I.

Pesticide Use in the Philippines: Assessing the Contribution of

IRRI’s Research to Reduced Health Costs

The use of pesticides in rice production in the Philippines grew rapidly during the
1970s and into the 1980s. This was partially due to fears that the benefit from
planting new varieties of rice would be negated by crop losses from pests. By the
mid-1980s, though, it was apparent that the indiscriminate use of pesticides could
create biological imbalances that could intensify a pest problem rather than mitigate
it.

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) contributed to the research

community between 1989 and 1992, in the Philippines 1 particularly to private health
risks of using insecticides in rice cultivation are high and any future economic
benefits are daunting1. The research resulted to restricting those hazardous
pesticides that have immediate or permanent health effects or adversely impact the
environment; or, if not feasible, a preferential pricing strategy, charging the most
harmful pesticides at higher prices than the least toxic substitutes, is not feasible.

Accordingly, while the body of such studies has demonstrated conclusively that
insecticides are detrimental to farmers' health and contracted sprayers, politicians
would not have been able to prohibit extremely toxic pesticides because they were
not confident that farmers had alternate means of controlling pests. From the mid-to
late-1970s onwards, IRRI's research and production of pest-resistant rice cultivars
and the implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) to the Philippines
provided farmers with less toxic pest control alternatives. According to the result of
IRRI's research on IPM, indicating that more judicious usage of pesticides does not
result in yield losses, are regarded by the Pesticide Policy and Technical Advisory
Committee (PPTAC) while giving pesticide policy guidance to the FPA.

____________
1. See, for example: Pingali, P.L. and Roger, P.A., Eds. 1995. Impact of Pesticides on Farmers’ Health
and the Rice Environment. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Norwell, Massachusetts, USA and
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI): Los Baños, Laguna, the Philippines. 664 pp.
2. This brief summarizes research described in full in: Templeton, D.J. and Jamora, N. 2008 (in press).
Economic Assessment of IRRI’s Policy-orientated Research into the Private Health Costs of Pesticide
Use in Rice Farming in the Philippines. IRRI Impact Assessment Report No. 1. International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI): Los Baños, Laguna, the Philippines
 II. Agrochemical use in the Philippines and its consequences to the
environment

The new system of industrial agriculture encourages dependence on

agrochemicals, both synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, while neglecting to take into
account their adverse effects on the local community's economy, human health and
the environment. According to the authors 1 of the study, the inappropriate and
incorrect usage of chemical fertilizers in crop soils is causing soil erosion and soil
productivity declines worldwide. Moreover, agrochemicals cause water
contamination that affects human health directly and indirectly. According to the
Jurisdiction of National Economy and Development (NEDA), 37% of gross water
contamination comes from livestock activities that require drainage from agricultural
waste and fertilizers and pesticides. Water contamination from fertilizer runoff-
derived nitrates is more severe than previously believed in the Philippines.

In fragile areas of the ocean, agricultural runoff fuels massive algal blooms,
especially in tropical marine habitats that are naturally low in nitrogen. Accordingly,
Algal blooms can contribute to the proliferation of toxin-producing algal species. This
may result in neurological, amnesiac, paralytic, and/or diarrheic shellfish toxicity in
human consumers when the algae are swallowed by shellfish.

This study has shown that, the future of agriculture lies in a new form of
agriculture that operates, not against, with nature and with people. Millions of farms
on all continents have already proven that organic and sustainable agriculture can
produce adequate food, improve food security, replenish natural resources, and
provide farmers and local populations with a better livelihood.

________________
1. Reyes Tirado. Greenpeace Research Laboratories. University of Exeter (UK)
David Bedoya. Vladimir Novotny. Northeastern University, Boston (USA)
2. www.greenpeace.org.ph. Agrochemical use in the Philippines and its consequences to the environment.
Greenpeace Southeast Asia. February 2008.
3. National Economic and Development Authority in the Philippines (2004a). Medium Term Philippine
Development Plan. Chapter 2: Agribusiness. Available at: http://www.neda.gov.ph
 III. Importance of Pesticides for Growing Rice in South and South East
Asia
According to the research of the authors, there is wide potential for substantial
growth in crop yields in Asia with the implementation of Good Agricultural Practices.
Judicious use of pesticides can increase yields.

FUNGICIDES

Fungicides for sheath blight control have resulted in a rice yield increase of 20%.
Farmers and agronomists across the region have not been adequately trained to
correctly diagnose the diseases.

HERBICIDES

According to an Analysis in Bangladesh, herbicide implementations would

achieve comparable rice yields with a considerable reduction in labor requirements
and overall costs of hand weedings. Bangladesh's economic study of rice production
showed that the net profits from the application of herbicides were 116% more than
that of hand weeding.

INSECTICIDES

The introduction of new selective insecticides non-toxic to natural enemies

has improved the management of rice insect pests.

Southeast Asian rice production has increased by about 40% from 2000 to
2013. Rice production in South Asia increased by about 30%. Increased use of
pesticides has been one of the contributing factors.

_______________

1. Leonard Gianessi, Director of the Crop Protection Research Institute. International Pesticide Benefits
Case Study No. 108. Crop Protection Research Institute. October 2014
2. Heong, K. L., and M. M. Escalada. 1999. Quantifying rice farmers’ pest management decisions: beliefs
and subjective norms in stem borer control. Crop Protection. 18:315-322.
 IV. New rice technologies and challenges for food security in Asia and
the Pacific

The authors1 of this study has analyzes factors regulating the long-term demand-
supply balance of rice in Asia and the technical challenges of rice production, in
order to preserve the supply-demand equilibrium.

The concern is whether, at the beginning of the 21st century, Asia will be able to
preserve favorable food balances and further boost food and nutrition security for
low-income households. Considering these perspectives:

1. Income effect - As incomes increase beyond a threshold, people can afford to

have a high-cost balanced diet. The rate of change in per capita consumption
of food staples over the next three decades will then depend on the relative
strength of the upward pressure for low-income countries.
2. Urbanization2 - Demand for rice is destined to decline as an ever-larger
proportion of people live in urban areas. As people move from rural to urban
areas, energy needs decrease somewhat.
3. Population Growth3 - In the developed world, the demand for cereals as
human food has been declining. In many Asian countries, population growth
continues to range from 1.5 to over 3.0 percent per year. The exceptions are
Japan, China, the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Sri Lanka.
4. Technological Challenges - The challenge is to help maintain a continuous
increase in food supplies despite limited natural resources and declining
arable land and water supplies.

According to the authors’ resolution, maintaining a favorable rice supply-demand

balance in Asia in the future depends largely on the exploitation of the production
capacity of rain fed systems in low-income countries. To make headway in the
development of appropriate technologies for resource-poor environments will require
mobilizing the best of science and the best scientists.

___________________

1. M. Hossaina and Josephine H. Narcisob - aHead and bDatabase Administrator, Social Sciences Division,
IRRI, Manila, Philippines
2. UN. 2002b. World urbanization prospects: The 2001 Revision. Population Division, New York
3. Barker, R. & Herdt, R.W. 1985. The rice economy of Asia. Washington D.C., Resources for the Future.
Bender, W. & Smith, M. 1997. Population, food and nutrition. Population Bull., 51(4): 5-7.
 V. Strategies to sustain and enhance Asia-Pacific rice production
According to the authors1 of the study, sustained and increased productivity and
development of Asian rice and rice land are vital to the food security and political-
economic stability of the country.

The science-led rice revolution which triggered the green revolution in the 1960s
led to a significant drop in the level of hunger and poverty in rice-growing Asia. World
Food Summit goal of halving the number of malnourished persons by 2015 must be
met. Asian rice lands must considerably increase rice production, reaching 540, 665,
and 765 Mt per year in 1996, 2015, and 2030. Average rice yield must increase from
3.5 to 4.6 t/ha in the period from 1996 to 2030. With this, a four-pronged attack is
needed to achieve the goal2 were listed by the authors:

1. Preserve and realize the gains achieved during the green revolution,
especially bridging the yield gaps and reducing post-harvest losses;
2. Increase the potential for rice yields and value-adding enterprises;
3. Facilitate integrated and environment-friendly natural resources management;
and
4. Initiate appropriate policies for investment, including those in research and
technology development, trade liberalization and globalization, institutional
supports, gender mainstreaming and human resources development.

In conclusion of the study, there are numerous technological, social, economic,

institutional, and infrastructural opportunities for addressing the various challenges
and constraints to increased sustainability and productivity. FAO, in particular RAP,
in partnership with national and international systems and institutions concerned, is
well placed to help initiate and encourage appropriate initiatives to support and
increase the quality of Asian and global rice.

____________________

1. R.B. Singha T. Woodheadb and M.K. Papademetriouca aAssistant Director-General, bConsultant and
c
Senior Plant Production and Protection Officer Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, FAO, Bangkok,
Thailand
2. Cantrell, R.P. 2000. Integrated natural resources management for sustainable production: Regional
efforts and concerns - opportunities and challenges - IRRI’s perspective. Paper presented at the Sixth
General Assembly of APAARI and Expert Consultation, Chiang Rai, Thailand, Nov. 2000.
 VI. Issues and challenges in rice technological development for
sustainable food security

The study discussed the current rice production situation with the goal of
addressing problems and concerns pertaining to economically sustainable
production. According to the author 1, there are far from different problems with the
current rice situation and long-term demands, as solutions for the current crisis could
have a significant effect on fulfilling future needs.

The author1 highlighted the pertinent issue; the ability to fulfill potential rice
requirements will be hampered by many evolving problems. The most significant
restrictions on sustainable rice production are yield stagnation and insufficient land
and water supplies for expanding rice areas 2. Nutritional quality issues, genetic
erosion and environmental degradation demand more stringent rice production
choices, especially with regard to internal rice production.

Future needs were also addressed by the author, which are scientific
development and new issues in the rice industry sector, on the other hand, offer
opportunities which, if properly harnessed, can lead to sustainable production.
Urbanization offers new approaches to rice marketing, and with rising incomes, there
is an increased demand for quality rice. Biotechnological tools and other advanced
breeding methods could help to generate rice varieties with higher-yielding potential.

In conclusion of the author, low rice prices in the international market could
have a depressing effect on production in Asia if the situation continues. Several
countries have taken advantage of the poor economic returns on rice cultivation. It is
unclear how long many countries can continue to provide the required support, given
the huge financial costs.

________________

1. M. Solh. Director, Plant Production and Protection Division, FAO, Rome, Italy Chairperson, Steering
Committee of the International Rice Commission
2. Tuong, T.P. & Bouman, B.A.M. 2002. Rice production in water-scarce environments. In Proceedings of
International Conference on Irrigation Water Management. (In press)
 VII. Biotechnology for rice breeding: progress and impact

The current world population of 6.1 billion is expected to reach 8.0 billion by
2030. Rice production must increase by 50 percent in order to meet the growing
demand.

According to the authors1, recent advances in cellular and molecular biology and
rice biotechnology2 have produced new tools to increase the efficiency of these two
Plant breeding phases;

1. The evolutionary phase, where variable populations are created - Genetic

variability for agronomic traits is the key component of breeding programs for
broadening the gene pool of both rice and other crops. Breeders search for
genetic variability in other gene pools involving wild relatives of Oryza. New
techniques are applied for the creation and transfer of variability through soma
clonal variation and genetic engineering, and
2. The evaluation phase, where superior genotypes are selected - Selection
efficiency in doubled haploid (DH) lines is higher, especially when dominance
variation is significant. DH lines are also useful for developing mapping
populations for molecular analysis. In the Philippines, one of the anther-
culture-derived lines, IR 51500-AC-11-1, has been named as variety
PSBRc50. Many DH lines produced through another culture are now being
used as parents in breeding programs.

In conclusion of the authors, through the application of biotechnology tools, many

rice cultivars have been developed. There will be even more going forward. The
availability of rice cultivars with higher yield potential, durable resistance to diseases
and insects, tolerance to abiotic stresses and higher levels of micronutrients in the
grain will depend on future food and nutritional security. Conventional breeding
methods and biotechnology tools will help meet these challenges.

__________________

1. G.S. Khusha and D.S. Brarb. aFormer Programme Leader and bPlant Breeder Plant Breeding, Genetics
and Biochemistry Division, IRRI, Philippines
2. Chen, L., Marmey, P., Taylor, N.J., Brizard, J., Espinoza, C., D’Cruz, P. Huet, H., Zhang, S., de Kochko,
A., Beachy, R.N. & Fauquet, C.M. 1998. Expression and inheritance of multiple transgenes in rice
plants. Nature Biotechnology, 16: 1060-1064.
 VIII. Golden Rice
According to a study, Golden Rice 1, was developed by a team of European
scientists in the late '90s in the hope of combating the problem, was genetically
engineered to provide an essential nutrient that white rice lacks: beta-carotene,
which in the body is transformed into vitamin A.

Micronutrient deficiencies are the consequence of low dietary intake of iron,

vitamin A, iodine, and zinc. Vitamin A deficiency is prevalent among the poor whose
diets are based mainly on rice. Rice does not contain any beta-carotene (provitamin
A)

The author2 has enlisted the challenges of the golden rice project;

1. The Social Challenge - 'Golden Rice' is a principle of genetic modification for

the production of nutrient-dense staple crops that can make an important
contribution in developed countries to the elimination of malnutrition.
2. The Scientific Challenge - Protein Deficiency, Iron Deficiency and Vitamin A
deficiency.
3. The Challenge of Free Donation to Developing Countries - designed to help
poor people in developing countries. New technology must be passed on to
subsistence farmers and the urban poor for free.
4. The Challenge of Safe Technology Transfer and Variety Development
5. The Challenge of Aradical Gmo Opposition and Consumer Acceptance - A
"Humanitarian Board" was established to ensure proper handling of the GMO
(genetically modified organism) material.
6. The Challenge of Deregulation - Food derived from transgenic plants must
successfully pass all requirements set up by regulatory authorities.

Accordingly, Golden Rice promises to help prevent millions of deaths and to

alleviate the suffering of children and adults in developing countries suffering
from VAD and micronutrient malnutrition.

_______________

1. AIM students. Attitudes and Influences relevant to Golden Rice’s potential use in the Philippines. Golden
Rice Humanitarian Board.
2. I. Potrykus. Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland Lucca, P., Hurrell, R. & Potrykus,
I. 2001. Genetic engineering approaches to improve the bioavailability and the level of iron in rice
grains. Theor. Appl. Genetics, 102: 392-397.
 IX. Innovative Low-Cost, Labor-Saving Technology for Rice
Transplanters Using Dense Seedling and Automatic Adjustment of
Planting Depth

Dense seedling1 transplanting is a technology for reducing the number of

seedling mats needed per unit area. The rice transplanter requires a high level of
precision to pick up three to five seedlings per hill. This cuts material costs and
saves labor by reducing the amount of work needed for raising, transporting, and
supplying the seedlings. The company 2 developed the technology by integrating
cultivation techniques using dense sowing together with raising seedlings and
transplanting techniques.

The following findings have been verified for the production of dense seedling
transplant technology that incorporates high density cultivation techniques for sowing
and growing seedlings and precise transplanting techniques;

1. The amount of seedling mats used can be decreased to between one-half and
one-third of the previous levels and it is therefore possible to reduce material
costs and labor requirements.
2. It is possible to use the same management methods as traditional
transplantation.
3. It is possible to produce the same yield as traditional transplants.

According to the author2 dense seedling transplanting was developed by Yanmar

to show combines cultivation techniques for sowing and raising seedlings at high
density and techniques for precise transplanting. The technology was recognized in
the "Newest Agricultural Technology/Variety 2016" published by the Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries in 2016. The YRD series of rice transplanters
that incorporate this technology was launched in 2016 and was found in a market
survey of users and distributors to be well evaluated for their ease-of-operation.

_______________

1. Dense seedling is a technique for sowing and raising seedlings at high density and with high accuracy.
2. Shoichi Nakamura. Development Division. Innovative Low-Cost, Labor-Saving Technology for Rice
Transplanters Using Dense Seedling and Automatic Adjustment of Planting Depth. YANMAR
AGRIBUSINESS CO., LTD. April 13, 2018
 X. Technological priorities in rice production among smallholder
farmers in Ghana
The study looked at the adoption of rice productivity-enhancing agricultural
technologies in Ghana. They found that smallholder farmers' adoption decisions
could be affected by the interdependencies of rice technology. The authors 1 say this
could lead to invalid inferences and incorrect conclusions about farmers' decisions.

The authors1 highlighted these factors in the study;

 Rice farmers were more likely to adopt fertilizer only after adopting the
improved rice variety but not vice versa.
 Adopters of the improved rice varieties were more likely to use inputs
separately or simultaneously adopt all technologies.
 Education and complementary input availability consistently predicted the
adoption of five technology bundles.
 Extension contacts and farm size consistently and significantly predicted the
adoption of all technology bundles.
 Complementary input availability and participation in field demonstrations
were the strongest predictors of adoption.

The authors recommend that Smallholder farmers' adoption decisions are

predicted by farm size, extension contacts, education, and participation in-field
demonstrations. Future technology promotion activities should concurrently reduce
farmers' subjective uncertainties and risks, authors say. The authors also
recommend promoting credit access and subsidies, as well as ensuring effective
input delivery systems.

_________________

a
1. Edward T. Sinigo and bJere R.Behrman. aInnovations for Poverty Action, P. O. Box KT 50, Kotobabi,
Accra, Ghana bWilliam R. Kenan Jr. Professor of Economics & Sociology, Population Studies Center
Research Associate, University of Pennsylvania, USA
 CONCLUSION/SUMMARY

The use of pesticides in rice production in the Philippines grew rapidly during
the 1970s and into the 1980s.
This was partially due to fears that the benefit from planting new varieties of
rice would be negated by crop losses from pests.
By the mid-1980s, though, it was apparent that the indiscriminate use of
pesticides could create biological imbalances that could intensify a pest
problem rather than mitigate it.
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) contributed to the research
community between 1989 and 1992, in the Philippines1 particularly to private
health risks of using insecticides in rice cultivation are high and any future
economic benefits are daunting1.
Accordingly, while the body of such studies has demonstrated conclusively
that insecticides are detrimental to farmers' health and contracted sprayers,
politicians would not have been able to prohibit extremely toxic pesticides
because they were not confident that farmers had alternate means of
controlling pests.
The new system of industrial agriculture encourages dependence on
agrochemicals, both synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides while neglecting to
take into account their adverse effects on the local community's economy,
human health, and the environment.
The inappropriate and incorrect usage of chemical fertilizers in crop soils is
causing soil erosion and soil productivity declines worldwide.
Agrochemicals cause water contamination that affects human health directly
and indirectly.
According to the Jurisdiction of National Economy and Development (NEDA),
37% of gross water contamination comes from livestock activities that require
drainage from agricultural waste and fertilizers and pesticides.
Water contamination from fertilizer runoff-derived nitrates is more severe than
previously believed in the Philippines.
According to the research of the authors, there is wide potential for substantial
growth in crop yields in Asia with the implementation of Good Agricultural
Practices.
Judicious use of pesticides can increase yields.
Fungicides for sheath blight control have resulted in a rice yield increase of
20%.
Farmers and agronomists across the region have not been adequately trained
to correctly diagnose the diseases.
Bangladesh's economic study of rice production showed that the net profits
from the application of herbicides were 116% more than that of hand weeding.
Factors regulating the long-term demand-supply balance of rice in Asia and
the technical challenges of rice production, in order to preserve the supply-
demand equilibrium.
The concern is whether, at the beginning of the 21st century, Asia will be able
to preserve favorable food balances and further boost food and nutrition
security for low-income households.
Considering these perspectives: 1.Income effect - As incomes increase
beyond a threshold, people can afford to have a high-cost balanced diet.
The rate of change in per capita consumption of food staples over the next
three decades will then depend on the relative strength of the upward
pressure for low-income countries.
As people move from rural to urban areas, energy needs decrease somewhat.
According to the authors1 of the study, sustained and increased productivity
and development of Asian rice and rice land are vital to the food security and
political-economic stability of the country.
The science-led rice revolution which triggered the green revolution in the
1960s led to a significant drop in the level of hunger and poverty in rice-
growing Asia.
World Food Summit goal of halving the number of malnourished persons by
2015 must be met.
Asian rice lands must considerably increase rice production, reaching 540,
665, and 765 Mt per year in 1996, 2015, and 2030.
Average rice yield must increase from 3.5 to 4.6 t/ha in the period from 1996
to 2030.
The current rice production situation with the goal of addressing problems and
concerns pertaining to economically sustainable production.
According to the author1, there are far from different problems with the current
rice situation and long-term demands, as solutions for the current crisis could
have a significant effect on fulfilling future needs.
The ability to fulfill potential rice requirements will be hampered by many
evolving problems.
The most significant restrictions on sustainable rice production are yield
stagnation and insufficient land and water supplies for expanding rice areas2.
Nutritional quality issues, genetic erosion, and environmental degradation
demand more stringent rice production choices, especially with regard to
internal rice production.
The current world population of 6.1 billion is expected to reach 8.0 billion by
2030.
Rice production must increase by 50 percent in order to meet the growing
demand.
Recent advances in cellular and molecular biology and rice biotechnology
have produced new tools to increase the efficiency of these two Plant
breeding phases; The evolutionary phase, where variable populations are
created - Genetic variability for agronomic traits is the key component of
breeding programs for broadening the gene pool of both rice and other crops.
Breeders search for genetic variability in other gene pools involving wild
relatives of Oryza.
In the Philippines, one of the anther-culture-derived lines, IR 51500-AC-11-1,
has been named as variety PSBRc50.
Golden Rice, was developed by a team of European scientists in the late '90s
in the hope of combating the problem, was genetically engineered to provide
an essential nutrient that white rice lacks: beta-carotene, which in the body is
transformed into vitamin A. Micronutrient deficiencies are the consequence of
low dietary intake of iron, vitamin A, iodine, and zinc.
Vitamin A deficiency is prevalent among the poor whose diets are based
mainly on rice.
'Golden Rice' is a principle of genetic modification for the production of
nutrient-dense staple crops that can make an important contribution in
developed countries to the elimination of malnutrition.
New technology must be passed on to subsistence farmers and the urban
poor for free.
Dense seedling1 transplanting is a technology for reducing the number of
seedling mats needed per unit area.
The rice transplanter requires a high level of precision to pick up three to five
seedlings per hill.
This cuts material costs and saves labor by reducing the amount of work
needed for raising, transporting, and supplying the seedlings.
It is possible to use the same management methods as traditional
transplantation.
Dense seedling, transplanting was developed by Yanmar to show combines
cultivation techniques for sowing and raising seedlings at high density and
techniques for precise transplanting.
The study looked at the adoption of rice productivity-enhancing agricultural
technologies in Ghana.
They found that smallholder farmers' adoption decisions could be affected by
the interdependencies of rice technology.
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