the magistrate has made a finding hat a person
INTRODUCTION
The writ of habeas corpus consists of a mandatory order by the court or judge directed to any
person who is alleged to have another person unlawfully in his custody, requiring him to have
the body of such person before the court or judge immediately after receipt of the writ together
with the day and cause of his being taken and detained, to undergo and receive all such things as
the court may order.
TYPES
1. Habeas corpus ad subjiciendum – secures liberty
2. Habeas corpus ad testificandum – secures attendance of a prisoner in custody under civil
process to give evidence before any court, tribunal, commission, etc.
3. Habeas corpus ad respondendum – secures attendance of a prisoner in custody under
serving prison sentence to give evidence before any court, tribunal, commission, etc.
4. Habeas corpus ad deliberandum – removal of prisoners from one custody to another (now
obsolete).
5. Habeas corpus ad satisfaciendum – obsolete
6. Habeas corpus ad prosequendum – obsolete
7. Habeas corpus ad faciendum et recipiendum also known as Habeas corupus cum causa
- obsolete
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION
- The right to liberty under the repealed Constitution of Kenya was secured under Section 72
of the Constitution of Kenya. The Constitution of Kenya 2010 guarantees the right to freedom
and security under Article 29. 169
An arrested person under Article 49(h) of the Constitution has the right to be brought before
a court as soon as reasonably possible, but not later than–
(i) twenty-four hours after being arrested; or
(ii) if the twenty-four hours ends outside ordinary court hours, or on a day that is not
an ordinary court day, the end of the next court day;
- In cases where suspects have not been taken to court within the stipulated time and the
police or prosecuting authorities do not prove that they have taken suspects to court within a
reasonably practicable time as stipulated in the Constitution, the Court of Appeal has held
such violations to be unacceptable and capable of violating the right to be tried within a
reasonable time. As a consequence of such violation, the Court of Appeal has quashed
convictions on the basis of such violations alone irrespective of the evidence available and the
gravity of the crime. (See cases of: -)
(i) Albanus Mwasia Mutua versus Republic Criminal Appeal No. 120 of 2004 (CA)
(ii) Gerald Macharia Githuku versus Republic Criminal Appeal No. 119 of 2004 (CA)
(iii) Ronald Manyonge Chepkui versus Republc Criminal Appeal No. 87 of 2006 (HC)
169
Article 29 provides, Every person has the right to freedom and security of the
person, which includes the right not to be :- (a) deprived of freedom arbitrarily or without just cause;
(b) detained without trial, except during a state of emergency,
in which case the detention is subject to Article 58;
- Harbeas corpus now enjoys special constitutional protection by reason of Article 25(d) and
51(2) of the Constitution.
PROCEDURE
Criminal Procedure Code
- Section 389 gives the statutory authority for issuance of various types of Habeas Corpus.
- The Chief Justice has made rules of court to regulate procedure.
16. SUMMONS
Criminal proceedings begin in a magistrates’ court either because an accused has been charged
with an offence or because he has been summoned to appear before the court.
A summons is a prescribed document from court that describes an offence in ordinary language.
A summons is issued to ensure attendance in court, if not complied with, then in the absence of
any explanation or information to the court on why the summons are not complied with, the
court issues a warrant of arrest
Section 90 of the Criminal Procedure Code (CPC) mandates that once the magistrate receives a
complaint and signs the charge, then the court may issue summons or warrant to compel
attendance of the suspect in court.
Section 91 CPC provides that summons shall issue from the court and be in writing, in duplicate,
signed and sealed by the presiding officer or other officer as the High Court may prescribe.
Every summons shall be directed to the person summoned and require him to appear at a time
and place as directed by the court and shall state briefly the offence preferred.
Section 92 CPC indicates that summons shall be served by a Police officer, an officer of the court
(Process server) or any other person the court may appoint. The service of summons shall if
practicable be personal. Upon service, the receiver of summons shall sign receipt on the
Section 93 CPC allows service of summons, where the person cannot be found, on the on adult
member of his family, or servant or employer.
Section 94 CPC allows service by affixing the summons on some conspicuous part of the house.
Section 95 CPC directs that Government employees may be served summons through the head
of office.
Section 97 CPC a company is served through the local manager or principal officer of the
Company.
Section 98 CPC mandates the serving officer to confirm service in court. If he is not in an
affidavit of service was done will be placed before the court.
Summons is issued by courts to compel appearance in court of suspects, witness (S144 CPC) and
or sureties.
The court can dispense with the suspect’s attendance in court if there is reason to do so and if the
suspect’s alleged offence is not a felony and attracts 3months imprisonment or fine if he pleads
guilty or his advocate attend court on his behalf.
SEARCH WARRANTS
A search warrant is an authority to search for evidence of a crime believed to be committed or to
make an arrest of a suspected criminal.
A warrant shall be under the hand of the court issuing it and shall bear the seal of the court. The
warrant shall briefly state the preferred offence.
A search warrant is directed to a particular Police officer (s) or generally officers in a specific area.
The Court upon application issues a search warrant to facilitate investigations where a formal
complaint is made.
Section 19 of the Police Act Cap 84 gives the Police power to lay complaints and apply for
warrants before a magistrate.
Section 118 CPC directs that if it is proved on oath to the court that something in respect of
which an offence has been committed or anything necessary for the conduct of an investigation
into an offence is reasonably suspected to be , in any place, building, ship ,aircraft, vehicle, box,
receptacle, the court may by written warrant authorize a police officer to search the said place for
the specified item(s) and once seized ,take the item to court.
A search warrant maybe issued and executed any day including Sunday between sun rise and
• Anti-corruption court
• Municipal court
• Courts-Martial
A. CHILDREN’S COURT
CHILD OFFENDERS: TRIAL PROCESS & RIGHTS
THE LAW
The laws applicable to Child Rights and Children’s court trial process are;
• The Children’s Act Number 8 of 2001 came into force in March 2002
• The Children (Adoption) Regulations, 2005
• The Children Offender Rules (Subsidiary legislation)
DEFINITIONS
The Act defines a child as “any human being under the age of eighteen years”
A child of tender years is defined as “a child under the age of ten years” (S.2).
RIGHTS
Part 2 of the Act provides safeguards for the rights and welfare of the child. The Government
shall take steps to the maximum of its available resources to provide;
• Right to life, survival ad development
• Right to name and nationality
• Right to non discrimination
• Right to parental care
THE FORUM
Part VI of the Act sets up special Courts known as Children’s Courts inter alia to try charges
against a child (other than a charge of murder or a charge in which a child is charged jointly with
a person of or above the age of 18 years) as well as charges against any person accused of an
offence under the Act (S.73 and S. 184).
The Magistrates presiding over those Courts are appointed by the Chief Justice to adjudicate
disputes regarding children. The Court sits in a different building or room or at different times
from the other Courts and during the proceedings where children have violated the law. The
only people allowed in the proceedings held in camera are members and officers of the Court,
parties to the case, their advocates and witnesses, parents or guardians of any child, bona fide
registered representatives of newspapers and news agencies (S 74) (Although they have access to
the proceedings, what is reported about the case is restricted) and such other people as the Court
THE TRIAL
• The enforcement of child rights and child offenders’ trials are held in the Children’s Court.
• The Children’s Court may try a child for any offence except for;
• The offence of murder
• An offence with which a child is charged together with a person or persons of or
above the age of 18 years (S184)
• Children’s cases are supposed to be handled expeditiously and without unnecessary delay.
• If the case is not completed within 3 months from the date of plea, it is to be dismissed and the
child is not liable for further proceedings regarding the same offence.
• If the child’s case, on account of seriousness is heard by a Court superior to the Children’s
Court, it shall be determined within 12 months after the taking of plea, failing which it shall be
dismissed and the child is not liable for further proceedings regarding the same offence.
HEARING
The remand in custody is not to exceed 6 months in the case of an offence punishable by death or
3 months in any other case. (S 10 (4) Child offender Rules)
If the child’s case, on account of seriousness is heard by a Court superior to the Children’s Court,
the maximum remand period is 6 months after which the child is to be admitted to bail.
S. 18 (4) requires the Government to accord legal and other assistance to a child who is arrested
and detained.
A child witness/ offender will testify after the court conducts the voire dire to determine;
• Whether the child understands the nature of the oath
• Whether the child is possessed of sufficient knowledge to justify reception of evidence
If the court finds the child understands the nature and importance of the oath, then under section
19 of the Oaths and Statutory Declarations Act (Cap 15) the child may take oath and testify in
court.
In proceedings against or by a child for an offence on decency or morality and a witness under
the age of 18 years of age is called, the court may exclude al other persons except parties to
proceedings and officers of the court. (S76 (5))
In proceedings concerning a child, its name, identity, home or last place of residence or school or
its parents or relatives, photographs shall not be published or revealed in any publication or
report, including any law report. (S. 76 (5))
Every court in dealing with a child, shall have regard to the best interests of the child……if in
remand and is ill, or complains of illness, the court should order prompt examination and
medical care by a qualified medical practitioner. (S.187)
No child shall be ordered to imprisonment or to be placed in a detention camp.
No child shall be sentenced to death.
No child under the age of 10 years shall be ordered to be sent to a rehabilitation school. (S.190)
Proceedings in respect of a child shall be conducted in accordance with the rules set out in the
Fifth Schedule (S. 194) Child Offender Rules.
B. COURTS MARTIAL
Court Martial’s are convened by a convening order. That is, when there is need to deal with an
issue. There therefore is no permanent structure. It has been established for by Statue in S.65 of
the Constitution under the Armed Forces Act.
Court martial court may be established by the Chief of General Staff or by the Commander. S. 85
of the Armed Forces Act provides that a court martial shall have powers to try any person subject
to the Act for any offence which under the Act is triable by a court martial and to award for such
offence any punishment provided by the Act.
S. 84 of the Armed Forces Act, provides for a military court for disciplining armed forces that
include the members of the Army, Air Force, the Navy and their reserves but does not apply to
the Police Force. It is subject to the law of the land first then the court marshal court.
END