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Stainless Steel Tanks For Biogas Production: Publication P412
Stainless Steel Tanks For Biogas Production: Publication P412
Publication P412
Summary
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a well-established process for renewable energy
production in which biomass is broken down and converted to biogas (a
mixture of methane, carbon dioxide and traces of other gases) by micro-
organisms. The environment inside a biodigester is complex, depending on
the composition of the feedstock and operating conditions, and some of the
by-products are corrosive to certain structural materials. It is essential to
minimise maintenance because each time the AD process is interrupted, it
takes 3-4 weeks for production to start up again. Stainless steel is an ideal
material for biogas tanks because it is inherently corrosion resistant, as well
as being strong and easy to fabricate. The range of stainless steel grades
available enables a cost-effective material choice to be made, leading to
trouble-free performance throughout the life of the biodigester.
Germany The BIOGASS project was carried out with financial support
WELTEC BIOPOWER GmbH from the Research Fund for Coal and Steel of the
www.weltec-biopower.com The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) European Community (Contract: RFSR-CT-20012-00035),
Germany www.steel-sci.com the International Molybdenum Association and
the Nickel Institute.
United Kingdom
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Stainless Steel
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is the breakdown of organic produce both heat and electricity. The biogas can also be
material (also known as biomass) by naturally occurring cleaned up to use as a fuel for converted road vehicles.
micro-organisms in the absence of oxygen. The process
produces biogas which can subsequently be burned to Reduces fertiliser bills
produce heat. Alternatively it can be fed into a combined The residue organic material can be used in both solid
heat and power (CHP) generator to produce both heat and liquid form as a highly nutritious organic fertiliser,
and electricity or it can be cleaned and used in the same thereby reducing the need for expensive and potentially
way as natural gas or as a vehicle fuel. The material left harmful non-organic chemical fertilisers. It is nutrient-
over after digestion, called digestate, can be used as a rich with less odour than slurry. Biogas manure also
fertiliser and soil improver. The air-tight tank in which has a lower viscosity than animal manure and therefore
this process takes place is called a biodigester (also penetrates into the ground more quickly.
known as an anaerobic digester or fermenter).
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Biogas can be produced from a variety of feedstocks, Biogas comprises about 60% methane and 35% carbon
commonly manure or slurry from livestock. The advantage dioxide, as well as some other gases including the
of using manure as a feedstock is that it reduces the noxious hydrogen sulfide. Methane and carbon dioxide
gaseous releases compared to conventional storage are both greenhouse gases that are damaging to the
and field application of manure. However, as it has environment. The AD process captures these gases,
already been digested by the livestock, gas output is which under normal circumstances would be released
relatively low. To boost gas production it is usually directly to the atmosphere from the decomposition
necessary to add energy crops such as maize or silage. of animal waste, vegetable waste etc. Since the
This is worthwhile if the cost of production is sufficiently greenhouse gas potential of methane is higher than
low. Food processing or catering waste can also be that of carbon dioxide, capturing methane and burning
added, which not only boosts the gas output but may it to produce carbon dioxide is beneficial.
generate a gate fee which contributes to the profit.
Installing an AD plant enables farmers to diversify and
Adding food wastes will increase the administrative
bring in a predictable income stream and energy source,
complexity of the plant as well as adding to the capital
reducing their use of fossil fuel and mineral fertilisers.
cost. Around 57% of biogas in Europe is produced from
agricultural waste, 31% from landfill and 12% from For the food and drink sector, AD provides a means of
wastewater treatment plants. Elsewhere in the world, processing its by-products in an environmentally
biogas is produced primarily by landfill-based plants or acceptable way avoiding landfill fees.
small-scale family digesters. Biogas facilities, unlike wind power, can be ramped
Advantages of AD are as follows: up and down at the touch of the button. As renewable
energy sources make up a greater share in energy
Generates electricity and heat supply, the ability of biogas to cover peak demands
The captured biogas can be burned to produce heat, and balance down periods of other renewables
or used in a combined heat and power generator to becomes more important.
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Introduction to biogas production
Liquid or solid
biowaste / by-products
Pre-treatment
Heat
Electricity
Bio-fertiliser
Post treatment
The AD sector is a niche but thriving industry, with plants design options covering different temperature levels,
producing biogas for many years around the world. More moisture contents and tank layouts with either continuous
than 14,560 biogas power plants operate in Europe, with or batch systems and single, double or multiple digesters.
total capacity approaching 7.9 GW [1]. Germany accounts These all have different cost implications, design
for half of this capacity (almost 3.9 GW) and for annual requirements, and returns on investment.
electricity generation from biogas of around 29 TWh,
followed by Italy (1,391 plants), Switzerland (620), and While there are thousands of functioning biogas plants
France (610). The popularity of biogas in Germany was around the world, in the vast majority of cases operation
due to the high feed-in tariffs which were in force for can only be sustained with the help of subsidies to be
12 years; the tariffs were reduced in 2012. able to compete with the fossil energy industrial sector.
There are clear opportunities to improve many of the
Biogas plants are also widespread in the Americas and process steps in the biogas production chain in order to
Asia, for example in China there are 100,000 large- reduce both investment and operating costs.
scale modern biogas plants.
Low prices for oil and natural gas and high production
The economic viability of an AD plant is very dependent costs for renewables have led to a stagnation of growth
on the type and quantity of feedstock and the utilisation of biogas production in Europe, but in the long term,
of the by-products; biogas, bio-fertiliser and, to a it is expected that the role of biogas in the European
lesser extent, heat. The process of AD requires careful energy mix will grow, especially as it is easier to store
management to exploit its potential and there are several and transport than electricity.
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Stainless Steel
AD is a very flexible process that can be configured (H2S) and halides. The concentration of these trace
in multiple ways, according to the inputs, outputs, site gases depends on the concentration of nitrogen
access, space and layout. The process is affected by and sulfur in the feedstock and the conditions in the
many factors including: biodigester. The level of H2S must be substantially
reduced prior to feeding into a combined heat and
Temperature power (CHP) generator in order to avoid excessive
corrosion and rapid and expensive deterioration of
The operation temperature depends on what material is lubrication oil.
being digested and what type of system is used. Mesophilic
systems operate at 25-45°C and thermophilic systems Removal of H2S from biogas (desulfurization) can
operate at 50-60°C or above. Thermophilic systems be done by various methods, either biological or
have a faster throughput with faster biogas production chemical, taking place inside or outside the biodigester.
per unit of feedstock and m3 digester and there is greater The method depends on the content of H2S and the
pathogen kill. However, the capital costs of thermophilic throughput rate in the desulfurization equipment.
systems are higher, more energy is needed to heat
them and they generally require more management. Biological desulfurization involves the addition of oxygen
For this reason, mesophilic systems are more common. in small volume (a maximum 1 % volume concentration).
This reaction produces sulfur, a yellow substance which
Dilution deposits on the upper part of the biodigester (Figure 3).
Sulfurous acid (H2SO3) may also be formed, depending
Water is usually added to the raw material to generate on the concentration of oxygen in the biodigester.
a slurry, which is generally 10-25% solids.
pH
Optimum biogas production is achieved when the pH of
the input mixture is between 6.5 and 8.
Retention time
The length of time which the feedstock remains in
the biodigester affects the extent of degradation and
quantity of gas produced.
Toxicity
Mineral ions and detergents present in the feedstock
can inhibit normal growth of bacteria in a biodigester.
Figure 3 Build-up of sulfur inside a biodigester, as a result
of desulfurization
Mixing/agitation
Mixing is required to combine the incoming material with Chemical desulfurization involves the addition of
the bacteria, to stop the formation of scum and avoid chemicals like iron hydroxide Fe(OH)2 which leads to
pronounced temperature gradients within the biodigester. the precipitation of iron sulfide (FeS). Iron chlorides
(FeCl2 and FeCl3 ) are not recommended because
The environment inside a biodigester is very complex to chloride ions can cause corrosion of some grades of
characterize, depending on the composition of the stainless steel.
feedstock and operating conditions. It cannot be finely
controlled and maintenance cannot be carried out regularly The most benign feedstock is herbal waste, or products
because each time the anaerobic process is interrupted, like energy crops, harvesting residues, or fruits or
it takes about 4 weeks to start producing biogas again. vegetables which have not undergone any additional
processing. High values of sulfur will be produced if the
During the AD process, organic acids such as acetic feedstock contains residues of meat or fish processing.
acid (CH3COOH) will be formed and trace gases may If the feedstock contains convenience products or
build up in the biodigester such as hydrogen sulfide leftover food, sodium chlorides (NaCl) will be present.
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Introduction to stainless steel
Stainless steel is a family of corrosion and heat resistant The three families of stainless steel suitable for use in
steel alloys containing a minimum of 10.5% chromium. biodigesters are:
There is a range of stainless steels meeting different
corrosion resistance, strength, weldability and toughness a. Ferritic stainless steels
requirements. With a chromium content above 10.5%, The chromium content of the most popular ferritic
a clean surface and exposure to air or any other stainless steels is between 10.5% and 18%. They
oxidizing environment, a transparent and tightly contain little, or no nickel, which makes them
adherent layer of chromium-rich oxide (passive layer) relatively cost-effective and price-stable compared
forms spontaneously on the surface of the stainless with austenitic stainless steels, the family of
steel. If scratching or cutting damages the film, it will stainless steels more commonly used in structural
reform immediately in the presence of oxygen. applications. Apart from enhanced durability,
ferritics have similar properties to structural carbon
steels, although the toughness is somewhat limited
Chromium
oxide layer at low temperatures and in heavy sections, except
Stainless for grade 1.4003. However, ferritics are suitable for
steel a wide range of applications. High chromium ferritic
steels with more than 18% Cr and/or additions
of molybdenum can be used in quite aggressive
conditions. Ferritics are not as formable as
a. Chromium oxide layer
protecting stainless steel austenitic stainless steels.
b. Austenitic stainless steels
The common types of austenitic stainless steel
are based on 17 to 18% chromium and 8 to 11%
nickel additions. They have excellent weldability and
formability. Corrosion resistance can be enhanced by
adding chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen. They
b. Chromium oxide layer
damaged (e.g. by machining)
work harden during cold forming to high strength
levels whilst retaining a useful level of ductility and
toughness. Relative to structural carbon steels, they
also have significantly better toughness over a wide
range of temperatures.
c. Duplex stainless steels
Standard duplex stainless steels have excellent
c. Chromium oxide layer corrosion resistance, typically containing 20
re-formed automatically to 26% chromium, 1 to 8% nickel, 0.05 to 5%
molybdenum, and 0.05 to 0.3% nitrogen. They
Figure 4 Stainless steel has a protective chromium oxide have a microstructure which is approximately
surface film 50% ferritic and 50% austenitic. This gives them
a higher strength than either ferritic or austenitic
The stability of the film depends on the composition steels. There is also a range of “lean duplex”
of the stainless steel and the corrosiveness of its steels which contain less nickel and molybdenum
environment, as well as other factors. Its stability and more manganese than standard duplexes.
increases as the chromium content increases and is They have corrosion resistance which is similar to
further enhanced by alloying additions of molybdenum. the austenitic stainless steels but with enhanced
Unlike galvanized or painted steel, there are no applied strength. Duplex stainless steels are weldable but
protective surface layers. need care in selection of welding consumables and
heat input. They have moderate formability.
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Stainless Steel
Material grades
There are a range of stainless steels meeting different information for long products, like bar and rod. These
requirements for corrosion resistance, strength, standards also define the type of process route and
weldability and toughness. They are specified in surface finish.
accordance with European Standard EN 10088 [2].
The relevant parts for use in construction applications This publication covers the grades of stainless steels
are Part 4 and Part 5, which are harmonised standards. shown in Table 1. Table 1 gives the grade designations
in accordance with EN 10088, the US system specified
Part 1 of EN 10088 gives chemical compositions and by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and
reference data on some physical properties relevant for
the Unified Numbering System (UNS). Hereafter, this
structural applications such as the elastic modulus, E.
publication will refer to the grades by their European
Part 4 of EN 10088 gives the properties and compositions number. The durability and cost of the grades increases
for sheet, strip and plate and Part 5 gives the equivalent as the content of additional alloying elements increases.
Austenitic 1.4404 316L S31603 16.5 – 18.5 10.0 – 13.0 2.0 – 2.5
Austenitic 1.4571 316Ti S31635 16.5 – 18.5 10.0 – 13.5 2.0 – 2.5 Titanium
Duplex 1.4482 2001 S32001 19.5 – 21.5 1.5 – 3.5 0.1 – 0.6 Manganese, Nitrogen
Duplex 1.4162 2101 S32101 21.0 – 22.0 1.35 – 1.7 0.1 – 0.8 Manganese, Nitrogen
Duplex 1.4462 2205 S32205 21.0 – 23.0 4.5 – 6.5 2.5– 3.5 Nitrogen
Duplex 1.4662 2404 S82441 23.0 – 25.0 3.4 – 4.0 1.5 – 4.0 Manganese, Nitrogen
Surface finish
Stainless steels offer a significant advantage over 2E: Cold rolled, heat treated, mechanically descaled
carbon steels because they can be used unprotected A cold rolled finish, rougher than 2B (the material
in a range of surface finishes, from mill finish through has been mechanically descaled (e.g. by shot
dull finishes to bright polish. The various finishes are blasting) before final pickling to facilitate the
standardised in EN 10088. Biodigesters are usually removal of annealing oxide).
made from cold rolled strip material, which is available 2H: Work hardened
in thicknesses from 0.4 to 6.0 mm. The typical range of A work hardened, cold rolled finish, in which the
thicknesses for hot rolled coil is 2.0 to 8.0 mm. material has been work hardened (also known as
Suitable finishes for tanks are: temper rolled) to strengthen it.
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Properties of stainless steel
Thermal
thermal of thermal
Density conductivity
Grade capacity expansion 400
kg/m3 at 20°C
at 20°C 10-6/K
W/mK
J/kgK 0~100°C 300
1.4003 7700 430 25 10.4
1.4509 7700 460 25 10.0 200 Austenitic (1.4301)
1.4521 7700 430 23 10.4 Duplex (1.4462)
100 Ferritic
1.4318 7900 500 15 16
S355 Carbon steel
1.4301 7900 500 15 16 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
1.4404 8000 500 15 16 Strain (%)
1.4571 8000 500 15 16.5
1.4482 7800 500 15 13 Figure 5 Full range stress-strain curves for stainless and
carbon steels
1.4162 7700 500 15 13
1.4462 7800 500 15 15 600
The response of ferritic stainless steel lies somewhere 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75
Strain (%)
between that of carbon steel and austenitic stainless
steel in that it is not quite as ‘rounded’ or nonlinear as Figure 6 Stress-strain curves for stainless and carbon steels
the austenitic grades. from 0 to 0.75% strain
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Stainless Steel
The design values for the 0.2% proof strength (fy), Austenitic stainless steels are not susceptible to brittle
tensile strength (fu) and elongation (A) for each grade fracture, even at low temperatures. Duplex stainless
covered in this publication are presented in Table 3, steels exhibit a ductile to brittle transition at low temp-
taken from EN 10088-4. Note that the measured 0.2% eratures, like carbon steels. Ferritic stainless steels
proof strength and elongation are likely to exceed these demonstrate the lowest toughness of the grades of
minimum specified values by between 25 to 40%. stainless steel considered in this publication. However,
brittle fracture is highly unlikely to occur in the thin
Note that the ratio of fu / fy for duplexes and ferritics is material that is used for the biodigesters since the plane
typically between 1.4 and 1.9, which is a similar value stress condition prevails for thin material loaded in tension,
to carbon steel; the ratio for austenitics is around 2.5 and failure is characteristically in a ductile manner.
which demonstrates the significant work hardening the
material undergoes.
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Stainless steel in biogas production
Corrosion resistance
The shell of a biodigester comes into direct contact
with a wide range of potentially aggressive products,
including hydrogen sulphide, chlorides and organic
acids. Providing the correct grade is specified, and
simple design and fabrication rules are followed,
stainless steel will be able to resist the corrosive
elements in a biodigester. No expensive additional
coatings are required, which often degrade in contact
with warm water containing organic compounds over
the years of service.
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Stainless Steel
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Material selection and durability
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Stainless Steel
As a result of the laboratory investigations and field high PRE(Mn). Because grade 1.4462 did not corrode
trials, the following material selection recommendations under any of the relevant electrochemical, laboratory
can be made for bolted stainless steel tanks. The or field tests, it appears to be a suitable material for
recommendations apply to stainless steels in the the most aggressive feedstocks, such as food waste
investigated feedstocks. The suitability of a stainless containing relatively high amounts of NaCl.
steel grade for use in significantly different feedstocks
should be evaluated separately. Increasing H2S It should be noted that these guidelines may not apply
concentrations and increased dosing of oxygen for to welded stainless steel tanks (no welded samples
desulfurisation will require steel grades with a relatively were studied in this project).
Mesophilic or
Method of Recommended grades*
Feedstock thermophilic Position
desulfurization based on performed tests in biogas digesters
conditions
* Skin-passed surface finish 2B is commonly preferred over surface finishes 2E and 1D.
** Although not tested in this project, grade 1.4301 has a track record of satisfactory performance in the liquid phase and grade 1.4571 has a
track record of satisfactory performance in the tidal zone/gas phases of biodigesters.
*** Only in surface finish 2B.
The suitability of stainless steels for use with significantly different feedstocks should be evaluated separately. The greater the level of chlorides in the
feedstock, the more highly alloyed the grade of stainless steel required.
Table 5 Grade selection recommendations for different biodigester conditions
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Design of stainless steel tanks
General design issues stress-strain curve; stainless steel will perform like
carbon steel. Buckling failures generally occur at these
A biodigester is designed to resist axial and low strains.
circumferential loading. Axial loads are due to self-
weight (the tank shell, ring stiffeners and roof) and In Zone III, the benefits of work hardening become
snow. Circumferential loading is due to the internal evident and stainless steel shells will perform at least
pressure exerted on the tank by the digestate, and as well as carbon steel. In Zone II, where stresses lie
wind on the outside of the tank. Extreme events such between the limit of proportionality and the 0.2% proof
as earthquake or impact loading may also need to stress, a stainless steel shell will become less stiff
be taken into consideration. Biodigesters are thin- than a carbon steel shell and will have lower buckling
walled shells where buckling is the predominant resistance compared to an equivalent carbon steel shell.
design constraint. Axial forces are relatively low and a
biodigester is likely to be at its most vulnerable when
exposed to wind loading during installation. Once in
service and filled, the contents actually contribute to its
stability. In order to prevent overall failure of the empty
tank under wind loading, a ring stiffener is required at
the top of the tank.
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Stainless Steel
≤ 0.40 1.0
0.40 - 0.65 1.0 - 0.8 ( ͞λx - 0.4 )
0.65 - 0.80 0.8
0.80 - 1.0 0.8 + 1.0 ( ͞λx - 0.8 )
≥ 1.0 1.0
Table 6 Buckling correction factor ψx for austenitic stainless Figure 11 Buckling patterns in duplex shells subject to axial loading
steels (for temperatures up to 100°C) [8]
Left: r/t = 50 Middle: r/t = 150 Right: r/t = 333
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Design of stainless steel tanks
15
Stainless Steel
Connections
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Fabrication
17
Stainless Steel
The performance of biodigesters is strongly dependent For a 6 m tall, 32 m diameter biodigester, the costs
on the specific AD process. Additionally, there is sparse of the base and shell of equivalent in-situ concrete,
information on their long-term performance and carbon steel and stainless steel tanks were assessed
maintenance requirements because AD is a relatively new using cost and maintenance data gathered from an
technology. An important factor for clients in AD investment extensive review of the industry. A 3% discount rate
is the expected return on investment (ROI). Predicted ROI was applied to calculate whole life costs. Stainless steel
is often dependent on government subsidies which are was the cheapest option in terms of whole life costs
generally offered for limited or uncertain timescales. over a 25 year lifetime (Figure 13). The cost differential
Typically, a private investor is likely to invest in an AD plant slightly increased over a 40 year lifetime.
with a relatively short design life whereas a public client,
investing for example in water treatment and supply, is Concrete Carbon Steel
more likely to consider investing in more expensive
Relative Whole Life Cost
Stainless Steel
(capital cost) assets with a longer design life. As a rule of
thumb, bolted carbon steel biodigesters would generally
have a 20 to 25 year design life whereas the design life of
concrete tanks would generally be 50 to 60 years.
Maintenance-free stainless steel tanks are likely to have
design lives between these two ranges.
Whole life cost assessments Figure 13 Relative whole life costs (25 year lifetime)
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Case studies
Technical data
Dosing feeder: 4 × 50 m3 made from stainless steel
Pre-storage tank: 2 × 192 m3, 2 × 342 m3
Biodigester: 4 × 4,483 m3 — stainless steel
grade: 1.4301 (liquid phase) and
1.4571 (gas phase)
Storage tank: 4 × 5,000 m3 — stainless steel
grade: 1.4301
CHP: 2 × 1.2 MWel
Characteristics
This biogas plant is completely self-sufficient because the
required energy to operate the plant is produced by itself.
Technical data
Dosing feeder: Push floor system (80 m3)
Biodigester: 1 × 3,500 m3 — stainless steel
grade: 1.4301 (liquid phase) and
1.4571 (gas phase)
Storage tank: 2 × 4,500 m3 — stainless steel
grade: 1.4301
CHP: 2 × 265 Wel, and one satellite
CHP with 250 kWel
Characteristics
The heat produced is used for drying the digestate.
The heat of the satellite CHP is used to heat the buildings
(house, stables etc.) on the farm.
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Stainless Steel
T: +44 (0)1344 636 525 Stainless steel tanks for biogas production (P412)
F: +44 (0)1344 636 570
© 2016, The Steel Construction Institute
E: [email protected]
www.steel-sci.com
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