UNIVERSITY OF

CALCUTTA

[DRYING OF WET SOLIDS]

In these series of 4 lectures done using the transcript, power point presentations, class notes (wherever
required). I request all of you to pay your maximum attention and put aside all sorts of distraction for
the next hour or so (as long as you have this transcript in front of your eyes).

To begin let me guide through the topic: “Drying of Wet Solids” and its syllabus from your B.Tech
syllabus from University website:

“Drying: Introduction, drying rate curve, drying mechanism, time of drying from drying rate data,
the mechanism of moisture movement during drying, classification and selection of dryer, direct and
indirect-heat batch and continuous dryers, preliminary design of rotary dryer.”

In the lectures we will cover:

O Introduction and examples.(10 minutes)

O Physical Mechanism of Drying.(20 minutes)

O Important terms related to drying. (15 minutes)

O Drying equilibria.(15 minutes)

O The drying rate curve.(30 minutes)

O Calculation of drying time from drying rate data (including numerical).(20 minutes+ 10 minutes)

O Classification of Dryers, selection of Dryers.(15minutes)

O Direct heat systems.(25 minutes)

O Indirect heat systems(20 minutes)

O Preliminary design of rotary dryer (60 minutes)

Introduction

The removal of moisture from a wet solid, a solution or a gas to make it dry is often used in various
industrial operations, particularly in chemical process industries. Examples are numerous.

For example:

 In the last stage of sugar production, washed and centrifuged sugar crystals are dryed to get the
finished product ready for packaging.
 Drying of leather under controlled conditions is an important step in leather processing.
 Soap bars are dried to reduce the moisture content
 Milk is dried in a spray chamber to produce milk powder.

In all these cases I mentioned above the wet material loses moisture in direct contact with a hot gas.
The hot gas supplies the energy required for drying and also carries away the moisture released by the
solid. There are examples in which the sensitive materials are dried by expulsion of moisture under
vacuum. Direct contact of a heat sensitive material with a hot gas should be avoided in these cases.

Heat is supplied by a heating medium (generally a hot gas) through the wall of the drier. In a few other
cases, particularly in some organic chemical industries, a liquid other than water may have to be
removed from a wet solid.

Thus, 'drying may be defined as an operation in which the liquid, generally water, present in a wet
solid, a suspension or even a solution is removed by vaporization to get a relatively liquid-free solid
product.’ Drying of a solid does not demand or ensure complete removal of the moisture(always
remember this). Sometimes it is desirable to retain a little moisture in the solid after drying (example:
moisture is not removed totally during the drying of a soap bar, a lot of processed foods, etc.).

Drying involves liquid-solid separation. It is rather easy to distinguish drying from other liquid-solid
separation operations like filtration, settling, centrifugation, etc. The latter operation are relatively
simple: the liquid is removed by mechanical means. But considerable amount of liquid is still retained in
the solid. This residual liquid can be removed by drying. There are many examples of separation of water
from solution which are not called drying. The removal of water from a purified soap lye to make
glycerin is called 'evaporation and not drying because the final product is not a solid. Similarly, the
production of condensed milk involves evaporation, but the production of milk powder involves drying.

So to sum up Drying is an important and the residual product should be a solid.

Drying is basically governed by the principles of transport of heat and mass, when a moist solid is heated
to an appropriate temperature, moisture vaporizes at or near the solid surface and the heat required
(sensible heat and the heat of Vaporization) for drying is usually supplied by a hot gas. As soon as some
of the surface moisture vaporizes, more moisture is transported from inside the solid to its surface.
Moisture can move price, more solid by a variety of mechanisms depending upon the nature and type of
the solid and within a solid by a variety of mechanisms depending upon the nature and the type of solids
and its state of aggregation. Various types of solids may have to be handled for drying- crystalline (salt,
sugar etc.), granular, beads (moist polymer beads) powders, sheets, slabs, filter cakes, etc. The
mechanism of moisture transport in different solids may be broadly classified into out by capillary
forces, (10) liquid diffusion (in pressure induced transport, and vapour diffusion. The mechanism that
dominates depends on the nature of the solid, its pore wire and the rate of drying. Also, different
mechanisms may come into play and dominate at different stages of drying of the same material.

In granular and porous solids with an open pore structure, moisture transport occurs due to capillary
forces so long as there is enough moisture in the bulk of the solid. The capillary structure of a bed is
often non uniform. The larger capillaries are emptied first, but the smaller ones continue to supply liquid
to the drying surface. Simultaneously some drying gas enters into the solid through free passages and
cracks. The pore volumes and interstices vacated by the liquid are thus occupied by the gas-vapour
mixture and the volume of such gas-filled space spaces as drying proceeds.

Some solids undergo significant shrinkage on drying. If the drying rate is high, the outer layer up that,
contracts and thereby generates a compressive force to squeeze out moisture from Tor This is pressure
induced transport of liquid within the solid. For colloidal, gelatinous and some other materials that have
an appreciable affinity for water, moisture transport occurs by molecular diffusion of liquid As drying
proceeds, the water concentration near the surface decreases. This creates the driving force for water
diffusion from within the moist me towards its exposed surface. At a low moisture content in a solid,
which is inherently or in which pores are generated in course of drying, vaporization may even occur
appreciably this is what is called below the surface. The vapour thus produced has to diffuse out of the
solid. This is what is called “Vapour diffusion”.

Broadly, three transport resistances play important roles in the drying process. These are (i) the
resistance to liquid or vapour transport inside the solid, (ii) the resistance to convective mass transfer of
vapour from the surface of the solid to the bulk of the gas, and (iii) the resistance to convective heat
transfer from the bulk of the drying gas to the solid surface. Because the solid temperature rises during
drying, a conduction heat transfer resistance also becomes important particularly at low moisture
content of the solid. More than one of these resistances frequently found to become significant.
CASE HARDENING

Another phenomenon may occur in the drying of certain solids like a soap bar. If drying is rapid, the
outer surfaces lose moisture very quickly become hard and impervious to moisture. Under such a
condition, drying almost stops although sufficient moisture is still there inside. This is called 'case
hardening’. A controlled rate of drying by adjustment of the temperature and humidity of the drying gas
is necessary to avoid such a phenomenon and to get a product of desired moisture content.

DRYING EQUILIBRIA

Drying equilibrium means the relation between the moisture content of a solid and the humidity of the
ambient drying medium at equilibrium. Like other mass transfer operations, drying or loss of moisture
by vaporization occurs till the moisture content of the solid is more than the equilibrium value under the
prevailing state (temperature and moisture content of the ambient medium. The moisture present in a
solid exerts a pressure which is equal to or less than the vapour pressure of water at a particular
temperature. It all depends upon the nature of the solid, its moisture content and the temperature. For
a non-hygroscopic material The equilibrium moisture content is essentially zero at all temperature and
humidity conditions of the ambient medium. For example, the equilibrium moisture in asbestos fibre,
which is essentially non hygroscopic, is very small even at nearly 100% humidity of the ambient gas
Hygroscopic materials, on the other hand, show different equilibrium moisture contents depending
upon the temperature and humidity,

Equilibrium moisture in a solid can be determined experimentally by keeping the material suspended in
a gas of a constant humidity and temperature for a sufficiently long time. Weights of the solid at
equilibrium as well as in 'bone dry condition are to be noted. Moisture content is generally expressed as
the mass of moisture per unit mass of bone dry solid. Below a certain moisture content and at a
particular temperature, the vapour pressure of moisture over a moist solid becomes less than the
vapour pressure of pure water at that temperature. All moisture below this threshold value is called
"bound moisture and that above is called 'unbound moisture’.
Important terms and their definition:

The more important quantities and terms in relation to drying are explained below

 Moisture content: As stated before, the moisture content is the quantity of moisture in wet solid
generally expressed in the mass ratio unit (kg moisture per kg dry solid). However, can also be
expressed as a mass fraction or per cent.

 Bound moisture: The amount of moisture in a solid that exerts a vapour pressure less than the
normal vapour pressure of water at the given temperature is called bound moisture

 Unbound moisture: The amount of moisture in a wet solid in excess of the bound is called
unbound moisture. Unbound moisture exerts a vapour pressure equal to that of at the given
temperature.

 Equilibrium moisture: The moisture content in a solid that can remain in equilibrium the drying
medium of a given relative humidity at a given temperature is called equilibrium moisture.

 Free moisture: The moisture in a wet solid in excess of the equilibrium moisture is caller free
moisture. Oil free moisture can be removed by drying under a given set of conditions (the
temperature and humidity of the drying gas).

The time required for drying of a moist solid to a final moisture content can be determined from
knowledge of the rate of drying under a given set of conditions The drying rate of a solid is function of
temperature, humidity. flow rate and transport properties in terms of Reynolds number and Schmidt
number) of the drying gas The drying rate has to be determined experimentally. A simple script for the
purpose is shown in presentation. The moist solid is taken in a pan and kept suspended in the drying
chamber through which the drying gas is passed at a given flow rate. The change in as of the solid with
time is recorded. The mass of the bone dry solid is determined separately.

Performing the experiment we get the rate of drying as --------------------------------------------equation 11.1

Ws=mass of bone dry solid,X = Moisture content at any time t,a=drying area

N=drying rate.

From this we draw the t-X curve as shown in the presentation and then from that we draw the drying
rate curve.
Here dX/dt is the slope of the plot. This can be approximated by the ratio ΔX/Δt. The negative sign in the
equation is used since the moisture concentration x decreases with time dX/dt is inherently negative.
The plot of the drying rate versus the moisture content X, is called the drying rate curve.

A typical experimental X curve for batch drying of a wet solid of initial moisture content X is shown in
presentation. As the hot drying gas starts flowing, the solid warms up. The part of the curve Xi D
represents heating of the solid accompanied by release of moisture. The moisture concentration falls
linearly over the next part or region DE ( dX/dt = constant). So the drying rate given by Equation remains
constant. The corresponding span of time is called the constant rate period. Primarily the unbound
moisture is released over this period, Sections EF and FG show nonlinear drop of the moisture content.
The slope of the curve (dx/dt) decreases in magnitude with increasing time and the drying rate
progressively diminishes. Both these sections. EF and FG represent falling rate periods' The slope of the
curve may have a discontinuity at the point F. The equilibrium moisture content X*is reached at the
point G after which the curve becomes at indicating no further loss of moisture.

The drying rate curve corresponding to the t-X curve is shown in the presentation.

Over the section PQ in the solid gradually gets heated and the rate of drying increases.

Over the section QR. the rate of drying remains constant at The moisture content at the point R in Figure
11.6 (or the corresponding point E in t-X curve) where the constant rate period terminates is called the
critical moisture content' Xc. The section RS represents the first falling rate period (this corresponds to
the section EF in t-X curve). The last section ST is the second falling rate period.

The mechanism of moisture transport and drying is different over different ranges of time or moisture
content as indicated by the two curves. Over the constant rate period, the surface of the solid remains
uniformly moist because of rapid transport of moisture from inside the solid to its surface. There is
virtually no resistance to liquid transport within the solid. At the end of this period, however, dry
patches appear on the surface because the capillary forces are no longer able to transport enough
moisture from within to keep the entire surface moist.
Calculation of the drying time from the drying rate data

The time of drying required to reduce the moisture content of a solid to the desired extent in a dryer can
be calculated using the drying rate data obtained by laboratory experiments. It may be remembered,
however, that the drying conditions (the velocity, the temperature, the humidity of the drying gas as
well as the geometry of the mass of wet solid) in the laboratory apparatus have to be closely similar to
those of the commercial dryer The laboratory tests are generally done under constant drying conditions
Elementary principles of drying calculations have been discussed by Tsao and Wheelock (1967)

The whole derivation is described in form of images here and also verbally
The solution of the problem is given below via an image
Classification of drying equipment

A wide variety of moist solids, slurries and solutions are required to be dried in commercial practice.
Different types of dryers are available to suit specific needs. The performance of drying equipment
depends upon how good the contact between the wet solid and the drying gas is. The gas-solid contact
in dryers may occur in a number of ways. For example:

(a) The wet solid may be taken in a number of trays; the trays are stacked in the drying chamber
maintaining a gap or clearance so that the drying gas may be passed over the exposed top
surface of the solid spread on a tray. This is called cross-circulation drying The drying rate is low
because moisture is transported to the drying surface by diffusion through the layer of moist
solid (Example- tray dryer)
(b) The wet solid may be taken on a perforated (or screened bottom) tray or on a moving belt. The
hot drying gas passes through the bed of the solid. This is called through circulation drying
Because all the wet solid particles are exposed to the gas, the effective drying area and the
drying rate are much larger than in the case of cross- circulation drying [Example: conveyor or
band dryer]

(c) The solid may move through a slightly inclined rotating shell The solid is simultaneously lifted by
a number of lights fitted to the inner wall of the shell and showered in the hot drying gas flowing
through the hell [Example rotary dryer]

(d) The wet solid is taken in a cylindrical vessel of suitable design The drying gas flows at a
considerably high velocity such that the wet solid is dried under suspended" or Fluid' condition.
Drying occurs uniformly and at a high rate. [Example flash dryer.]

(e)If the feed is a solution or slurry, it may be sprayed as fine droplets to ensure efficient contact
with the hot gas (example: spray dryer). A thick liquid or slurry may be fed on the surface of a heated
rotating drum where it spreads on the surface and gets dried thereon (example, drum dryer).

Many industrial dryers work on the above strategies of contacting the feed (ie the material to be dried)
with the drying gas, However, the modes of operation of and energy supply to the dryers vary. Industrial
dryers may be classified on one or more of these basis:

Mode of operations

A dryer may operate batch-wise or in the continuous mode, correspondingly the dryers may be classified
as batch or continuous. A batch dryer has a low equipment and installation cost, it is easy to operate,
and is more versatile in possible applications. If necessary, the same dryer may be used to dry different
materials. Batch dryers are generally suitable for small production capacities.
(b) State of the wet solid:

The wet feed to a dryer may range from a liquid solution, a slurry, a paste, or a filter-cake to free-flowing
powders, granular or fibrous solids or lumps. Dryers may be classified on this basis too.

(c) Method of energy supply: Heat energy required for drying may be supplied directly by a hot
drying gas, or it may be supplied indirectly through the wall of the dryer from a hot gas flowing
outside the wall. The dryers are correspondingly called "direct-heat or indirect heat dryers. In
some cases an inert gas may flow through the dryer in direct contact with the wet solid, but it is
not hot and does not supply any energy. It rather acts as a carrier of the vapour generated
during drying. Heat is supplied from outside the wall.

Classification of Dryers
DIRECT-HEAT BATCH DRYER: TRAY AND TRUCK DRYERS

The direct-heat batch dryer is simple in construction and includes trays, trucks, shelf and cabinet dryers
which are similar in construction, operation and application. The wet material is spread evenly on a
number of trays which are stacked one over another inside an insulated cabinet. A part of the gas
circulates inside the cabinet and the rest leaves the dryer carrying the evaporated moisture. The
temperature, the humidity and the velocity of air may be regulated as required by adjusting the gas flow
rate, be recirculation rate and the steam rate. Adjustable vanes on both ends of a tray are used to
regulate the recirculation rate and the air velocity over it. A batch truck dryer operates like an ordinary
tray dryer, except that the trays are stacked upon the trucks which are pushed into the dryer cabinet
over pairs of rails. Several trucks may be accommodated in the same cabinet. The mode of drying is
called 'cross-circulation drying' because the hot gas is blown across the trays. The gas velocity is usually
maintained within 0.3 to 3 m/s. Uniform flow over the trays is required for uniform drying. Any stagnant
pocket or non-uniform flow of the gas on a tray will cause uneven drying. This may be a serious problem
of a tray dryer. About 80-95% of the air is re-circulated to maintain a reasonably high air velocity (the
recirculation rate may be kept low at the initial period of drying when the rate of moisture release is
high).

The trays may be rectangular or square, the area varies between 0.5 and I m 2 per tray. The tray
dimension in the direction of gas flow is generally less than 0.75 m. The depth of wet solid on a tray is I
to 5 cm Fresh air is drawn through a dust filter Pressure drop should remain between 25 and 5 cm water
column. Indirect heating of the solid by providing radiator coils above each tray is done if direct contact
with a hot drying gas is not desirable Applications and advantages: Tray dryers are used for materials like
wet filter cake, fine chemicals, pasty substances, etc. These are especially suited for drying different
materials in different batches in the same dryer. Fragile materials can be conveniently dried in tray dryer
The advantages of tray dryers are: low cost, less space requirement, case of cleaning accessibility and
good control of drying conditions. Formation of stagnant air pockets in some regions, which leads to
non-uniform drying, may be a problem with tray dryers. Perforated trays may be used instead of solid-
bottom trays when the material to be dried is granular. In this design a large part of the air or gas flows
through the bed. This is called the 'through-circulation' mode of drying because the gas flows through
the solid. The most serious disadvantage of tray dryer is the high operating cost, particularly the cost of
labour for loading and unloading of the trays.
DIRECT-HEAT CONTINOUS DRYERS

Drying occurs at a faster rate in a direct-heat continuous unit. The wet materials spread on trays od on
trucks which move slowly through the drying chamber and get dried by the time leaves the chamber. In
another design, the solid may form a thin bed on a moving perforated belt through which the drying gas
flows.

Tunnel Truck Dryers are direct-heat continuous dryers similar to batch tray or truck dryers, except that
trucks. These are directed with trays move through a long tunnel. The trucks are put into the tunnel one
after another at a regular interval and are pulled by a chain towards the other end of the tunnel. Each
truck takes a certain time to traverse the length of the tunnel. This is the drying time (including the time
reheating). A fixed number of trucks remain in the tunnel at any time. Tracks or rails are provided in the
tunnel for the trucks to advance smoothly. Hot air flows through the tunnel co-current or
countercurrent to the trucks. Fans are sometimes provided on the tunnel wall to the hot air across the
trays on the trucks, Steam coils may be provided in the tunnel for heating. A part of the air is usually
recycled as in a batch tray dryer.

A band dryer is also a direct-beat continuous type dryer . It basically consists of a perforated moving belt
(a screen or a perforated steel belt; the minimum size of the open is 30 mesh) onto which the wet solid
is fed at one end. The belt moves into a drying cabinet the hot gas passes through the layer of moist
solid. The solid is carried through the cabinet and discharged at the opposite end. A uniform rate of
feeding and distribution of the material our the conveyer is necessary in order to prevent a higher flow
rate of drying air through the thinner regions of the bed. Maldistribution of air flow leads to uneven
drying of the solid

Drying occurs by 'through circulation in a band or conveyor dryer. The superficial gas velocity remains
between 0.25 and 1.5 m/s: about 60-90% of the drying gas is recycled. The total pressure drop of the gas
is about 5 cm water. A bed thickness of 3 to 15 cm is common. The conveyer length varies from 4 to 50
m, width from 0.7 to 4 m, and the solid loading rates from 15 to 80 kg/m. The steam consumption for
heating the drying gas in about 2 kg per kg moisture removed. The band dryer is suitable for rather
coarse particles, i.e. products in the form of extrudates, granular, pellets or briquettes. Typical
applications include drying of catalyst pellets, chemicals such as pigments, resin particles, food products
like nuts, fruits, cereals, sliced carrots, etc. Pasty materials are often performed into pellets or any other
suitable shape by extrusion before being fed to the conveyor.

Rotary Dryers- Rotary dryers, called the 'workhorse of chemical dryers', belong to the most widely used
of continuous dryers in process industries. These dryers are suitable for relatively free-Dow non-sticky
and granular materials, for example, almost all types of crystals after crystallization and washing. Typical
applications of rotary dryers are in drying of table salt, sodium sulphate ammonium sulphate and many
other salts, drying of sand, minerals, organic solids, polymer beads, to mention a few. A rotary dryer
consists of a slowly rotating slightly inclined shell fed with the moist solid at the upper end. The material
flows along the rotating shell ,gets dried and leaves the dryer at the lower end.
INDIRECT-HEAT BATCH SYSTEMS

This class of equipment includes jacketed-shelf dryers, rotary vacuum dryer, agitated pan dryer freeze
dryers, etc. They find applications in fields ranging from drugs, fine chemicals.paints, varnishes and
plasticizers to substances that cannot tolerate exposure to the hot drying gas for possible degradation or
damage of quality. Characteristics and selection of dryers of this category have been discussed by
Lattman and Laible (2000).

Jacketed-shelf Dryers-As the name implies, the wet substance is taken on jacketed shelves healed by
steam, hot water, oil or by a hot gas flowing through the jacket up to twenty shelves may be
accommodated in the cabinet. An inert gas flowing at small rate over the shelves picks up the vapor
generated during drying A shelf dryer operating under vacuum is called a vacuum shelf dryer The vapour
is drawn through a pipe and condensate the non-condensibles are expelled into the ambient by the
vacuum device a wet or dry vacuum pump or a steam jet ejector). A vacuum dryer is suitable positive
and oxidizable materials, a stream of nitrogen can be used for blanketing and for her the wet solid
contains a solvent (other than water) that needs to be recovered by condensation

Agitated Pan Dryer -An agitated pan dryer is a bowl or a shallow cylindrical vessel to 3m in diameter)
provided with a slow-moving stirrer (2 to 20 rpm Heating is done by steam or a hot fluid flowing through
a jacket on the pun. A vapour collection blood is fitted above the pan. The vapour generated may he
vented or may be drawn and condemned under vacuum if recovery of the vapour is desired I is suitable
for hot granular and pasty materials. The type of agitator and its rpm depend upon the material to be
dried

Conical Vacuum Dryer –It is provided with a heating jacket and a slow-moving for the wet solid. A
moderate vacuum, generally not below 10 mm Hg. is used .The vapour drawn by the vacuum device may
be condensed if recovery is desired. The conical shape allows fast discharge of the dry product through
the bottom. This kind of dryer is used for drying powder dyes chemicals, and pharmaceuticals

INDIRECT-HEAT CONTINUOUS DRYERS

In indirect-heat continuous dryers, heat transfer to the wet material occurs by conduction through the
wall of the dryer. Steam, hot water, oil or a gas may be used as the heating medium.

Electrical heating may also be done. This type of dryer is particularly suited if the solvent vapour is to be
recovered or an inert atmosphere is to be maintained to prevent damage or oxidation of the product.
Dusting materials can also be handled satisfactorily.
Indirect-heat Rotary Dryer Indirect-heat rotary dryer is basically similar to the direct-heat type except
that the heating medium does not come in direct contact with the solid or the drying gas. This gives a
better thermal efficiency that may be as high as 95%, and loss of heat through the heating gas is much
less exit temperature of the gas may be substantially reduced if two passes of the gas are used to apply
of heat may be done through the shell wall or through tubes provided within the shell

Indirect heat or steam-tube rotary dryers are used where a clean and inert heating atmosphere to be
maintained. For example, drying of terephthalic acid (powder. -150 mesh) in the final se of its
production is done in a steam-tube rotary dryer. Oxygen-lean vent gas (less than 6 gen) from the p-
xylene oxidation reactor is stripped of the organic vapour and passed through dryer. Direct drying by hot
air cannot be done since degradation of the material occurs.

Drum Dryer A drum dryer consists of one or two steam-heated rotating drums. The feed, a solution or
slurry, forms a thin layer on the drum. The film thickness can be controlled by an adjustable blade ( for a
single-drum unit) or by adjusting the gap between the drums (for a two-drum be blown over the feed
gets dried in contact with the healed drums. A gas, normally air, may be blow lakes, 1-3 mm thick
surface for quick removal of moisture. The dry product is scrapped off as flakes, 1-3 mm thick.

Another important type of indirect-heat continuous equipment is the screw dryer is suitable for a free-
flowing granular material. The material is dried as it is fed and per through a jacketed barrel or trough by
two or more screws. Heating may be done by DR steam or a hot fluid through the hollow screws. If such
a dryer is open to the atmosphere is called a rough dryer

Freeze Dryer

The technique of freeze drying is adopted for dehydrating heat-sensitive and perishable materials like
seafood, meat, fruits, vegetables, pharmaceuticals, etc. The material is first foreign so the the liquid
(water) gets separated by crystallization in the form of ice. The simplest freeze dne is a vacuum shell-
type unit operated at an absolute pressure less than about 0.8 mm Hg. 1 temperature may be -20°C or
even less. The ice crystals in the solid sublimate under vacuum and the vapour is condensed at about
-60°C. Heat of vaporization may be supplied through on a tray. The driving force for sublimation of ice is
the difference between the sublimate vapour pressure and the condenser pressure. The drying rate is
low, about 0,2-2 kg/m Shrinkage of the material does not occur in freeze drying and the freeze-dried
product can instantly and fully rehydrated when it is used.
Construction and operating features of Rotary dryer

A direct beat counter current rotary dryer assembly is shown in the presentation. The major parts dryer
are also shown. The shell is made of suitable metal or alloy The major Internals' are the flights running
along the shell of the dryer It is essential to keep the solid mixed as it flows in order to avoid
agglomeration or formation of lumps. The flights do this job. As the shell rotates, the flights lift the
flowing solid and shower it in the air stream so as to avoid agglomeration. This also ensures a good
contact between the solid and the hot gas and continuously exposes the solid so that drying of the
particles occurs uniformly. The drying rate is intermediate between tray dryers and fluidized bed dryers.
The flights project radially from the shell wall.

These may be straight or may have a 45 or 90 lip'. These are called straight, 45°- or 90"-flights. For drying
granular materials: 45 - or 90-flights may be used throughout the drying length of the shell. But for
drying sticky materials, the suitable flights are: street lights along one-third of the hell length for the
feed end, 45 flights for the next one third of the length, and 90-flights for the rest. In the drying of sticky
materials it is an effective strategy to recycle . The flights for longs part of the dry product, and mix it
with the wet solid before feeding. This helps to me stickiness of the wet material. However, any solid
sticking to the shell wall or the usually disengaged by external shell knockers' (see Figure 11.13). Flights
may run continue along the length of a dryer, but they are usually 'offset' every 0.7 to 2 m length. This to
construction creates a better mixing of the solid and contact with the gas.

Countercurrent flow in a rotary dryer ensures more uniform distribution of the temperature driving
force along the shell, there is a substantial temperature difference between the gas and the solid all
through. Typical gas and solid temperature profiles in a countercurrent rotary dryer are shown in Figure
11.15. Nearly dry solid comes in contact with fresh hot gas and the temperature of the solid is
substantially raised to complete drying if there is some bound moisture. This rise of temperature may
damage a heat-sensitive material In a cocurrent or parallel flow unit, on the other hand, the wet solid
comes in con with the fresh hot gas. Because the solid has enough moisture in it, its temperature
remains com to the wet-bulb temperature of water till most of the moisture is removed. By that time
the temperature decreases significantly because of supply of heat for drying. Cocurrent operator
suitable for drying heat-sensitive materials.
Gas heating:

Hot flue gases may sometimes be directly used for drying. But if the used for But if there is a possibility
of the solid product being contaminated in contact with the flue gas, a clean hem gas is necessary. Air or
nitrogen may be heated in a gas- or oil-fired heater or in a finned-tube steam-heater and fed to the
dryer.

Solid feeding:

The solid-feeder should push the wet solid into the drier at the top end but les allow the drying gas to
escape through it. A screw feeder is most convenient because it acts as a gas-seal too, A conveyor-mixer
may be used if a part of the dry product is mixed with a sticky feed to reduce its stickiness. A chute
extending into the shell may also be used for feeding

Dust collection:

The exit gas from a rotary dryer often carries over or entrance considerable agents of fines. If the
carryover of dust is substantial, the gas is led to a cyclone or a bag filter to seperate the fines. If there is
excessive dusting the mass flow rate of the dryer of the hot gas is kept low. The majority of rotary
dryers operate at gas velocities below 2 m/s

Support and drive of the dryer: A full-scale rotary dryer has a huge weight and is supported on
assemblies of trunnion and thrust roll. Anti-friction pillow blocks are used in modern stallions. A motor
of high rating rotates the dryer through a speed reduction device and a girth gear on the periphery of
the shell. The shell is properly insulated against heat loss to the ambient

Heat efficiency: The fraction or percentage of the thermal energy of the hot gas that d for drying is
called the 'heat efficiency' or 'thermal efficiency of the dryer. The rest of applied energy leaves the dryer
with the gas or is lost to the ambient. Heat efficiency of a dryer may vary from about 20% to 80%
depending upon the operating temperature.