CHARACTER FORMATION 2

LEADERSHIP, DECISION MAKING, MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

Dan Jerome S. Barrera

College of Criminal Justice Education
Negros Oriental State University

MODULE 4
POLICE ADMINISTRATION THEORIES AND DECISION-MAKING

INTRODUCTION

You will learn in this module the theories of police administration and how
decision-making works. Modern public safety problems pose several challenges to
police administrators. Modern problems demand modern solutions. Nevertheless,
several theories of police administration exist to help police administrators administer
police units in setting goals and creating conditions that help achieve the organization’s
goals. The presence of many alternatives in decision-making to choose could overwhelm
police administrators. Thus, decision-making principles and strategies exist to help them
in making good decisions for the organization.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you are expected to identify the different theories of
police administration

CONTENTS OF THE MODULE

This module contains the following lessons:

Lesson 1: Police administration theories
Lesson 2: Decision-making

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 2

DIRECTIONS ON HOW TO USE THE MODULE PROPERLY

In order for you to maximize the use of this module, keep in mind that:

1. This module comprises two lessons and each is discussed with relevant course
content. You may (or may not) read other sources within the limits of your means.
2. You must be mindful of the learning outcomes of this module. Be sure you are
able to attain such aims after studying the entire module.
3. You must answer all learning exercises and activities.
4. You can contact me if you have questions, clarifications or suggestions for the
class.

Lesson 1 - POLICE ADMINISTRATION THEORIES

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this lesson, you shall be able to:

 Identify the important police administration theories; and
 Apply these theories to real-life situation.

MOTIVATING/PROMPTING QUESTIONS

What are the police administration theories? Can these theories be applied in the
current times in the Philippines? The 21st Century poses several challenges to police
officers. These challenges in turn demand innovative ways of police administration.

DISCUSSION

Community policing

The last quarter of the 20th Century saw the introduction and popularization of an
innovative police administration theory - community policing. Community policing
encourages police officers to focus more on the community. It is opposite to the
traditional policing model, which is reactive in nature. Community policing allows police
managers and members to reorganize police departments such that they are more
inclined towards building trust and generating satisfaction from the public.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 3

Community policing recognizes the vital role community members play in crime
prevention and suppression. Crime prevention activities such as patrol, checkpoints, and
educational seminars need the cooperation of the community. Likewise, crime
suppression activities, for example crime investigation, need the assistance of the people.
Imagine if the community members have animosity towards the police; they are less
likely to cooperate to the police; and, they are likely not to report crimes and give
information. As a result, the police would be less effective if the community members do
not cooperate with them. Thus, community policing as a modern police administration
theory is essential for the police in facing modern challenges of crime and justice.

There are three core elements of community policing - citizen involvement,

problem solving, and decentralization. Citizen involvement involves a perspective of
building a closer relationship with the public by solving local issues, helping crime
victims, organize community members, conduct seminars, feeding programs, and
provide medical services. In this perspective, the police goes out to the public and
conduct activities with them. This is opposite to the tradition policing model wherein the
police just wait for crimes to happen, being called by community members, and respond
to such crimes.

Problem solving is another core element of community policing. Problem

solving involves identifying local crime and justice problems in neighborhoods. The
police and community members together study the causes of these problems. These
causes are the underlying community conditions such as lack of street lights, lack of
patrol officers, less community interaction, lack of livelihood, boredom, to name a few.
The police and the community members then would work together to create strategies
to solve the problems by addressing the underlying causal conditions.

Decentralization as the last core element of community policing involves

delegating authority to make decisions on crime and justice issues in the community not
only to police manager (e.g. chief of police) but also to patrol officers and community
members. It is in community policing where low-ranking police officers and the public
can have a “say” on what to do with crime problems in the neighborhood. In the
traditional policing model, the responsibility to make decisions rest on few if not one
person only; but in community policing, even community members can decide what to
do with crimes in their neighborhood as long as they are within the limits of the law.

There are other theories, however, that provide perspectives on community

policing. These theories take different looks at community policing. Their focus are
different based on the different perspectives they take.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 4

Social structure theory of community policing

The social structure theory of community policing views crimes as a product of

social structural factors for example population size, poverty, and unemployment. In
community policing, the police and the community work together to solve crime by
addressing social factors that lead to it. This theory, therefore, provides a good
theoretical foundation for community policing.

Broken windows theory of community policing

Another theory that affects community policing is the broken windows theory.
This theory states that disorder (e.g. vandalism and littering) in a certain community
invites criminals to commit crimes upon perceiving that there is weak social control or
law enforcement in the said community. Suppose we park two motor vehicles in a dark
alley. One vehicle has a broken window; the other has none. What vehicle do you think
would be robbed into right away? Of course, it is the vehicle that has a broken window.
Disorders in a neighborhoods signal potential criminals that committing a crime in a
place is easier and seemingly permitted.

Community implant hypothesis

Community implant hypothesis is the belief that informal social control among
community members (e.g. reprimand, warning, emotional pressure, stigma) can limit
crimes. For instance, if an elder in a neighborhood with high informal social control sees
a teenager selling illicit drugs, he would then warn the teenager to stop the selling. He
does it because people in a neighborhood that has high levels of informal social control
tend to mind his/her neighbors’ welfare. Community policing benefits from this theory
in implanting informal social control. Police officers and community members could help
each other in implanting closer ties and activating concern for each other in the
community.

Modern management technology theory of community policing

Policing in the 21st Century requires the use of modern information technology
that could make the jobs of police officers more efficient and effective. In community
policing, there is a need to solve local problems, and technology plays a vital roles in
crime analysis and environmental scanning to determine the problems needed to be
solved. For instance, geographical information system (crime mapping software) can be
used to map the crimes in the are determine what parts of the neighborhood requires
more attention from the police and community members.
This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 5

Democratic theory of community policing

In the traditional policing model, community members have little say on crime
and order problems. However, in community policing, community members are given a
certain latitude of impacting crimes in their own neighborhood. The democratic theory
of community policing uses participative democracy wherein decision-making is
decentralized. Both the police and the community can make decisions and work
together in solving crime problems. The police are expected to follow laws and serve as
a democratic role model in the community. They need to be just and fair. Community
members in turn are expected to be participative in making decisions and taking actions
against crimes and justice problems within the limits of the law.

Zero tolerance theory of community policing

The zero tolerance theory of community policing is based on broken windows

theory, arguing that minor disorders (e.g. vandalism, littering, traffic violations) in the
community will lead to more crimes. Zero tolerance is a policing strategy of vigorously
enforcing laws on minor offenses. Here, the police does not tolerate minor offenses. For
instance, if a police would see a person throwing garbage improperly, the officer would
then apprehend the violator. Some critics, however, argue that this policing strategy is
aggressive and would violate certain rights in the process.

Public relations theory of community policing

This theory posits that the police needs to build a close relationship with the
public to gain their trust and confidence that will lead to their cooperation. The police
can achieve these goals by providing appropriate information, feedback, and contacts
with the community members. In public relations theory, the emphasis is not only on
good public relations but also on interdependence and mutual cooperation.

Communitarian theory of community policing

This theory states that it is the duty of the people to participate in fighting crimes
and preserving order in a community. Community members need to participate in
addressing crime and disorder problems in their neighborhoods. The police need to
emphasis before the public that the latter has the responsibilities not just rights in the
society.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 6

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES

Instruction: Take a video (at least 2 minutes) of yourself discussing what you have
learned from this lesson. Send the video to the FB Page DJB Criminology Students.
Indicate your campus, subject, section, and full name. Thanks. God bless.

TEACHER INTERVENTION

Should you have queries/clarifications related to our class, please send me a

message through FB messenger (FB Account: Dan Jerome Barrera). Submit your outputs
to the FB Page DJB Criminology Students.

ASSESSMENT

Instruction: Write on on a yellow pad page the differences and similarities of the
different theories of community policing. Take a photo of yourself answering the
questions and the yellow pad pages. Send the photos to the FB Page DJB Criminology
Students. Indicate your campus, subject, section, and full name. Thanks. God bless.

ASSIGNMENT

Instruction: Write your answers on one yellow pad paper (300 words per item). Take a
photo of yourself answering the questions and the yellow pad pages. Send the photos
to the FB Page DJB Criminology Students. Indicate your campus, subject, section, and
full name. Thanks. God bless.

1. What were the challenges you faced in working with this module? How did you
deal with them?
2. What were the interesting things you discovered upon working with this module?

REFERENCES

Univeristy of Phoenix (n.d.). Theory of policing. Retrieved from Coursera.com.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 7

LESSON 2 – DECISION MAKING

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

After reading this lesson, you shall be able to:

 discuss the different principles of decision making;
 perform decision-making strategies.

MOTIVATING/PROMPTING QUESTION

What is the importance of decision-making? Before one person acts, he or she

makes a decision first. Indeed, decision-making strategies are important. Hasty
decisions result to failures in an organization. A uniformed personnel who has a service
firearm needs to practice good decision-making. He or she must use discretion to use a
firearm carefully; otherwise, more lives will be lost and he or she might be criminally
liable.

DISCUSSION

Problem solving versus decision making

Many people confuse decision making with problem solving. However, these two
activities are different although related. Problem solving is a process of determining
what is the problem and select among the possible solutions the best one to solve the
problem. On the other hand, decision making is an act of deciding what action to take
in a particular time and circumstance.

We can see, however, that the two are related. Problem solving involves decision
making. But, decision making does not necessarily involve problem solving. Problem
solving involves (1) determining the problem, (2) suggesting several solutions, (3)
selecting among the possible solutions. Notice that this process involves decision
making, not only in the 3rd stage but also in the 1st and 2nd. The one who solves a
problem needs to decide how to determine the problem and what is the real problem.
For example, if the community has a high rate of homicide, one is confronted with the
initial problem of determining which is the real problem: is it the high drug use or is it
poverty? Some would attribute homicides to drug use, but is not drug use the result of

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 8

poverty? In this stage of problem solving, one needs to decide what is the real problem.
Then, that person needs to decide what are the possible solutions available to the
problem solver. Then, finally, he or she needs to decide which of the possible solution is
the best one to effectively solve the problem.

Thus, problem solving is a process; while, decision making is just an act within the
process. We can notice too that before making a decision, we need first to apply the
problem solving steps. A hasty decision without using proper problem solving strategies
will likely result to failures and troubles to the decision maker.

If a police officer, for example, confronts a suspicious person who shouts “I will
kill you” to the police, and the person reaches into his sling bag, the police officer is
confronted with a problem. The officer needs to decide what to do: shall he or she shoot
the person right away while reaching the bag or wait until the officer sees a firearm held
by the suspect? If the officer shoots right away before he sees a firearm held by the
suspect, the officer might be prioritizing his own safety. However, this is a violation of
the law, because not all who reaches his or her bag reaches for a gun and this is not an
overt act of committing a crime. If the officer waits until he sees a firearm lifted by the
suspect from the bag, he might be considering his legal obligations. In this case, the
officer considers either his safety or the law. We can say, therefore, that the act of
decision making involves an act of making a decision based on one knowledge,
projection, and experience.

Individual versus group decision making

Who makes a decision? There are decisions that can be made by one person only,
but there are decisions that require many counselors. As it is commonly known, two is
better than one. But this is always true. Figure 1 shows the pros and cons of individual
and group decision making.

For instance, individual decision making is faster than group decision making, but
individual decision making generates fewer ideas than group decision making (UM,
2015). Group decision making can result to social loafing - the tendency of group
members to exert less effort. Also, group decision making may result to groupthink -
the tendency of not evaluating properly the decision the group chooses.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 9

Figure 1. Individual and group decision making. Retrieved from UM (2015).

Decision making techniques

In group decision making, it is important to generate the most appropriate

decision over any other alternative. Decision making with other group members is
complex, however. There are other persons who are entitled to a decision who may
differ from you in terms of personality, knowledge, capability, attitude, experience, and
background. Thus, there should be strategies on how to arrive sound decisions in a
group; otherwise, conflicts and ineffectiveness will result. These techniques aim to avoid
social loafing and groupthink.

Nominal group technique

This technique ensure the active participation of all members in a group. It

employs these steps:
1. The individual members silently and separately write their ideas and suggestions;
2. All ideas are collected;
3. The group discusses each suggestion; and
4. The group members vote on what decision to take.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 10

Delphi technique

The Delphi technique uses a series of questionnaires that are sent to group
members in different locations. The first questionnaire asks a general question about a
certain problem and possible solutions. Subsequent questionnaires are sent until a
consensus is arrived about which solution to take.

Majority rule

In this technique, each group member has to vote, and the solution that has the
most votes will be chosen by the group members.

Group decision support system

This system is a computer-based system to aid the group in decision making.

There are voluminous data that could not be analyzed by persons; thus, computers are
needed. If there are, for example, 40 thousand crimes that occurred in the province,
determining when, where, and what type of crimes typically occur is difficult for a
human eye in this case. Thus, statistical software is needed to generate helpful
information from voluminous data.

Decision trees

Decision trees are diagrams with boxes containing questions with answers of
“yes”or “no” that help decision makers to avoid errors in routine decision making. This is
especially helpful in decisions wherein discretion should be avoid; otherwise, legal
problems arise. Figure 2 shows the decision tree of handling children in conflict with the
law. This decision tree makes decision making of police officers easier and avoid errors
in decision making due to unallowable discretion.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 11

Figure 2. Decision tree in handling children in conflict with the law. Taken from PNP
(2016).

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES

Instruction: Take a video (at least two minutes) of yourself stating what you have
learned from this lesson. Send the video to the FB Page DJB Criminology Students.
Indicate your campus, subject, section, and full name. Thanks. God bless.

TEACHER INTEVENTION

Should you have queries/clarifications related to our class, please send me a

message through FB messenger (FB Account: Dan Jerome Barrera). Submit your outputs
to the FB Page DJB Criminology Students.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 12

ASSESSMENT

Instruction: Follow the instructions below. Send your outputs to the FB Page DJB
Criminology Students. Indicate your campus, subject, section, and full name. Thanks.
God bless.

1. Determine a problem in your family;

2. Demonstrate the nominal group technique with your family members in
determining how to solve a problem; and
3. Take a video of yourselves performing a nominal group technique.

ASSIGNMENT

Instruction: Write your answers on one yellow pad paper (300 words per item). Take a
photo of yourself answering the questions and the yellow pad pages. Send the photos
to the FB Page DJB Criminology Students. Indicate your campus, subject, section, and
full name. Thanks. God bless.

1. What were the challenges you faced in working with this module? How did you
deal with them?
2. What were the interesting things you discovered upon working with this module?

References

PNP (2016). Manual in handling children at rick and children in conflict with the law.
Quezon City: Philippine National Police.

University of Minnesota (2015). Principles of management. Minneapolis, MN: University

of Minnesota.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 13

Bible Verses for You1

When you need strength

“I can do all things through God, who strengthens me.” Philippians 4:13.

“Humble yourselves, therefore, under God’s mighty hand, that He may lift you up in due
time. Cast all your anxiety on Him because He cares for you.” 1 Peter 5:6-7.

When you are nervous

"Trust in the Lord with all your heart and lean not on your own understanding; in all
your ways acknowledge Him, and He will make your path straight." Proverbs 3:6-7.

When you are feeling overwhelmed

“When spirits grow faint within me, it is you who knows my way.” Psalm 142:3.

When you experience heartbreak

“He heals the brokenhearted and binds up their wounds.” Psalm 147:3.

When you experience grief:

“Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted.” Matthew 5:4.

When you fear the future

“Trust in the Lord with all your heart, and lean not on your own understanding; in all
your ways acknowledge Him, and He shall direct your paths.” Proverbs 3:5-6.

When you seek answers to difficult questions

“Ask, and it will be given to you; seek, and you will find; knock, and it will be opened to
you.” Matthew 7:7.

1
Taken from https://www.theodysseyonline.com/12-bible-verses-for-struggling-college-student
This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.
 14

When you are tired

“Come to me, all you who are weary and burdened, and I will give you rest. Take my
yoke upon you and learn from me, for I am gentle and humble in heart, and you will find
rest for your souls.” Matthew 11:28-29.

When you are overcome by temptation

“So, if you think you are standing firm, be careful that you don’t fall! No temptation has
overtaken you except what is common to mankind. And God is faithful; He will not let
you be tempted beyond what you can bear. But when you are tempted, He will also
provide a way out so that you can endure it.” 1 Corinthians 10:12-13.

When you are looking for peace

“Be anxious for nothing, but in everything by prayer and supplication, with thanksgiving,
let your requests be made known to God; and the peace of God, which surpasses all
understanding, will guard your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus.” Philippians 4:6-7.

"Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do
not let your heart be troubled and do not be afraid." John 14:27.

This is a work of Dan Jerome S. Barrera of the Negros Oriental State University, College of Criminal
Justice Education. Do not use for commercial purposes.