Unit 1 – The Old English Period

The Old English Period: general characteristics of culture language and literature.
Poetry: Epic poems: Beowulf
Lyrical poems
Religious poems: Cædmon and Cynewulf.
Prose: Bede
King Alfred.

Introduction: How did English evolve?

In the 400 CE the Celts were ruled by the Romans. The Romans protected the Celts
from the barbarian Anglo-Saxon tribes. Then the Roman Empire began to crumble and the
Romans withdrew from Britain
With the Romans gone the Germanic tribes – the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians –
quickly sailed across the water, did away with the Celts and formed kingdoms in the British
Isles. For several years this tribes lived in Britain and their Germanic language, Anglo-Saxon,
become the common language, what we call Old English.
So, the centuries passed with the Britains happily speaking Old English, but in the 700
´aseries of Viking invasions began, which continued until a treaty split the island in half: on one
side were the Saxons, and on the other side were de Danes, who spoke Old Norse.
As Saxons fell in love with their cute Danish neighbours and marriages blurred de
boundaries, Old Norse mixed with Old English and many Norse words – for example: freckles
leg, root, skin and want – are still part of Modern English.
300 years later, in 1066, the Norman Conquest brought war again to the British Isles.
The Normans were Vikings who were settled in France. They had abandoned the Viking
language and culture in favour of a French lifestyle though they still fought like Vikings. They
placed a Norman King in the English throne, and for three centuries, French was the language
of the British Royalty.
Society in Britain became to have two levels: a French-Speaking aristocracy, and Old
English-Speaking peasants.
The French also brought many catholic clergymen with them who added Latin words
to the mix. Old English adapted and grew as thousands of words flowed in, many having to do
with government, law and aristocracy – like council, marriage, sovereign, govern, damage and
parliament.
As the language expanded, English speakers realized that if they wanted to sound
sophisticated, they were to use words that had come from French or Latin… Anglo Saxons
words seemed as plain as the Anglo Saxons peasants who spoke them…
Anglo-Saxon central beliefs
 Loyalty
 Revenge
 Fate
 Fame

In Anglo-Saxon culture, being a hero meant being brave on the battlefield, being loyal to one’s
lord, not harming family members, and seeking fame. in Anglo-Saxon culture, there was
nothing shameful about a warrior wanting glory, wanting to be known as a hero. The Anglo-
Saxons thought it was possible for a person to be good, loyal, and brave and be hungry for
fame at the same time.

The Anglo-Saxon culture held protection of it's people and it's allies very important.
This culture focused on having great warriors that were loyal to their king, heritage, people,
and country. Loyalty was important because it was what made warriors want to defend their
home. As long as warriors were loyal to their country and everything in it, all was secure.
Beowulf illustrates the beliefs of the Anglo-Saxons in many aspects.

Protection was probably the most important thing in Anglo-Saxon culture. All other
essentials of importance came underneath the protection of their country. This was
demonstrated in the story when Beowulf left even in his old age to fight a dragon that was
terrorizing his people. "Beowulf scorned a host, a large army, when he sought the dragon; he
didn't fear the dragon's war; he trusted his strength and courage since he had survived many
battles, the flashings of battle gleams, since the time he'd cleared Hrothgar's wine-hall of
Grendel's family, that hateful race." Beowulf was ready for anything dispite his age. He
protected his people no matter what. He was their king and that was his duty. He protected his
people and put his own life in danger before anyone. He even put his own life first even when
it came to his own warriors, who's sole occupation is is to risk their lives to protect. Beowulf
tries to fight on his own first so that if he can win a battle on his own no other lives will be lost.

The second most important thing to the Anglo-Saxons underneath protection was
loyalty. Loyalty comes from a love of something. A person would not have true loyalty of to
something if this person did not care for it. If a warrior did have loyalty to his king, country, or
his people, he would have no desire to protect it. Beowulf fights the dragon to protect his
people because he loves and cares for the Geats. He defends and fights for them because of
his loyalty to the people. Beowulf does the same for people who live across an ocean to help.
In the story it says, "But a warrior of Hygelac's heard of Grendel's doings; he was the strongest
of men alive in that day, mighty and noble. That man called for a ship, said he would cross the
ocean and help the king who needed help. Wise men urged him to that adventure though he
was dear to them. They examined omens and whetted him on." He crosses and ocean to
defend a people and king that are not even his own. Beowulf shows loyalty to the king of
Danes because he is an ally. He fights Grendel and his mother to protect the king and his
people from the monster's terror. Loyalty is a crucial factor in the desire to protect.

Loyalty is what, in Anglo-Saxon perspective, made a warrior great. It was the emotion
inside him that drove him to do the great things he did. Had not a warrior loyalty for for his
king and country he would be a poor warrior. Warriors have to have a passion for what they
are fighting for. This works in the same way for kings and their people as well as people for
their kings. Beowulf shows how loyal he was to his people when he fights and kills a terrible
dragon, dying to protect his people and warriors. The warriors were not very loyal to Beowulf
in return and abandoned their king in his time of need. This story teaches the importance of
loyalty and the repercussions of not being loyal to your word. These men suffered the death of
their great protector as a consequence if their actions. They lost the king that they loved as a
result of their broken promises to protect and fight beside him. Beowulf is a story that outlines
the beliefs of the Anglo-Saxons and the repercussions of what could happen if these morals are
ignored. The Geat people learned these lessons in the loss of their great king who did so much
trying to protect them.

LOYALTY
 Backbone of society
 Treachery condemned
 Two ways: The lord offers protection and treasure – the warrior fight for his lord

In Anglo-Saxon culture, a hero was a warrior, who was successful on the battlefield and
illustrated great loyalty to his lord and tribe. The ideal hero was true to the comitatus. In other
words, the hero kept his promise to his lord to fight whatever obstacle the tribe faced. The
ideal hero became famous for his courage and loyalty and showed little emotion and
vulnerability regarding his duty as warrior.
Anglo-Saxon heroes obeyed the comitatus to its fullest. The comitatus was an
agreement lords made with their warriors. Lords agreed to provide warriors with shelter and
treasure, and in return warriors agreed to fight on behalf of the lords
The Anglo-Saxon warrior pledged his life to his war-lord. No shame was greater than
out-living one’s lord on the field of battle, and a peaceful ‘straw death’ (death on one’s pallet
of straw) an end scorned – at least in song – by all warriors.
In exchange for complete fealty, the war lord fed, clothed, housed, horsed, and richly
rewarded his warriors. Booty won by his men was typically offered to the lord, to enrich his
war chest and finance the giving of gifts back to his best champions. Hence the frequent
references in praise of the ‘ring-giving’ lord – the lord who generously bestows silver and gold
arm-rings upon his fighters – or upon his resident scop. Ladies too were ‘ring-givers’, rewarding
the skill and prowess of warriors with gifts presented amidst feasting in the timber hall.
Thegns (‘thanes’) were the warrior class in Anglo-Saxon England, and most of the
Saxon fighters you meet in The Circle of Ceridwen are thegns. Thegns held land from their lord
(who might also be their king) and had a higher wergild than ceorls (‘churls’), common
freeborn men. These distinctions were not rigid, however; a ceorl who accumulated five hides
of land (a hide being the amount needed to sustain one family) became entitled to the rights
of a thegn, and this rank became hereditary after three generations.
Thegns were the forerunner of knights. The Old English cnicht means “household
retainer” or “servant”. Anglo-Saxon kings like Ælfred the Great called their closest and most
trusted thegns their gesithas – their companions
REVENGE
 Duty to kill lord’s killer
 Worst crime: killing a relative
 Gives rise to feuds (violent quarrels between groups continuing for a long time)
 Marriage alliances to end feuds: princess as peace-maker or peace-weaver

FATE
 Wyrd: The Role of Fate.
 “nobody dies before his time”

Wyrd: the concept of active Fate from the Anglo-Saxons.

Wyrd is Fate or Destiny, but not the “inexorable fate” of the ancient Greeks. “A happening,
event, or occurrence” is closer to the Anglo-Saxon’s concept. Wyrd is not an end-point, but
something continually happening around us at all times. One of the phrases used to describe
this difficult term is “that which happens”; In this way wyrd becomes not a destination but a
sign post, or even a crossroads. Just as the traveller affects the outcome of his journey by the
path he chooses, so do we play an active role in facing what wyrd metes out to us. Wyrd can
be “worked”. What you do as an individual can bend or change wyrd.
Anglo-Saxons believed that at a given time some men…were doomed to die – a reaction to the
uncertainties of warfare and accidents not unlike that of many modern soldiers who have faith
in the idea that “if it’s got your name on it, there’s nothing you can do…”
This page has existed, waiting for you. You arrived here to learn of Wyrd because of what you
selected on your path to this knowledge.

FAME
Anglo-Saxon knights also sought fame. The best thing a warrior can do to prepare for death is
to become famous for his feats on the battlefield. Since the Anglo-Saxons did not have a
concept of the afterlife, earthly fame was the best way for a warrior to achieve honour in
death. It was completely acceptable in Anglo-Saxon culture to be honourable and kind and to
love fame at the same time. Being a hero entailed being a good warrior and being known for
being a good warrior. In Anglo-Saxon culture, it was important for heroes to be very proud of
their deeds and to want to be well-known for them
ANGLO SAXON LANGUAGE:
OLD ENGLISH.
 Harsh, guttural
 Rich in consonants, few vowels
 Small and fixed vocabulary
 Heavily inflected (word order not important)
 Resorted to compounding for creation of words (i.e.: “learning-boy” = “disciple”)

Old English was an Anglo-Frisian language brought to south-eastern Great Britain in the
5th century AD, by Germanic settlers from various parts of northwest Germany (Saxons,
Angles) as well as Denmark (Jutes).
The Germanic invaders dominated the original Celtic-speaking inhabitants, whose
languages survive largely in Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall, and Ireland. The dialects
spoken by the invaders formed what would be called Old English or Anglo-Saxon. "Anglo-
Saxon" is also the term applied to the English-speaking inhabitants of Britain up to the time of
the Norman Conquest (1066), when the Anglo-Saxon line of English kings came to an end.
Old English shared its Germanic heritage in vocabulary, sentence structure and
grammar with its sister languages in continental Europe. Some features were specific to the
West Germanic language family, some other features were inherited from the Proto-Germanic
language. Old English was fully inflected with five grammatical cases: the nominative,
accusative, genitive, dative and instrumental. It had dual plural forms for referring to groups of
two objects, in addition to the usual singular and plural forms. It also assigned gender to all
nouns, including those that describe inanimate objects: for example, sēo sunne (the Sun) was
feminine, while se mōna (the Moon) was masculine (cf. modern German die Sonne vs. der
Mond). Finally, Old English was spelled essentially as it was pronounced.

Old English / Anglo-Saxon (Ænglisc)

Old English was the West Germanic language spoken in the area now known as England
between the 5th and 11th centuries. Speakers of Old English called their language Englisc,
themselves Angle, Angelcynn or Angelfolc and their home Angelcynn or Englaland.
Old English began to appear in writing during the early 8th century. Most texts were
written in West Saxon, one of the four main dialects. The other dialects were Mercian,
Northumbrian and Kentish.
The Anglo-Saxons adopted the styles of scrip t used by Irish missionaries, such as
Insular half-uncial, which was used for books in Latin. A less formal version of minuscule was
used for to write both Latin and Old English. From the 10th century Anglo-Saxon scribes began
to use Caroline Minuscule for Latin while continuing to write Old English in Insular minuscule.
Thereafter Old English script was increasingly influenced by Caroline Minuscule even though it
retained a number of distinctive Insular letter-forms.

WRITING OLD ENGLISH

Before current writing system was brought to Britain by Missionaries in the 9 th and 10th
centuries, Old English was primarily written in Anglo-Saxon runes
Runic inscriptions are mostly found on jewellery, weapons, stones and other objects,
and only about 200 of such inscriptions have survived.
Anglo-Saxon runes (futhorc/fuþorc)

Old English / Anglo-Saxon was first written with a version of the Runic alphabet known
as Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Frisian runes, or futhorc/fuþorc. This alphabet was an extended
version of Elder Futhark with between 26 and 33 letters. Anglo-Saxon runes were used
probably from the 5th century AD until about the 10th century. They started to be replaced by
the Latin alphabet from the 7th century, and after the 9th century the runes were used mainly
in manuscripts and were mainly of interest to antiquarians. Their use ceased not long after the
Norman conquest.
Runic inscriptions are mostly found on jewellery, weapons, stones and other objects,
and only about 200 such inscriptions have survived. Most have been found in eastern and
southern England

INVASIONS TO THE BRITISH ISLES

The earliest known inhabitants of the British Isles have been traced back to the last interglacial
period, around 200,000 BC (Before Christ 1).

In the 3rd millennium B.C. a nomadic people started their migration from western Russia. They
reached China to the east and Europe to the west, and in 2,000 B.C. they got to the British
Isles. Their language is called Indo-European (from the extremities where it penetrated) and is
the ancestor of most European languages and many others.

The Celts invaded the British Isles in successive waves from c. (circa) 600 B.C. The main groups
were the Brythonic and Goidelic Celts.

In 55 B.C. the Romans started raids into Britain but it was not until 43 A.D. (Anno Domini2) that
the country was incorporated into the Roman Empire. The Celts (especially those living in
towns) were assimilated into the Roman culture, whereas the rural populations continued to
speak the Celtic languages. It was a period of peace and prosperity. When the Roman empire
accepted Christianity (313 A.D.) the new religion also entered the British Isles. St. Patrick
(died 461) was responsible for the introduction of Christianity into Ireland.

As the barbarians threatened the Roman Empire, the legions were summoned back to defend
Rome, and the Celts (who had for 350 years relied on the Roman army) were left defenceless,
and were attacked by Picts and Scots (living in Scotland). Rome itself fell in 410, an event which
signals the end of Ancient Times and the beginning of the Middle Ages.

The Angles, Saxons and Jutes (collectively termed Anglo-Saxons) invaded as from the 5th
century and by c. 615 had conquered all present-day England.

The Celts offered resistance (in fact, the legendary King Arthur is thought to have led the Celtic
troops fighting the Anglo-Saxons), but were eventually subdued. Many escaped to Scotland,
Wales, Ireland and Brittany (in northern France). In England, the Roman towns were
destroyed, Christianity was abandoned, and Latin was displaced by the Anglo-Saxon
languages. However, the Celts continued with their traditions and language, so much so that
even today we can find the development of Celtic culture and literature in Scotland (language:
Erse), Wales (language: Cymric -called Welsh today) and Ireland (language: Gaelic).
From the 7th century to the middle of the 9th political dominance swayed from one Anglo-
Saxon kingdom to another. In 597 St. Augustine arrived from Rome to Christianize the pagan
Anglo-Saxons. Thanks to Christianity England became part of the mainstream of Western
civilization.
But prosperity and cultural development would not last. As from 856 the "savage" Vikings
started their raids on the Anglo-Saxons (simultaneously they were attacking all Europe:
Hamburg, Paris, Seville, even Morocco). They brought death and destruction and by 870 only
one Anglo-Saxon kingdom survived: Wessex. Alfred (the Great), king of Wessex, defeated them
and exacted a treaty (878), in which he received half of England and ensured the
Christianization of the Vikings (or Danes); he was thus the first ruler of all free Englishmen.
Northern and eastern England was the Danelaw, composed of several Viking kingdoms
(dividing line from London to Chester).

In 1017, due to the discredit of Alfred's successors, the Witan appointed the Danish King
Canute (an able and enlightened Christian), who was thus the first true ruler of a fully unified
England. He was followed by Anglo-Saxon kings until 1066, when the Normans (under
William the Conqueror) gained control of England and put an end to the Anglo-Saxon period.
That was the last invasion Great Britain ever suffered.

OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE

 Oral tradition -> mainly poetry.

 Few colours, gloomy atmosphere, gory details.
 Recited by scops in mead-halls.
 Subject to change due oral transmission.

SCOPS: Scops were both poets and performers in Anglo-Saxon culture. They were the
keepers of tribal histories as well as influencers of tribal values. Scops fulfilled the
duties of “court singer, historian, genealogist, teacher, composer, and reporter” in
Anglo-Saxon culture; their existence is the reason scholars know about Anglo-Saxon
history. Scops carried information about Anglo-Saxon culture in their minds until it
could be written down long after the first scops lived. In the Anglo-Saxon hierarchy,
scops were equal to thanes and received rings and gold from different kings. Scops
composed and memorized poems that told the stories of heroic epics, which recorded
the history and main ideals of Anglo-Saxon culture. Scops’ songs promoted values like
bravery, loyalty, fame, and self-sacrifice.

- Scops would entertain the warriors with tales of old deeds or battles.
- They kept the history alive for Anglo-Saxons.
- They had to be a master of their art, being able to recite thousands of lines
by heart.
- They accompanied their recitation with a harp or lyre.
EXTANT POETRY
(Extant: still existing despite being very old)

Old English Poetry was written down (not traduced!) by Monks after the conversion to
Christianity (in Old English, using a modified Roman alphabet including some runes – Note: the
runic alphabet was only used for short inscriptions).

All original poetry that has come down to us is contained in four manuscripts: Vercelli, Junius,
Exeter, and the Cotton (or Beowulf) manuscript.

OLD ENGLISH VERSIFICATION

 RHYTHM: 4 beats/feet (stressed syllables) per line; Irregular number of unstressed
syllables.
 CEASURA: a pause between beats 2 and 4 (scop played harp during this stop.
 ALLITERATION: on at least 3 stressed syllables (highly alliterative).
 RHYTHM BUT NO RHYME

ALLITERATION: repetition of consonants sounds at the beginning of words, used to

heighten moods, emphasize sounds or images or create a musical effects.
The three thoughtful tenants – only two words alliterate, because they begin with the
same sound.

OLD ENGLISH RHETHORICAL DEVICES

 KENNINGS
 GENEOLOGY
 VARIATION (repetition of statements in differing words, for emphasis)
 LITOTES

KENNINGS:
- Compound compose of two words which was used as a synonym for a
specific object.
- Not always metaphorical: “wave-floater” and “wave-steed” for “boat”.
- A sign of the poet skill, could evoke different associations (c.f.: “ring-giver”
and “shepherded of his people” for “king”).
- Helped to achieve alliteration.

GENEAOLOGY
- Reference to Hero’s ancestors: “The son of Edgedtheow”
- Related to importance of fame.
 VARIATION OR REPETITION OF CONCEPTS: the same concept is repeated in different ways:
- The strongest of fighting-men stumbled in his weariness,
The firmest of foot-warriors fell to the Earth.
- And the wise lord,
The holy god, gave out the victory;
The ruler of the heavens rightly settled it.

LITOTES: ironical understatement in which the affirmative is expressed by the negation of the
opposite.
- Einstein was not a bad mathematician (=he was excellent).
- The wiser sought to dissuade him from voyaging hardly or not at all.
(=they encourage him).

EPIC POEM (Beowulf)

 Tales the form of a long narrative poem about a quest, told in a formal, elevated
(dignified) language.
 Narrates the exploits of a of a larger-than-life hero who embodies de values of a
particular culture.
 Begins with a statement of subject and theme and, sometimes with a prayer to a deity.
 Deals with events in a large scale.
 Uses many of the conventions of oral storytelling, such as repetition, sound effects,
figures of speech and stock epithets.
 Often includes Gods and Goddesses characters.
 Mixes myth, legend, and history.
 Folk epics: composed orally and passed from storyteller to storyteller. It helped to
preserve some of the culture of the time.

EPIC CONVENTIONS

 Opening statement of theme.

 An appeal for supernatural help in telling the story (an invocation). This is a pagan
element.
 A beginning in medias res (in “the middle of things”).
 Accounts for pasts events.
 Long lists/catalogues of people/things.
 Descriptive phrases. (Beowulf was originally passed down orally)
 Alliteration, caesura, kennings, litotes, repetition, genealogy, rhythm but no
rhyme.

BEOWULF is an epic poem survivor from Old English literature. Beowulf, the character, is an
epic hero. This means that he is a larger-than-life hero which deals with conflicts of UNIVERSAL
IMPORTANCE. His adventures impact over the fate of the tribe, nation or world. The setting of
the story is Scandinavia in the 5 th C. (same part from where the Anglo-Saxons were, and at the
same time they left it to go to Britain)
Beowulf fights monsters, dragons, he makes women swoon and he commands the
respect and admiration of everyman he meets. He fights bravely in pursuit of GLORY for
himself, for his tribe, for his ancestors, and for his king.
It was composed in Northumbria, England about 750 A.D and the action of the poem
took place around 500 AD. Its author is unknown, has historical evidence, and provides us
information about Anglo-Saxon Culture.
It was first the first Old English Epic Poem and it had been transmitted orally for
centuries and first written down in the 11 th C. It incorporated Christian elements during oral
transmission in an increasingly Christian society. It has no reference to the British Isles.