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1976 - (Isham) An Introduction To Quantum Gravity
1976 - (Isham) An Introduction To Quantum Gravity
C.J. Isham*
0. PREFACK
as a p r e c u r s o r t o t h e r a t h e r t e c h n i c a l l c c t u r e s which f o l l o w e d . This i s
a t t i t u d e s r a t h e r t h a n with s p e c i f i c , up t o d a t e , t e c h n i c a l t o o l s . The
scheme of t h e p a p e r i s as f o l l o w s . The f i r s t s e c t i o n i s a s h o r t
i n t r o d u c t i o n which emphasises t h e d u a l p a r t i c l e / f i e l d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
two s e c t i o n s d e a l w i t h t h e problem o f d e f i n i n g a q u a n t i s e d f i e l d on an
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n on t h i s t o p i c (which i s a p r e l i m i n a r y to
a s t r o p h y s i c a l problems i n v o l v i n g g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o l l a p s e ( s e e t h e c h a p t e r
q u a n t i s a t i o n ( s e e t h e c h a p t e r by M. D u f f ) w h i l e in t h e n e x t two s e c t i o n s
c a n o n i c a l q u a n t i s a t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d in some t e c h n i c a l d e t a i l s i n c e t h i s
was n o t t h e s u b j e c t o f any o t h e r s p e c i f i c l e c t u r e a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e .
1. INTRODUCTION
The problem o f q u a n t i s i n g t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d h a s e x e r c i s e d
d o u b t l e s s c o n t i n u e t o do so f o r t h e n e x t f o r t y ' 1 ^ 3
^ ^ 5
^. The
i n t e l l e c t u a l achievements o f t h i s c e n t u r y . T h i s i s in i t s e l f sufficient
t o g u a r a n t e e a c o n t i n u e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e problem o f u n i f y i n g then.; an
p l a y e d by g e n e r a l r e l a t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e framework of c l a s s i c a l (viz.
non-quantum) p h y s i c s . In any c o n v e n t i o n a l f i e l d t h e o r y t h e s p a c e - t i m e
s t r u c t u r e i s f i x e d and t h e f i e l d p r o p a g a t e s i n t i m e on t h i s background.
t h e t h e o r y a r e t i g h t l y i n t e r l a c e d t h r o u g h t h e medium o f t h e gravitational
f i e l d , w h i c h , on t h e one h a n d , s p e c i f i e s t h e g e o m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of
s p a c e - t i m e , and on t h e o t h e r f u l f i l l s t h e c l a s s i c a l t a s k of a f i e l d by
f o r m u l a t e d on a r i g i d l y f i x e d s p a c e - t i m e b a c k g r o u n d , Euclidean t h r e e -
f u n d a m e n t a l l y new i n s i g h t i n t o p h y s i c s .
I t i s n o t a p r i o r i c l e a r p r e c i s e l y what would be r e g a r d e d au a
q u a n t i s a t i o n of g e n e r a l r e l a t i v i t y . The m a t h e m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e
concept i s t h a t of a p o i n t s e t whose m a t h e m a t i c a l p o i n t s a r e t o be
c o n s t r u c t e d on t h i s m a n i f o l d i n such a way as t o s a t i s f y t h e E i n s t e i n
t e n s o r i s r e g a r d e d as an o p e r a t o r d e f i n e d on t h i s s p a c e . (Actually if
c a n o n i c a l q u a n t i s a t i o n i s b e i n g used t h e n t h e r e l e v a n t m a n i f o l d may be
q u a n t i s a t i o n which i s c l o s e s t t o t h a t p r e v a l e n t in c o n v e n t i o n a l quantum
l i g h t c o n e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e s e t h e o r i e s i t i s c l e a r t h a t a l r e a d y a major
However, t h e o p i n i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y v o i c e d t h a t t h e q u a n t i s a t i o n
p r o c e d u r e s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e a t a more f u n d a m e n t a l l e v e l . Two of t h e
p r i n c i p a l a d v o c a t e s o f t h i s l i n e have been P r o f e s s o r s J . Wheeler and
t h e t o p o l o g i c a l as v e i l as t h e m e t r i c s t r u c t u r e of s p a c e - t i m e a n d , w i t h
g r a v i t y , has t a k e n t h e q u a n t i s a t i o n l e v e l r i g h t back t o t h e b a s i c
e l e m e n t s of m a t h e m a t i c s . S i m i l a r l y Penrose has f r e q u e n t l y a r g u e d t h a t
s p a c e - t i m e i t s e l f , r a t h e r t h a n j u s t t h e m e t r i c f i e l d , s h o u l d be
However, i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d how f a r c o n v e n t i o n a l
In p a r t i c u l a r , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o d i s t i n g u i s h c a r e f u l l y between t h o s e
a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s t y p e o f q u a n t i s a t i o n
t h e r e a d e r t o t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y f o r m a t e r i a l on some of t h e o t h e r a s p e c t s
o f quantum g r a v i t y .
a l i t t l e m i s l e a d i n g b u t s i n c e t h e y a r e widely used t h e y w i l l be r e t a i n e d
here. C a n o n i c a l q u a n t i s a t i o n i t s e l f w i l l be s p l i t up i n t o 'true'
indeed of quantum f i e l d t h e o r y in g e n e r a l .
The p a r t i c l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w i t h i t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e t of particle-
i s i n f a c t an i m p o r t a n t a l t e r n a t i v e p h y s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of what i s
approaches) i t i s worth d i s c u s s i n g i t h e r e , at l e a s t in a h e u r i s t i c
q u a n t i s a t i o n of t h i s s y s t e m u s i n g Fock s p a c e , with t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
p a r t i c l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i s w e l l known ( s e e §2 f o r more d e t a i l s ) . On
se and l o o k i n g f o r a s u i t a b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ( i n t h e S c h r o d i n g e r p i c t u r e
t h i s s i m p l e problem of q u a n t i s i n g a f r e e f i e l d l o o k s from t h e v i e w p o i n t
of c o n v e n t i o n a l quantum m e c h a n i c s . I f a c l a s s i c a l s y s t e m has a
E u c l i d e a n c o n f i g u r a t i o n space Q w i t h g l o b a l c a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e s q^.-.q^
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o n d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m , t h e n t h e b a s i c problem of quantum
t h e o r y ( i n t h e S c h r c d i n g e r p i c t u r e ) i s t o f i n d a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e
c a n o n i c a l commutation relations
[q. , = 0 (1.2)
[Pi • P j ] = o
w i t h s e l f - a d j o i n t o p e r a t o r s on a H i l b e r t space of s t a t e s . Then t h e
dynamical e q u a t i o n
H ( (1
W - a n ; P,.P2-"Pn) *t = i " J T "3)
must be s o l v e d f o r t h e t i m e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s t a t e v e c t o r ^ i n terms
of t h e q u a n t i s e d Hamiltonian o p e r a t o r H.
7
s e t o f a l l complex v a l u e d f u n c t i o n s of Q which a r e s q u a r e i n t e g r a b l e w i t h
t h e n r e p r e s e n t e d by
f u n c t i o n h a s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t i f B i s any B o r e l s e t i n ¡R.n t h e n
i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t i f t h e s y s t e m i s i n t h e s t a t e ty and a
measurement i s made on t h e s y s t e m o f t h e v a l u e s o f q . . . q^ ( i . e . o f t h e
c l a s s i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m ) t h e n t h e y l i e i n B. Now a
w i t h i n f i n i t e l y many d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m . E s s e n t i a l l y , an o r t h o n o r m a l
b a s i s s e t o f f u n c t i o n s on / f t 3 , { e ^ ( j c ) } s a y , i s chosen ( t y p i c a l l y w i t h
p r o p e r t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e H a m i l t o n i a n which s i m p l i f y t h e d y n a m i c a l
e v o l u t i o n p r o b l e m ) and t h e f i e l d s a r e expanded as
functions
of i n f i n i t e l y many v a r i a b l e s ( b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s s t i l l f u n c t i o n s on t h e
c l a s s i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s p a c e ) and t h e t i m e e v o l u t i o n e q u a t i o n (1.3)
would be c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y an i n f i n i t e o r d e r p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n .
K q u i v a l e n t l y an obvious r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of eqn ( l . l ) i s o b t a i n e d by
c h o o s i n g s t a t e v e c t o r s as f u n c t i o n a l s o f t h e c l a s s i c a l configuration
as
(1.10)
« »[•(•)]
(1.11)
with t h e S c h r o d i n g e r e q u a t i o n now r e a d i n g :
(1.13)
i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e s u l t w i l l l i e in t h e ( i n f i n i t e dimensional)
s e t B. This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e v e c t o r i s c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t from
a r e p a r t i a l l y l i n k e d through t h e t h e o r y o f c o h e r e n t s t a t e s ) . I t must be
t h e c l a s s i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n space Q s h o u l d b e . Should i t be a l l C
3 3
f u n c t i o n s on UL , all C f u n c t i o n s on IK with compact s u p p o r t . . . ?
f u r t h e r on t h i s t o p i c e x c e p t t o r e - e m p h a s i s e t h a t m a t h e m a t i c a l Fock
eqns ( 1 . 1 2 ) and ( 1 . 1 3 ) .
C e r t a i n l y i n s i t u a t i o n s in which p o t e n t i a l g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o l l a p s e i s
involves I ^ C s ^ f * )J I 2 as t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o b a b i l i t y density
( t h i s i s a c t u a l l y n o t q u i t e c o r r e c t , s e e 5U.55). t h e n t h e b e h a v i o u r of
t h e s t a t e f u n c t i o n a l i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f m e t r i c s which classically
c o l l a p s e o r o t h e r w i s e o f t h e quantum s y s t e m . Also of c o u r s e t h e n o t i o n of
of a c o n v e n t i o n a l f i e l d t h e o r y r e a l l y i s only a d i f f e r e n c e i n inter-
p r e t a t i o n o f e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same m a t h e m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e . Which
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s r e l e v a n t t o any given s i t u a t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d b a s i c a l l y
quantum g r a v i t y i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t . In t h e c o v a r i o n t approaches
of t h e m e t r i c t e n s o r a r e genuine c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e s and b e c a u s e o f
t h i n t h e c o v a r i a n t q u a n t i s a t i o n of a l l t e n components o f t h e m e t r i c
t e n o o r ( c f . G u p t a - B l e u l e r in quantum e l e c t r o d y n a m i c s ) l e a d s t o a
n o t ) b u t w h e t h e r t h e y a r e b a s e d in some s e n s e on t h e same u n d e r l y i n g
m a t h e m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e as t h e c o v a r i a n t scheme i s n o t c l e a r . In t h e
m a t h e m a t i c a l scheme t o e i t h e r t h a t o f t r u e c a n o n i c a l q u a n t i s a t i o n o r o f
c o v a r i a n t q u a n t i s a t i o n i s not a t a l l clear.
F i n a l l y l e t us n o t e t h a t even a t t h i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l e v e l of
system i s t h e u n i v e r s e !
p o s s i b l e t h a t by n e g l e c t i n g t h e f o r m e r one i s r e n d e r i n g i r r e l e v a n t the
latter.
f u l l quantum g r a v i t y problem w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f f i e l d q u a n t i s a t i o n on
h e r e ) i s o f a s c a l a r f i e l d $ d e f i n e d on a f i x e d f o u r - d i m e n s i o n a l p s e u d o -
3 ( ( - d e t g ) J g UU • ) - m 2 * ( - d e t g)> = 0 (2.1)
d e r i v e d from t h e l a g r a n g i a n density
L(x) = | ( g , 1 V ( x ) 3 • ( * ) 3 y * ( x ) - m2 $ 2 ( x ) ) ( - d e t g ) * . (2.2)
The q u a n t i s a t i o n of t h i s s c a l a r f i e l d c o n s t i t u t e s a t h e o r y w h i c h , from
ronpect3.
i) The q u a n t i s a t i o n of t h e m e t r i c t e n s o r i t s e l f i s completely
negle c t e d .
e f f e c t s in $ (such as p a r t i c l e p r o d u c t i o n by a time v a r y i n g
s t a n d p o i n t t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s in a s t r o p h y s i c s and 'early
f i e l d p r o d u c i n g r e a l p a r t i c l e s would be of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e . From a
would seem a n a t u r a l p r e r e q u i s i t e t o a t t e m p t i n g t o q u a n t i s e t h e m e t r i c
f i v e y e a r s on t h e f u l l quantum g r a v i t y t h e o r y , only a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l
• • (12)(13>
amount of work has appeared d e a l i n g with t h i s s i m p l i f i e d problem.
s p a c e c a s e , in which t h e m e t r i c t e n s o r i s simply t h e c o n s t a n t
d e g e n e r a t e s i n t o a f r e e massive s c a l a r f i e l d ( i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s e n s e )
s o u r c e s , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c a n o n i c a l conmutation r e l a t i o n s (CCR)
and a s s o c i a t e d w i t h , t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e b r i e f l y :
quantum f i e l d s s a t i s f y t h e e q u a l t i m e CCR
$(x,t):
t h e f r e e f i e l d , and i t i s e x p e c t e d a l s o f o r t h e f i e l d on t h e f i x e d
background, t h e procedure i s j u s t i f i e d . )
15
t = 0 s a y ) by s e l l ' - a d j o i n t o p e r a t o r s ( a f t e r s u i t a b l e smearing) on a
H i l b e r t s p a c e in which t h e H a m i l t o n i a n i s a genuine s e l f - a d j o i n t
o p e r a t o r which g e n e r a t e s time e v o l u t i o n i n t h e s e n s e t h a t
i / j j Ht - i / f i Ht
$(x,t) = e $(x,0) e
(2.5)
i / K Ht - i / j . Ht
n(2ç,t) = e n(jç,0) e
The s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e i s t o s e p a r a t e t h e s o l u t i o n s t o t h e o p e r a t o r
f - i EJ. t „ iE . t . Ä
x,t) = du( j ) [e b ( j ) 4,.(x) + e J b T ( j ) ^ . ( x ) ] (2.6)
J J J
t h e completeness relations
( 3 )
j d p ( j ) *"(x) = ô (x-x) (2.7)
and
where
A t y n i c a l c h o i c e would be
16
(2i,)
« ( i , j ) = 6 ( 3 ) ( k - k'>
d p ( i ) = d3k . (2.10)
I"
[ a . , a^J = el'
5 ( j , k )\ (2.11)
where
a . = >£e7 b . . (2.12)
0 J O
c h a r a c t e r i s e d by t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a unique c y c l i c s t a t e t h a t is
a n n i h i l a t e d by a l l t h e a..
0
3) The o p e r a t o r s N. H a . ' a . have i n t e g e r e i g e n v a l u e s and t h e
J J J
c o r r e s p o n d i n g e i g e n v e c t o r s a r e mapped ' u p - o n e ' o r 'down-one'
by a . ^ and a . . The l a t t e r a r e t h e r e f o r e i d e n t i f i e d as o p e r a t o r s
J J
which c r e a t e o r a n n i h i l a t e q u a n t a whose wave f u n c t i o n s in t h e
c o n v e n t i o n a l o n e - p a r t i c l e quantum-mechanical s e n s e a r e t h e normal
p h y s i c a l p a r t i c l e s t h i s i s t h e s t a g e a t which t h e p a r t i c l e
concept f i r s t a p p e a r s . In p a r t i c u l a r t h e c y c l i c s t a t e mentioned
normal o r d e r i n g , w i t h t h e p r o p e r t y of
i) a n n i h i l a t i n g t h e vacuum s t a t e ( i n t h e S c h r o d i n g e r
change w i t h t i m e i . e . t h e r e i s no p a r t i c l e
production).
n - p a r t i c l e s t a t e always e v o l v e s i n t h e S c h r o d i n g e r
p i c t u r e i n t o an n - p a r t i c l e s t a t e ( a g a i n no p a r t i c l e
production or annihilation).
and by v i r t u e o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n of v a r i a b l e s in eqn ( 2 . 6 ) f o r a d e f i n i t e
r e l a t e d by a P o i n c a r é group a c t i o n t h e q u e s t i o n i s r e a l l y now t h e
i) The c r e a t i o n o p e r a t o r s t r a n s f o r m c o v a r i a n t l y anorigst
t h e m s e l v e s as do t h e a n n i h i l a t i o n ooerators.
30
i s a n n i h i l a t e d by a l l t h e g e n e r a t o r s o f P ) . In f a c t
t h e time t r a n s l a t i o n group g e n e r a t o r i s p r e c i s e l y t h e
Hamiltonian c o n s i d e r e d a l r e a d y , i . e . , t i m e
t r a n s l a t i o n i s time e v o l u t i o n ,
s t a t e by t h e group.
t h e n o t i o n of p a r t i c l e o r q u a n t a i s e s s e n t i a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f inertial
P o i n c a r e group i s c o n c e r n e d , as t h e y do in t h e u s u a l r e l a t i v i s t i c n-
p a r t i c l e quantum t h e o r y . At t h i s s t a g e in t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l textbook
t r e a t m e n t o f quantum f i e l d t h e o r y i t i s t a c i t l y assumed t h a t t h e p u r e l y
i s one o f t h e v i t a l s t e p 3 in t h e p h y s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a q u a n t i s e d
c o n n e c t i o n t u r n s o u t t o be o f paramount importance in t h e c a s e of an
a r b i t r a r y background.
S i n c e t h e u l t i m a t e aim i s t o q u a n t i s e t h e s c a l a r f i e l d i n eqn ( 2 . 2 )
t h e next o b v i o u s s t e p i s t o couple an e x t e r n a l s o u r c e t o t h e f r e e
« h e r e j ( x ) d e s c r i b e s t h e e x t e r n a l u n q u a n t i s e d s o u r c e w h i c h , by
in time o f on i n f i n i t e number of q u a n t a . In t h i s c a s e t h e S c h r o d i n g e r
p i c t u r e i s n o t very a p p r o p r i a t e ; however, a H e i s e n b e r g - t y p e p i c t u r e
might s t i l l e x i s t b u t w i t h t h e dynamical e v o l u t i o n b e i n g d e s c r i b e d by a
n o n - u n i t a r i l y implementable automorphism of t h e o p e r a t o r o b s e r v a b l c s
r a t h e r t h a n by eqns (2.5).
chosen i n i t i a l l y b u t t h e s i t u a t i o n f o r g e n e r a l s o u r c e s i s considerably
interpretation is non-trivinl. In f a c t t h e r e i s no u n i v e r s a l l y
c o n t r i b u t o r y f a c t o r i s t h a t in g e n e r a l t h e t h e o r y i s no l o n g e r invariant
under t h e P o i n c a r e group. T h i s o f c o u r s e i s a f e a t u r e s h a r e d by t h e
s c a l a r f i e l d d e f i n e d on an a r b i t r a r y background ( w h i c h , generically,
time t r a n s l a t i o n group e x i s t s ) .
t o s e p a r a t e o u t t h e Minkowski m e t r i c n and w r i t e
yv
p a r t i c u l a r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e f l a t background w i t h i t s P o i n c a r e group
Minkownkian in e i t h e r i t s t o p o l o g i c a l or
m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , i n which case t h e s e p a r a t i o n
in eqn ( 2 . l U ) (with i t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e p a r a t i o n
o f t h e H a m i l t o n i a n i n t o f r e e and i n t e r a c t i o n terms)
i s completely inappropriate,
t h e l i g h t c o n e s t r u c t u r e of t h e p h y s i c a l s p a c e t i m e i s
p r o p e r t y with r e s p e c t t o t h e m e t r i c then t h i s is
not e q u i v a l e n t t o m i c r o c a u s a l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
f i c t i t i o u s Minkowski background.
c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , t o c o n s i d e r t h e l a g r a n g i a n in eqn ( 2 . 1 ) as a s i n g l e
t h e P o i n c a r e group. In p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e a r e no p r e f e r r e d c l a s s e s of
( 2 . 2 ) d e f i n e d o v e r an a r b i t r a r y s p a t i a l t h r e e - s u r f a c e . There i s no
r e s u l t i n g c r e a t i o n and a n n i h i l a t i o n o p e r a t o r s which c o r r e s p o n d t o
of p a r t i c l e . In g e n e r a l any p u r e a n n i h i l a t i o n ( o r c r e a t i o n ) operator
2?
w i l l e v o l v e i n time i n t o a m i x t u r e o f such o p e r a t o r s , a s i n d e e d i t
in i t s e l f s u r p r i s i n g as i t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e e x p e c t e d phenomenon of
is non-trivial. Another d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t t h e H a m i l t o n i a n h a s t o be
b u t i t c o u l d a l s o simply be t h e r e s u l t of c h o o s i n g a p h y s i c a l l y
u l t r a v i o l e t d i v e r g e n c e s o f some c o n v e n t i o n a l quantum f i e l d t h e o r i e s .
g l o b a l t i m e l i k e K i l l i n g v e c t o r w i t h i t s a s s o c i a t e d group o f symmetries,
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e t of p h y s i c a l o b s e r v a b l e s (which
15
i n c l u d e in p a r t i c u l a r , e n e r g y ) . ' ' I t i s tempting to speculate t h a t
p a r t i c l c o by a g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d c o u l d p r o v i d e a fundamental
it is radiated). This i s n o t a c o m p l e t e r e s u l t in t h e p h y s i c a l s e n s e
t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f e f f o r t w i l l be expended i n t h e f u t u r e on
pursuing t h i s approach.
t h e p a r t i c l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e t h e o r y i s m, a n y , c a s e more l i k e l y t o
; or -• <s>",\
be t h e a p p r o p r i a t e one. However, one can c o n f''l d S h ? r f' • •w '
t l y p r e d i c t t h a t most
.... _ ,
of t h e problems which a r i s e in t h e p a r t i c l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i l l r e a p p e a rtliL
in d i f f e r e n t g u i s e s . At a d e e p e r l e v e l i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t "-the t)ieory
e x t e r n a l s o u r c e coupled t o a s c a l a r f i e l d can be u s e f u l l y t r e a t e d i n t h i s
o f i t s very d e f i n i t i o n ) , t h e i d e a o f c o n c e n t r a t i n g on l o c a l observables
i s an a t t r a c t i v e one.
q u a n t i s i n g a 3 c a l a r f i e l d i n an a r b i t r a r y b u t f i x e d background must
remain an i m p o r t a n t challenge.
§2 i s t h a t i n which t h e quantum ( s c a l a r ) f i e l d a c t s as t h e a c t u a l
back on t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d caused by t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s c a l a r
p a r t i c l e s i s i n c o r p o r a t e d as p a r t o f t h e dynamics. To a c h i e v e t h i s it
s c a l a r m a t t e r - f i e l d as t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e of E i n s t e i n ' s e q u a t i o n s . The
equation
G
.Je) = T ( m a t t e r , g) (3.1)
In not s u i t a b l e as i t s t a n d s s i n c e i t e q u a t e s an o p e r a t o r and a
nuitable state.
t h a t d i s c u s s e d i n §2 b u t w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e t h a t t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l
f i e l d i s now i n t r o d u c e d as a dynamical v a r i a b l e r a t h e r t h a n as a f i x e d
background.
s t a t i s t i c a l ( p r o b a b l y n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m ) s t a t e of t h e s y s t e m . This,
c e r t a i n l y i t s e l f depend on t h e m e t r i c t e n s o r g ^ ( t h i n k f o r example of
I t s h o u l d be emphasised t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n c e r n i n g c h o i c e o f
6
d i s c u s s e d in 52 s t i l l apply h e r e . In p a r t i c u l a r t h e normal o r d e r i n g o f
t h e energy momentum t e n s o r w i l l e v i d e n t l y p l a y a m a j o r r o l e in t h e
c o r r e c t use of eqn ( 3 . 2 ) . N o t i c e t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n of a c o n s t a n t t o
a b s o l u t e r a t h e r t h a n r e l a t i v e v a l u e o f t h e energy-momentum t e n s o r has a
meaning, i s s h a r p l y r e f l e c t e d in t h i s quantum t h e o r y . T h i s p r o v i d e s an
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n dependence o f normal o r d e r i n g .
in which t h e m e t r i c t e n s o r i s r e s t r i c t e d t o be o f t h e Robertson-Walker
form
3
ds2 = d t 2 - R ( t ) 2 I S.. ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) d x i d x j (3-3)
1J
i,j=l
where S• . (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) i s t h e ( f i x e d ) m e t r i c o f a t h r e e - s p h e r e .
f o r t h e f u n c t i o n R ( t ) which p o s s e s s e s t h e r e m a r k a b l e f e a t u r e t h a t t h e
27
particles.
T h i s r e s u l t i s p o t e n t i a l l y of f u n d a m e n t a l importance t o t h e s u b j e c t
of g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o l l a p s e . I f t h e s c a l a r f i e l d d e s c r i b e d say p i o n s , it
f i n e d e t a i l s of t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system a t t h e t u r n - a r o u n d p o i n t
depend s i g n i f i c a n t l y on t h e s t r o n g i n t e r a c t i o n s . However t h e t h o u g h t -
p r o v o k i n g p o s s i b i l i t y remains t h a t i t may n o t be n e c e s s a r y t o q u a n t i s e
t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d i t s e l f i n o r d e r t o avoid g r a v i t a t i o n a l collapse.
In e f f e c t t h e v i o l a t i o n of t h e Hawking-Penrose energy c o n d i t i o n s by t h e
sufficient.
work ( a s t h e a u t h o r s t h e m s e l v e s p o i n t o u t ) c o n c e r n i n g t h e c h o i c e of t h e
of a f a i r l y s u b s t a n t i a l r e s e a r c h e f f o r t i n t h e f u t u r e .
so
We new t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e problem of q u a n t i s i n g t h e
of them s t a r t by f i x i n g in advance t h e f o u r - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e - t i m e
m a n i f o l d upon which t h e m e t r i c t e n s o r g i s r e g a r d e d as b e i n g d e f i n e d as
an o p e r a t o r - v a l u e d d i s t r i b u t i o n . The o p e r a t o r i s s e p a r a t e d i n t o a
g p v = 6°Uv + J UV (fc.l)
(assuming f o r s i m p l i c i t y t h a t no m a t t e r f i e l d s a r e p r e s e n t ) . The f a c t
b e i n g f o l l o w e d h a s something in common w i t h t h e G u p t a - B l e u l e r
q u a n t i s a t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d , as opposed t o , say,
r a d i a t i o n gauge c a n o n i c a l q u a n t i s a t i o n . In t h e p i o n e e r i n g work o f
(2 8}
f u n c t i o n s by v a r y i n g t h e a c t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e background field.
(The e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s of S c h w i n g e r ' s o r i g i n a l t h e o r y a r e d i f f i c u l t t o
I r c l i n i c a l t o o l i n t h i s i s t h e P e i e r l s - P o i s 3 o n b r a c k e t which e n a b l e s a
n a t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n o f F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m i n an a r b i t r a r y Riemannian
n o n - p o l y n o m i a l ) i n t e r a c t i o n i s o b t a i n e d between m a s s l e s s s p i n two
g r a v i t o n s ( i . e . r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e P o i n c a r c group) p r o p a g a t i n g i n
been d i s c u s s e d in 52 in t h e c o n t e x t o f an e x t e r n a l g r a v i t a t i o n a l field
advantage o f r e d u c i n g t h e t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m , a t l e a s t superficially,
i) C o n s t r u c t t h e c o r r e c t Feynman r u l e s which l e a d t o a
unitary S-matrix.
scheme.
iv) I n v e s t i g a t e t h e re normal i s a t i o n of t h e t h e o r y ,
graphs.
t h e Feynman r u l e s , i s t h a t of a f u n c t i o n a l p a t h i n t e g r a l . In a
a f u n c t i o n a l i n t e g r a l as
r i/ K f IU)d*X
<0 | T ^ ( x 1 ) . . . « ( x n ) | 0 > = H | (d$) « ( x , ) . . . $ ( x n ) e " '
(U.2)
J=0
where t h e vacuum-vacuum a m p l i t u d e in t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e e x t e r n a l
31
nource J ( x ) in
OUt
<0|0>i" = N | (d*) e (It.3)
XV (X in a coupling constant), i . e .
N e
•i
. (d$) e
Ct.5)
Now t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n t e g r a l
•f
Z o ( J ) = I (d*) e (It.6)
can be e x p l i c i t l y computed t o be
- \ j d"x d V J ( x ) AF(x-y)J(y)
ZQ(J) = e (It.7)
32
i n t e g r a l s o v e r p r o d u c t s of t h e Aj,(x - y) p r o p a g a t o r s . In f a c t this
in b o t h a p p r o a c h e s .
e l e c t r o m a g n e t i s u t h e r e a r e in f a c t no major p r o b l e m s , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e
t h e o r i e s , which a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by p o s s e s s i n g n o n - a b e l i a n gauge g r o u p s ,
con f i g u r a t i o n s p a c e - b a s e d t r e a t m e n t .
The c u r r e n t s t a t e o f t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l a r t i s t h a t v a r i o u s tree
graphs and one loop graph have been computed and have been covariantly
d i s c u s s e d i s whether o r n o t t h e t h e o r y i s r e n o r m u l i s a b l e . Certainly a
w a t e r t i g h t because i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t m i r a c u l o u s c a n c e l l a t i o n s nay s t i l l
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e extreme complexity of t h e n e c e s s a r y c a l c u l a t i o n s (a
not l i k e l y t o be f o r t h c o m i n g in t h e i n m e d i a t e f u t u r e . The r e a d e r i s
r e f e r r e d t o M.J. D u f f ' s c h a p t e r f o r f u r t h e r e n l i g h t e n m e n t on t h i s p o i n t
n o n - r e n o r m o l i s a b l e ) r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n a few y e a r s ago w i t h
J . S t r a t h d e e and I ( 33) a p p l i e d t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e
31.
s u c c e e d e d in o b t a i n i n g f i n i t e answers f o r c e r t a i n i n f i n i t e s e t s of
1 - <o + co . . . , = ; T h i s r e s u l t can be r e g a r d e d as a p a r t i a l
r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e o f t e n - q u o t e d e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t g r a v i t y can a c t as a
t e c h n i c a l complexity of t h e p r o b l e m , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e techniques
t o t h e p u r e s e l f - i n t e r a c t i n g g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d was n e v e r a c h i e v e d .
Some f u r t h e r t h o u g h t s on t h i s t o p i c w i l l be found in t h e c h a p t e r by
P r o f e s s o r Salara.
From t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p o i n t of view t h e n o n - r e n o r m a l i s a b i l i t y of
a quantum f i e l d t h e o r y i s f r e q u e n t l y r e g a r d e d as b e i n g s u f f i c i e n t l y
d i s a s t r o u s t o j u s t i f y t h r o w i n g away t h e u n d e r l y i n g c l a s s i c a l field
t h i s i s a f f o r d e d by t h e c u r r e n t l y p o p u l a r w e a k - i n t e r a c t i o n models which
t h e c a s e of g e n e r a l r e l a t i v i t y t h e s i t u a t i o n i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t . The
f o u r - f e r m i o n w e a k - i n t e r a c t i o n t h e o r y was only i n v e n t e d in t h e f i r s t p l a c e
t o i n s i s t t h a t t h e n o n - r e n o r m a l i s a b i l i t y i m p l i e s t h e r e j e c t i o n of quantum
f i e l d theory! N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s c l e a r t h a t a f a i r l y l a r g e amount of
e f f o r t w i l l be s p e n t in t h e n e a r f u t u r e i n t r y i n g t o f i n d a r e n o r m a l i s a b l e
a c h i e v e i t s ends by t h e s u b t l e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c e r t a i n m a t t e r - f i e l d t e r m s .
A t h i r d r e a c t i o n t o t h e n o n - r e n o r m a l i s a b i l i t y of t h e covariant
t h e o r y i s t h a t t h e t r o u b l e has i t s o r i g i n i n t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e
g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d i n t o a c l a s s i c a l background p l u s a quantum c o r r e c t i o n .
t h e c a n o n i c a l approaches w h i c h , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r r a t h e r s t r o n g e r
is intrinsically trouble-free.
36
t h e r e a r e no o t h e r a r t i c l e s in t h i s volume which d e a l s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h
t h e s e t o p i c s ( u n l i k e f o r example c o v a r i a n t q u a n t i s a t i o n ) t h e y w i l l be
d i s c u s s e d i n some d e t a i l here.
d e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e E i n s t e i n t h e o r y i n t o c a n o n i c a l form. The a p p r o p r i a t e
(39)
t e c h n i q u e i s w e l l known f o l l o w i n g t h e work of Dirac and A r n o w i t t , Deser
c o n s i d e r t h e simple example of a m a s s l e s s s c a l a r f i e l d t h e o r y in a f l a t
(5-1)
The c o r r e s p o n d i n g a c t i o n is
(5.2)
37
of motion
+
X$3 = 0 , (5.3)
or, equivalently,
- V2« - = 0 (5.It)
where <J ==
3x
=
% \ = • (5-5)
3$
= ) = it . (5.6)
The Hamiltonian d e n s i t y is
(5-10)
where H<t) = J d 3 x H)
I t i s f r e q u e n t l y c o n v e n i e n t t o be a b l e t o d e r i v e t h e f i r s t order
i r i n c i p l e in t h i s c a s e i s simply
(5.11)
C l a s s i c a l l y , i f t h e c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e s 1(1 and tr a r e s p e c i f i e d on t h e
.0 g i v e t h e v a l u e s on any l a t e r ( o r e a r l i e r ) t = t^ h y p e r s u r f a c e . The
(5.12)
md t h e f i e l d s a t t i m e t a r e e x p r e s s e d in terms o f t h o s e a t t i m e t by
39
and t h e t i m e e v o l u t i o n i s c a r r i e d by t h e s t a t e vector:
- i / K HU.it) (tj-to)
<i>t • (5-16)
o
second o r d e r E u l e r - L a g r a n g e equations
c a n o n i c a l form. Mainely:
o r l e s s o b l i g e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e Cauchy problem o v e r an
satisfy, r a t h e r t h a n t o genuine e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n .
e v o l u t i o n of a l l of t h e components of g ^ even i f t h e
11
constraints G = 0 have been s a t i s f i e d ,
o
To i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s e p o i n t s f u r t h e r i t i s u s e f u l t o apply t h e s t a n d a r d
- H 2 + W.1 N . ' 3
^ , N.
J 0
V, = ( I '5.18)
N g
i ' ij
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e - l i k e h y p e r s u r f a c e s p a r a m e t e r i s e d by t h e v a l u e o f
be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o dx°. Thus we w r i t e
1.1
dT = N ( x , x ° ) dx° (5.19)
s k e t c h e d in F i g . 1.1.
Fig. 1.1
^ ^ >>
and t h e r e f o r e t h e l e n g t h of DC i s :
1(2
= ( - N2 + N. N 1 ) ( d x ° ) Z + 2 N. dx° d x j + g. . dx 1 d x . (5-20)
l J J
(5-18).
1 HJ
=
^ I I (5.21)
hi -
could be w r i t t e n i n terms of t h e s e f i e l d v a r i a b l e s as
[( 3I)
+ Rj + a four-divergence) (5.22)
t h e induced t h r e e - s p a c e m e t r i c and t h e o r i g i n a l f o u r - s p a c e m e t r i c
U3
( 3 ^
v
respectively. In p a r t i c u l a r ' R(x,x ) i s t h e curvature t e n s o r of the
h y p e r s u r f a c e l a b e l l e d by t h e p a r a m e t e r x° and hence d e s c r i b e s t h e
i n t r i n s i c c u r v a t u r e of t h i s s u r f a c e . On t h e o t h e r hand t h e t e n s o r K . .
ij
i n eqn ( 5 . 2 3 ) ( i n which 1 r e f e r s t o c o v a r i a n t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h respect
t o t h e t h r e e - m e t r i c ) i s , g e o m e t r i c a l l y , t h e e x t r i n s i c c u r v a t u r e of t h e
- ^ ¿ i (2Nklk- ( 3 )
6kigk,s0)> . (5.2.,)
N o t i c e t h a t t h e r e i s no N o r H. term in t h e l a g r a n g i a n and as a r e s u l t a
formal c a l c u l a t i o n gives
(5 25)
'
6N
1
n - 61
= = n0 (5.26)
6N.
l
The f i n a l r e s u l t o f a l l t h i s t h e o r y i s t h a t t h e E i n s t e i n a c t i o n principle
form as
lili
= | d*x { » i j ¿ y - H u C" U i j
, g^)} (5.27)
where N = U and
o
of c a n o n i c a l q u a n t i s a t i o n . I f we vary t h e a c t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o it 1 J we
(5
= ¿rs' V -30)
respect t o l e a d s t o an e q u a t i o n of t h e form
= it , « ) (5.3i)
rs u
and e q u a t i o n s ( 5 . 3 0 ) and ( 5 . 3 1 ) a r e , t o g e t h e r , e x a c t l y t h e G. J = 0
Einstein equations.
F i n a l l y i f H i s v a r i e d we o b t a i n
U
= 0 (5.32)
1,5
r e s u l t s a c h i e v e d so f a r a t t h e c l a s s i c a l level:
c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n j u g a t e q u a n t i t i e s i n eqns ( 5 . 2 5 ) ( 5 . 2 6 ) ) is
c e r t a i n l y does n o t count as a t r u e c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e . It
i s t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l analogue of A^ in t h e Maxwell
electromagnetic theory.
T h i s means t h a t t h e t h e o r y i s n o t y e t i n t r u e canonical
form b e c a u s e ( a s we s h a l l s e e l a t e r ) f o u r o u t o f t h e s i x <5* •
iJ
components can be e l i m i n a t e d by c h o o s i n g a s e t o f s p a c e -
one o f t h e A components d i s a p p e a r s in e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c
is specified.
constraints.
d) The dynamical e q u a t i o n s a r e i n f a c t c o n t a i n e d t w i c e i n t h e
s y s t e m of eqns (5-30) ( 5 . 3 1 ) ( 5 - 3 2 ) in t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n s e :
) I f C l ' ( n , g ) = 0 on an i n i t i a l h y p e r s u r f a c e and eqns
( 5 . 3 0 ) ( 5 . 3 1 ) a r e s a t i s f i e d , t h e n C u ( n , g ) = on any l a t e r
c o n s e r v e d i n time - i n f a c t by v i r t u e of t h e B i a n c h i
identities.
chosen s o t h a t C^t tt , g ) = 0 on a l l h y p e r s u r f a c e s t h e n t h e
can be r e g a r d e d as o c c u r r i n g t w i c e .
ki.
I f a t t h e c l a s s i c a l l e v e l g.^ and it a r e r e g a r d e d as b e i n g
c o n j u g a t e v a r i a b l e s , so t h a t a t some f i x e d t i m e we have t h e
then
(5-3IO
(5.35)
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n sense) of t h e i n f i n i t e s i m a l coordinate t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
a l g e b r a which i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h i s fact.
approaches t o c a n o n i c a l q u a n t i s a t i o n go t h e i r s e p a r a t e ways. In t h e
q u a n t i s e d as t h e y s t a n d . On t h e o t h e r hand i n t h e n o n - c o v a r i a n t approach
1) S o l v e t h e e q u a t i o n s C u (7i,g) = 0 e x p l i c i t l y f o r f o u r of t h e
T h i s l e a v e s e i g h t v a r i a b l e s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e whose t i m e
dependence i s d e s c r i b e d by e i g h t of t h e t w e l v e = 0
e q u a t i o n s ( 5 - 3 0 ) and ( 5 - 3 1 ) , t h e r e m a i n i n g ones b e i n g
is:
and ( 5 - 3 1 ) , can be u s e d t o f i n d f o u r e l l i p t i c
1.8
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s f o r N which can a l s o in
M
p r i n c i p l e be s o l v e d , t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g t h e l a g r a n g e
m u l t i p l i e r s ti ^ from t h e t h e o r y . There i s on e x a c t
of t h e t h r e e A v a r i a b l e s i s e l i m i n a t e d . However, t h e
3
time component of t h e Maxwell e q u a t i o n s p l u s Tr-
ot
( d i v A) = 0 y i e l d s t h e e l l i p t i c e q u a t i o n - V2 A = j
t h r e e dimensional Green's f u n c t i o n , as Ao = — j o.
A t y p i c a l example i n t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l c a s e would be
the conditions
6 i . /o = 0
((det^g)* gij) . = 0
>J
which l e a d t o t h e e l l i p t i c equations
(3)
N,./ " R(g) =0
which c a n , i n p r i n c i p l e , be s o l v e d . However, i f t h e t h r e e -
s p a c e i s non-compact t h e s e e q u a t i o n s w i l l need t o be
'•9
infinity.
d e f i n e t h e c o o r d i n a t e system i n t h e form:
t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n s X ,J , which w i l l t y p i c a l l y be
k£
e x p r e s s e d i n terms of t h e v a r i o u s components o f it
t u r n s o u t t o have a s i m i l a r c o n t e n t t o t h a t
c a n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , be s o l v e d i n t h e form F p (iT,g) = 0
t h u s t a k i n g us back t o s t e p a) a g a i n . The a n a l o g u e i n
t h e Maxwell t h e o r y would be t o s p e c i f y A^ as A^ = -
(div
It =
The n e t r e s u l t o f f o l l o w i n g any o f t h e s e t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e steps
( o r any o f t h e n u n i e r of p o s s i b l e m i x t u r e s of them) i s t h a t t h e H
5 0
v a r i a b l e s and f o u r of t h e ( g . . , * ) v a r i a b l e s d r o p o u t of t h e s y s t e m
-t J
kA
of equations leaving d i f f e r e n t i a l equations for just four ( g . . , i )
^J
s i n c e t h e e x p e c t e d two i n t r i n s i c d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m o f t h e radiation
variables.
i n i t t h e s o l u t i o n s of C u ( n , g ) = 0 and t h e c h o s e n coordinates.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e i s no g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g s y s t e m i s in t h e
e l i m i n a t e d i n s t e p l ) i s t h e momentum which i s c o n j u g a t e ( i n t h e s e n s e o f
t h e a c t i o n i n ( 5 . 2 7 ) ) t o t h e c o o r d i n a t e s which a r e e l i m i n a t e d i n s t e p 2 ) .
A v e r y n i c e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s p o i n t and i n d e e d o f t h e whole s u b j e c t o f
. . . . v, (i»l)
c a n o n i c a l d e c o m p o s i t i o n i s c o n t a i n e d i n K. Kuchar s p a p e r s .
Once t h e s y s t e m i s i n c a n o n i c a l f o r m w i t h , s a y , c a n o n i c a l variables
w r i t t e n s y m b o l i c a l l y as ) A.B = 1 , 2 , one p r o c e e d s i n a n a l o g y w i t h
t h e simple s c a l a r f i e l d d i s c u s s e d i n t h e opening of t h i s s e c t i o n . In
p a r t i c u l a r e q u a l - t i m e commutation r e l a t i o n s o f t h e form
a r e imposed, s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e H e i s e n b e r g e q u a t i o n s o f
motion, o r i f p r e f e r r e d a S c h r o d i n g e r p i c t u r e f o r m a l i s m can b e u s e d .
51
(Romcmbcr again t h a t t h e b a s i c c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e s a r e d e f i n e d on u
fixed three-muni f o l d ) .
An i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s q u a n t i s a t i o n scheme i s t h a t i t is
s t a n d a r d examples of c l a s s i c a l s y s t e m q u a n t i s a t i o n . There i s c l e a r l y no
have a c o n v e n t i o n a l ( L o r e n t z n o n - c o v a r i a n t ) quantum f i e l d t h e o r y w i t h a
w e l l d e f i n e d concept of m i c r o c a u s a l i t y , in which g r a v i t o n s a p p e a r a s
m n s s l e s s h e l e c i t y - t w o q u a n t a of t h e P o i n c a r e g r o u p . In p a r t i c u l a r the
of t h e w o r s t of t h e s e a r e :
quantum f i e l d t h e o r y t h e r e i s u s u a l l y a f a i r l y natural
n o t i n g e n e r a l be implementable in t h e quantum t h e o r y by a
w i l l l e a d t o g e n u i n e l y i n e q u i v a l e n t quantum t h e o r i e s . Much
some c a s e s .
b) A c l o s e l y r e l a t e d problem i s t h e i n v a r i a n c e o r o t h e r w i s e of
111.
o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s chosen i n s t e p 2 ) .
P o i n t s a) and b) t o g e t h e r r e a l l y q u e s t i o n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e
a r e used as t r u e c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e s . T h i s q u e s t i o n , which c l e a r l y
i n c l u d e s t h e problem of t h e g e n e r a l c o v a r i a n c e of t h e t h e o r y , i s one
r e s o l v e d in i s o l a t i o n from a) and b ) .
d) I t i s always n o t o r i o u s l y d i f f i c u l t t o do any c a l c u l a t i o n s in
a genuine c a n o n i c a l framework l i k e t h e p r e s e n t o n e . If a
f l a t - s p a c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n i s performed t h e n non ( L o r e n t z )
( i . e . n o n - c o v a r i a n t Feynman g r a p h s ) c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o p i o n -
g r a v i t o n s c a t t e r i n g shown in F i g . 1.2.
53
t /
> grnvitonn /
\
Pions
Fig. 1.2
unci i t i s c o m f o r t i n g t o f i n d t h a t t h e f i n a l r e s u l t i s t h e same as t h a t
(28)
framework o f c o v a r i a n t quantisation.
u n a t t r a c t i v e f e a t u r e s , n o t t h e l e a s t of which i s i t s n o n - c o v a r i a n c e . An
a v o i d s t h i s by q u a n t i s i n g t h e system b e f o r e s o l v i n g t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o r
choosing t h e coordinates.
Once a g a i n t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s t h e a c t i o n p r i n c i p l e in eqn ( 5 - 2 7 ) :
5li
f o c u s s e d on t h e c o n s t r a i n t equations
C^U.g) = 0 . (6.2)
As n o t e d in §5 t h e s e e q u a t i o n s , i f t r u e f o r a l l t i m e s , are
c l a s s i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o a l l of t h e E i n s t e i n e q u a t i o n s and t h e r e f o r e it
seems r e a s o n a b l e t o a t t e m p t t o b u i l d up a quantum t h e o r y b a s e d p u r e l y on
(6) ( 1 ) ( ) .
them a l o n e . The f i r s t s t e p i s t o assign operator s t a t u s t o
kt
a l l components o f g. . and u and assume t h a t t h e y s a t i s f y t h e S c h r o d i n g e r
^J
p i c t u r e c a n o n i c a l commutation r e l a t i o n s
in w h i c h , i t s h o u l d be emphasised once a g a i n , a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m a n i f o l d
s u p e r s p a c e q u a n t i s a t i o n i s normally c o n s i d e r e d ) u n l e s s t h e c o n t r a r y is
c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e allowed s t a t e v e c t o r ty
= 0
(6.10
111.
g. . and n as b e i n g t r u e c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e s ( a s i s s u g g e s t e d - f a l s e l y -
t h e S c h r o d i n g e r p i c t u r e t o t h e H e i s e n b e r g p i c t u r e and indeed e v e r y t h i n g
t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s a r e c o r r e c t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of them in t e r m s
of s t a t i o n a r i n e s s i s i n c o r r e c t . The a p p a r e n t t i m e - i n d e p e n d e n c e s h o u l d be
n e c e s s a r i l y h o l d i f t h e t h r e e - s p a c e b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d i s non-compact. The
p o s s i b i l i t y o f f i x i n g r e f e r e n c e frames a t s p a t i a l i n f i n i t y a l t e r s the
(6.5)
and c u (i k \ =0 (6.6)
56
from which a l l d y n a m i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s t o be e x t r a c t e d a f t e r s p e c i f y i n g
g e n e r a t o r s o f c o o r d i n a t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s and as such s a t i s f y a P o i s s o n
d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t y t h a t no new c o n s t r a i n t s can b e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e
t h e o r y by t a l c i n g P o i s s o n b r a c k e t s o f t h e o l d o n e s . C l e a r l y one r e q u i r e s
t h e m s e l v e s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s e e how t h e quantum t h e o r y c o u l d e v e r be
t e r m s i n which t h e c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e s a p p e a r m u l t i p l i e d t o g e t h e r and t h e
. C* 6 )
s h o u l d r e a l l y b e d i s c u s s e d a t t h e 3ame t i m e a s t h a t o f t h e e f f e c t o f
c h a n g i n g t h e v a r i a b l e s which a r e chosen i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e t o b e c a n o n i c a l .
To t h e b e s t of my knowledge n o - o n e h a s y e t d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f
a c h o i c e of c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e s and o p e r a t o r o r d e r i n g s i n which t h e
I t i s a l s o w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t , c l a s s i c a l l y , t h e m e t r i c t e n s o r obeys
I f s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h i s were t o b e c a r r i e d a c r o s s i n t o t h e quantum t h e o r y
111.
a d j o i n t o p e r a t o r s obey a H e i s e n b e r g - t y p e u n c e r t a i n t y r e l a t i o n , then t h e
d e r i n e g. . and r e g a r d t h e 3 x
3 m a t r i x $ as t h e c a n o n i c a l variable
l J i J
some of t h e components o f t h e m e t r i c t e n s o r c o r r e s p o n d c l a s s i c a l l y to
v a r i a b l e s and i t i s by no means o b v i o u s t h a t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g o p e r a t o r s
t o o r i g i d l y on e n f o r c i n g a l l t h e canons of t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l approach in
this situation.
In o r d e r t o p r o c e e d f u r t h e r i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d a c o n c r e t e
v e c t o r s and o p e r a t o r s a r e d e f i n e d as f u n c t i o n a l s of t h e m e t r i c t e n s o r
f i e l d and f u n c t i o n a l d e r i v a t i v e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e scheme
(6.8)
c^a-f (6.10)
111.
T h i s i s c l e a r l y c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e
c a n o n i c a l commutation r e l a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n (§1).
However, t h e r e i s an i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e in t h a t in t h e u s u a l c a s e t h e r e
( 6 . 9 ) and ( 6 . 1 0 ) a r e only t o be r e g a r d e d as f o r m a l . In p a r t i c u l a r t h e
P r o c e e d i n g f o r m a l l y i t may be shown t h a t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e t h r e e
constraints:
(6.11)
d e s c r i b e t h e t h r e e - m e t r i c g^ . T h e r e f o r e t h e s t a t e - f u n c t i o n a l ¥ depends
o n l y on t h e c o o r d i n a t e - i n d e p e n d e n t , i n t r i n s i c geometry o f t h e t h r e e - s p a c e
and, t o emphasise t h i s , i s u s u a l l y w r i t t e n as V= .
in t h i s theory. D i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y we can r e p r e s e n t s u p e r s p a c e as i n
Fig. 1-3.
59
G transversally.
Fig. 1.3
E v i d e n t l y one m a j o r problem i s t o d i s c o v e r t h e f u l l m a t h e m a t i c a l
(514)
s t r u c t u r e of s u p e r s p a c e i t s e l f . I t i s worth remarking t h a t i n t h e
1
analogous Q - s p a c e ' t r e a t m e n t of a c o n v e n t i o n a l quantum f i e l d t h e o r y it
i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n c l u d e d i s t r i b u t i o n s as w e l l a s smooth J u n c t i o n s i n t h e
metrics.
C ° ( , g) *[3g] = 0 (6.12)
p r o p e r l y i n t e r p r e t e d , s h o u l d c o n t a i n a l l of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c a r r i e d by
(55)
at l e a s t p a r t i a l l y c o n s i s t e n t . He s t a r t e d w i t h t h e semi-classical
3
a p p r o x i m a t i o n y[ G] <v> e which when i n s e r t e d i n t o eqn ( 6 . 1 2 )
(t^ 7) ( I+R) (149)
in a t r u e c a n o n i c a l t h e o r y ,
v e c t o r s and t h e r e f o r e no p r o b a b i l i t y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is
t o t a l k ubout o b s e r v u b l e s ua o p e r a t o r s in t h e u3ual
aenae.
t o g e t h e r as a b l o c k . The c r u c i a l o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t i n g e n e r a l relativity,
p a r t i c u l a r l y «hen t h e s p a t i a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n s a r e compact, t i m e s h o u l d n o t be
r e g a r d e d as b e i n g e x t e r n a l t o t h e t h e o r y b u t r a t h e r as something v h i c h i o
t o be d e t e r m i n e d i n t r i n s i c a l l y in t e r m s of t h e geometry i t s e l f . The
s i m p l e s t way t o s e e t h i s i s t o c o n s i d e r t h a t i n an expanding u n i v e r s e
( e x p a n d i n g t h a t i s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r o p e r time o f a h y p o t h e t i c a l
t = f d 3 x (aet<3)g)i (6.13)
>v
shows c l e a r l y t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t i m e i s d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s of t h e
sa
(Ej» 6 2 y) c o r r e s p o n d t o dynamical v a r i a b l e s b u t t h e t h i r d (g^ s a y )
eqn ( 6 . 1 2 ) can be w r i t t e n as
c ( T
° fc; . ^ . f r - ' V V > e2;T] -0. (6.1«.)
a dynamical e q u a t i o n f o r t h e s t a t e v e c t o r . This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , in e f f e c t ,
answers problem i ) above by s u y i n g t h a t t h e dynamics was p r e s e n t a l l the
H i l b e r t s p a c e by c o n s t r u c t i n g a measure o f t h e h e u r i s t i c form d y t g ^ g ^ )
( b u t n o t e n o t d y ( 3 G ) ) and u s e i t t o d i s c u s s p r o b a b i l i t y e t c . We hope t h a t
i t w i l l have t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t t h e o b s e r v a b l e q u a n t i t i e s w i l l correspond
e n s u r e s e l f - a d j o i n t n e s s t h e n t h e Wheeler-DeWitt e q u a t i o n c h a n g e s and h e n c e
in every r e s p e c t . In a d d i t i o n t h e r e i s no a p r i o r i r e a s o n why t h e t i m e
o r n o t t h e m e a s u r e c o n s t r u c t e d above l e a d s t o a c o n s e r v e d probability
b u t t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r i s s t r o n( g5 l6y) a d v i s e d t o c o n s u l t some o f t h e
e x c e l l e n t p a p e r s on t h i s problem.
c e r t a i n b o u n d a r i e s which c o r r e a p o n d t o s i n g u l a r t h r e e g e o m e t r i e s . In s o
pretiuniably d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e c o l l a p s e d geometry e v e r o c c u r s .
but t h i s s t a t e m e n t n e e d s t o be i n t e r p r e t e d p r o p e r l y . To i n v e s t i g a t e thÍ3
f u r t h e r i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o g e n e r a l i s e t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n a way which is
r e s e m b l a n c e t o c o n v e n t i o n a l quantum t h e o r y t h e r e w i l l b e o b s e r v a b l e s
which a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s e l f - a d j o i n t o p e r a t o r s d e f i n e d on t h e H i l b e r t
«pace o f s t a t e s . C l a s s i c a l l y t h e s e o b s e r v a b l e s w i l l t a k e on c e r t a i n
v a l u e s f o r t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m which c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
t h o s e v a l u e s (which may be i n f i n i t e ) w i l l p r o b a b l y be r e g a r d e d as b e i n g
which we w i l l c a l l f . By v i r t u e o f t h e s p e c t r a l t h e o r e m f o r s e l f -
s e t of commuting o b s e r v a b l e s , t h e f u n c t i o n s a r e n o t r e a l v a l u e d , but
v a l u e s in a l a r g e r 3 p a c e . However, n e g l e c t i n g t h i s r e l a t i v e l y unimportant
(6.15)
observable P t h e n t h e r e s u l t i n g v a l u e w i l l l i e i n B. (In t h e g e n e r a l
c a s e t h e i n t e g r a l w i l l be o v e r t h e s p e c t r a o f a complete commuting s e t of
variables.) We a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d in t h e c a s e in which B c o n t a i n s
t h e p o i n t o f t h e s p e c t r u m of P which c o r r e s p o n d s , c l a s s i c a l l y , t o t h e
singularity. I f t h e s i n g u l a r p o i n t i s an i s o l a t e d , d i s c r e t e p a r t of t h e
s i n g u l a r p o i n t b e l o n g s t o t h e c o n t i n u o u s p a r t of t h e spectrum t h e n t h e
a f f e c t s t h i s b e h a v i o u r b u t i s c l e a r l y n o t t h e whole s t o r y . This p r o b l e m ,
i m p o r t a n t one f o r r e s e a r c h .
c a l l e d ) t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e q u a n t i s a t i o n of t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d ha3
a p p r e c i a t e t h a t t h e t e c h n i q u e i s , i n p r i n c i p l e , a p p l i c a b l e t o any quantum
field theory. To f o c u s a t t e n t i o n l e t us c o n s i d e r a s c a l a r f i e l d b e i n g
q u a n t i s e d in t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and hence s a t i s f y i n g t h e
•[•(•>; t] (7.1)
or e q u i v a l e n t l y (see §1)
;t
H (
a a r- ^
i K
«1, • 0 (7
V V ' ^ " at -2>
with t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f as t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
distribution f o r t h e measured v a l u e s of
Now i n c l a s s i c a l g e n e r a l r e l a t i v i t y a well-known t e c h n i q u e f o r
f i n d i n g e x a c t s o l u t i o n s of t h e E i n 3 t e i n e q u a t i o n s i s t o impose 3ome
symmetry on t h e m e t r i c . A s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e could b e f o l l o w e d t o f i n d
c l a s s i c a l s o l u t i o n s o f t h e s c a l a r f i e l d t h e o r y and would c o r r e s p o n d t o
s e t t i n g c e r t a i n of t h e modes q^ ( p o s s i b l y i n f i n i t e l y many) e q u a l t o z e r o .
e q u a t i o n ( 7 . 2 ) becomes
< t )
a 3 3 ^ < V V ' - V
t ) = i 1 2
» ' v v v ^ ' t ; - ^ * < v v v " *
(7.3)
which i s a genuine p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l , r a t h e r t h a n f u n c t i o n a l e q u a t i o n .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y an e x a c t s o l u t i o n of t h e quantum f i e l d t h e o r y i s n o t o b t a i n e d
t h e s e models. Namely:
s i t u a t i o n s , c e r t a i n of t h e modes do dominate t h e o t h e r s
reality. In e f f e c t we a r e p e r t u r b i n g t h e number o f
d e g r e e s o f freedom n ( r a t h e r t h a n any c o u p l i n g c o n s t a n t s )
and a r e s a y i n g t h a t i n some s i t u a t i o n s t h i s i 3 a u s e f u l
13 a h i g h l y n o n - t r i v i a l t a s k . Q u i t e a p a r t from t h e
t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s of s o l v i n g an n ' t h o r d e r p a r t i a l
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n , t h e d e l i c a t e problem of
r e l a t i o n s o f i n f i n i t e l y many v a r i a b l e s w i l l appear,
d i f f i c u l t i e s o f quantum f i e l d t h e o r y ,
i s in s e r v i n g as a t e s t i n g ground f o r p r o b i n g c e r t a i n
c o n c e p t u a l o r t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s of t h e f u l l t h e o r y .
q u a n t i s e i n t h e n o n - c o v a r i a n t c a n o n i c a l scheme (§5) t h e n
t h e o p e r a t o r o r d e r i n g problems can be d i s c u s s e d in a
on c h o i c e o f c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e s , c h o i c e of coordinates
p a r t i c u l a r problem f o r f i n i t e n , even f o r a l l f i n i t e n ,
As emphasised i n i t i a l l y t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a r e in p r i n c i p l e
approaches t o q u a n t i s i n g t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d has a c o r r e s p o n d i n g
r e s u l t i s t h e Wheelei—DeWitt e q u a t i o n
(7.M
(7-5)
f i n i t e d i m e n s i o n a l p i e c e of superspace.
f u n c t i o n a l i n t e g r a l o v e r t h e f i e l d p a t h s by a f u n c t i o n a l
e x c l u s i v e l y in quantum g r a v i t y t o r e f e r t o t h e c a n o n i c a l
approaches i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t modern E u c l i d e a n -
69
roughly in t h e s e n s e of eqn ( 7 . 6 ) .
As t h e r e i s a c h a p t e r by M.MacCallum on t h e s u b j e c t of quantum
mimy o t h e r s .
1) Conceptual problems a r e :
i) t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e v e c t o r and t h e d e f i n i t i o n
of o b s e r v a b l e s ;
ii) t h e n o t i o n of p r o b a b i l i t y i n a c l o s e d u n i v e r s e ( t h i s is
c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o t h e t e c h n i c a l problem o f d e f i n i n g a
and
iii) t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t i m e b e i n g an
o p e r a t o r i n t h e s u p e r s p a c e approach o r e q u i v a l e n t l y of
d i f f e r e n t c l a s s i c a l l y chosen t i m e s b e i n g r e l a t e d by
c a n o n i c a l scheme.
7 0
2) T e c h n i c a l problems a r e :
i) t h e v a r i o u s o p e r a t o r o r d e r i n g problems which o c c u r ;
c h o i c e of c a n o n i c a l v a r i a b l e s a n d , i n t h e c a s e o f t h e
n o n - c o v a r i a n t c a n o n i c a l t h e o r y , on t h e v a r i a b l e s which
a r e e l i m i n a t e d from t h e c o n s t r a i n t e q u a t i o n s and t h e
c o o r d i n a t e c o n d i t i o n s which a r e imposed;
iii) t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s e n s i b l e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e existence
o r o t h e r w i s e of g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o l l a p s e in t h e quantum
iv) t h e n a t u r e of t h e t i m e - e v o l u t i o n e q u a t i o n (viz.
from t h e s u p e r s p a c e t e c h n i q u e .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
and K a r e l Kuchar.
Y.1
Dome r e c e n t review a r t i c l e s o f a g e n e r a l n a t u r e a r e :
C o l l e g e p r e p r i n t l e c t u r e n o t e s of t h e
1972 Boston c o n f e r e n c e . An e a r l i e r
v e r s i o n appeared in t h e ' P r o c e e d i n g s of
f u l l b i b l i o g r a p h y on t w i s t o r t h e o r y .
d i m e n s i o n a l c a s e i s given i n :