RAC Final

REFRIGERATION
AND AIR CONDITIONING
NATIONAL ENERGY CONSERVATION CENTRE

ENERCON – Cogeneration
FOREWORD
ENERCON, the National Energy Conservation Centre, has been established by the Government of
Pakistan to lead and coordinate the national effort to improve energy efficiency and reduce energy
waste. ENERCON’s programme includes technical services, training courses, information and
publications, and special policy studies.
As part of its energy conservation training programme, ENERCON has undertaken the preparation
and distribution of a series of technical manuals. This manual, covering cogeneration is the seventh
manual in this series.
This manual is targeted to managers and engineers. It is designed to introduce the basic equipment
and concepts of cogeneration and to outline the practical steps to be taken in implementing cost-
effective cogeneration projects in industry and buildings. Among the information included are the
following:
 importance of cogeneration for reducing energy conservation and costs;
 description of various methods of cogeneration;
 analysis of technical and financial aspects of cogeneration;
 determination of the cogeneration potential in any industry or
commercial installation
We at ENERCON consider this cogeneration manual to be both a basic document on the subject,
as well as a useful reference for industrial and building sectors applications of cogeneration
equipment. While this manual was prepared as a companion to an ENERCON training workshop,
it is designed to remain a valuable source of information for future reference.
Careful management and efficient utilization of energy in all its forms is of crucial importance to
the continued development of Pakistan. Engineers, technical managers, technicians, and plant
operating personnel all have a responsible role to play in this effort. With manuals, training
courses, and other technical information and assistance, ENERCON is pledged to maintain its
support to concerned industrialists, managers, engineers, and technicians working together towards
improved energy efficiency and conservation of scarce energy resources.
Managing Director, ENERCON

REFRIGERATION
AND AIR CONDITIONING
ENERCON
National Energy Conservation Centre

Ministry of Environment
Government of Pakistan
December 2007
Revised in Collaboration with:
AFTEC (Pvt.) Ltd. and Control Systems Engineering (CSE) Lahore
ENERCON – Cogeneration Manual
Acknowledgements
Much of the material in this manual has been derived from published sources. Major
contributions were taken from the following:
1. Electric Power Research Institute, Energy Audit Manual for Water/Wastewater Facilities,
Report,CR-104300, July 1994.
2. Washington State Energy Office, Improving the Energy Efficiency of Wastewater Treatment
Facilities, WSEO 93-192, June 1993.
3. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia
4. Cogeneration Technologies and Trigeneration Technologies, subsidiaries of Eco-Generation

Solutions, LLC (EGS),
5. The European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration, Brussels • Belgium
6. The Irish CHP Association

The European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration
7. Nicor, Inc., Naperville, IL 60563-9600, USA
8. D W Hudson, Gordon Brothers Industries Pty Ltd, Cambridge, Ontario

Canada
9. California Energy Commission
10. Australian Coal Industry.
11. Babcock & Willcox, Ohio, USA
12. “Cogeneration and On-Site Power Production” – Magazine
13. World Alliance For Decentralized Energy.
14. Cornell University, USA.
15. Australian Council for Sustainable Energy.
16. Centre des Technologies du Gaz Naturel
17. The European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration.
18. Perry’s Chemical Engineer Handbook – McGraw Hill Inc.

Foreword
ENERCON, the National Energy Conservation Centre, aspires to lead and coordinate the national
efforts to improve energy efficiency and reduce energy waste. ENERCON programs include
technical services, training courses, information, publications and special policy studies.
Awareness is the first step in the process of efficiency improvement and conservation of energy.
In order to create this awareness, ENERCON’s strategy includes developing information
materials which directly supports it programs.
Refrigeration systems are widely used in industrial cooling, food retail and air conditioning
applications. This manual on “Refrigeration and Air Conditioning” is primarily concerned with
the industrial and larger air conditioning applications, but the basic principles apply to all
refrigeration systems. It intends to enhance the knowledge of the targeted engineers, energy
managers and technicians. Often operations personnel and energy managers are unaware of the
opportunities available for energy and productivity savings in refrigeration and air conditioning
systems, or they are unsure of the calculation procedures required to determine the energy saving
opportunities. The manual aims to assist operations personnel and plant energy managers in
identifying significant opportunities to improve their refrigeration and air conditioning systems. In
some cases, improvements may be simple to make, but others will require the assistance of
qualified refrigeration and air conditioning experts. However, if the guidance of this document is
followed, many possible opportunities for improving the system should be identified.
This manual contains information on energy efficient operation of refrigeration systems, covers
the basic concepts, typical equipment, systems application, operation and maintenance procedures
for harness energy savings through the implementation of potential energy conservation measures.
The contents of the manual include the following:
 Fundamentals of refrigeration and air conditioning, and psychrometry
 Description of refrigeration cycles, prime movers, refrigeration systems and equipment,

instrumentation and control systems, and systems applications
 Refrigerants, their phase out and alternative refrigerants
 Energy conservation opportunities in refrigeration and air conditioning
 Purchasing refrigeration equipment
We at ENERCON consider this refrigeration and air conditioning manual to be both a basic
document on the subject, as well as a useful reference for industrial and building sectors
applications of refrigeration and air conditioning. While this manual has been prepared as a
companion to ENERCON’s training program, it is designed to remain a valuable source of
information for future reference.
_____________
Managing Director ENERCON
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Acknowledgements
Much of the material presented in this manual has been derived from published sources.
Major contributions were taken from the following:
(l) Literature on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2007; Danfoss, Denmark.
(2) Literature on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2007, McQuay Air

Conditioning, USA.
(3) Information on Refrigerants, 2007, DuPont Refrigerants, USA.
(4) Literature on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2007, The Engineering Toolbox,
USA.
(5) Fuel Efficiency Booklets, 1993; Energy Efficiency Office, Department of Energy,
London, England.
(6) The Complete Guide to Energy Efficiency, 1996; NIFES Consulting Group, GEE
Publishing Ltd., London, England
(7) ASHRAE Handbooks, 2006, ASHRAE, USA.

Abbreviations
ANSI: American National Standards Institute

ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
CGPM: Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures
CGS: Centimeter-gram-second
CFCs: Chlorofluorocarbons
COP: Coefficient of Performance
EC: Energy Conservation
ECMs: Energy Conservation Measures
ECOs: Energy Conservation Opportunities
EE: Energy efficiency
EER: Energy Efficiency Ratio
EMSs: Energy Management Systems
GWP: Global Warming Potential
HCFCs: Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
HFCs: Hydrofluorocarbons
HVAC: Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
MSDSs: Material Safety Data Sheets
ODP: Ozone Depletion Potential
OEM: Original Equipment Manufacturer
SI: Le Systeme International d’Unites

Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 History and Development 1
1.2 Refrigeration 2
1.3 Uses of Refrigeration 2
1.4 Methods of Refrigeration 3
1.5 Refrigeration Equipment 3
1.6 Units used in this Manual 4
1.7 This Manual 4
2 Engineering Units and Basic Principles 5
2.1 Engineering Units 5
2.1.1 Fundamental Units 5
2.1.2 Derived Units 6
2.1.3 Pressure 7
2.1.4 Absolute Pressure (bar a) 7
2.1.5 Gauge Pressure (bar g) 8
2.1.6 Vacuum or Negative Pressure 8
2.1.7 Differential Pressure 8
2.1.8 Density and Specific Volume 8
2.2 Thermodynamic Properties 9
2.2.1 Heat, Work and Energy 9
2.2.2 Latent heat 10
2.2.3 Specific heat capacity 10
2.2.4 Heat Capacity Ratio 11
2.2.5 Entropy (s) 12
2.3 Ideal Gas Law and Equations of State 13
2.4 Thermodynamic Processes 14
3 Psychrometry 19
3.1.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Air and Psychrometric Chart 19
3.1.2 Using the Psychrometric Chart 22
4 Refrigerants 29
4.1 The Refrigeration Process 29
4.2 Refrigerant History 30
4.3 Desirable Refrigerant Properties 31
4.3.1 Common Refrigerants 32
4.4 Secondary Coolants 34
4.4.1 Brines 34
4.4.2 Inhibited Glycol 34
4.4.3 Halocarbons 34
4.5 Refrigerants Phase out 35
4.6 Alternative Refrigerants 35
4.7 Lubricants 36
4.8 Best Practices for Safe Handling of Refrigerants 37
5 Refrigeration Cycles 39
5.1 Gas Cycles 39
5.1.1 The Carnot Cycle 39
5.1.2 Rankine Cycle 41
5.1.3 Improving Cycle Efficiency 44
5.2 Absorption Refrigeration 48

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5.2.1 Ammonia-Water Absorption 53
5.2.2 Water-Lithium Bromide Absorption 58
5.2.3 Combined Cycles 60
6 Refrigeration Prime Movers 63
6.1 Introduction 63
6.2 Compressors 63
6.2.1 Types of Compressor Housing 63
6.2.2 Types of Compressors 64
6.2.3 Capacity control 69
6.2.4 Multistage Compression 70
6.2.5 Liquid Overfeed Systems 74
6.2.6 Absorption Refrigeration 75
7 Refrigeration Systems and Equipment 77
7.1 Condensers 77
7.1.1 Air-cooled Condensers 77
7.1.2 Water-cooled Condensers 78
7.1.3 Evaporative Condensers 79
7.1.4 Loss of Condenser Efficiency due to Air in System 79
7.2 Evaporators 79
7.2.1 Direct Expansion Evaporators 80
7.2.2 Flooded Evaporators 81
7.2.3 Oil Control in Evaporators 83
7.2.4 Energy Efficient Operation of Evaporators 85
7.2.5 Defrosting of Evaporators 85
7.3 Flow Control or Expansion Devices 85
7.3.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valves (TEVs) 86
7.3.2 Float Valve Systems 87
7.4 Distribution Systems 88
7.4.1 Air Handling Units 88
7.4.2 Chilled Water Systems 95
7.5 Cooling Towers 95
7.5.1 Cooling Tower Principles 96
7.5.2 Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers 97
7.5.3 Cooling Tower Capacity Control 99
7.5.4 Performance Measurement of Cooling Towers 101
7.5.5 Cooling Tower Systems ECOs 102
8 Instrumentation and Controls 103
8.1 Instrumentation 103
8.1.1 Purposes of Instrumentation and Controls 104
8.2 Control System 105
8.2.1 Controllers 106
8.2.2 Controlled Devices 108
9 Systems Applications 111
9.1 Load Calculations 111
9.1.1 Air-conditioning Load Calculation 111
9.1.2 Refrigeration Load Calculation 112
9.2 Typical Systems 113
9.2.1 Incremental Room Equipment 113
9.2.2 Unitary Equipment 114
9.2.3 Direct Expansion Mini-Split Systems 115
9.2.4 Central Chilled Water Systems 116
9.2.5 Comparison of Various Air Conditioning Systems 117
9.3 Industrial Process Refrigeration 119
9.3.1 Typical Process Refrigeration Loads and Systems 119

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9.3.2 Food Processing 119
9.3.3 Textiles 123
9.3.4 Chemicals 123
9.3.5 Petroleum Refining 124
9.3.6 Plastics Fabrication 124
10 Operation and Maintenance Practices 127
10.1 Automatic Control Systems 127
10.2 Central Refrigeration Equipment 127
10.3 Packaged HVAC Units 129
10.4 Air Handling and Air Distribution Equipment 130
10.5 Piping Distribution System 131
10.6 Electric Motors 131
10.7 Plant monitoring 132
10.7.1 Log Sheets 132
10.7.2 Fault Finding and Diagnosis 133
10.7.3 Plant Records 135
11 Purchasing Refrigeration Equipment 137
11.1 Specifying the System Requirements 137
11.2 Standards and Codes of Practice 137
11.3 Commissioning 138
11.4 Information Required in Proposals 138
12 Energy Conservation Opportunities 141
12.1 Comfort Conditioning 141
12.1.1 Control Systems 141
12.1.2 Distribution Systems 148
12.1.3 Install Thermal Storage 153
12.2 Industrial Process Refrigeration Systems 156
12.2.1 Use Cooling Tower for Process Cooling 156
12.2.2 Recover Waste Heat from Condenser 157
12.3 ECO'S Applicable to Comfort and Process Refrigeration 162
12.3.1 Replace Air-Cooled Condenser with Cooling Tower 162
12.3.2 7.4.2 Install Variable Speed Drives 163
12.3.3 Remove Heat Sources from Refrigerated Spaces 165
12.3.4 Install More Efficient Refrigeration Equipment 165
Exhibits
Exhibit 2-1: Comparison of absolute and gauge temperature 6
Exhibit 2-2: Comparison of absolute and gauge pressures 7
Exhibit 2-3: Latent heat explained 10
Exhibit 2-4: Heat capacity ratio for various gases 12
Exhibit 2-5: Polytropic compression curves 16
Exhibit 3-1: Graphical representation of the properties of air 20
Exhibit 3-2: Psychrometric chart 21
Exhibit 3-3: Climatic classification on psychrometric chart 22
Exhibit 3-4: Sensible heating of moist air - example 23
Exhibit 3-5: Cooling and dehumidification of moist air – example 25
Exhibit 3-6: Evaporative cooling – example 27
Exhibit 4-1: Single stage vapor compression circuit and pressure enthalpy diagram 30
Exhibit 4-2: Freezing and Boiling Points of Halocarbon Coolants 34
Exhibit 5-1: Reversed Carnot engine 39
Exhibit 5-2: Carnot vapor compression cycle 41
Exhibit 5-3: Basic reverse Rankine cycle 42
Exhibit 5-4: Reverse Rankine cycle with liquid subcooling 45

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Exhibit 5-5: Rankine cycle with flash intercooling 47
Exhibit 5-6: Reverse Rankine cycle with reversible expansion 49
Exhibit 5-7: T-S plot for multistage cycle 50
Exhibit 5-8: Absorption principle 51
Exhibit 5-9: Simple absorption system 52
Exhibit 5-10: Schematic diagram of a simple absorption-refrigeration cycle 53
Exhibit 5-11: Ammonia-water absorption system 54
Exhibit 5-12: Plot of enthalpy, pressure, temperature and concentration for an ammonia-water absorption
system 55
Exhibit 5-13: Heat and mass balances for ammonia-water absorption 57
Exhibit 5-14: Schematic diagram of lithium bromide-water absorption system 58
Exhibit 5-15: Plot of enthalpy versus concentration for liquid phase of lithium bromide-water combination 60
Exhibit 5-16: Material balance for water and lithium bromide exiting generator 60
Exhibit 6-1: Reciprocating compressor construction 64
Exhibit 6-2: Reciprocation compressor efficiency (R-12, R-22) 65
Exhibit 6-3: Screw compressor construction 66
Exhibit 6-4: Screw compressors operation 67
Exhibit 6-5: Scroll compressors construction and operation 68
Exhibit 6-6: Cut-away view of a 2-stage semi-hermetic centrifugal refrigeration machine 68
Exhibit 6-7: Rotary sliding-vane compressors operation 69
Exhibit 6-8: Part load control by gas bypass 70
Exhibit 6-9: Typical single stage system 71
Exhibit 6-10: Mollier diagram for typical single stage system 72
Exhibit 6-11: Two-stage flow diagram - no liquid subcooling 73
Exhibit 6-12: Mollier diagram – typical two-stage system 74
Exhibit 6-13: Basic elements of cascade system 74
Exhibit 7-1: Air-cooled condenser 78
Exhibit 7-2: Water-cooled condenser 78
Exhibit 7-3: Evaporative condensers 79
Exhibit 7-4: Liquid distribution on a direct expansion circuit 80
Exhibit 7-5: Shell and tube evaporator 82
Exhibit 7-6: Flooded coil evaporator 82
Exhibit 7-7: Plate and frame heat exchanger 83
Exhibit 7-8: Typical oil rectification system diagram 84
Exhibit 7-9: Thermostatic expansion valve (TEV) 86
Exhibit 7-10: Electric expansion valve on direction expansion air cooler 87
Exhibit 7-11: High pressure float valve 87
Exhibit 7-12: Low pressure float expansion system 88
Exhibit 7-13: Constant volume single zone heating and cooling system 89
Exhibit 7-14: Constant volume make-up air unit 90
Exhibit 7-15: Multiple zone heating and cooling unit with reheat 90
Exhibit 7-16: Multiple zone dual duct heating and cooling unit 91
Exhibit 7-17: Simple cooling only variable air volume system 92
Exhibit 7-18: Typical duel duct variable air volume system 93
Exhibit 7-19: Analysis of heat transfer in a cooling tower 96
Exhibit 7-20: Crossflow mechanical draft cooling tower 98
Exhibit 7-21: Counrtflow mechanical draft cooling tower 99
Exhibit 7-22: Use of two speed motors in mechanical draft cooling towers 100
Exhibit 8-1: Simple direct expansion water chilling system 104
Exhibit 8-2: Functional block diagram for an open loop control system 105
Exhibit 8-3: Bimetallic temperature sensor 106
Exhibit 8-4: Remote thermostat with fluid filled bulb type sensor 106
Exhibit 8-5: Thermostat with open electric contacts to transmit signal 107
Exhibit 8-6: Mercury switch 107
Exhibit 8-7: Pneumatic thermostat 108
Exhibit 8-8: Three way valves 108
Exhibit 8-9: Multi-blade damper arrangements 109
Exhibit 9-1: Schematic of window or in-the-wall comfort cooling unit 113
Exhibit 9-2: Packaged water chillers 115
Exhibit 9-3: Split package air-conditioners 116
Exhibit 9-4: Centrifugal compressor unit 116
Exhibit 9-5: Thermal and related properties of food and food materials 120
Exhibit 10-1: Energy savings from reset of chilled water and condenser water temperature 128
Exhibit 10-2: Chiller COP relationship with chilled water temperature 128
Exhibit 10-3: Example log sheet 132
Exhibit 10-4: Common faults in refrigeration systems 134
Exhibit 12-1: Energy management system potential savings 141

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Exhibit 12-2: Electromechanical time controls 142
Exhibit 12-3: Mid-level controller 143
Exhibit 12-4: Energy management system control panel 143
Exhibit 12-5: Heat wheel equipped with purge section 149
Exhibit 12-6: Plate heat exchangers 149
Exhibit 12-7: Heat pipe bundle incorporated in gas to gas regenerator 150
Exhibit 12-8: Heat pipe schematic 150
Exhibit 12-9: Heat recovery using enthalpy heat wheel summary of savings 151
Exhibit 12-10: Ducting arrangement for using outside air in paint booths 152
Exhibit 12-11: Monthly energy savings summary for air make-up to exhaust hoods 152
Exhibit 12-12: 1,000 ton-hr load 153
Exhibit 12-13: Typical air conditioning load 154
Exhibit 12-14: Full ice storage 155
Exhibit 12-15: Partial ice storage 155
Exhibit 12-16: Exemplary ice storage system 156
Exhibit 12-17: Typical hot water usage 158
Exhibit 12-18: Pressure-enthalpy diagram for refrigerant 717 (ammonia) 159
Exhibit 12-19: Heat recovery schematic 161
Exhibit 12-20: Hot water demand profile 161
Exhibit 12-21: Hot water tank sizing 162
Appendices
APPENDIX-A: REFRIGERANTS 167

A.1 CLASSIFICATION OF REFRIGERANTS 167
A.2 CLASSIFICATION OF REFRIGERANTS (EXAMPLES) 169
APPENDIX-B: PROPERTIES OF R12 171
B.1 SATURATED AND SUPERHEATED R12 PROPERTIES 171
B.2 SATURATED REFRIGERANT R-12 --TEMPERATURE TABLE 172
B.3 SUPERHEATED REFRIGERANT R-12 TABLE 173
APPENDIX-C: PROPERTIES OF FREON-22 (R-22) 175
C.1 PROPERTIES OF R-22 175
C.2 R-22 PRESSURE-ENTHALPY DIAGRAM 177
APPENDIX-D: PROPERTIES OF R-134A 179
D.1 SATURATED R-134A TEMPERATURE TABLE 179
APPENDIX-E: DUPONT FREON REFRIGERANTS GUIDE 181
APPENDIX-F: DUPONT SUVA REFRIGERANTS PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE GUIDE 183
APPENDIX-G: DUPONT ISCEON 9 SERIES REFRIGERANTS PRESSURE-
TEMPERATURE GUIDE 185
APPENDIX-H: PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA (NH3) 187
APPENDIX-I: PROPERTIES OF BRINES AND GLYCOLS 189
I.1 PROPERTIES OF PURE CALCIUM CHLORIDE BRINE 189
I.2 PROPERTIES OF PURE SODIUM CHLORIDE BRINES 190
I.3 SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES OF INHIBITED GLYCOLS 190
APPENDIX-J: ALTERNATE REFRIGERANTS GUIDE 191
J.1 HONEYWELL (GENETRON) ALTERNATE REFRIGERANTS GUIDE 191
J.2 DUPONT ALTERNATE REFRIGERANTS GUIDE 193
APPENDIX-K: HEAT LOSS GRAPHS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS AND SURFACE
TEMPERATURES 197
APPENDIX-L: USEFUL EQUATIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS 201
APPENDIX-M: ASHRAE HANDBOOK – VOLUMES 203
APPENDIX-N: SI CONVERSION TABLES 207
APPENDIX-O: GLOSSARY 209

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Exhibits
Exhibit K-1: Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 70ºC with varying insulation thickness
(Preformed rigid polyisocyanurate or polyurethane sections) 197
(Preformed expanded nitrile rubber and polyethylene foam sections) 199
(Preformed expanded nitrile rubber and polyethylene foam sections) 199

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1 Introduction
Refrigeration and air conditioning-related energy consumption is growing at a rapid rate in

Pakistan. Recent growth in food and dairy, chemicals, plastic fabrication, textiles and
pharmaceutical industries has led to substantial increase in refrigeration demand.
Apart from the comfort/climatic control and process requirement in industry, the commercial and
residential sectors are also major users of air conditioning. A recent survey by ENERCON
indicates that one third of the estimated 12% annual electricity consumption growth rate in the
commercial sector could be attributed to air conditioning. The growth rate of air conditioning
demand in the residential sector is estimated to be around 14% per annum. The use of split air
conditioning units in the commercial and domestic sector is rising sharply.
In view of the heavy demand that refrigeration and air conditioning systems place on precious
national energy resources, steps must be taken to promote efficient energy utilization in
refrigeration and air conditioning. This manual has been designed to inform and train engineers
and technicians in industrial and commercial sectors to improve energy efficiency in refrigeration
and air conditioning systems.
1.1 History and Development

Refrigeration was used by ancient civilization when it was naturally available. The Roman rulers
had slaves transport ice and snow from the high mountains to be used to preserve foods and to
provide cool beverages in hot weather. Such natural sources of refrigeration were, of course,
extremely limited in terms of location, temperatures, and scope. The development of producing
the refrigeration effect with machinery, called mechanical refrigeration, began in the 1850s.
Modern refrigeration has many applications. The first, and probably still the most important, is the
preservation of food.
Most foods kept at room temperature rot away rapidly. This is due to the rapid growth of bacteria.
At usual refrigeration temperatures of about 4.4oC (40oF) bacteria grow quite slowly. Food at this
temperature will stay fresh much longer. Refrigeration preserves food by keeping it cold.
Other important uses of refrigeration include air conditioning, beverage cooling and humidity
control. Many manufacturing processes also use refrigeration.
The refrigeration industry became important commercially during the 18th century. As mentioned
above, early on the refrigeration was obtained by the use of ice. Ice from lakes and ponds was cut
and stored in the winter in insulated storerooms for summer use.
The use of natural ice required the building of insulated containers or iceboxes for stores,
restaurants, and homes. These units first appeared, on a large scale, during the 19th century.
Ice was first made artificially in 1820 as an experiment. Not until 1834 did artificial ice
manufacturing become practical. Jacob Perkins, an American engineer, invented the apparatus
which was the predecessor of our modern compression systems.
Eventually, the world’s first successful ice making and room cooling experiment was conducted
in a hospital in Appalachicola, Florida, in 1845. The inventor and builder was a practicing
physician, Dr. John Gorrie, who needed both ice and cooled hospital rooms to treat typhoid,
yellow, typhus and malaria fever patients.
In 1855 a German engineer produced the first absorption refrigeration based system, although
Michael Faraday had discovered its principle in 1824.

1
Little artificial ice was produced until 1890s. During 1890 a warm winter in the states resulted in
a shortage of natural ice. This helped the beginning the mechanical ice-making industry.
Mechanical domestic refrigeration first appeared in 1910. J. M. Larsen produced a manually
operated household machine in 1913. The first of the sealed or “hermetic” automatic refrigeration
units was introduced by General Electric in 1928.
By the start of 1920, domestic refrigeration became one of the important industries. The
Electrolux, which was an automatic domestic absorption unit, appeared in 1927. Automatic
refrigeration units, as the comfort cooling components of air conditioning, appeared in 1927.
Fast freezing to preserve food for extended periods was developed more or less in 1923. This
marked the beginning of modern frozen foods industry.
To begin with, mechanical refrigeration systems were firstly connected to heating plants to
provide summer cooling in the late 1920s.
By 1940, practically all domestic units were of the hermetic type. Commercial units had also been
successfully made and used. These units were capable of refrigerating large commercial food
storage systems, providing comfort cooling of large auditoriums, and producing cooling effect at
low temperatures used in many commercial operations.
From a modest start in the late 1930s, air conditioning of automobiles has also grown rapidly.
1.2 Refrigeration
Air conditioning and refrigeration may be defined as the simultaneous control of temperature,
humidity, motion, dust, bacteria, odors and toxic gases, or at least the control of first three of these
factors affecting both the physical and chemical properties/conditions of a media, whether it is air
or an industrial process fluid. Refrigeration systems are common in most commercial buildings, as
well as many industrial facilities. The refrigeration process itself, as described in the following
chapters, involves compression/heating and expansion of a working fluid, as well as heat transfer.
These processes cause the working fluid, the refrigerant, as well as the cooled media (i.e. air), to
undergo property changes and changes of state. In order to identify energy conservation
opportunities in the air conditioning and refrigeration processes the basic fundamentals of the
refrigeration cycle and system must be understood. In order to understand these basic
fundamentals, a brief review of the principles of thermodynamics, including properties of
refrigerants and working fluids, and the processes is important.
1.3 Uses of Refrigeration

It is convenient to classify the applications of refrigeration into the following categories:
domestic, commercial, industrial, and air conditioning. Sometimes transportation is listed as a
separate category. Domestic (household) refrigeration is used for food preparation and
preservation, ice making, and cooling beverages. Commercial refrigeration is used in retail stores,
restaurants, and institutions. It is a large scale application almost similar to domestic one.
Industrial refrigeration has very vast applications. In the food industry, it is applied for processing,
preparation, and large-scale preservation of perishable items. It is abundantly used in chilling of
foods and freezing, cold storage, warehouses, breweries, dairies, etc. Hundreds of other industries
use refrigeration; among them are: the ice making plants, oil refineries, pharmaceuticals.
Refrigeration is also widely employed for air conditioning. Most air conditioning systems are
used for either human comfort or for process control. Certain ranges of air temperature, humidity,
cleanliness and motion are comfortable; others are not. Air conditioning is also used to provide
conditions that some processes require. For example, textile and photographic processing

2
facilities, as well as computer rooms and medical facilities require certain air temperature and
humidity for successful operation.
1.4 Methods of Refrigeration

Refrigeration, commonly spoken of as a cooling process, is more correctly defined as the removal
of heat from a substance to bring it to or keep it at a desirable low temperature, below the
temperature of the surroundings. The most wide-spread method of producing mechanical
refrigeration is called the vapor compression system. In this system a volatile liquid refrigerant is
evaporated in an evaporator; this process results in the removal of heat (cooling) from the
substance to be cooled. A compressor and condenser are required to maintain the evaporation
process and to recover the refrigerant for reuse.
Another widely used method is called the absorption refrigeration system. In this process a
refrigerant is evaporated (as in the vapor compression system), but the evaporation is maintained
by absorbing the refrigerant in another fluid. The operating principles of vapor compression and
absorption refrigeration systems will be explained in the relevant chapters.
Other refrigeration methods are thermoelectric, steam jet, and air cycle refrigeration. These
systems are used only in special applications and their functioning will not be explained here.
Thermoelectric refrigeration is still quite expensive; some small tabletop domestic refrigerators
are cooled by this method. Steam jet refrigeration is inefficient, and has been largely replaced by
the vapor compression system. The air cycle is sometimes used in air conditioning of aircraft
cabins. Refrigeration at extremely low temperatures, below -130°C (-200°F), is called cryogenics.
Special systems are used to achieve these conditions. One of the uses of refrigeration at ultra-low
temperatures is to liquefy air and separate oxygen and nitrogen.
1.5 Refrigeration Equipment

The main equipment components of the vapor compression refrigeration system are the familiar
evaporator, compressor, and condenser. The equipment may be separate or of the unitary (i.e. self-
contained) type. Unitary equipment is assembled in the factory. The household refrigerator is a
common example of unitary equipment. Obvious advantages of unitary equipment are that it is
more compact and less expensive to manufacture if made in large quantities.
There is a variety of commercial refrigeration equipment; each has a specific function. Reach-in
cabinets, walk-in coolers, and display cases are widely used in the food service business.
Automatic ice makers, drinking water coolers, and refrigerated vending machines are also
commonly encountered equipment.
This manual covers refrigeration and air conditioning. Since similar refrigeration equipment is
used to cool air for comfort purposes as well as for other uses, no distinction is made while
describing and discussing the refrigeration fundamentals. Differences in practices and in
equipment involving different temperatures and uses will be pointed out as the exposition
develops.
The details of specialized equipment will not be treated here, except as they affect general
practices. An excellent discussion of features of commercial refrigeration applications and
equipment can be found in the 2003 ASHRAE Handbook on HVAC Applications and 2004
ASHRAE Handbook on HVAC Systems and Equipment. Appendix-M of this manual lists the
contents of the said two Handbooks, including the contents of other Handbooks of ASHRAE
series on Refrigeration and Fundamentals.

3
1.6 Units used in this Manual
This manual uses the SI (Le Systeme International d’Unites) metric units of measure. During its
early development, the refrigeration industry based their calculations and formulas on units of
measure, such as the horsepower, British thermal unit, foot pound, pounds per square inch,
temperatures in Fahrenheit.
1.7 This Manual

This manual covers the basic concepts and definition of refrigeration, typical equipment
employed, some system applications, operation and maintenance procedures for energy savings,
and energy conservation measures applicable to Pakistan. When studying refrigeration and air
conditioning, it is important to first master the basic physical, mechanical and chemical principles
explained in this manual.
Much of the basic materials will be a review of physics and chemistry for those who have studied
these subjects. In addition, however, some engineering principles and formulas have been
included. These principles and formulas have been simplified, and are introduced with practical
applications.
Chapter 1 introduces refrigeration, methods and uses of refrigeration, and describes brief history
of refrigeration. Chapter 2 describes the engineering units and basic principles of refrigeration
including elementary thermodynamic properties and processes. Chapter 3 provides a review of
psychrometry. Chapter 4 discusses the history of refrigerants, refrigeration process, the
refrigerants and their phase out, and secondary coolants. Chapter 5 addresses the typical
refrigeration cycles such as Carnot, Rankine, compound and absorption refrigeration cycles.
Chapter 6 introduces the refrigeration prime movers, while Chapter 7 details the refrigeration
systems and equipment employed including condensers, evaporators, expansion devices,
distribution systems and cooling towers. Chapter 8 describes the instrumentation and controls
required for the proper operation of refrigeration systems.
Chapter 9 addresses the system applications and load calculations for process and comfort
refrigeration. Chapter 10 lists descriptively the operation and maintenance practices for energy
conservation. Chapter 11 covers information which should be included in the specifications for a
system. Finally, energy conservation measures applicable to process and comfort refrigeration are
detailed in Chapter 12.
Illustrative examples are frequently included in the discussions of each chapter to enhance
comprehension of the concepts presented. This is especially useful in the calculation of the energy
conservation measures.
This manual is not a refrigeration textbook in the classical sense; however, it will serve as a useful
guide for energy engineers who work with refrigeration systems as part of their responsibilities.

4
2 Engineering Units and Basic Principles
This chapter introduces the fundamental and derived units frequently used in air conditioning and
refrigeration processes. It further describes the basic thermodynamic properties, thermodynamic
processes and psychrometry essential to understand the basics of air conditioning and
refrigeration.
2.1 Engineering Units

Until 1960 many countries of the world used different systems of unit. Two major systems of
units were the CGS and British engineering. Under CGS system, the unit of length, mass and time
are centimeter, gram and second respectively. While, in the British Engineering system, the units
of length, mass and time are foot, slug and second respectively. Use of different systems of units
created problems and therefore, it became necessary to develop a standard uniform system.
In 1960, the Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM), which is the international
authority on the metric system, accepted a universal, practical system of units and gave it the
name Le Systeme International d'Unites with the abbreviation SI. Since then, this most modern
and simplest form of the metric system was introduced throughout the world and by 1970’s more
than 20 countries, including established metric countries, passed legislation adopting the SI
system as their only legal system with numerous countries following their example.
2.1.1 Fundamental Units

The SI of units is based on seven independent units known as fundamental or basic unit. The
fundamental units relevant to the subject of steam are:
Length: The meter (m) is the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the
radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2 p10 and 5 d5, of the krypton-86 atom.
Mass: The kilogram (kg) is the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram recognised
by the CGPM and in the custody of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Sevres,
France.
Time: The second (s) is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to
the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
Temperature (Thermodynamic): The kelvin (K), unit of thermodynamic temperature, is
the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
The unit kelvin and its symbol K are also used to indicate temperature intervals or temperature
differences. Besides thermodynamic temperature (symbol T), expressed in kelvins, Celsius
temperature (symbol t) is also used. Celsius temperature is defined by the equation: t = T - T0
where T0 = 273.15 K by definition. Celsius temperature is in general expressed in degrees Celsius
(symbol °C). The unit “degree Celsius” is therefore equal to the unit “Kelvin” and an interval or
difference in Celsius temperature is also expressed in degrees Celsius (°C). It may be noted that
the Celsius temperature of the triple point of water is 0.01°C, which accounts for the factor 273.16
in the definition of the kelvin.
In simple terms, temperature is the physical property of a system which underlies the common
notions of “hot” and “cold”; the material with higher temperature is said to be hotter.

5
The two common scales of temperature are defined below:
Celsius (°C) Scale: This is the scale most commonly used, as it has a convenient (but
arbitrary) zero temperature, corresponding to the temperature at which water will freeze.
Absolute or K (kelvin) Scale: This scale has the same increments as the Celsius scale, but
has a zero corresponding to the minimum possible temperature when all molecular and atomic
motion has ceased. This temperature is often referred to as absolute zero (0 K) and is equivalent to
-273.15°C.
The two scales of temperature are interchangeable, as shown in Exhibit 2-1 and expressed in
Equation 2-1.
Exhibit 2-1: Comparison of absolute and gauge temperature
373 K 100 oC
Temperature relative to the

Absolute Temperature 273 K 0 oC Freezing Point of Water
Degrees Kelvin (K)
Degrees Celcius oC
0K -273.15 oC
T (K) = temperature (°C) + 273.15 (Eq. 2-1)
Most thermodynamic equations require the temperature to be expressed in kelvin. However,

temperature difference, as used in many heat transfer calculations, may be expressed in either °C
or K. Since both scales have the same increments, a temperature difference of 1°C has the same
value as a temperature difference of 1 K.
Amount of Substance: The mole (mol or gram-moles) is the amount of substance of a
system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
The number of atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12 is known as Avogadro constant, and its
currently accepted value is 6.02214179 × 1023 atoms per mole. The simplest non-standard mole
unit is the kg-mole, and there are 1,000 moles (gram-moles) in a kg-mole.
The relationship of the atomic mass unit to Avogadro's number means that a mole (mol) can also
be defined as: that quantity of a substance the mass of which in grams is the same as its formula
weight. For example, iron has a relative atomic mass of 55.845 atomic mass units, so a mole of
iron has a mass of 55.845 grams. This notation is very commonly used by chemists and physicists.
2.1.2 Derived Units

The units of other physical quantities are derived from the fundamental units. These units are
derived by multiplication and/or division of fundamental units and are known as derived units.
The following table shows the derived units that are relevant to this subject. These quantities have
all been assigned special names after famous pioneers in the development of science and
engineering.

6
Quantity Name Symbol SI units Derived units
2
Force newton N m kg/s J/m
Energy joule J m2 kg/s2 Nm
Pressure or stress pascal Pa kg/m s2 N/m2
Power watt W m2 kg/s3 J/s
There are many other quantities that have been derived from SI units, which will also be of
significance to anyone involved in air conditioning and refrigeration. These are provided in the
table below.
Quantity SI units Derived units
3
Mass density kg/m kg/m3
Specific volume (Vg) m3/kg m3/kg
Specific enthalpy (h) m2/s2 J/kg
Specific heat capacity M2/s2 K J/kg K
Specific entropy M2/s2 K J/kg K
Heat flowrate M2 kg/s3 J/s or W
Dynamic viscosity kg/m s N s/m2
2.1.3 Pressure
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), defined as 1 newton of force per square metre (1 N/m2).
As Pa is a small unit, the kPa (1 kilopascals) or MPa (1 Megapascals) tend to be more appropriate
to refrigeration engineering.
However, probably the most commonly used metric unit for pressure measurement is the bar. This
is equal to 105 N/m2, and approximates to 1 atmosphere. Other units often used include lb/in2
(psi), kg/cm2, atm (atmosphere) and inches or mm of Hg (mercury). Conversion factors are
readily available from many sources.
Exhibit 2-2: Comparison of absolute and gauge pressures
Gauge Pressure
Absolute Pressure
Differential pressure
Atmospheric pressure
(approximately 1 bar a = 0 bar g)
Vacuum
Perfect vacuum
(0 bar a)
bar a = bar g + 1
2.1.4 Absolute Pressure (bar a)

This is the pressure measured with respect to the datum of a perfect vacuum i.e. a perfect vacuum
has a pressure of 0 bar a (-760 mm or -29.97 inches of Hg).

7
2.1.5 Gauge Pressure (bar g)
This is the pressure measured with respect to the datum of the atmospheric pressure. Although in
reality the atmospheric pressure will depend upon the climate and the height above sea level, a
generally accepted value of 1.013 25 bar a (1 atm) is often used. This is the average pressure
exerted by the air of the earth’s atmosphere at sea level.
Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure - Atmospheric pressure (Eq. 2-2)
2.1.6 Vacuum or Negative Pressure

Pressures above atmospheric will always yield a positive gauge pressure. Conversely a vacuum or
negative pressure is the pressure below that of the atmosphere. Perfect vacuum corresponds
closely to -1 bar g or 0 Torr or 0 mm Hg on a vacuum gauge. One Torr, another unit used for
measuring vacuum, is equal to 1 mm Hg.
2.1.7 Differential Pressure

This is simply the difference between two pressures. When specifying a differential pressure, it is
not necessary to use the suffixes ‘g’ or ‘a’ to denote either gauge pressure or absolute pressure
respectively, as the pressure datum point becomes irrelevant.
Therefore, the difference between two pressures will have the same value whether these pressures
are measured in gauge pressure or absolute pressure, as long as the two pressures are measured
from the same datum.
2.1.8 Density and Specific Volume

The density ρ of a substance can be defined as its mass (m) per unit volume (v). The specific
volume (vg) is the volume per unit mass and is therefore the inverse of density. In fact, the term
‘specific’ is generally used to denote a property of a unit mass of a substance.
m 1
ρ  (Eq. 2-3)
v vg
Where ρ = Density (kg/m³)
m = Mass
v = Volume (m³)
vg = Specific volume (m³/kg)
SI units of density (ρ) are kg/m³, whilst conversely the units of specific volume (vg) are m3/kg.
Another term used as a measure of density is the specific gravity. It is a ratio of the density of a
substance (ρs) and the density of pure water (ρw) under similar conditions. The two common
reference conditions are standard temperature and pressure (STP), i.e. at atmospheric pressure and
0°C, and normal temperature and pressure (NTP) defined as the pressure being atmospheric and
temperature at 20°C or 25°C.
Density of substance, ρ s
Specific gravity  (Eq. 2-4)
Density of water, ρ w

8
The densities of air at STP and NTP are approximately 1.29 and 1.2 kg/m3 respectively.
Since the specific gravity is a ratio of two densities, it is a dimensionless variable and has no
units. Therefore in this case the term specific does not indicate that it is a property of a unit mass
of a substance. The specific gravity is also sometimes known as the relative density of a
substance.
2.2 Thermodynamic Properties
2.2.1 Heat, Work and Energy

Energy is sometimes described as the ability to do work. The transfer of energy by means of
mechanical motion is called work. The SI unit for work and energy is the joule, defined as 1 N m.
The amount of mechanical work done can be determined by an equation derived from Newtonian
mechanics:
Work = Force × Displacement (Eq. 2-5)
It can also be described as the product of the applied pressure and the displaced volume:
Work = Applied pressure × Displaced volume (Eq. 2-6)
Energy and Enthalpy

The total energy of a system is composed of the internal, potential and kinetic energy. Internal
energy (denoted by E or U) is directly related to temperature, and it is associated with the motion,
interaction and bonding of the molecules within a substance. The external energy of a substance is
associated with its velocity and location, and is the sum of its potential and kinetic energy.
Enthalpy (H) represents the total useful energy in a system, and its unit is joule (J). The enthalpy
of a fluid is a function of its temperature and pressure. It is explicitly defined for any system by
the following mathematical expression.
H = U + pV kJ/kg mol (Eq. 2-7A)
h = u + pv kJ/kg (Eq. 2-8B)
H = Mh kJ / kg mol (Eq. 2-9)
Where h = specific enthalpy, kJ/kg

H = enthalpy, kJ/kg-mol
U = internal energy, kJ/kg-mol
u = internal energy, kJ/kg
P = absolute pressure, kPa
v = volume, m3/kg
V = volume, m3/kg-mol
M = molecular weight, kg/kg-mol
The experimental observations of J.P. Joule established that there is an equivalence between
mechanical energy (or work) and heat, and therefore heat is a form of energy.

9
The transfer of energy as a result of the difference in temperature alone is referred to as heat flow.
The watt (W), a unit of power, is defined as 1 J/s of heat flow.
It is common in the HVAC industry to use the term heat content to mean the same as enthalpy.
(Strictly speaking, heat is a form of energy that flows into or out of a body and enthalpy or heat
content is a form of stored energy in a body.)
Other units used to quantify heat energy are the British thermal unit (Btu: the amount of heat to
raise 1 lb of water by 1°F) and the kilocalorie (the amount of heat to raise 1 kg of water by 1°C).
Conversion factors are readily available from numerous sources.
Quality
When a substance exists as part liquid and part vapor at its saturation temperature, its quality, χ, is
defined as the fraction of the total mass which is vapor.
m vapor
χ (Eq. 2-10)
m vapor  m liquid
2.2.2 Latent heat

This is the quantity of heat required to change the state (phase) of matter from solid to liquid and
liquid to vapor. It involves no change in temperature while the change of phase takes place; rather
all the energy is used to change the state (phase). Graphical presentation of latent heat is given in
Exhibit 2-3.
Exhibit 2-3: Latent heat explained
2.2.3 Specific heat capacity

The specific heat capacity represents the amount of energy required to raise 1 kg by 1°C, and can
be thought of as the ability of a substance to absorb heat. Therefore the SI units of specific heat
capacity are kJ/kg K (kJ/kg °C).

10
Q
c (Eq. 2-11)
m ΔT
The equation can be rearranged to give the heat required to change the temperature of an object
with mass m.
Q = m c ΔT (Eq. 2-12)
Where Q = Quantity of energy (kJ)
m = Mass of the substance (kg)
c = Specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ/kg °C )
ΔT = Temperature rise of the substance (°C)
This equation shows that for a given mass of substance, the temperature rise is linearly related to
the amount of heat provided, assuming that the specific heat capacity is constant over that
temperature range.
For gases (compressible fluids), the specific heat capacity depends on the conditions under which
the heat exchange occurs. The most common conditions are those of constant volume and
constant pressure, designated by subscripts, v and p respectively. The equations for the two
conditions are:
Q = m cv ΔT (constant volume) (Eq. 2-13)
Q = m cp ΔT (constant pressure) (Eq. 2-14)
To understand the difference between cP and cV, consider the difference between adding heat to
the gas with a locked piston, and adding heat with a piston free to move, so that pressure remains
constant. When the piston is free to move, the gas will both gain heat and expand, causing the
piston to do mechanical work on the atmosphere. In the constant-volume case (locked piston), the
gas will gain heat only with no external motion, and thus no mechanical work is done on the
atmosphere. Thus the amount of heat required to raise the gas temperature is higher in the
constant pressure case (cp > cv).
The two specific heat capacities in kJ/kg mol-K are denoted by Cv and Cp respectively.
For solids and liquids (incompressible fluids) cp ≈ cv. Substances differ in the quantity of heat
needed to produce a given temperature increase. Water has a very large specific heat capacity
(4.19 kJ/kg °C).
2.2.4 Heat Capacity Ratio

The heat capacity ratio or adiabatic index, is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure
(Cp) to heat capacity at constant volume (Cv). It is sometimes also known as the isentropic
expansion factor and ratio of specific heats, and is denoted by γ (gamma) or κ (kappa).
Cp cp
κ  (Eq. 2-15)
Cv cv

11
For an ideal gas, the heat capacity is constant with temperature. Accordingly, one can express the
enthalpy as H = CpT and the internal energy as U = CvT. Thus, it can also be said that the heat
capacity ratio is the ratio between the enthalpy to the internal energy:
H
κ (Eq. 2-16)
U
Furthermore, the heat capacities can be expressed in terms of heat capacity ratio (κ) and the gas
constant (R):
κR R
Cp  and Cv  (Eq. 2-17)
κ 1 κ 1
It can be rather difficult to find tabulated information for Cv, since Cp is more commonly
tabulated. The following relation can be used to determine Cv:
Cv = Cp − R (Eq. 2-18)
For practical purposes, the value of gas constant R is taken as 8.314 kJ/kg mol-K. While, the
exact value of gas constant R is 8.314472 kJ/kg mol-K.
Heat capacity ratio for various gases at different temperatures is given in Exhibit 2-4.
Exhibit 2-4: Heat capacity ratio for various gases
Gas Temp. κ Gas Temp. κ Gas Temp. κ
H2 –181°C 1.597 Dry Air 200°C 1.398 NO 20°C 1.40
–76°C 1.453 400°C 1.393 N2O 20°C 1.31
20°C 1.410 1000°C 1.365 N2 –181°C 1.47
100°C 1.404 2000°C 1.088 15°C 1.404
400°C 1.387 CO2 0°C 1.310 Cl2 20°C 1.34
1000°C 1.358 20°C 1.300 CH4 –115°C 1.41
2000°C 1.318 100°C 1.281 –74°C 1.35
He 20°C 1.660 400°C 1.235 20°C 1.32
H2O 20°C 1.330 1000°C 1.195 NH3 15°C 1.310
100°C 1.324 CO 20°C 1.400 Ne 19°C 1.64
200°C 1.310 O2 –181°C 1.450 Xe 19°C 1.66
Ar –180°C 1.760 –76°C 1.415 Kr 19°C 1.68
20°C 1.670 20°C 1.400 SO2 15°C 1.29
Dry Air 0°C 1.403 100°C 1.399 Hg 360°C 1.67
20°C 1.400 200°C 1.397 C2H6 15°C 1.22
100°C 1.401 400°C 1.394 C3H8 16°C 1.13
2.2.5 Entropy (s)

It is a measure of energy which is no longer available to perform useful work within the current
environment. Other definitions are frequently used (e.g., disorder of the system, randomness), but
these alternate definitions are difficult to quantify.
The total unavailable energy in a system is equal to the summation of all unavailable energy input
- over the life of the system. That is,
s   Δs (Eq. 2-19)

12
For an isothermal process (i.e., a process which takes place at a constant temperature) occurring at
temperature T0, the change in entropy is a function of the energy transfer. If Q is the energy
transfer per unit mass of substance, the entropy change is given by:
Q
Δs  (Eq. 2-20)
T0
For processes that occur over a varying temperature, the entropy change must be found by
integration.
dQ
Δs   ds   (Eq. 2-21)
T
The Second Law of Thermodynamics can be related to entropy: A natural process that starts in
one equilibrium state and ends in another will go in the direction that causes the entropy of the
system and the environment to increase. In this form, the Second Law applies only to irreversible
processes - those processes having a “natural direction”.
Although all real-world processes result in an overall increase in entropy, it is possible to
conceptualize processes that have a zero entropy change. Such processes are said to be reversible
or isentropic. For a reversible process:
Δs  0 (Eq. 2-22)
Processes which contain friction are never reversible.

A change in the entropy of a system is caused by a change in its heat content, where the change of
entropy is equal to the heat change divided by the average absolute temperature, Equation 2-22.
Change in energy (H)

Change in entropy (S) 
Average absolute temp. ΔT 
(Eq. 2-23)
When unit mass calculations are made, the symbols for entropy and enthalpy are written in lower
case, Equation 2-23.
Change in energy (h)

Change in entropy (s)  (Eq. 2-24)
Average absolute temp. (T)
SI units of entropy (s) are kJ/kg-K (kJ/kg °C).
2.3 Ideal Gas Law and Equations of State

Under certain conditions the pressure, volume, and temperature of gases are related by an
equation called the perfect or ideal gas law. Air at the temperatures and pressures in air
conditioning work follow this equation. The perfect gas equation can be expressed as:

13
mRT
pV  (Eq. 2-25)
M
Where p = pressure, kPa absolute
V = volume, m3
m = weight of gas, kg
M = molecular weight, kg/kg mol
R = universal gas constant (8.314 kJ/kg mol-K)
T = absolute temperature, degrees K
By rearranging the terms in the equation, for two different conditions of a gas, 1 and 2, the
following equation results:
p 2 V2 p1 V1
 (Eq. 2-26)
T2 T1
The gas law is useful in, finding changes in p, V and T for changed conditions. If only two of
these three variables change, the equation simplifies. If the temperature is constant,
p 2 V1
 (Eq. 2-27)
p1 V2
If the volume is constant,
p 2 T2
 (Eq. 2-28)
p1 T1
If the pressure is constant,
V2 T2
 (Eq. 2-29)
V1 T1
2.4 Thermodynamic Processes

Changes in properties to working fluids in thermodynamic systems, such as refrigeration, often
depend on the type of process undergone by the fluids. This is particularly true of gases.
A gas is said to undergo a process when it passes from some initial state or condition to some final
state or condition. A change in the condition of a gas may occur in an infinite number of ways,
only five of which are of interest. These are the (1) constant pressure (isobaric), (2) constant
volume (isometric or isochoric), (3) constant temperature (isothermal), (4) adiabatic, and (5)
polytropic processes.
In any continuous compression process, the relation of absolute pressure p and volume V is
expressed by the formula:
pV n  C  constant (Eq. 2-30)

14
The plot of pressure versus volume for each value of exponent n is known as the polytropic curve.
Since, the work W performed in proceeding from p1 to p2 along any polytropic curve is
2
W   p dV (Eq. 2-31)
1
It follows that the amount of work required is dependent upon the polytropic curve involved and
increases with increasing value of n. The path requiring least amount of input work is n = 1,
which is equivalent to isothermal compression. For adiabatic compression (i.e., no heat is being
added or taken away during the process), n = κ = ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that
at constant volume. Since most compressors operate along a polytropic path approaching the
adiabatic, compressor calculations are generally based on the adiabatic curve.
Some formulas based upon the adiabatic equation and useful in compressor work are as follows:
Pressure, volume, and temperature relations for perfect gases:

p 2  V1 
 
p1  V2 
(Eq. 2-32)
κ 1
T2  V1 
 
T1  V2 
(Eq. 2-33)
κ
p 2  T2  κ 1
  (Eq. 2-34)
p1  T1 
In adiabatic calculations, the adiabatic work for perfect gases is expressed as follows:
 κ  1
 
κ R T1  p 2  κ

Wad    1
κ 1 M
(Eq. 2-35)
 p1  
 
Where Wad = adiabatic work per unit mass, kJ/kg
R = gas constant, kJ/kg mol-K = 8.314
T1 = inlet gas temperature, K
P1 = absolute inlet pressure, kPa
P2 = absolute discharge (outlet) pressure, kPa
κ = ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and volume
The work expended on the gas during compression is equal to the product of the adiabatic head
mass flow of gas handled.
 κ  1
 
κ R T1  p 2  κ 
kWad  m
 Wad  m
   1
κ 1 M
(Eq. 2-36)
 p1  
 

15
 κ  1
 
κ  p 2  κ 
kWad  0.000278 Q p   1
κ 1 1 1
(Eq. 2-37)
 p1  
 
Where kWad = adiabatic power (work per second), kW
m = mass flow, kg/s
Q1 = volumetric gas flow rate, m3/h
Adiabatic discharge pressure is:

 κ 1
p  κ
T2  T1  2  (Eq. 2-38)
 p1 
The work in compressor under ideal conditions as previously shown occurs at constant entropy.
The actual process is a process shown in Exhibit 2-5 and given by the equation pVn = constant.
Exhibit 2-5: Polytropic compression curves
p2 n = 1 (isothermal)
Pressure, p
n = κ = Cp/Cv (adiabatic)
n>κ
p1
Volume, v
Adiabatic efficiency is given by the following relationship:
Ideal work
η ad  (Eq. 2-39)
Actual work
In terms of change in total temperatures, the relationship can be written as:
T2  T1
η ad  (Eq. 2-40)
T2a  T1
where T2a = actual discharge temperature of the gas, K

16
The adiabatic efficiency can be represented in terms of total pressure discharge:
 κ  1
 p2  κ
  1
 1 
p
η ad  n  1 (Eq. 2-41)
 p2  n
  1
 p1 
Taking into consideration the compressor efficiency ηC and the compressibility factor Z, the
polytropic work can be expressed by the following relationship:
 n  1
 
1 n RT1  p 2  n 
Wpc  Z   1
η c n 1 M
(Eq. 2-42)
 p1  
 
Where Wpc = polytropic work per unit mass, kJ/kg
n = polytropic compression factor
Z = compressibility factor
ηc = compressor efficiency
Compressibility factor Z accounts for non-ideal gases and processes and can be obtained for
different gases from standard reference tables.
Likewise for polytropic efficiency (ηpc), which is often considered as the small stage efficiency, or
the hydraulic efficiency, can be written as:
κ 1
η pc  κ
n 1 (Eq. 2-43)
Air and a number of other gases have a value of κ = 1.39 to 1.41.

For the adiabatic compression process, the work and power for non-ideal systems are expressed
as:
 κ  1
 
1 κ RT1  p 2  κ

Wad  Z   1
η c κ 1 M
(Eq. 2-44)
 p1  
 

17
 κ  1
 
1 κ RT1  p 2  κ 
kWad  
Zm   1
κ 1 M  p1 
(Eq. 2-45)
ηc 
 
 κ  1
 
1 κ RT1  p 2  κ 
kWad  0.000278 Z Q1 p 1   1
η c κ 1
(Eq. 2-46)
M  p1  
 
Where Wad = adiabatic work per unit mass, kJ/kg
kWad = adiabatic power (work per second), kW
m = mass flow, kg/s
Q1 = volumetric gas flow rate, m3/h
κ = ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and volume
Z = compressibility factor
ηc = compressor efficiency

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3 Psychrometry
A majority of refrigeration applications involve the chilling of air, whether it is for space
conditioning, cold storage or industrial processes. Hence, a review of Psychrometrics is important.
3.1.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Air and Psychrometric Chart

The psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties of moist
air. It describes all the possible combinations of temperature, moisture content, density and energy
relating to air at one time. The usefulness of the psychrometric chart is that for any two known
properties of air, the remaining properties can be determined graphically. It should be noted that
psychrometric charts do differ with respect to altitude (i.e. barometric pressure). In most space
conditioning analysis (except for those involving locations at an elevation far above sea level), the
barometric pressure is assumed to be the standard at sea level (100 kPa, 760 mm Hg, 29.97" Hg).
Properties of the Psychrometric Chart and their Definitions
 Dry Bulb Temperature is the temperature that we measure with a standard thermometer
that has no water on its surface. When people refer to the temperature of the air, they are
commonly referring to its dry bulb temperature. Dry bulb temperature is represented by vertical
lines on the chart and is displayed at the bottom, increasing from left to right. The unit of
measure used for dry bulb temperature is °C.
 Wet Bulb Temperature is a temperature associated with the moisture content of the air.
Wet bulb temperature is taken by surrounding the thermometer with a wet wick and measuring
the reading as the water evaporates. Wet bulb temperatures are always lower than dry bulb
temperatures and the only time that they will be the same is at saturation (i.e. 100% relative
humidity). Wet bulb temperature is represented by lines that slant diagonally from the upper
right of the chart (along the line of saturation) down to the lower left of the chart. The unit of
measure used for wet bulb temperature is °C.
 Relative Humidity is the measure of how saturated the air is with water vapor. If the air is
holding all the moisture it can for a specific set of conditions, then it is said to be saturated. At
this saturated state it is said to have a relative humidity of 100%. Relative humidity is measured
as how much water vapor is present in the air as a percentage of how much water vapor would
be in the same air at saturation. Relative Humidity is represented on the psychrometric chart as
lines that curve from the lower left hand side up and to the right. The unit of measure used for
relative humidity is %.
 Dew Point corresponds to the temperature at which air becomes completely saturated. At dew
point dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature are exactly the same. Dew point is
represented along the 100% relative humidity line on the psychrometric chart.
 Enthalpy is the measure of the total energy in the air. Energy in air comes in the form of either
sensible heat or latent heat. Sensible heat is the heat (energy) in the air due to the temperature of
air. Latent heat is the heat (energy) in the air due to the moisture of the air. Following this, air
with same amount of energy may either be dry hot air (high sensible heat) or cool moist air
(high latent heat). Enthalpy lines run almost along the same lines as wet bulb temperature and in
most applications the same lines can used for both properties. The unit of measure for enthalpy
is kJ / kg of dry air.
 Moisture Content / Humidity Ratio differs from relative humidity in that it is the amount
of water vapor, by weight, in the air. Humidity ratio is represented on the chart by lines that run
horizontally and the values are on the right hand side of the chart increasing from bottom to top.
The unit of measure used for humidity ratio is kg moisture / kg of dry air.
 Specific Volume is the volume that a certain weight of air occupies, at a specific set of
conditions. Specific volume is represented by lines that slant from the lower right hand corner

19
towards the upper left hand corner at a steeper angle than the lines of wet bulb temperature and
enthalpy. The unit of measure used for specific volume is cubic meters / kg of dry air.
 Vapor Pressure can also be determined on the psychrometric chart. Each water molecule in
the air exerts pressure on the surrounding environment. Vapor pressure is represented by lines
that run horizontally and the values are on the far right hand side of the chart increasing from
bottom to top. The unit of measure for vapor pressure is pascal (Pa).
The graphical representation of the properties of air is explained in the Exhibit 3.1. Psychrometric
chart is shown in Exhibits 3.2, while Exhibit 3.3 illustrates the climate classification on the
psychrometric chart.
Exhibit 3-1: Graphical representation of the properties of air
The example below illustrates the use of the psychrometric chart to completely determine the
properties of moist air.
Example 3-1
What are the properties of moist air at 27°C dry bulb temperature, 50% relative humidity at sea level?
Locate the point on the chart: at the bottom of the chart, find the vertical line corresponding to 27°C. Move
up the line until it intersects with the curved 50% relative humidity line.
1. Humidity ratio: from the point, read the humidity ratio directly from the scale on the right.
The correct value is 11.2 grams of moisture per kilogram of dry air.
2. Wet bulb temperature: locate the light diagonal lines that the point falls between. The point
falls between the 19 and 20°C wet bulb lines and the correct value is about 19.5°C.
3. Dew point temperature: from the point, draw a line parallel to the lines of humidity ratio to
the left straight across to the saturation temperature line (the heavy line on the right of the
shaded “lens” shape area. Read the dew point temperature from the scale on this line. The
correct value is about 15.8°C.
4. Specific volume: By graphical interpolation between the lines, it is found that the point lies
about half way between the 0.86 m3 /kg line to the 0.87 m3/kg line. The correct value is in
the region of 0.865 m3/kg.
5. Enthalpy: the enthalpy scale is on the left side of the shaded “lens” shape area. The point
falls between the 54 and 56 kJ per kg of dry air lines. By graphical interpolation between
the lines, it is found to be about 90 percent or the distance from the 54 kJ/kg to the 56 kJ/kg
lines. The correct value is found to be about 55.8 kJ/kg of dry air.
6. All of the properties of interest have been determined from the psychrometric chart.

20
Exhibit 3-2: Psychrometric chart

21
Exhibit 3-3: Climatic classification on psychrometric chart
3.1.2 Using the Psychrometric Chart

In this section the use of the psychrometric chart in typical space conditioning analysis will be
demonstrated.
Sensible Heating or Cooling of Air

If air is heated or cooled without the addition of moisture, (sensible heating or cooling) the
humidity ratio of the air remains constant. Hence, the process can be represented as a horizontal
line on the psychrometric chart from the initial condition to the final condition. It should be noted
that sensible cooling involves cooling the air to a temperature that is higher than its dew point
temperature; cooling below the dew point temperature will result in condensation of water vapor
and the humidity ratio of the air will change.
The solution of a typical problem is demonstrated in the example below, which is graphically
illustrated in Exhibit 3-4.
Example 3-2
How much heat is required to warm 500 L/s of outside air at 4°C dry bulb and 80% relative humidity to
32°C without the addition of moisture. The heating occurs at sea level.
Locate the point representing the initial condition on the chart: at the bottom of the chart, find the vertical
line corresponding to 4°C. Move up the line until it intersects with the curved 80% relative humidity line.
This is point A. The point representing the final condition (point n) is found by moving horizontally to the
right from point A on the same humidity ratio line. Heating or cooling air without addition or subtraction of
moisture is done at constant humidity ratio.
The thermodynamic properties of moist air at point A are: humidity ratio: 4.0 grams of moisture per
kilogram of dry air; enthalpy: 14.2 kJ per kilogram of dry air; specific volume: 0.79 m 3 per kg of dry air.
The enthalpy of the air at the heated condition (point B), from the Psychrometric chart, is 42.5 kJ per
kilogram of dry air. The mass flow rate of the air is:
ma 
500 L/s3,600 s/h 
0.79 m / kg dry air 1,000 L/m 
3 3
= 2,278 kg

22
Exhibit 3-4: Sensible heating of moist air - example

23
Heat that needs to be added to the air (QA→B) is found by multiplying the mass flow rate by the difference in
enthalpy from the initial (hA) to final (hB) conditions:
QA→B = m. (hB - hA) = 2,278 (42.5 - 14.2) = 64,467 kJ/h
Cooling and Dehumidifying Moist Air
When air is cooled to a temperature below its original dew point, some of the water vapor in the
original air condenses to water. The condensation process does not take place at a fixed
temperature, but continues over a variable path; the moisture will be saturated at a variable
temperature ranging from the initial dew point to the final saturation temperature. The exact path
taken from the initial to final conditions of the moist air is difficult to determine in the field, but it
is not required to know the path to compute the energy interchange. All that is required is the
knowledge of initial or final states, as the example below demonstrates. This example is
Example 3-3
What is the refrigeration required to cool 500 L/s of outside air at 32oC dry bulb and 27°C wet bulb to a
condition of saturation at 13°C? The condensate is removed at saturation temperature and cooling and
dehumidification occurs at sea level.
Locate the point representing the initial condition on the chart: at the bottom of the chart, find the vertical
line corresponding to 32°C. Move up the line until it intersects with the diagonal 27°C wet bulb temperature
line. This is point A. The point representing the final condition (point B) is found on the saturation line at
13°C.
The properties of air at the initial conditions (point A) are: enthalpy: 85.0 kJ per kilogram of dry air;
specific volume: 0.893 m3 per kilogram of dry air; humidity ratio: 20.6 grams of water vapor per kilogram
of dry air. The properties of air at the final conditions (point B) are: dry bulb temperature, wet bulb
temperature, and dew point temperature are all 13°C; humidity ratio: 9.3 grams of water vapor per kilogram
of dry air; enthalpy: 36.7 kJ per kilogram of dry air. The mass flow rate of the air is:
ma 
500 L/s3,600 s/h 
0.893 m / kg dry air 1,000 L/m 
3 3
= 2,016 kg dry air/hour
Energy and mass balances around the system can be written as follows (mass of the dry air at initial and
final conditions does not change):
mahA - QA→B = ma hB + ma (WA - WB) hfB - energy balance (Eq. 3-1)
mw = ma(WA - WB) - mass balance for the water (Eq. 3-2)

where hA and hB = the enthalpies of air at the initial and final conditions,
respectively
Hfb = enthalpy of saturated water at the final condition
WA and WB = the humidity ratios of the air at the initial and final
conditions, respectively
ma = mass flow rate of air
mw = amount of water removed from the air
The enthalpy of saturated water at any temperature can be obtained from steam tables. Accordingly, the
enthalpy of saturated water (Hfb) at the final condition is 54.6 kJ/kg water.
Rearranging the energy balance to solve for QA→B yields:
QA→B = ma{(hA - hB) + (WA - WB)hfB}
= 2,0161{(85.0 - 36.7) - (20.6 - 9.3) 54.6/1,000}
= 96, 129 kJ/h

24
Exhibit 3-5: Cooling and dehumidification of moist air – example

25
At 3,600 kJ per hour per kW of refrigeration, a total of 26.7 kW of refrigeration are required. The amount of
moisture removed from the air is given by:
ma (WA - WB) = 2,016 (20.6 - 9.3) = 22.8 kg per hour.
Evaporative Cooling
Consider a process which uses recirculated water to cool a stream of air, such as the so-called
desert cooler in common use in Pakistan. An adiabatic saturation using recirculated water will
lower the dry bulb temperature of the entering air to a point corresponding to its original wet bulb
temperature whenever the air is brought to complete saturation. In the process, the dry bulb
temperature is lowered toward the wet bulb temperature because the sensible heat of the air is
absorbed in the evaporating water. If the moist air is not completely saturated, the air will be at a
dry bulb temperature higher than that corresponding to its wet bulb temperature at saturation.
Even so, the wet bulb temperature of the air has not changed from its original value and the
process of adiabatic cooling still takes place at the wet bulb temperature of the entering air.
On a psychrometric chart, a line of constant wet bulb temperature represents the adiabatic
evaporative cooling process. The heat balance for the process may be expressed as:
hB = hA + (WB - WA) hfw (Eq. 3-3)

where hB, hA = enthalpies of the entering and leaving air, respectively
WB, WA = humidity ratios of the exit air and the entering air,
respectively
hfw = enthalpy of the recirculated water
In order to be completely consistent, this expression assumes that the make-up water to the
evaporative cooler is provided at the wet bulb temperature. This is generally not the case, but the
deviation is negligible.
The example 3-4 demonstrates the use of the Psychrometric chart for evaporative cooler analyses;
the example is illustrated in Exhibit 3-6.
Example 3-4
Air is supplied at 40°C and 20% relative humidity to an evaporative cooler using recirculated water. If the
evaporative cooler has sufficient capacity to bring the air within 70% of the original wet bulb depression,
what are the conditions of the air leaving the evaporative cooler?
Locate the point representing the condition or the entering supply air at 40°C and 20% relative humidity on
the chart: at the bottom of the chart, find the vertical line corresponding to 40°C. Move up the line until it
intersects with the curved 20% relative humidity line. This is point A.
At this point, the wet bulb temperature or the entering air is 22oC. The original wet bulb depression is:
40 - 22 = 18°C
The final air dry bulb air temperature required to reach 70% or the original wet bulb depression is:
40 - 0.7 × 18 = 27.4°C
The final condition or 27.4°C dry bulb and 22°C wet bulb is shown in the Psychrometric chart as point B.
The recirculated water in the evaporative cooler with a small make-up essentially reached the wet bulb
temperature of the entering air; at that temperature (22°C) the enthalpy of the water, hfw is 92.3 kJ/kg
(interpolated from steam tables). From the Psychrometric chart, hA is 64.0 kJ/k, dry air, WA is 9.2, hB is 64.4
kJ/kg dry air and WB is 14.4. The adiabatic process follows a constant wet bulb line and the following
expression apply.
hB = hA + (WB - WA) hfw
Substitution of the values into the expression shows a close check.

26
Exhibit 3-6: Evaporative cooling – example

27
4 Refrigerants
Refrigerants are the vital working fluids in refrigeration, air-conditioning, and heat pumping
systems. They absorb heat from one area, such as an air-conditioned space, and reject it into
another, such as outdoors, usually through evaporation and condensation processes, respectively.
These phase changes occur both in absorption and mechanical vapor compression systems, but
they do not occur in systems operating on a gas cycle using a fluid such as air. The design of the
refrigeration equipment depends strongly on the properties of the selected refrigerant.
Refrigerants are chemical substances. Water is the refrigerant used in absorption chillers. Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) and Ammonia (NH3) are known as “natural” refrigerants. Flammable substances
such as propane and isobutane are also used as refrigerants. To this group, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydofluorocarbons (HFCs) can be added.
ASHRAE Standard 34, Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants, lists over 100
refrigerants, although many of these are not used on regular basis in commercial HVAC systems.
Appendix-A provides further information on refrigerants and their classification.
4.1 The Refrigeration Process

The majority of refrigeration systems are driven by a machine which compresses and pumps
refrigerant vapor around a sealed circuit. Heat is absorbed and rejected through heat exchangers.
These systems work on what is called a vapor compression cycle.
There are other types of plant which can be used to obtain a cooling effect, such as absorption
cycle systems, but these are not in common use and are only economically viable where there are
large supplies of waste heat.
The Vapor Compression Cycle
Heat can only flow naturally from a hot to a colder body. In a refrigeration system the opposite
must occur. This is achieved by using a substance called a refrigerant, which absorbs heat and
hence boils or evaporates at a low pressure to form a gas. This gas is then compressed to a higher
pressure, such that it transfers the heat it has gained to ambient air or water and turns back into a
liquid (condenses). In this way heat is absorbed, or removed, from a low temperature source and
transferred to one at a higher temperature.
There are a number of factors which make the operation of the vapor compression cycle possible:
 The temperature at which refrigerant boils varies with its pressure - the higher the pressure, the
higher the boiling point.
 When refrigerant liquid boils, changing its state to a gas, it absorbs heat from its surroundings.
 Refrigerant can be changed back from a gas to a liquid by cooling it, usually by using air or
water.
It should be noted that in the refrigeration industry the term evaporation is used instead of boiling.
Also, if a gas is heated above its boiling point it is said to be superheated and if liquid is cooled
below its condensing temperature it is subcooled.
To enable the refrigerant to be condensed it has to be compressed to a higher pressure, and it is at
this point that energy has to be used to drive the machine that performs this task. The machine is
called a compressor and it is usually driven by an electric motor.
The operation of a simple refrigeration system is shown in Exhibit 4-1. The diagram shows the
refrigerant pressure (bars) and its heat content (kJ/kg).

29
Exhibit 4-1: Single stage vapor compression circuit and pressure enthalpy diagram
The refrigeration cycle can be broken down into the following stages:
1→2 Low pressure liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs heat from
its surroundings, usually air, water or some other process liquid.
During this process it changes its state from a liquid to a gas, and at
the evaporator exit is slightly superheated.
2→3 The superheated vapor enters the compressor where its pressure is
raised. There will also be a big increase in temperature, because a
proportion of the energy put into the compression process is
transferred to the refrigerant.
3→4 The high pressure superheated gas passes from the compressor into
the condenser. The initial part of the cooling process (3→3a)
desuperheats the gas before it is then turned back into liquid
(3a→3b). The cooling for this process is usually achieved by using
air or water. A further reduction in temperature happens in the pipe
work and liquid receiver (3b→4), so that the refrigerant liquid is
subcooled as it enters the expansion device.
4→1 The high pressure subcooled liquid passes through the expansion
device, which both reduces its pressure and controls the flow into
the evaporator.
It can be seen that the condenser has to be capable of rejecting the combined heat inputs of the
evaporator and the compressor; i.e. (1→2) + (2→3) has to be the same as (3→4). There is no heat
loss or gain through the expansion device.
4.2 Refrigerant History

Mechanical refrigeration has been around since the mid-nineteenth century. The first practical
machine was built by Jacob Perkins in 1834. It was based on using ether as a refrigerant in a

30
vapor compression circuit. Carbon dioxide (CO2) was first used as a refrigerant in 1866 and
Ammonia (NH3) in 1873. Other chemicals used as vapor compression refrigerants included
chymgene (petrol ether and naphtha), sulfur dioxide (R-764) and methyl ether. Their applications
were limited to industrial processes. Most food preservation was accomplished by using blocks of
ice collected during the winter and stored or manufactured through an industrial process.
By the beginning of the twentieth century, refrigeration systems were being used to provide air
conditioning in major building projects. The Milam Building in San Antonio, Texas was the first
high-rise office building to be completely air conditioned.
In 1926, Thomas Midgely developed the first CFC, namely R-12. CFCs were nonflammable, non-
toxic (when compared to Sulfur Dioxide) and efficient. Commercial production began in 1931
and quickly found a home in refrigeration. Willis Carrier developed the first centrifugal chiller for
commercial use and the era of refrigeration and air conditioning began.
For technical reasons that will be discussed later, several refrigerants became very popular in air
conditioning including CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, CFC-114 and HCFC-22. While the fledgling
air conditioning industry grew into a multibillion dollar industry, very little changed on the
refrigerant front. By 1963, these refrigerants represented 98% of the organic fluorine industry.
By the mid 1970s, concerns began to surface about the thinning of the ozone layer and whether
CFCs may be in part responsible. This led to the ratification of the Montreal Protocol in 1987 that
required the phase out of CFCs and HCFCs. New solutions were developed with HFCs taking on
a major role as refrigerants. HCFCs continued to be used as interim solutions and at the time of
writing this document were beginning to be phased out.
In the 1990s global warming arose as the new threat to the well being of the planet. While there
are many contributors to global warming, refrigerants were again included in the discussion
because air conditioning and refrigeration are significant energy users and many refrigerants are
themselves greenhouse gases.
4.3 Desirable Refrigerant Properties

There is no such thing as an ideal refrigerant. Any refrigerant selected will be a compromise, but
for any particular service it should possess as many of the following qualities as possible:
 Condensing pressures that are not so high that heavy duty compressors and piping systems will
be required.
 Low boiling temperatures at atmospheric pressure, to avoid the operation of the system at
vacuum conditions.
 High critical temperature, to ensure that vapor can be condensed to the liquid phase at normal
operating conditions; low freezing temperature, to ensure that the refrigerant does not freeze
except below normal operating conditions.
 High latent heat of vaporization, since the higher the latent heat the less the weight of refrigerant
that must be circulated in the system.
 Low specific heat, to ensure that maximum heat is extracted and absorbed for phase changes.
 Have a high vapor density - keeps the compressor capacity to a minimum and pipe diameters
relatively small.
 Non-toxic - for health and safety reasons.
 Non-flammable - to avoid risks of fire or explosion.
 Overall chemical stability.
 Be environmentally friendly - non-polluting and non-detrimental to the atmosphere, water or
ground.

31
 Easily recyclable.
 Compatible with the materials of the refrigeration system - non-corrosive, miscible with oil,
chemically benign.
 Easy in locating the leaks by odor or simple device.
 Easily available, low cost, and handling and transportation not difficult.
 No negative interaction between refrigerant and lubricants.
In practice the choice of a refrigerant is a compromise. For example:

 Ammonia is good but toxic and flammable.
 R-12 is very good but detrimental to the Ozone layer.
Refrigerants can be broadly classified as inorganic (ammonia, water, etc.) and organic compounds
(hydrocarbons and halocarbons).
4.3.1 Common Refrigerants

Although there are many substances classified as refrigerants by ASHRAE Standard 34, only a
handful of refrigerants are used for commercial air conditioning. Following is a quick rundown of
the common refrigerant groups that are either in use or have been used in the past. Appendices –
B through – G provide technical data on common refrigerants and Appendix - J presents a guide
to the alternate refrigerants.
Water, R-718
Most refrigeration processes use either an absorption cycle or a vapor compression cycle.
Commercial absorption cycles typically use water as the refrigerant with a salt solution such as
Lithium Bromide as the absorbent.
Water is non toxic, non-flammable, abundant etc. It is a natural refrigerant. The challenge for
absorption chillers is that even a double-effect absorption cycle only has a COP (coefficient of
performance) slightly greater than 1 (centrifugal chillers have COPs greater than 5). From a life
cycle analysis point of view, absorption chillers require a thorough investigation to determine
whether they offer a financially viable solution.
From an environmental point of view, the use of water as a refrigerant generally, is very good.
The low COP might indicate that larger amount of fossil fuels will be required to operate an
absorption chiller over a centrifugal chiller. This is not guaranteed however, since absorption
chillers use fossil fuels directly, while electric chillers operate on electricity, a secondary energy
source.
Ammonia, R-717
Ammonia (NH3) is a natural refrigerant and considered to be one of the most efficient. It is one of
the only “original” refrigerants still in use today. It is used in vapor compression processes,
typically with positive displacement compressors. ASHRAE Standard 34 classifies it as a B2
refrigerant (higher toxicity – lower flammability). ASHRAE Standard 15 requires special safety
considerations for Ammonia refrigeration plants. Ammonia is mostly used in industrial
applications, although there are many large commercial air conditioning installations that utilize it
as well.

32
Carbon Dioxide, R-744
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a natural refrigerant. Its use was phased out at the turn of the century, but
new research aimed at using it again is currently under way. It is used in vapor compression
processes with positive displacement compressors. The required condensing pressure is over 62
bar g at 32°C, which is a challenge. Also, the critical point is very low and efficiency is poor.
Still, there may be applications, such as cascade refrigeration, where CO2 will be useful.
Hydrocarbons
Propane (R-290) and isobutane (R-600a), among other hydrocarbons, can be used as refrigerants
in the vapor compression process. In Northern Europe, about 35% of refrigerators are based on
hydrocarbons. They can have low toxicity and good efficiency but they are highly flammable. The
latter issue has severely limited their use.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
There are many chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) but the most common ones for air conditioning are
R-11, R-12, R-113 and R-114. CFCs were in popular use up to the mid-eighties. Production of
CFCs was phased out by the Montreal Protocol in developed countries in 1995. They are still
being manufactured and used in developing countries (but are scheduled for phase out soon).
They are used in vapor compression processes with all types of compressors. The common CFCs
are stable, safe (by refrigerant standards), non-flammable and efficient. Unfortunately, they also
have damaged the ozone layer.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) have been around almost as long as CFCs. HCFC-22 is the
most widely used refrigerant in the world. HCFC-123 is the interim replacement for CFC-11.
They are used in vapor compression processes with all types of compressors. HCFC-22 is
efficient and classified as A1 (lower toxicity – no flame propagation). HCFC- 123 is efficient and
classified as B1 (higher toxicity – no flame propagation). Like CFCs, these refrigerants are being
phased out as required by the Montreal Protocol. Production has been capped and soon will be
ratcheted down in developed countries. Developing countries also have a phase-out schedule but
on an extended timeline.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are relatively new refrigerants whose prominence arose with the
phase out of CFCs. HFCs have no ozone depletion potential (ODP). HFC-134a is the replacement
for CFC-12 and R-500. They are used in vapor compression processes with all types of
compressors. The common HFCs are efficient and classified as A1 (lower toxicity – no flame
propagation).
Glide
Glide is a relatively new term to the market place that has surfaced with the advent of zeotropic
refrigerant blends such as R-407C and R-410A. Zeotropic blends are comprised of refrigerant
components which do not behave as one substance. Glide is the difference (in °F) between the
beginning and end phase change process of a refrigerant in either the evaporator or the condenser.
It does not include subcooling or superheating.
For example R-407C is made up of R-32 (-62°F boiling point), R-125 (-56°F boiling point) and
R-134a (-15°F boiling point). When R-407C is boiled (the evaporation process) R-32 will boil
first, the remaining substance will have a different composition and hence a different “average
boiling point”. This change in composition is known as fractionation. This changing of the
“average boiling temperature” is the glide.

33
4.4 Secondary Coolants
In many refrigeration applications, heat is transferred to a secondary coolant that can be any liquid
cooled by the refrigerant and used to transmit heat without changing state. These are known as
heat transfer fluids, brines, or secondary refrigerants.
If the refrigeration application is above 0°C, water is often used as the secondary coolant. (The
actual application would have to be above approximately 5°C in order to use water above
freezing, assuming a 5°C temperature difference). At temperatures below this, brines are required
as the secondary coolant since their freezing point is below that of water.
4.4.1 Brines
Brines are a eutectic mixture of salt in water. Solutions of calcium and sodium chloride are the
most common refrigeration brines. Appendix-I shows the properties of pure calcium chloride
brine and sodium chloride brine. Brine applications in refrigeration are mainly in the industrial
machinery field and in skating rinks.
Common table salt (sodium chloride) is used where contact with calcium chloride is intolerable as
in the brine fog method of freezing fish and other foods. It is used as a spray in air cooling of unit
coolers to prevent frost formation on coils. In most refrigerating work, the lower freezing point of
calcium chloride solution makes it more convenient to use.
4.4.2 Inhibited Glycol

Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol, inhibited for corrosion control, are used as aqueous
freezing point depressants and heat transfer media in heating and cooling systems. Their chief
attributes are the ability to lower the freezing point of water, and low volatility and relatively low
corrosive nature when properly inhibited.
Inhibited ethylene glycol solutions have better physical properties than propylene glycol
solutions, especially at lower temperatures. However, the less toxic propylene glycol is preferred
for applications involving possible human contact.
Ethylene and propylene glycol are colorless, practically odorless liquids, completely miscible with
water and many organic compounds. Appendix-I shows important properties of the pure
materials.
4.4.3 Halocarbons
Many common refrigerants are employed as secondary coolants as well as primary refrigerating
media. Favorable properties for applications as heat transfer fluids include low freezing points,
low viscosities, non-flammability, and good stability. Exhibit 4-2 lists four halocarbon
compounds from this group, commonly employed as secondary coolants.
Exhibit 4-2: Freezing and Boiling Points of Halocarbon Coolants
Refrigerant Name Freezing Point, °C Boiling Point, °C

12 Dichlorodifluoromethane -157.8 -29.8
11 Trichloromonofluoromethane -111.1 23.8
30 Methylene Chloride -96.7 39.8
1120 Trichloroethylene -86.1 87.2

34
4.5 Refrigerants Phase out
As stated earlier, by the mid-1980s, the world recognized that common air conditioning
halocarbon based refrigerants were severely damaging the Earth’s ecology.
The two refrigerant families most often used in air conditioning systems are CFCs and HCFCs.
The chlorine in these refrigerants damages the ozone layer, and the Montreal Protocol of 1987, an
agreement signed by 180 nations, targets CFCs and HCFCs as ozone depleting substances.
The Montreal Protocol requires that CFCs and HCFCs be phased out over a 40-year period that
began in 1995. In response to the Montreal Protocol, a new family of refrigerants called HFCs
(hydrofluorocarbons) was developed. The HFCs, including R-134a, R-407C and R-410A, are
ozone-friendly and will not be phased out.
According to the Montreal Protocol, the most common air conditioning refrigerant HCFC-22 will
be phased out in the world in 2010. As a result, deciding whether to repair existing equipment or
replace it – when and with what – are key decisions the industrialist, building owners and facility
managers face today and in the future. For example, what is the expected life of the existing
equipment and how long will the refrigerant in it be available? When making a new purchase,
what type of refrigerant does it use and how much longer will it be manufactured? Knowing
refrigerant phase out dates and refrigerant alternatives will be helpful to plan for the future.
Large cooling systems, including all positive pressure centrifugal and screw chillers, are now
being designed for R-134a and R-407C. In small systems – those under 100 tons – R-410A has
become the main replacement for R-22.
The age of air conditioning system of a building or an industry, the cost to maintain it, and the
cost to replace it are all the factors to weigh as HCFC refrigerants are phased out. The best
preparation for the future is to take an inventory of the types of refrigerants the HVAC systems
use, determine which, if any, are being phased out, and recommend replacement alternatives.
Consider the proactive approach. It requires that new equipment use “green” refrigerants so the
equipment bought today can be supported over its useful life. Moreover, it will be a big step
toward restoring the Earth’s ecology.
4.6 Alternative Refrigerants

Because of the phase out of CFC refrigerants, environmentally acceptable replacements have been
commercialized for use in new chillers and in chillers originally designed for use with CFCs. The
“alternative” refrigerants have operating characteristics similar to those of CFCs, both to limit the
design changes involved in manufacturing new chillers which use these new refrigerants and to
reduce the cost of converting existing chillers from CFCs to them.
In general, alternative refrigerants cannot be simply “dropped into” a system designed to use
CFCs.
Depending on the specifics of the machine, materials may need to be replaced and the compressor
will in many cases need to be modified. When converting a chiller from a CFC to HFC-134a, the
lubricant will need to be replaced. Maintenance records should list any modifications that have
been made to original system components. Also, the equipment manufacturer should be consulted
regarding compatibility of system parts with the new refrigerant.
The decision to retrofit CFC equipment with alternative refrigerants must be made based on the
cost to retrofit versus the expected life of the equipment and the anticipated efficiency of the
system after the retrofit. As discussed earlier, alternative refrigerants are similar to but not
identical to the CFCs they are targeted to replace. The differences in properties must be

35
considered carefully because systems designed for CFCs may perform inefficiently or completely
fail if improperly retrofitted with an alternative refrigerant.
Retrofit requirements can range from a minimum effort, such as replacing the lubricant, to
significant equipment changes, such as replacing gears, impellers, or materials of construction
located throughout the system.
The main point to remember is that a service technician cannot simply put an alternative
refrigerant into a CFC system. The property data must be compared and the materials of
construction reviewed. Then, changes recommended by the original equipment manufacturer
(OEM) must be made to ensure that the system will perform correctly and efficiently.
4.7 Lubricants
Just like an automobile engine, the mechanical components of a refrigeration system must be
lubricated. These include the compressor and various valves (including the TX – thermal
expansion valve) throughout the system. The goal of a good lubricant is to protect moving parts,
improve sealing in the compressor (viscosity), be chemically compatible with the refrigerant and
the other materials within the refrigeration system, have a low solubility in refrigerant and be safe.
In DX (Direct Expansion refrigeration circuits, the lubricant often travels with the refrigerant
throughout the circuit, lubricating components along the way. Care must be taken in the design of
the piping to make sure that the oil will return to the compressor and not be trapped somewhere in
the circuit.
In flooded refrigeration systems, it is very easy for the lubricant to become trapped in the
evaporator so it does not return to the compressor and also lowers the heat transfer effectiveness
of the evaporator. In flooded systems, it is normal to have a lubricant return system that separates
the lubricant from the refrigerant (an oil separator for instance) and return it to the compressor.
Since it is expected that the lubricant and the refrigerant will mix, they must be compatible.
Materials used for lubricants include mineral oils (MO), alkyl benzenes (AB), polyol esters
(POE), poly-alkene glycols, modified polyalkylene glycols and polyvinyl ethers. The two most
familiar lubricants to commercial air conditioning are mineral oils and polyol esters or POE
lubricants. Mineral oils are natural (derived from crude oil), while POE lubricants are synthetic
and manufactured from alcohols.
Refrigerants and Lubricants
How refrigerants interact with lubricants is critical to the proper operation of the refrigeration
system and its longevity. CFC refrigerants often used mineral oils for lubricants. The chlorine in
the refrigerants provided good anti-wear characteristics, so little or no additives were required.
Mineral and POE oils are not compatible. Although mixing these oils should not happen in
normal circumstances, it may happen if the refrigerant is changed within the system.
HCFC refrigerants may use either mineral or synthetic lubricants. In some cases additives are
used to improve lubricant performance. HFC refrigerants typically require a synthetic lubricant
such as POE type.
POE and Water
POE oils are more hygroscopic than mineral oils, i.e., they absorb moisture very easily. Moisture
within a refrigeration circuit is detrimental because the moisture can mix with carbon to form
carbonic acid. Special care must be exercised by operators and technicians not to expose the POE
lubricants to atmosphere where they will absorb moisture. This moisture can be introduced to the
refrigeration circuit if the lubricant exposed to atmosphere is then added to the system.

36
4.8 Best Practices for Safe Handling of Refrigerants
New generation of refrigerants were extensively tested prior to introduction. They are as safe as,
or safer than, the refrigerants they replace. However, anyone working with refrigerants should
always follow these safety tips:
 Store refrigerants in a clean, dry area out of direct sunlight. Never heat cylinders above 52°C.
 Never pressurize systems or vessels containing refrigerants with air for leak testing or any other
purpose.
 Never tamper with cylinder valves or pressure relief devices.
 Never refill disposable cylinders with anything. Do not use disposable refrigerant cylinders as
compressed air tanks.
 Wear protective clothing such as gloves and eye protection when handling any refrigerant.
 Avoid contact with liquid refrigerant because frostbite may occur.
 Avoid exposure to vapors through spills or leaks.
 Evacuate the area if a large spill occurs. Return only after the area has been properly ventilated.
 Verify proper cylinder hookup to the system.
 Check to make sure that the cylinder label matches the color code.
 Open cylinder valves slowly.
 Avoid rough handling of refrigerant cylinders.
 Verify that the system has been completely evacuated with a vacuum pump before cutting any
lines.
 Before welding or brazing, evacuate the equipment and then break the vacuum with air or
nitrogen. Do not perform any repair on pressurized equipment.
 Always ventilate the work area before using open flames.
 Refer to the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for the refrigerants prior to handling and use.

37
5 Refrigeration Cycles
A liquid boils and condenses (the change between the liquid and gaseous states) at a temperature
which depends upon its pressure. In boiling it must obtain the latent heat of evaporation and in
condensing the latent heat must be released. The basic refrigeration cycle makes use of the boiling
and condensing of a working fluid at different temperatures and, therefore, at different pressures.
In a refrigeration cycle heat is removed from a fluid (typically air or water) to boil a working fluid
(refrigerant) with the end result being that the first fluid is cooled.
This chapter begins with a discussion of an ideal refrigeration cycle and later compares real-life
cycles to the ideal cycle. Gas cycles are treated first followed by absorption cycles. The two
cycles are similar except that gas cycles commonly use mechanical compression to drive the
refrigeration effect while absorption cycles use a heat source.
5.1 Gas Cycles

Because of the complexities of the actual processes, it is important to understand refrigeration
cycles by examining the general characteristics of each cycle. The advantage of a simple model is
that the main parameters which govern the cycle are made more apparent. By stripping the actual
process of all its complications and retaining only a bare minimum of detail, the engineer is able
to examine the influence of major operating variables on the performance of the device. However,
it must be kept in mind that any numerical values calculated from such models may not be strictly
representative of the actual process. Thus modeling is an important tool in engineering analysis,
but at times it is highly qualitative.
5.1.1 The Carnot Cycle

In the study of cyclic devices which operate for the purpose of removing heat continuously from a
low-temperature source, it is useful to recall the features of the reversed Carnot cycle. A diagram
of a reversed Carnot-cycle engine operating as a heat pump or refrigerator is shown in Exhibit 5.1.
A quantity of heat QL is transferred reversibly from a low-temperature source of temperature TL to
the reversed heat engine. The reversed heat engine operates through a cycle during which network
W is added to the engine and a quantity of heat QH is transferred reversibly to a higher-
temperature sink of temperature TH.
Exhibit 5-1: Reversed Carnot engine
Reservoir
Temperature, T
TH
QH = W + QL
TH
Cyclic Wnet
Wnet
Engine
QL TL QL
Reservoir
TL Entropy, s

39
On the basis of the first law of Thermodynamics, QL + W = QH. From the second law for a totally
reversible process it is found that TH/TL = QH/QL. The reversed Carnot heat engine is useful as a
standard of comparison because it requires the minimum work input for a given refrigeration
effect between two given bodies of fixed temperature.
The effectiveness of a refrigeration system is known as the coefficient of performance (COP), and
is expressed as the dimensionless ratio:
Useful refrigerating effect, Q L

COP = (Eq. 5-1)
Net external work, Win
QL and Win are expressed in same units.
TL
COPCarnot  (Eq. 5-2)
TH  TL
It is important to note that the value of the COP can exceed unity, and, in fact, does so for a well-
designed unit. Also note that the coefficient of performance increases as the temperature
difference TH - TL decreases.
It is common to express the performance of a mechanical compression system in terms of the
number of horsepower (hp) or kW required per ton of refrigeration (TR). By manipulation of the
above equation, it can be expressed as:
hp 12,000 4.72 kW 3.517

= = ; or  (Eq. 5-3)
TR (2,545) (COP) COP TR COP
One ton of refrigeration (1 TR) and hp are equal to 12,000 Btu/hour 2,545 Btu/hour respectively.
In most publications, this ratio is reported in the form of kW/TR. According to ASHRAE, the
approximate power inputs, kW/TR of various systems are:
SYSTEM COMPRESSOR AUXILIARIES TOTAL
kW/TR kW/TR kW/TR
1. Window Units 1.46 0.32 1.78
2. Packaged Units, Air-Cooled 1.49 0.14 1.63
3. Central, Air-Cooled
(3 to 25 TR) 1.20 0.20 1.4
(25 to 100 TR) 1.18 0.21 1.39
4. Central, Water-Cooled
(25 to 100 TR) 0.94 0.17 1.11
0.79 0.20 0.99
It is also known that recent developments in the design of chillers have improved their
performance tremendously to as low as 0.60 kW/TR.
Yet, another way of expressing the performance, which is quite similar to COP is the Energy
Efficiency Ratio (EER). It is defined as:
Useful cooling capacity, Btu/h

EER = (Eq. 5-4)
Power input, Watts
The ratio of cooling load in kWR (sometimes kWc) and power input in kW is also called the
energy efficiency ratio.

40
The refrigerating efficiency expresses the approach of the refrigerating cycle or system to that of
an ideal reversible refrigerating cycle. By definition:
COP
R= (Eq. 5-5)
COPRev
where R = Refrigeration efficiency
COP = COP of the system under study
COPRev = COP of the ideal reversible cycle (Carnot cycle)
The reader is referred to any basic Thermodynamics book for definitions of the First and Second
Laws of Thermodynamics.
For vapor compression refrigeration, the ideal Carnot cycle can be represented as in Exhibit 5-2.
The energy transfer equations for this exhibit are:
Q H  h1  h 4 (Eq. 5-6)
QL  h3  h 2 (Eq. 5-7)
QL TL
COP   (Eq. 5-8)
Q H  Q L TH  TL
Exhibit 5-2: Carnot vapor compression cycle
Temperature, T Saturation Curve QH
(1) Condensor (4)

TH 1 4
W
TL 2 3
Compressor W34
QL Valve
Entropy, s (3)
(2) Evaporator
QL
5.1.2 Rankine Cycle

The Rankine cycle is the most common refrigeration cycle. A graph of a Rankine cycle ABCD
using R-12 as the refrigerant is shown on a pressure-versus-enthalpy diagram in Exhibit 5-3. The
best way to understand the cycle is by reviewing an example of a cycle analysis, as presented
below.
Conditions for the cycle are as follows: an evaporator temperature of 0°C, a condenser
temperature of 40°C, no subcooling of condensate, no superheating of evaporator effluent vapor,
and a compressor efficiency of 80 percent. Using tabulated values of properties of R-12, the
following values are found: For saturated conditions in the condenser at 40 oC, hl = 239.29 kJ/kg,
hv = 368.68 kJ/kg, and pressure = 0.95944 MPa. For saturated conditions in the evaporator at 0°C,

41
hl′ = 200.00 kJ/kg, hv′ = 352.44 kJ/kg, and pressure = 0.30885 MPa, where the subscripts l and v
denote liquid and vapor.
Exhibit 5-3: Basic reverse Rankine cycle

42
The expansion of the condensate from A to B is adiabatic and causes part of the liquid to flash to
vapor. The fraction χ of vapor phase at B can be found from the energy balance:
hA = hB, or hl = χh′v + (1 – χ) h′l ; so
h l  h v 239.29  200.00
   0.258
h v  h v 352.44  200.00
The evaporation of the two-phase mixture, B, to saturated vapor, C, takes an amount of heat equal
to Qe = h′v - hl = 352.44 - 239.29 = 113.15 kJ/kg. For one kW of refrigeration, the required
refrigerant flow rate is (1 kWR × 3600 kJ/kWh) / (113.15 kJ/kg) = 31.8 kg/hr. The compression of
the vapor from C to D requires work. This work is found by first calculating the isentropic change
of enthalpy, ∆hs, from C to D′ and then dividing, ∆hs, by the compressor efficiency ηc. Most
property charts for refrigerants are too coarse to be used in determining accurate enthalpies.
Instead, the value of ∆hs can be estimated by using the following equation:
 κ 1
 
κ RT1  p 2  κ 
Δh s  W  Z    1 (Eq. 5-9)
κ  1 M  p1  
 
Equation 5-9 represents a perfect gas relation modified by the compressibility factor Z. The Z
factor accounts for non-ideal gases and processes and can be obtained for different gases from
standard reference tables.
Hence, for the given example, when 0.928 is the Z factor and 1.123 is the value of ratio κ for the
refrigerant R-12:
1.123 1
 
1.123 8.315  273  0.95944  1.123 
Δh s  0.928      1  21.01 kJ/kg
1.123  1 121  0.30885  
The compression efficiency, ηc is taken as 0.80. Therefore, the work of compression is:
Δh s 21.01
W   26.26 kJ/kg
ηc 0.80
Please also see equations 2-43 through 2-45.
The enthalpy at D is:
h D  h v  W  352.44  26.26  378.70 kJ/kg
The condensation of the vapor from D to A is accompanied by heat rejection Qc = hD – h1 =

378.70 - 239.29 = 139.4 kJ/kg which is also equal to Qe - W. Thus, by the expenditure of 26.26 kJ
of work, Qe = 139.4 – 26.26 = 113.14 kJ of cooling has been effected. This yields a coefficient of
performance (COP) of:

43
Q e 113.14
COP    4.31
W 26.26
A Carnot refrigeration cycle operating between the same two temperatures would have a Carnot
COPRev of:
273
COPRev   6.8
313  273
5.1.3 Improving Cycle Efficiency
5.1.3.1 Rankine Cycle with Subcooling

According to thermodynamics, any cyclic process, whether a power cycle or a refrigeration cycle,
will be made more efficient if its heat input temperature is raised or its heat reject temperature is
lowered. The temperature referred to is the temperature of the working fluid - not the temperature
of the heat source or sink. The source and sink temperatures ultimately set the high and low
working-fluid temperatures. In most refrigeration processes the difference between maximum and
minimum cycle temperatures is small in comparison with power plant conditions, and a difference
of even 1°C in one of the cycle temperatures can make a difference of 1-2 percent in the COP. In
cases where source and sink temperatures cannot be changed, there is usually a degree of freedom
(at least technologically) to design the heat exchangers for closer approach temperatures, although
there will eventually be an economic limit.
As an example of the cycle (Exhibit 5-4), a saturated condensate at A is subcooled at state A' to
27oC. The average specific heat of the refrigerant at this temperature is 0.979 kJ /kg K. From
thermodynamics, it is known that:
Δh  C p ΔT
Thus,
h A  h l  c p ΔT  239.29  0.97940  27   226.56 kJ/kg
Next, the liquid is expanded at constant enthalpy to B and evaporated to saturated vapor at 0 oC at
C. The heat input to the evaporator is:

Q e  h v  h A  352.44  226.56  125.88 kJ/kg
Since the compressor takes the vapor between the same two pressures as in the previous basic
cycle, the work input from C to D per unit weight of working fluid and the enthalpy at the
endpoint D are the same as the basic cycle 26.26 and 378.70 kJ/kg, respectively. The COP is now:
125.88
COP   4.79
26.26
It is more than 11 percent better than that of the base cycle.

44
Exhibit 5-4: Reverse Rankine cycle with liquid subcooling

45
5.1.3.2 Rankine Cycle with Flash Intercooling
Another method for improving Rankine-cycle efficiency is the flash intercooler method, which
requires a two-stage compressor. This cycle is shown in Exhibit 5-5. Saturated condensate at A is
flashed partly into two phases by expansion to state B at a pressure that is intermediate between
the condensing and evaporating pressures. The two phases are separated, and the liquid is
throttled again to state C at the evaporator pressure and then completely evaporated by the heat
load, becoming saturated vapor at D. The vapor at D is compressed by the first stage of the
compressor to state B′ at the pressure B and mixed with vapor from the first flashing step. The
mixing results in a state B" with a temperature lower than that at B′. The mixed vapor is then
compressed by the second stage to state E at condenser pressure, and then the vapor is condensed
to liquid state A.
For an illustration (Exhibit 5-5), the condensing and evaporating conditions are kept the same as
in the basic cycle. The temperature 21°C as the intermediate flash temperature at which h″l=
220.16 kJ/kg and h″v = 361.39 kJ/kg. The saturated pressure corresponding to 21°C is 0.5837
MPa.
The enthalpy of the condensate at A remains at 239.29 kJ /kg. For χ being the quality after
flashing to 21oC, the energy balance gives 239.29 = χ (361.39) + (1 - χ) 220.I6, and χ = 0.135.
There has been no net enthalpy change in the fluid during the throttling process, but the separated
liquid and vapor phases have different enthalpies. For each kilogram of condensate at A,
1 - 0.135, or 0.865 kg, enters the evaporator at C, where it is vaporized by the heat load. For one
kilogram of condensate leaving A, the heat load is:
Heat load = 0.865 × (352.44 - 220.16) = 114.29 kJ/kg.
Assuming a compressor efficiency of 0.80, and going from D to B′ by equations 5-9 and 2-43
through 2-45 for Z = 0.94 and ηc = 0.80, the approximate work of compression is:
1.123 1
 
1 1.123 8.315  273  0.58370  1.123 
W1   0.94      1  14.5 kJ/kg
0.80 1.123  1 121  0.30885  
The work of compression in taking the mixed vapor from B" to E is:
1.123 1
 
1 1.123 8.315  302  0.95944  1.123 
W2   0.94       1  11.6 kJ/kg
0.80 1.123  1 121  0.58370  
Total work of compression is 14.5 × 0.864 + 11.6 = 24.1 kJ /kg. The COP is:
114.29
COP   4.74
24.1
It is nearly 10 percent better than the base cycle. The intermediate flash temperature was chosen
arbitrarily at 21°C. Actually, there is an optimal intermediate temperature, which varies with cycle
conditions and working fluid. It can be found by trial and error, but it will be close to the point at
which the work of one compressor is equal to that of the other. The flash intercooler is not a true
intercooler, since no heat is removed from the working fluid at inter-stage conditions. Instead, the
working fluid has its temperature reduced by dilution. The thermodynamic benefit comes from
eliminating a throttling expansion of part of the working fluid, which, in turn, decreases the
throttling irreversibility and the average reject temperature. In the case of true inter-cooling, heat
is removed from the working fluid at an intermediate pressure with a heat exchanger. This also
works effectively to increase cycle efficiency if a suitable intermediate temperature heat sink is
available.

46
Exhibit 5-5: Rankine cycle with flash intercooling

47
5.1.3.3 Rankine Cycle with Turbine
Rankine cycle efficiency can be improved by expanding the liquid refrigerant through a turbine
instead of through an expansion valve. Exhibit 5-6 illustrates the Rankine cycle with turbine.
For the conditions given in the basic-cycle example (point D = 40°C condensing temperature and
point C = 0°C evaporating temperature), the corresponding enthalpies and entropies are: for the
condenser, hl = 239.29 kJ/kg, hv = 368.68 kJ/kg, and sl = 1.1324 kJ/kg-K; for the evaporator
hl′ = 206.00 kJ/kg, h′v = 352.44 kJ/kg, s′l = 1.000 kJ/kg K, and s′v = 1.5581 kJ/kg K.
Starting with the single-phase liquid at condenser conditions (state A of Exhibit 5-6), expand
isentropically to evaporator conditions. An entropy balance gives:
s l  χ sv  1  χ sl
This quality χ results in an enthalpy hB = 236.13 kJ/kg, compared with 239.29 kJ/kg for the basic
cycle with throttling expansion. The change hs = hi - hB = 3.16 kJ /kg is the work that could have
been extracted by a reversible turbine.
A turbine with an efficiency of 0.80 will produce work Wl; = 0.8, hs = 2.53 kJ/kg and would lead
to an exit state with an enthalpy of hB = 239.29 - 2.53 = 236.76 kJ/kg. With such a turbine, the
heat load of 352.44 - 236.76 = 115.68 kJ/kg (compared with 113.15 kJ/kg for the basic cycle), a
net work input of 26.26 - 2.53 = 23.73 kJ/kg and a coefficient of performance of 115.68/23.73 =
4.87 (compared with 4.31 for the basic cycle). Although the Rankine cycle with a turbine is about
13 percent better than the basic cycle, there are few commercial applications of this cycle.
5.1.3.4 Compound Cycles

Sometimes it is advantageous to “compound” refrigeration systems - that is, to have one system
pick up the original refrigeration load and elevate it to an intermediate level where the load plus
the heat of compression is rejected to the input of a second system, which raises the temperature
to a point from which heat can be rejected to the ultimate heat sink. Compounded systems are at
their best when there is a large temperature difference between the load and the ultimate sink.
This is shown in Exhibit 5-7, where, with point 1 as the starting point, the single-stage cycle
proceeds to 3 and then to 4, with heat rejected along the 3-4 path. It is apparent that the average
temperature along the 3′-4 path is lower than that along the 3-4 path. Thus, the two-stage cycle is
more efficient.
5.2 Absorption Refrigeration

In any refrigeration process the energy removed from the cold region eventually must be rejected
to another region which is at a considerably higher temperature. This second region is usually the
surrounding environment. In order to carry out the heat-rejection process, the temperature of the
fluid within the refrigeration cycle must be raised to a value above that of the environment. In a
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the temperature of the vapor leaving the evaporator is
raised by a compression process. Once the pressure range is determined for a given refrigerant,
the main variable which controls the amount of work input is the specific volume (v) of the fluid.
In the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle the value of v is relatively large, since the fluid is in
the superheat region throughout the compression process. Therefore, the work input is also
relatively large. One method of overcoming this disadvantage is to design a refrigeration cycle in
which the fluid is a liquid during the heat addition process. Then the work input will be
significantly smaller.

48
Exhibit 5-6: Reverse Rankine cycle with reversible expansion

49
Exhibit 5-7: T-S plot for multistage cycle
The technique of absorption refrigeration is based on this approach. To accomplish this, however,
the overall cycle becomes physically more complex. In addition, a two-component mixture,
typically ammonia and water or lithium bromide and water, must be used as the circulating fluid
in part of the cycle, rather than the single component used in a vapor-compression cycle. Two-
component fluids have an important characteristic which must be recognized. When two phases
are present at equilibrium, the composition of a given component is not the same in two phases.
The vapor phase will contain more of that component which is more volatile at the given
temperature. This fact is extremely important when making mass and energy balances on
equipment- used in absorption refrigeration.
The Absorption Process
It is important to understand the process of absorption and some of the terms related to it, since
they are essential to the understanding of the refrigeration system to be discussed.
Some pairs of substances have an affinity or attraction for each other such that when they come in
contact one becomes absorbed by the other. The substance that absorbs the other is called an
absorbent. A well-known example of such a pair of substances is common table salt (sodium
chloride) and water vapor, where the table salt acts as an absorbent with considerable affinity to
absorb water vapors.
Absorbents may be solids, liquids, or gases, and substances for which they have an affinity may
be liquids or gases. In absorption refrigeration, the absorbent is a liquid and the other substance,
which serves as the system refrigerant, is in a gaseous (vapor) state when it is absorbed. Two pairs
of substances have been successfully used in absorption systems. One pair is water and ammonia.
Water is the absorbent and ammonia is the refrigerant. The other pair is lithium bromide
(chemical symbol LiBr) and water. In this case lithium bromide is the absorbent and water is the
refrigerant. Note that water is the absorbent in one case and the refrigerant in the other.
The mixture of the two substances is normally in liquid state in refrigeration systems. When the
proportion of absorbent in the mixture is high and the proportion of refrigerant is low, it is called a
concentrated or strong solution and when the proportion of absorbent is low and the proportion of
refrigerant is high, it is called a dilute or weak solution. Concentration is usually expressed as

50
percentage by weight of the absorbent. A more concentrated solution can absorb a greater quantity
of refrigerant, and will do it at a faster rate. There is a maximum amount of refrigerant that a
solution can absorb; since on becoming too dilute, the solution will no longer absorb any
refrigerant.
A Simple Analogy
As explained earlier, the evaporating temperature of the refrigerant depends on its saturation
pressure - temperature characteristics. That is, the temperature at which a refrigerant will vaporize
(boil) will vary with the evaporator pressure. The pressure must be low enough so that the
resulting evaporating temperature will be at a value needed for the refrigeration application.
In the vapor compression systems, the low pressure in the evaporator is maintained by the suction
pumping action of the compressor, as in Exhibit 5-8(a), which removes refrigerant as fast as it
evaporates, thus preventing pressure from rising. Suitable refrigerants are chosen whose pressure
and temperature characteristics correspond to the performance of the compressor and other
components. For example, if R-12 is used, and an evaporating temperature of 5oC is desired, the
pressure in the evaporator must be maintained at 356 kPa. If R-11 is used, the pressure in the
evaporator would have to be maintained at 48.2 kPa, a pressure well below atmospheric.
If water is to be used as a refrigerant evaporating at 5oC (as in the LiBr/Water system shown in
Exhibit 5-8), the pressure must be kept extremely low, at 0.827 kPa. Exhibit 5-8(b) shows
schematically how the absorption process is used to maintain this low pressure. The evaporator
contains the refrigerant (water). The absorber is an adjoining vessel containing a strong
(concentrated) solution of lithium-bromide - water. The two vessels are connected so that vapor
may flow freely between them. The vessels are evacuated of any air to an extremely low pressure.
Water in the evaporator will begin to flash to a gas, that is, it will boil. The cooling affect of the
latent heat of vaporization will cool the un-evaporated water, achieving refrigeration.
Exhibit 5-8: Absorption principle
The water vapor produced will fill the evacuated space in both vessels. The pressure in the
evaporator would continually increase as more refrigerant evaporates. The corresponding
evaporating temperature would therefore also increase, and refrigeration at an acceptably low
temperature would be lost. This is prevented by the action of the absorbent, however. The water
vapor filling the vessels will contact the surface of the strong absorbing solution in the absorber,
and will be absorbed by it. This reduces the pressure in the space. A slight pressure gradient is
created from the surface of the evaporating refrigerant to the absorber, which promotes the flow of
water vapor.

51
That is, the absorber will draw off the water vapor as it is produced, thereby maintaining the low
pressure and temperature in the evaporator. This action of the absorber replaces the suction effect
created by the compressor.
Since the evaporator has to be kept at a very low pressure the equipment must be sealed very
tightly. This would be physically impractical if the refrigerant water were circulated externally
through piping and coils to the load. Therefore the refrigerant is used to chill water circulating in a
tube bundle in the evaporator (Exhibit 5-9). The chilled water is then circulated to the load. The
refrigerant water is also continuously recirculated by an evaporator pump through spray header
nozzles into the chilled water tubing. The heat from the system water (at a slightly higher
temperature than the refrigerant) evaporates the refrigerant water. This cools the system water.
Exhibit 5-9: Simple absorption system
A pump and spray nozzle arrangement is also used to spray the strong absorber solution into the
absorber space. This increases the surface area contact between the solution and the water vapor,
increasing the effectiveness of the absorption process.
The system shown in Exhibit 5-8(b) would not operate satisfactorily for very long because the
absorbing solution becomes more dilute as it absorbs water vapor and soon would be ineffective.
The rate of absorption of water vapor would decrease, raising the pressure and evaporating
temperature to an unacceptable level. At some point the solution would stop absorbing water
vapor completely.
A Simple Absorption-Refrigeration Cycle
A schematic diagram of a simple absorption-refrigeration cycle is shown in Exhibit 5-10. A

condenser, throttle valve, and evaporator are shown on the left-hand side of the diagram. These
three pieces of equipment also are used in a conventional vapor-compression cycle. The
compressor in that cycle, however, is now replaced by four pieces of equipment. These are an
absorber, a pump, a generator, and a valve. For the purpose of discussion, ammonia and water are
considered as the two components in the cycle. Essentially pure ammonia vapor leaves the
evaporator at state 1 and enters the absorber. The absorbing medium is a weak solution (low
ammonia concentration) of ammonia and water which continually enters at state 5. The process of
absorption releases energy, hence cooling water must be circulated through the absorber in order
to keep the solution at a constant temperature. The temperature of the absorbing fluid must be
kept at as low a temperature as possible, since the amount of pure refrigerant (ammonia) which
can be absorbed decreases as the temperature increases. However, the absorber must operate at 5
to l0oC above the cooling water temperature to allow for adequate heat-transfer rates. The liquid
which leaves the absorber at state 2 is a rich or strong solution (high ammonia concentration).
This binary liquid mixture is now pumped to state 3, which is at the desired condenser pressure.

52
Exhibit 5-10: Schematic diagram of a simple absorption-refrigeration cycle
The temperature rise of the binary mixture due to the pump work usually is quite small. Thus the
strong solution is subcooled liquid as it enters the generator shown in Exhibit 5-10. Heat QG must
now be added to the solution in the generator to warm the incoming liquid to the saturation
temperature and to drive out of solution some of the ammonia. This nearly-pure ammonia passes
to the condenser at state 6, and eventually returns to the absorber at state 1. The weak solution left
in the generator (state 4) now flows through a regulating valve, which drops the pressure of the
solution to that in the absorber. It then mixes with the solution remaining in the absorber, and cold
vapor coming from the evaporator is added to the overall liquid solution. The strong solution is
cooled, as before, and the cycle is repeated. Hence the ammonia-water solution which cycles
through the absorber, pump, generator, and valve merely serves as a transport medium for the
ammonia refrigerant. Note that any absorption-refrigeration device requires an external heat
source for the generation of refrigerant vapor. Thus absorption refrigeration is especially attractive
if a low-temperature (100-200°C) source of thermal energy is readily available.
In actual practice, absorption-refrigeration units have at least two modifications not shown in
Exhibit 5-10. First, the cold, strong solution at state 3 needs warming before it enters the
generator, and the warm, weak solution at state 4 needs cooling before it enters the absorber.
Consequently, a regenerative heat exchanger is placed between the absorber and generator, which
permits heat transfer from the weak solution to the strong solution. Second, a major requirement is
that the ammonia from the generator should be essentially free of water as it passes through the
condenser-throttling-valve-evaporator loop. Any traces of water will freeze in the expansion valve
and evaporator. Hence the vapor leaving the generator passes through a rectifier or fractionating
column before it enters the condenser. The device separates any remaining water vapor from the
vapor stream leaving the generator, and returns the water to the generator.
5.2.1 Ammonia-Water Absorption

A schematic diagram of the ammonia-water absorption system is provided in Exhibit 5-11. The
system includes a regenerative heat exchanger. The related thermodynamic diagram is shown in
Exhibit 5.12. Since there are two components (water and ammonia), concentration is added as
another degree of freedom, and the diagram becomes more complicated than the pressure-
enthalpy diagram of a single-component working fluid.

53
As an example, the operating conditions are taken as: an evaporator pressure of 480 kPa, an
evaporator temperature of 4°C, a condensing pressure of 2.07 MPa, a condensing temperature of
50°C, and a “lean” aqua-ammonia concentration of 0.10 weight fraction (refer to Exhibit 5-12).
Exhibit 5-11: Ammonia-water absorption system
The process begins with saturated liquid refrigerant at condensing pressure and temperature (state
A). From Exhibit 5-12 it can be seen that at 2.07 MPa and 50°C the saturated liquid has a
concentration of 0.991-weight-fraction ammonia and an enthalpy of 240 kJ/kg. After an adiabatic
throttling expansion to 480 kPa and evaporation by the addition of the refrigeration load, the state
is B on the 480 kPa saturated vapor line. This state has the concentration as A and an enthalpy of
1,363 kJ/kg. In order to determine the concentration of aqua-ammonia liquid that is in equilibrium
with refrigerant vapor at B, the line of constant enthalpy is extended from B to B′ on the 480 kPa
line. Next we draw the constant-concentration line from B′ to D on the 480 kPa saturated liquid
line. State D determines the concentration (0.485) and temperature (39°C) that are in equilibrium
with refrigerant vapor in state B. Its enthalpy is -100 kJ/kg.
Refrigerant vapor enters the absorber and comes in contact with lean aqua-ammonia absorbent in
state C. The concentration in state C, 0.1, was arbitrarily chosen for this example. In addition, the
temperature in state C is taken to be the same as that of state D: 38°C. During the absorption
process, heat is evolved and must be removed to hold the temperature equal to that of state D. The
concentration of ammonia in the aqua-ammonia increases as the process moves toward state D,
where absorption is complete. The rich aqua-ammonia at point D is then pumped to generator
pressure, 2.07 MPa at state E. If the effects of the regenerative heat exchanger are neglected, the
enthalpy at E is the same as that at D except for the small input of the pump.

54
Exhibit 5-12: Plot of enthalpy, pressure, temperature and concentration for an ammonia-water absorption
system

55
Vapor over the liquid goes through an enrichment process and enters the reflux condenser in state
H. The resulting condensate at state G is divided. Part returns to the throttle to repeat the
refrigeration process, and the remainder goes to the stripping section of the column. From there it
is discharged (state F) as hot lean aqua-ammonia, which is cooled to state C to resume the
absorption process.
In state F, the aqua-ammonia is in equilibrium with the vapor. The intersection of the isobar for
2.07 MPa saturated liquid with the vertical line representing 0.1 ammonia weight fraction gives
for F the temperature of 182°C and the enthalpy of 734 kJ /kg.
Vapor at state G leaving the generator has the same concentration (0.485) and pressure (2.07
MPa) as the liquid at state E. In Exhibit 5-12, the intersection of the vertical line representing
0.485-weight-fraction ammonia with the isobar for 2.07 MPa saturated liquid gives the enthalpy
as 2.183 kJ /kg.
Exhibit 5-13 provides heat and mass balances required to complete the cycle analysis, as detailed
below. Taking as the basis 1 kg of liquid refrigerant at state B (A), we can calculate the weight
flow of absorbent leaving F by material balances on the absorber. Let W denote weight flow, let C
denote weight fraction of ammonia, and the subscripts indicate points on Exhibit 5-13.
The overall material balance on the absorber gives:
WD  WB  WC  1  WC
The ammonia balance on the same component gives:
WD C D  WB C B  WC C C ; or
1  WC  C D  1  C B  WC C C
From the specified conditions, CF = 0.10, CD = 0.485, and CH = 0.991. Therefore,
C H  C D 0.991  0.485
WF    1.314 kg
CD  CF 0.485  0.10
The refrigeration load is given by the difference in enthalpies between states B and A:
Heat in  Q load  h B  h A  1,363  240  1,123 kJ/kg
On the other hand, the motive heat input can be found from the energy balance of the generator:
Q Gen  WG h G  WE h E  2.3142,183   100  5,283 kJ
Where, it has been assumed that hE = hD. Thus:
Q Load 1,123
COP    0.213
Q Gen 5,283
This is not a typical for an ammonia-water absorption cycle. The use of regenerative heat
exchanger will approximately double this number.

56
Exhibit 5-13: Heat and mass balances for ammonia-water absorption
WG 1 kg Refrigerant
Reflux to Point A
Condenser
WE
Material balance for Reflux Condenser
7.127 kg
@ 179 kJ/kg
1 kg Refrigerant
Reflux @ 240 kJ/kg
6.127 kg
@ 140 kJ/kg Condenser
Qcond
Qcond = 6.127x140 + 1.0x240 – 7.127x179 = -178 kJ
Heat balance for Reflux Condenser
7.127 kg
1.314 kg @ 179 kJ/kg
@ 734 kJ/kg
Generator 6.127 kg
@ 140 kJ/kg
Qgen 2.314 kg
@ -100 kJ/kg
Qgen = 1.314x734 + 7.127x179 – 2.134x(-100) – 6.127x140
= 1,614 kJ
Heat balance for Generator
1.0 kg
2.314 kg @ 1,363 kJ/kg
@ -100 kJ/kg
Absorber 1.314 kg
@ 82 kJ/kg
Qabs
Qabs = 1.0x1,363 – 1.314x82 + 2.314x(-100) = -1,702 kJ
Heat balance for Absorber
1.314 kg 1.314 kg
@ 82 kJ/kg @ 734 kJ/kg
Cooler
Qcool
Qcool = 1.314x82 – 1.314x734 = -857 kJ
Heat balance for Cooler

57
5.2.2 Water-Lithium Bromide Absorption
The water-lithium bromide cycle uses water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the
absorbent. The basic principle is the same as in the ammonia cycle. The vapor pressure of the
refrigerant is raised over a hot refrigerant-absorbent solution and lowered over a cool one. A
schematic diagram of the process is shown in Exhibit 5-14. It is similar to that for the ammonia
cycle, except that lithium bromide has no vapor pressure, and hence pure water vapor is evolved
from the generator and no rectifier or fractionating column is needed.
Exhibit 5-14: Schematic diagram of lithium bromide-water absorption system
Generator Water vapor Condenser
(E) (A)
Liquid water
Heat out
Motive heat in
Regenerative
heat exchanger
Throttle
expansion
Regeneration
load in
Pump Heat out (B)
Water vapor
(D) Absorber (C) Evaporator
For an example of the water-lithium bromide cycle, consider 1 kg of (0.957 kPa) condensate
(water) leaving the condenser in state A at 43°C, 8.778 kPa, and enthalpy 182 kJ/kg (Exhibit 5-
15). After throttling at constant enthalpy to 0.838 kPa (state B) and evaporation by the addition of
refrigeration load, water is in state C and has an enthalpy of about 2,535 kJ /kg. These values are
found by using steam tables, because Exhibit 5.15 covers only the liquid region. The refrigeration
load is 2,535 - 182 = 2,353 kJ at 4°C.
The absorber is supplied with the water vapor and 61% by weight lithium bromide solution. It
yields a 56% by weight lithium bromide solution in state D. The amount of lithium bromide
involved can be obtained from the material balance. If it is assumed that L is the weight of the
lithium bromide and W be the weight of the water leaving the generator, two material balances
can be written (see Exhibit 5-16):
L
 0.61
L W
L
 0.56
L W 1
Solving these gives L = 6.830 kg and W = 4.366 kg. Thus, the weight input of lithium bromide
solution, L + W, is 6.830 + 4.366 = 11.196 kg, and the weight of the output solution, L + W + 1,
is 11.196 + 1 = 12.196 kg.

58
From Exhibit 5-15, hE = -70 kJ /kg and hD = -175 kJ /kg. Without regenerative heat exchange the
energy balance of the absorber is:
11.196 × (-70) + 1× 2,535 = 12.196 × (-175) + Qa
Thus,
Qa = 3,886 kJ.
The energy Qa is the heat of absorption of 1 kg of water by 11.196 kg of 61% by-weight lithium
bromide solution. This energy is rejected to a coolant system, and results in the solution leaving
the absorber in state D at 32°C.
After state D, the solution is pumped to 8.778 kPa and concentrated by the application of motive
heat, Qm. This heat can be found from the energy balance for the generator:
12.196 × (-175) + Qm = 11.196 × (-70) + 1× 2,584
Hence Qm = 3,934 kJ at 89°C, where 2,584 kJ /kg is the enthalpy of saturated water vapor at 8.778
kPa.
The heat rejected in condensing 1 kg of water at 8.778 kPa is 2,584 - 182 = 2,402 kJ at 43°C.
Since the refrigeration load is 2,353 kJ and the motive heat input is 3,934 kJ the coefficient of
performance is:
COP = 2,353/3,934 = 0.6.
For comparison, the Carnot coefficient for the temperatures 4oC, 43°C, and 89°C is (from
equation 5-2).
277 362  316
COPCarnot    1.03
316  277 316
In practice to date, water-lithium bromide systems yield better performance than ammonia-water
systems. However, because the ammonia-water solution changes its boiling point more with
concentration than a lithium bromide solution, a process analogous to flash distillation can be
used to raise the average heat-input temperature and to increase the COP of the ammonia-water
system.
The water-lithium bromide system has a considerable advantage in that the absorbent is
nonvolatile, thus obviating the need for a fractionating process to get nearly pure refrigerant. Its
disadvantages are that lithium bromide is expensive, its solutions solidify under certain conditions
that are all too easy to reach, and it is corrosive. One of the most important things that a
manufacturer of lithium bromide systems can have is an effective proprietary corrosion inhibitor.
As input-heat temperatures are raised, absorption cycles get more efficient. But ammonia cycle
pressures get high, requiring heavy wall construction, and lithium bromide corrosion rates
increase exponentially with temperature.
Because of the large amounts of working fluids in circulation in absorption systems, a major
source of efficiency loss is the mixing of fluids at different temperatures. These losses are
minimized by the use of regenerative heat exchangers.

59
Exhibit 5-15: Plot of enthalpy versus concentration for liquid phase of lithium bromide-water combination
Exhibit 5-16: Material balance for water and lithium bromide exiting generator
1.0 kg Water
(L + W + 1) kg
@ 56 weight %
(L + W) kg
@ 61 weight %
5.2.3 Combined Cycles

Absorption cycles are well able to use motive heat at low temperature, but there are practical
upper limits to the motive heat temperature. Where steam is available at pressures above about
200 kPa it is usually throttled and may be desuperheated before entering an absorption system - a
very inefficient process. Superheated steam is not desirable because of poor heat-transfer
characteristics, but there is a fortunate combination in which different machines can work together
to effectively use a high temperature. Whereas high-pressure steam, particularly if superheated, is
not good for an absorption system, it is ideal for a turbine. First sending high-pressure steam

60
through a turbine can turn some of its available energy into shaft work. In going through the
turbine, the steam loses pressure and temperature and probably passes into the wet region. The
low-pressure wet steam is ideal as the heat source for an absorption system. If the refrigeration
load is big enough, the turbine can drive a Rankine-cycle system; if not, other uses can be found
for the shaft work.
If steam were available at 550 kPa and 154°C, it could drive a lithium bromide absorption cycle
like the one illustrated in Exhibit 5-14 with a COP of about 0.63, a small improvement over 0.598
obtained with 100°C steam. The same steam can be expanded through a turbine at 80 percent
efficiency to obtain 102 kJ of shaft work per kilogram, emerging from the turbine at 100°C,
saturated. The exhaust steam could then go to the absorption system and drive it, producing
178 kJ of shaft work, which driving a Rankine refrigeration cycle, could produce an additional
760 kJ of cooling. The resulting combined COP is:
2,353  760
COP   0.76
1.74  2,363
It shows that the combined cycle is a better way to use high-energy steam than sending it directly
to the absorption system.

61
6 Refrigeration Prime Movers
6.1 Introduction
Every refrigeration cycle has some means of raising the pressure of working fluid, rejecting
excess heat, reducing the pressure of working fluid to achieve the refrigeration effect, and
transferring the “cooling” to the medium to be cooled. In different systems the actual hardware
will vary but the concepts remain the same. In Chapter 5, the generic operation of refrigeration
cycle was discussed. In this chapter, the prime movers of the refrigeration operation will be
looked at in detail.
6.2 Compressors
The purpose of the compressor in a refrigeration system is to draw refrigerant vapor from the
evaporator, therefore lowering the pressure and causing the liquid refrigerant to boil. The boiling
refrigerant extracts heat from the load at the desired temperature. The pressure of the vapor must
then be raised by the compressor to a level where the vapor can be condensed by the available
cooling medium, such as air or water.
6.2.1 Types of Compressor Housing

Most compressors are driven by an electric motor, sometimes built into a common casing. Other
compressors have an external drive, the shaft passing through a rotating gas seal where it extends
from the pressurized casing.
6.2.1.1 Hermetic and Semi-hermetic Compressors

These compressors have the motor directly attached to the main shaft, and the whole assembly is
contained in a common gas-tight housing. Hermetic compressors are built into a welded shell, and
there is no access to the internal parts for servicing or repair. Semi-hermetic compressors are
assembled with removable covers, usually sealed by gaskets, enabling a limited amount of access
for on-site maintenance.
Both types of compressor are designed and built with specially selected motors. The motor's size
and type is matched to the motion work of the compressor for specific applications and
refrigerants. To obtain the maximum efficiency the compressor must be closely matched to the
system duty.
Hermetic compressors and larger semi-hermetic compressors are usually suction-cooled, the
refrigerant passing over the motor windings before entering the compressor cylinders. This helps
to cool the motor windings, but reduces the capacity of the compressor. Externally cooled types,
where the gas passes directly into the cylinders, are usually about 8% more efficient than the
equivalent suction-cooled models but are only available up to a motor size of about 5 kW.
6.2.1.2 Open Compressors

This type of compressor has an external drive shaft allowing a suitably sized motor to be selected
and connected to it, either with a direct coupling or via belts. It is important to size the motor
accurately in relation to the compressor's duty. Running motors at below their design duty reduces
their power factor and their efficiency.

63
When comparing the input power requirements of open and semi-hermetic compressors, the
motor's efficiency and losses due to the drive have to be taken into account for open drive
machines.
Where extended operation of the plant is envisaged it could prove viable to invest in an energy
efficient (high efficiency) motor. At present the cost will be higher than a standard motor but this
could change as the price differential between standard and high efficiency motors is decreasing.
The payback time, derived by a simple cost analysis, will usually be less than two years given the
long running hours and may show a better return on investment.
6.2.2 Types of Compressors
6.2.2.1 Reciprocating Compressors

Reciprocating compressors (Exhibit 6-1) are the most common types of compressor and are
available for a wide range of applications.
Exhibit 6-1: Reciprocating compressor construction
The design of a compressor is optimized for operation within a designated application envelope
with specified refrigerants. Operating a compressor at high temperature conditions with valves

64
designed for low temperature operation could result in losses of up to 10% in the extraction rate.
With many compressors it could also result in the motor being overloaded and tripping its
protection device.
Compressors have been developed with improved efficiencies. The main areas of improvement
are:
 Clearance volume reduction
 Improved flow through valves: - less restricted gas flow path, - reduced pressure drop
 Minimized heat transfer from discharge to suction gas
Such modifications can improve efficiency by up to 20%, although in many cases the capital cost
of the compressor will be higher because of the increased complexity of manufacturing.
It is critical to the reliability of reciprocating compressors that liquid refrigerant or large quantities
of oil are not injected into the cylinders, as this will cause motion work failures.
The ability of a reciprocating compressor to pump refrigerant vapor, or its volumetric efficiency,
decreases as the compression ratio increases. This is shown in Exhibit 6-2 for reciprocating
compressors using R-12 and R-22 as the refrigerant.
Exhibit 6-2: Reciprocation compressor efficiency (R-12, R-22)
6.2.2.2 Twin and Single Screw Compressors

Screw compressors (Exhibit 6-3) are available for duties from about 50 up to thousands of
kilowatts and are generally used on medium to high temperature applications. The geometry of
the compressor determines its optimum pressure ratio - operation away from this ratio will
significantly reduce its efficiency. For this reason manufacturers usually produce a range of
machines with different operating characteristics.
Nearly all screw compressors are oil flooded. A large quantity of oil is injected into screw
compressors to seal the running clearances between the rotors and the casing. The oil has to be
removed from the refrigerant in a suitably sized separator. A significant amount of the heat of
compression is absorbed by the oil, which must be removed by the oil cooler. It is preferable to
cool the oil by using a supply of air or water.

65
Using a supply of refrigerant for cooling can reduce the system capacity by up to 10%, with a
corresponding loss of efficiency.
The part load efficiency is not particularly good - at 25% load the compressor takes about 40% of
full load power at constant evaporating and condensing conditions.
While being very different in geometry to the twin screw, the operating aspects of single screw
compressors in terms of built-in volume ratio, and part load performance are similar.
Exhibit 6-3: Screw compressor construction
Rotary Motion Operation
For clarity reasons, the compressor operation description (Exhibit 6-4) will be limited to one lobe
on the male rotor (right) and one interlobe space of the female rotor (left). In actual operation, as
the rotors turn all of the male lobes and female interlobe spaces interact with a uniform gas flow.
Suction Phase As a lobe of the male rotor begins to unmesh from an interlobe space in the
female rotor, a void is created and suction gas is drawn in through the inlet port. As the rotors
continue to turn the interlobe space increases in size, and gas flows continuously into the
compressor. Suction is sealed off when the interlobe space reaches its maximum volume.

66
Compression Phase As rotation continues, the gas in the interlobe space is carried around
the circumference of the compressor housing. Further rotation meshes male and female lobes thus
reducing interlobe volume. Positive displacement compression continues in the direction of the
discharge port.
Discharge Phase At a point determined by the designed “built-in” compressor volume ratio
(V), the discharge port is uncovered and the compressed gas is discharged by further meshing of
the male and female interlobe space. While the meshing point of a pair of lobes is moving axially,
the next charge is being drawn into the unmeshed portion and the working phase of the
compressor cycle is being repeated.
Exhibit 6-4: Screw compressors operation
6.2.2.3 Scroll Compressors

The scroll type of rotary compressor has been the subject of extensive development in recent
years, as improved machining techniques have made its production viable.
Scroll compressors are being increasingly applied to medium and small air-conditioning
applications because of their quiet, low vibration operation and good efficiency. Their efficiency
advantage over reciprocating compressors at lower compression ratios makes them ideal for high
temperature refrigeration applications, such as beer cellar and milk tank cooling. Scroll
compressors are also being developed for lower temperature applications.
In a scroll compressor, the compression is performed by two scroll elements located in the upper
part of the compressor above the motor (Exhibit 6-5). Suction gas enters the compressor at the
suction connection. The gas then flows around the motor and enters at the bottom side through the
openings as shown. Oil droplets separate from the suction gas and fall into the oil sump. All of the
suction gas passes through the electrical motor, thus ensuring complete motor cooling in all
applications. After exiting the electrical motor, the gas enters the scroll elements where
compression takes place.
A check valve is located directly above the fixed scroll discharge port; this feature prevents the
compressor from running backwards once the power has been switched off. Ultimately, the
discharge gas leaves the compressor at the discharge connection.
The Exhibit 6-5 illustrates the entire compression process. The center of the orbiting scroll traces
a circular path around the center of the fixed scroll. This movement creates symmetrical
compression pockets between the two scroll elements. Low pressure suction gas is trapped within
each crescent-shaped pocket as it gets formed; continuous motion of the orbiting scroll serves to
seal the pocket, which decreases in volume as the pocket moves towards the center of the scroll
set increasing the gas pressure. Maximum compression is achieved once a pocket reaches the
center where the discharge port is located; this stage occurs after three complete orbits.
Compression is a continuous process: when one quantity of gas is being compressed during the
second orbit, another quantity is entering the scrolls and yet another is being discharged all at the
same time.

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Exhibit 6-5: Scroll compressors construction and operation
6.2.2.4 Centrifugal Compressors

These are widely used in packaged air conditioning plant because of their small size, low
vibration and relative simplicity. The capacity of these compressors can be reduced with inlet
guide vanes. Variable geometry diffusers are sometimes also used either separately or in
conjunction with inlet guide vanes. Variable speed drives can also be used. The part load
efficiency using the usual inlet guide vane control is similar to that of twin screw compressors.
Exhibit 6-6: Cut-away view of a 2-stage semi-hermetic centrifugal refrigeration machine
6.2.2.5 Rotary Sliding-Vane Compressors

Large rotary vane compressors are used in low temperature applications as high volume booster
compressors. For reasonable efficiency they must only be operated at or near the design condition.

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Small oil injected compressors are available which cover a wide range of duties. Their advantages
in terms of few moving parts and the ability to handle liquid refrigerant are countered by the
complexity of the additional oil recovery system and the higher power consumption compared
with other designs.
Exhibit 6-7: Rotary sliding-vane compressors operation
A: Air intake valve B: Rotor and stator C: Oil injection
D: Primary separation E: Final separator F: Aftercooler
G: Pressurized oil circulation H: Modulating servo control
6.2.3 Capacity control

To maintain the maximum system efficiency in systems with widely varying loads, it is important
to be able to vary the duty of the compressor. In a multi-compressor system this can either be
achieved by switching a number of compressors off or by reducing their individual pumping
capacities. The best way to save energy is always to switch off any unnecessary machines.
6.2.3.1 Reciprocating Compressors

There are a number of methods used to reduce the capacity of compressors:
 Blocked suction gas
 Suction valve lifting
 Discharge gas recirculation

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When selecting a compressor, it is important to check the manufacturer's data to ensure that the
model chosen is of an energy efficient design. The reduction in input power should match, as
closely as possible, the reduction in refrigeration duty.
It is also worthwhile to check whether supplementary compressor cooling is required while
capacity control is in operation, as this will need additional energy.
The number of stages of capacity reduction that can be obtained will depend on the design of the
compressor, and is usually a function of the number of cylinders. On suction cooled compressors
the minimum capacity is often limited by the loss of cooling of the motor.
6.2.3.2 Screw Compressors

The capacity of a large screw compressor can be varied from 100% down to 10% by using a slide
vane. The part load efficiency is acceptable down to about 50% capacity, but below this it falls off
very quickly.
6.2.3.3 Part Load Control by Gas Bypass

The usual methods of controlling the capacity of the different types of compressor have already
been explained. One further method, gas bypass, is used with all types of compressor. It is,
however, extremely inefficient and other methods of load control should always be used in
preference.
The usual gas bypass circuit is shown in Exhibit 6-8. Hot gas is passed directly from the
compressor discharge to the evaporator. This gas clearly does not do any cooling and the
compressor cooling effect is reduced approximately in proportion to the fraction of total
refrigerant flow through the compressor which passes through the bypass valve.
Exhibit 6-8: Part load control by gas bypass
6.2.3.4 Capacity Control by Suction Throttling

System capacity can also be lowered by throttling the gas at the inlet to the compressor. This is an
extremely inefficient form of control and should never be used.
6.2.4 Multistage Compression

Multistage compression can be employed with rotary, screw, centrifugal and reciprocation
compressors to obtain lower temperatures and more efficient system operation.

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Depending on the particular refrigeration application, multistage compression or single stage with
booster compressors may be required to meet the load. Booster compressors are typically used for
low temperature applications. The booster raises refrigeration pressure to the level where further
compression can be achieved with a high stage compressor without exceeding limitations of the
respective machines. Since superheat is generated as a consequence of compression in a booster,
intercooling is normally required to reduce the refrigerant temperature to a practical level required
at the inlet to the high-stage unit. Several means to achieve intercooling include controlled liquid
injection into the intermediate stream, gas bubbling through a liquid reservoir, and use of a liquid-
to-gas heat exchanger where no fluid mixing occurs.
Multi-stage compression (two stages are most common) provides another means to achieve low
temperatures, within the frame of a single compressor. Multi-stage systems are often used in food
freezing applications. The volumetric flow and pressure ratios in each stage are balanced to
achieve booster and high stage performance effectively. Superheat is removed from the refrigerant
between the stages, as with the booster compressor.
When considering the advantages and disadvantages of a multistage or booster compressor system
versus a single stage system, a number of points should be mentioned. Multistage compressors
usually require less energy per ton of cooling than single stage systems, resulting in reduced
electricity consumption and demand. However, their initial costs can be substantially higher.
To understand why multistage compression often results in lower electricity consumption, the
following example is provided:
Example 6-1
Consider a system operating at -29°C suction temperature and 35°C condensing temperature. Determine the
COP with single stage and two stage systems. Use a 345 kPa intermediate pressure for the multistage
system.
Single-Stage System: From manufacturer’s data, a screw compressor will operate with a COP of
1.87 at -29°C suction and 35°C condensing. Now refer to Exhibits 6-9 and 6-10. From the Mollier Diagram
for a single stage the following information can be determined assuming a 5°C suction superheat and a
140°C discharge temperature:
Exhibit 6-9: Typical single stage system

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Exhibit 6-10: Mollier diagram for typical single stage system
H1 = 1,421 kJ/kg
H2 = 1,771 kJ/kg
H3 = 347 kJ/kg = H4
Where, H1, H2, H3 and H4 represent enthalpy at the respective positions.
Flow rate (per kWR)
1
M
H1  H 4 
1 1
M   0.000931 kg/kWR  s
1421  347  kJ/kg 1421  347  kWR  s/kg
(Since, 1 kJ = 1 kWR ˙ s)
Motor Efficiency
COP 
MH 2  H1 
Assuming an 89 percent motor efficiency at average load,
0.89
COP   2.73 (Since, 1 kJ = 1 kWR ˙ s)
0.000931kg/kWR  s  1,771  1,421 kJ/kg
Two-Stage System:
(Same Operating Conditions as Single Stage). The intermediate discharge temperature will be 56oC. The
high-stage discharge temperature will be 70oC. (Refer to Exhibits 6-11 and 6-12).
H1 = 1,421 kJ/kg
H2 = 1,580 kJ/kg
H3 = 1,449 kJ/kg
H4 = 1,587 kJ/kg
H5 = 345 kJ/kg
Flow rate per kWR:
Mlow  
1
H1  H 5  kJ/kg
Mlow  
1 1
  0.000929 kg/kWR  s
1421  345 kJ/kg 1421  345 kWR  s/kg

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Low-Stage Power Required:
Mlow   H 2  H1 
LPR 
Efficiency
0.000929 kg/kWR  s  1,580  1,421 kJ/kg

LPR   0.166 kW/kWR (Since, 1 kJ = 1 kW ˙ s)
0.89
Heat discharged in desuperheater:
Heat Discharged  Mlow   H 2  H 3   0.000929 kg/kW R  s  1,580  1,449  kJ/kg
Heat Discharged  0.122 kJ/kWR  s

High-stage flow rate:
Ton high 
M high    M low 
H 3  H 5 
0.122 kJ/kWR  s
M high    0.000929 kg/kWR  s  0.001039 kg/kWR  s
1,449  345 kJ/kg
High-Stage Power Required:
Mhigh  H 4  H 3 
HPR 
Efficiency
0.001039 kg/kWR  s  1,587  1,449 kJ/kg

HPR   0.161 kW/kWR (Since, 1 kJ = 1 kW ˙ s)
0.89
System COP:
1 1  kWR 
COP    3.06  
LPR  HPR 0.166  0.161  kW 
Installing a two-stage system improves the system COP by 12 percent in this example.
Exhibit 6-11: Two-stage flow diagram - no liquid subcooling

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Exhibit 6-12: Mollier diagram – typical two-stage system
6.2.4.1 Cascade System

A cascade system is a multistage application in which two separate refrigerant systems are
interconnected in such a manner that one provides the means of heat rejection (condenser) for the
other. The lower system may, therefore, operate at a much lower temperature. Cascade systems
have the additional feature, over simple compound and multistage systems, of permitting the use
of different refrigerants in each cycle of the cascade. In addition, each refrigerant circuit in the
cascade may itself be either a single-stage or a compound system. Exhibit 6-13 shows a simple
outline of a cascade system.
Exhibit 6-13: Basic elements of cascade system
6.2.5 Liquid Overfeed Systems

Liquid overfeed systems are common in industrial applications. Overfeed systems are those in
which excess refrigerant liquid is forced, either mechanically or through gas pressure, through
organized flow evaporators and then separated from the vapor and returned to the evaporators.
The main advantages of liquid overfeed systems are high system efficiency and reduced operating
expenses, achieved by lower power cost per ton of refrigeration and less operating hours to meet
refrigerant load.

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6.2.6 Absorption Refrigeration
Absorption refrigeration utilizes an absorbent as a secondary fluid to absorb a primary fluid,
gaseous refrigerant, which has been vaporized in an evaporator. The specific cycle has been
discussed previously. Absorption equipment currently manufactured is generally water cooled
using lithium bromide-water, where water is the refrigerant or air-cooled equipment using
ammonia-water, where ammonia is the refrigerant. These are predominantly for space-
conditioning applications. In addition, water-ammonia absorption equipment has been used in
large-capacity industrial applications requiring low temperatures for process work.
In an absorption system, as discussed previously, the compressor is replaced by the following
equipment: generator, an absorber, a regenerative heat exchanger, solution and evaporator pumps,
and purgers. The generator or concentrator is a heat source. Normally it consists of steam-heated
tube bundles, submerged in the absorbent. Absorbers are tube bundles over which the strong
absorbent is sprayed. Refrigerant vapor is condensed into the absorbent, releasing heat into the
cooling water passing through it. The solution and evaporator pumps are generally electrically
driven centrifugal pumps of hermetic design, which use the cycle fluids or a captive coolant for
cooling and lubrication. The purgers are mechanical devices used to remove non-condensable
gases.
All absorption machines meet load variation and maintain chilled-water temperature control by
varying the re-concentration rate of absorbent solution, i.e., varying the thermal input to the cycle.

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7 Refrigeration Systems and Equipment
Chapter 6 discussed in detail the prime movers for the refrigeration operation. This chapter
discusses the other primary components of the refrigeration system: condensers, evaporators and
flow control devices. It then addresses air and chilled water distribution systems and cooling
towers. In this chapter the refrigeration system components are described, their operational
characteristics are given, and the type and size of the refrigeration systems for which these
components apply.
7.1 Condensers
The condensers reject the energy gained in the evaporator and the compressor. There are three
types of condensers in widespread use:
 Air-cooled (using ambient air);
 Water-cooled (using mains, river or cooling tower water); and
 Evaporative cooled (using ambient air and recirculated water).
The two later types take advantage of the lower wet bulb ambient temperature and the greater heat
transfer affect of water, and therefore operate with lower condensing temperatures. When
comparing different condenser types the power requirements of associated fans, pumps and
heaters should be taken into account. In general, systems under 100 kW capacity use air-cooled
condensers unless there is a space or noise restriction.
For a given capacity, a larger condenser will result in a lower condensing temperature and hence
better efficiency. Problems can be caused on installations which use thermostatic expansion
valves if the condensing (head) pressure varies widely. Such valves are unable to control
refrigerant flow reliably under such conditions, and reduced efficiency and reliability will result.
Some form of head pressure control may be used to raise the head pressure artificially, although
this is inefficient and is not necessary if more sophisticated expansion devices are used, such as
electronic expansion valves.
7.1.1 Air-cooled Condensers

In an air-cooled condenser (Exhibit 7-1) the refrigerant condenses inside tubes over which air is
forced by fans. To improve the heat transfer, the tube surface is usually extended using corrugated
metal fins.
A well designed plant should operate with a condensing temperature no higher than 14°C above
the ambient temperature. With larger condensers it is common practice to control the head
pressure by switching off or slowing down fans, although this is inefficient.
If air-cooled condensers are being used in a corrosive atmosphere (for example, near the sea or in
polluted air) then a suitable tube/fin material combination or a coating should be used.
Air-cooled condensers are susceptible to blockage by air borne debris such as dust, feathers,
packaging, and so on. They must be regularly cleaned (but not with refrigerant) to prevent a build
up of contamination, as this will reduce the air flow and hence increase the condensing pressure.

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Exhibit 7-1: Air-cooled condenser
7.1.2 Water-cooled Condensers

Water-cooled condensers (Exhibit 7-2) are of the shell and tube type. The refrigerant is almost
always on the shell side with water in the tubes. For ammonia condensers, bare tubes are usually
sufficient but for halocarbons, finned tubing is required to increase the heat transfer. Heat transfer
is improved as the water velocity is increased. An efficient system will work with a temperature
rise of 5°C for the water passing through the condenser, and a difference of 5°C between the
condensing temperature and that of the water leaving the condenser.
For the minimum condensing temperature, and therefore lowest compressor power, the water
should be as cold as possible - always assuming that the expansion device will allow low
condensing pressures to be used.
On very small commercial installations mains water is often used directly, although this is
becoming less common.
On larger installations the water will be cooled in a cooling tower, where the cooling effect is
achieved by evaporating some of the cooling water into the air. Blockages in the air or water side
will significantly reduce the efficiency of the cooling tower. Blockages, such as blocked water
spray nozzles, blocked or obstructed elimination plates and blocked or obstructed packing, are
common and are normally caused by hard water deposits or algae growth. Water should be treated
to prevent these and also to prevent bacteria growth. The cooling tower should cool the water to
within 13 - 18°C of the wet bulb ambient temperature (which can be up to 10°C lower than the
dry bulb temperature).
Exhibit 7-2: Water-cooled condenser

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7.1.3 Evaporative Condensers
In an evaporative condenser, refrigerant is condensed in tubes which are wetted and over which
air is forced. The water used to wet the outside of the tubes is recirculated, although a certain
amount of make up water will be needed. Evaporative condensers should operate with similar
temperatures to the water-cooled condenser/cooling tower combination above. The water used
will require treatment, as described for water-cooled condensers above.
Evaporative condensers (Exhibit 7-3) have a similar overall performance to cooling tower/shell
and tube condenser combinations. A condensing temperature 15°C above the ambient wet bulb
temperature is normal in summer and 18°C above the wet bulb in winter. A large condenser will
give a lower condensing temperature and hence lower running costs but at the expense of higher
capital cost - the balance point resulting in the lowest overall cost will be different for each
system.
Exhibit 7-3: Evaporative condensers
7.1.4 Loss of Condenser Efficiency due to Air in System

Air and other non-condensable gases in a refrigeration system will increase the condensing
temperature and hence reduce efficiency. For example, in a medium temperature ammonia system
working with a condenser which contains 15% air, the running costs will increase by 12%.
Air can remain in a system after installation or service, if the system has been inadequately
evacuated prior to charging with refrigerant. While running, air can be drawn into a system
operating at a suction condition lower than atmospheric pressure, if there is a leak on the low side
of the system.
It is possible to check for air and other non-condensable gases when the system is not working
and the temperatures have had a chance to stabilize. If there is no air present, then the temperature
in the condenser should be equivalent to the temperature of the ambient air or of the water flowing
through a water-cooled condenser.
If air is in the system the temperature will be higher. Any air should be safely purged from the
system by a skilled refrigeration technician, with minimum refrigerant emission to the
atmosphere.
7.2 Evaporators
The purpose of an evaporator is to provide a continual and efficient transfer of heat from the
medium to be cooled to the refrigerant fluid. The medium to be cooled may be a gas, liquid, or
solid. Air and water are the most common substances cooled by evaporators. In the most familiar

79
evaporators, the refrigerant flows through tubes while air to be cooled flows across the outside of
the tubes. The tubes, often constructed in a coil configuration, are called the heat transfer surface.
The following explanation of evaporator function will refer to this particular arrangement, for
simplicity. However it should be understood that many other arrangements and constructions of
evaporators exist, and that the method of heat transfer is the same in all of them.
Refrigerant enters the evaporator tubing at a low temperature and pressure as a result of its
expansion through the flow control device. A small portion of the refrigerant has evaporated due
to the sudden pressure drop, cooling the remaining liquid as well as the flash gas itself. The
temperature of the refrigerant is controlled at a desired value, below that to which the air is to be
cooled, by proper equipment selection and use of control devices. Since the air is at a higher
temperature than the refrigerant, heat will flow from it through the evaporator heat transfer
surface to the refrigerant.
The liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator is at its saturation (boiling) temperature. Therefore it
will gradually boil as it receives heat from the air while flowing through the evaporator. In most
types of evaporators, the entire refrigerant has boiled by the time it has reached the evaporator
exit, and in many cases it may even be a superheated vapor, depending on how much heat it
receives and how much refrigerant is flowing.
There are two principal types of evaporator:
 Direct expansion (sometimes called “dry expansion” or DX)
 Flooded
7.2.1 Direct Expansion Evaporators

These are commonly used to cool either air or a liquid. The expansion device used with this type
of evaporator is an expansion valve (see section on expansion devices.
A direct expansion evaporator used for cooling air is shown in Exhibit 7-4. There are many
different designs available using plain or finned tube, both with and without forced circulation of
air or some process fluid. Certain tube designs incorporate internal devices to maximize heat
exchange and thus efficiency, by causing turbulence to keep the liquid in full contact with the tube
wall.
Exhibit 7-4: Liquid distribution on a direct expansion circuit
7.2.1.1 Design Features

A typical evaporator will have a number of parallel circuits designed to:
 Maximize heat transfer
 Ensure good oil return
 Minimize pressure drop

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A distributor is used to ensure refrigerant flows evenly between the different parallel circuits.
To enhance the heat transfer in air-cooled designs, the surface of the refrigerant-carrying tubes is
usually extended by using external fins. To maximize their surface the fins are spaced as closely
together as possible without restricting the air flow. On low temperature systems, where ice can
form on the fin surfaces, a wider spacing has to be used to ensure adequate air flow when ice
build-up occurs.
In the past few years compact plate heat exchangers have become increasingly popular for direct
expansion cooling of liquids. Due to their design they have a very good heat transfer capability
and hence high efficiency. Some larger designs can be disassembled for cleaning, whereas the
smaller types are brazed together as a sealed assembly. They can be used with all halocarbon
refrigerants, but because of the materials used for construction they are not suitable for ammonia.
Operation Features
Saturated refrigerant is fed through a distributor into the expansion tubes where it is totally
evaporated before reaching the outlet.
By monitoring the flow of refrigerant, the expansion device maintains a superheat of about 5oC at
the outlet of the evaporator. This ensures that the duty is as high as is practically possible while
still protecting the compressor from liquid refrigerant returning down the suction line. This
feature is important for the reliability of reciprocating machines, but less so for rotary
compressors.
Operational Problems
The efficiency of an evaporator can be affected by an uneven distribution of refrigerant, and hence
cooling, between the different circuits.
This can occur if the distributor is incorrectly positioned - it should always be vertical so that
there is an even feed through each outlet - or if one distributor line becomes damaged.
It is impossible for each circuit to be totally filled with saturated refrigerant, as there must be
sufficient superheat to enable the expansion device to control the flow of refrigerant. This means
that the heat transfer efficiency will be reduced at the end of each circuit where superheated gas is
present.
Oil logging can also reduce the efficiency of an evaporator - more information on this subject is
given in Section 7.2.3.
7.2.2 Flooded Evaporators

There are three types of flooded evaporator:
 Shell and tube
 Flooded-coil evaporator
 Plate type
7.2.2.1 Shell and Tube

These are commonly used in larger applications for cooling liquids. There are a number of
different designs but they all have the same basic characteristics.
Design and Operating Features
In a shell and tube evaporator (Exhibit 7-5), the fluid to be cooled is passed through the tubes with
the evaporating refrigerant boiling off into gas within the body of the shell.

81
The refrigerant level in the shell is maintained so that the top tube is always covered with liquid.
In this way the most efficient heat exchange, liquid to liquid, is achieved over the whole of the
cooling interface. To ensure optimum efficiency, the liquid level is usually maintained by using a
low pressure float valve. The operation of this type of device is explained in Section 7.3.2.
Alternatively, an expansion device and level sensor can be used.
The space in the upper part of the shell allows any droplets of liquid to be separated from the gas
returning to the compressor. This separation is sometimes achieved in a different vessel called a
surge drum.
Exhibit 7-5: Shell and tube evaporator
Operational Problems
Flooded shell and tube evaporators are usually large and relatively expensive.
Accumulation of oil can reduce the heat transfer and hence efficiency - see Section 7.2.3 for more
information. Fouling on the external surfaces of the tubes, i.e. the process fluid side, can be
difficult to rectify. This will also reduce heat transfer.
Due to the internal volume of the shell, large quantities of refrigerant are required with the
corresponding cost and environmental or safety issues if a leak should occur.
7.2.2.1.1 Flooded Coil Evaporator
A flooded evaporator arrangement is also available in which the refrigerant flows inside the tubes,
rather than outside. This called a flooded coil evaporator (Exhibit 7-6).
Exhibit 7-6: Flooded coil evaporator
The liquid refrigerant is delivered from the receiver or condenser through a low-side float valve,
which serves as the flow control device to a storage tank called a suction trap, accumulator, or
surge drum. The flash gas that is formed when the refrigerant drops in pressure as it enters the
accumulator is drawn off at the top and flows directly to the compressor suction line. Only liquid
refrigerant enters the evaporator coil. The amount of refrigerant circulated through the coil is
much more than that needed for the required refrigeration load, so that the tube wall is completely
wetted with liquid. Vapor bubbles formed as the refrigerant boils are not sufficient in quantity to

82
appreciably contact the tube wall, considering the large amount of refrigerant. The liquid
refrigerant that does not evaporate is recirculated back through the accumulator, while the vapor
separates in the upper part of the accumulator and flows to the suction line.
The flooded coil evaporator will generally be more expensive than the direct expansion coil type.
A large quantity of refrigerant is necessary to ensure flooding, resulting in the need for an
accumulator and related piping, which are not needed with direct expansion coils. However,
flooded coil evaporators have definite operating advantages in lower temperature systems.
Because of the large vapor space in the accumulator, it is difficult for a liquid slug to get into the
suction line. Control of oil return to the compressor is more positive - it can be returned directly
from the accumulator, rather than having it pass through the evaporator.
The flooded coil system can also be more energy efficient. A smaller temperature differential
between the cooled fluid and evaporating refrigerant is possible; a higher evaporating temperature
means less compressor power.
Typically, the force needed to circulate the refrigerant through the flooded coil comes from the
static heat of the liquid in the accumulator. Sometimes a refrigerant pump is used to obtain an
even greater rate of circulation, improving the flooding of the coil still further. This variation on
the flooded coil is called a liquid overfeed system.
7.2.2.2 Plate Type

Recently, the use of plate heat exchangers (Exhibit 7-7) as flooded evaporators in recirculation
systems has become more common. They offer the following advantages over the shell and tube
type:
 Higher heat transfer coefficients
 A smaller temperature difference between the refrigerant and the cooled liquid, resulting in
higher evaporating temperatures and therefore improved system efficiency
 More compact units requiring less plant room space
 Smaller refrigerant charges
 The ability to clean non-brazed assemblies, thus maintaining a good heat transfer capability
Exhibit 7-7: Plate and frame heat exchanger
7.2.3 Oil Control in Evaporators

In order to maintain the optimum system efficiency it is important that oil is not allowed to collect
in the evaporator, coating the tubes and thereby reducing their capability to transfer heat. Different
actions are required to control oil, depending on the type of evaporator and refrigerant.

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7.2.3.1 Direct Expansion Evaporators
The main rule with this type of evaporator, whether it is being used with halocarbons or ammonia,
is to maintain an adequate refrigerant velocity to carry the oil through the tube assembly.
Problems can occur if the evaporator has to operate over a wide range of loads, as the flow might
not be sufficient at the lowest duty to achieve the minimum required velocity. Under these
conditions it may be necessary to split the total system duty between a number of smaller
evaporators, isolating some as the load diminishes.
7.2.3.2 Flooded Evaporators
Ammonia Systems
Oil is almost totally insoluble in ammonia and will separate out, collecting in the bottom of the
evaporator and must be periodically drained, either manually or automatically. This is not a
hazardous operation providing proper safety precautions are taken. A careful log must be kept
recording any oil added to or removed from the system.
Any control connections made to the lower part of the evaporator's shell must be above the
highest possible oil level. Oil is very viscous at low temperatures and can cause a restriction in
small bore pipes.
Halocarbon Systems
Some refrigerants, for example R-11 and R-12, are completely miscible with oil under all
operating conditions and no special action is required to prevent oil logging.
Other refrigerants, for example R-22 and R-502, are miscible at high temperatures but, at low
temperatures, an oil rich layer will form on the top of the liquid refrigerant. By carefully
positioning tapping points in the evaporator's shell, this oil rich mixture can be removed from the
evaporator and transferred into a rectifier. The rectifier is then heated to boil the majority of the
refrigerant out of the oil before it is returned to the compressor. The most energy efficient method
of supplying this heat is to use the warm refrigerant in the liquid line which incurs no additional
energy costs, and has the further advantage of increasing the liquid subcooling. A typical oil
rectification arrangement is shown in Exhibit 7-8.
Exhibit 7-8: Typical oil rectification system diagram

84
7.2.4 Energy Efficient Operation of Evaporators
The efficiency of a refrigeration system is increased when the evaporating temperature increases.
This can be achieved by:
 Maximizing the size of the evaporator
 Maintaining the peak heat transfer rate of the evaporator
The size of evaporator should be decided at the design stage by evaluating the additional
evaporator capital cost and the resulting lower running costs, and comparing the simple pay backs
obtained by each option.
The heat transfer will be influenced by factors such as:
 Oil logging
 Fouling and corrosion of heat transfer surfaces
 Incorrect control of the refrigerant flow or level in the evaporator
 Frost build up
7.2.5 Defrosting of Evaporators

As stated Section 7.2.1.1, allowance must be made in the fin spacing to allow for ice build-up on
evaporators operating with refrigerant temperatures below 0°C. To maintain an adequate air flow
through the fill block it has to be defrosted periodically, requiring the use of heat.
Energy efficient defrosting depends on the following factors:
 Initiating a defrost operation only when it becomes necessary through loss of performance;
 Using the most efficient method of applying the necessary heat;
 Ensuring that the defrost heat is evenly distributed over the whole of the fin block;
 Stopping the defrost cycle as soon as the fin block is totally clear of ice; and
 Minimizing the amount of defrost heat absorbed by the process fluid or product.
7.3 Flow Control or Expansion Devices

The purpose of an expansion valve is to:
 Reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant from the condensing pressure to the evaporating
pressure
 Modulate the flow of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator
Correct selection and installation of expansion valves is very important, because their incorrect
operation will reduce the efficiency and reliability of a system.
There are three types of expansion valve widely used in commercial and industrial refrigeration:
 Thermostatic expansion valve (TEV)
 High pressure float valve
 Low pressure float valve
Capillary tubes (which just drop the refrigerant pressure but cannot regulate flow) are used in
domestic appliances. These are factory assembled and cannot be adjusted.

85
7.3.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valves (TEVs)
Thermostatic expansion valves are used on most commercial installations. A typical example is
shown in Exhibit 7-9. The refrigerant pressure is dropped through an orifice, and the flow of
refrigerant is regulated by a needle valve and diaphragm arrangement. The diaphragm is moved
by the pressure inside the controlling phial, which senses the temperature of the refrigerant
leaving the evaporator which should be approximately 5oC higher than the evaporating
temperature, to ensure there is no liquid refrigerant present which could damage the compressor.
This temperature difference is the superheat setting of the valve and can be set by adjusting the
valve. Correct setting is vital to the efficient and reliable operation of the refrigeration system.
Exhibit 7-9: Thermostatic expansion valve (TEV)
If the load on the evaporator changes, then the temperature of the refrigerant leaving the
evaporator will also change. The controlling phial will sense this and automatically adjust the
refrigerant flow to accommodate the load change.
A major disadvantage of thermostatic valves is that they cannot work well if the pressure
difference across them varies widely, for example if the condensing pressure floats with ambient.
To cope with such conditions other valves are now available.
7.3.1.1 Balanced Port Valves

Balanced port valves are very similar in design and operation to the conventional thermostatic
valve apart from a special internal balanced port design. This allows the valve to control inlet
pressure accurately over a much wider range. These valves cost approximately 20% more than a
conventional valve, but are currently available only in a limited range of sizes.
7.3.1.2 Electronic Expansion Valve

Electronic expansion valves work in a similar way to thermostatic valves, except that the
temperature is sensed electronically and this signal opens and closes the orifice via a small
electrical motor. The valve can therefore operate with a wider difference in pressure across it. A
further advantage is that they can be easily integrated into an electronic or microprocessor control
system. Exhibit 7-10 shows an electronic expansion valve with a direct expansion air cooler.
Electronic valves are much more expensive than conventional thermostatic valves, and will give a
payback of less than a year only on systems with a capacity greater than 100 kW.

86
Exhibit 7-10: Electric expansion valve on direction expansion air cooler
7.3.2 Float Valve Systems

A float valve system uses a float chamber with a separate modulating expansion valve, connected
by a pilot line. The float chamber can either operate at the high (receiver) pressure or the low
(evaporator) pressure of the system.
7.3.2.1 High Pressure (HP) Float Valve

A typical HP float valve is shown in Exhibit 7-11. This type of valve is used to maintain a liquid
level in the receiver and operates at receiver pressure.
The receiver pressure controls the pilot line pressure, and as this pressure varies the expansion
valve opens and closes to supply liquid refrigerant from the receiver to the evaporator.
An HP float valve is used in large industrial systems with single evaporators. As it provides no
control of the level of refrigerant in the evaporator, the amount of refrigerant in the system must
be correct, i.e. the system is said to be critically charged. To ensure correct operation, the
evaporator must be fitted with a level gauge which is checked regularly.
Exhibit 7-11: High pressure float valve
7.3.2.2 Low Pressure (LP) Float Valve

A typical LP float system is shown in Exhibit 7-12. An LP float valve is used to maintain a liquid
level in the evaporator and operates at evaporator pressure. This liquid level affects the pressure in

87
the pilot line, and as the pressure varies the expansion valve modulates the supply of liquid from
the receiver to the evaporator.
LP float valves are used on systems which have more than one evaporator connected to one
compressor or to several compressors in parallel.
It is important that the expansion valve is fitted at a level below the liquid surface in the receiver,
in order to prevent refrigerant gas going through the valve and hence reducing efficiency. A level
gauge must be fitted to the receiver so that the liquid level can be checked to ensure adequate
performance is maintained.
Exhibit 7-12: Low pressure float expansion system
7.4 Distribution Systems

Depending on the specific refrigeration application, refrigeration must be distributed to a load in
the form of a low temperature heat transfer media. Refrigeration can be provided to some
applications with no distribution system, such as room air conditioners. In most applications, the
load is removed from the chiller system and cooling is supplied by chilled water, brine or air.
These distribution systems are often referred to as secondary refrigeration equipment.
7.4.1 Air Handling Units (AHUs)

Space conditioning systems can be divided into two broad categories: constant air volume
systems, and variable air volume systems. As could be inferred from their names, constant air
volume systems provide a fixed amount of conditioned air into a space while variable air volume
systems have the ability to vary the amount of conditioned air into the space depending on
requirements.
Both of these types of systems can be configured in a number of ways. In this section,
descriptions of the more common air handling units will be presented.
7.4.1.1 Constant Air Volume Systems

In this section, four commonly used constant air volume systems will be described: single zone
heating and cooling units, make-up air units, multiple zone heating and cooling units, and dual
duct units.
Single Zone Heating and Cooling Units
Single zone heating and cooling units are the most basic of the air handling units encountered.
They are applied to provide conditioned air to a single area within a building, or to multiple areas

88
having the same environmental requirements. A schematic representation of such a unit is
Return air from the space is induced into the unit by the supply air fan or (in the case of large air
volumes and/or large pressure drops through the return air ductwork) through a separate return air
fan. In some cases, air handling units may be encountered which operate on 100 percent return air.
These units are rarely found, but when they are, they are applied in those cases where sufficient
fresh air is supplied to the space through infiltration. This is not an energy efficient situation for
large air handling units since there is no control over the amount of outside air infiltration to the
space. However, for smaller package units using 100 percent recirculated air it is an accepted
practice.
Exhibit 7-13: Constant volume single zone heating and cooling system
The amount of fresh air and return air that are allowed to mix is controlled through the use of
dampers located in the fresh air, return air and exhaust air ducts. The return air that is not
recirculated to the air handling unit is exhausted to the environment. The dampers are modulated
to provide sufficient fresh air for ventilation to the space while at the same time minimizing the
energy required for tempering the mixed air. The mixed air then passes over cooling coils.
Cooling is generally provided by chilled water from a central chiller plant or by a direct expansion
(DX) cooling coil. The amount of cooling provided is controlled by thermostats and humidistats
located in the conditioned space or in the return air duct. The conditioned air is then moved to the
space by the supply air fan through the supply air ductwork. Supply air is distributed to the
conditioned space through registers, grilles, or other diffusers.
Make-up Air Units
A make-up air unit is a variation on the single zone heating and cooling unit. A schematic
representation of such a unit is shown in Exhibit 7-14.
Make-up air units are applied in situations where large ventilation requirements are encountered
and it is not desirable to recirculate any of the air in the conditioned space. Examples of
applications are kitchens, where food odors have to be extracted or factories where dust or
chemical fumes needs to be removed from the air. As such, these units operate on 100 percent
outside air and are general1y associated with an exhaust fan (or range hood in the case of a
commercial kitchen) which is interlocked to the air handling unit supply air fan. Make-up air units
are sometimes fitted with heating coils to temper the fresh air. They are rarely found fitted with
cooling coils.

89
Exhibit 7-14: Constant volume make-up air unit
Multiple Zone Heating and Cooling Units with Reheat
The simplest type of constant air volume air handling unit that can serve multiple zones is a
single-zone air handling unit fitted with reheat coils in each zone duct. This type of unit serves a
number of spaces in the building, providing each area with a measure of control over the
temperature of the conditioned air. When single-zone units are applied in this manner, the system
is usual1y referred to as a “terminal reheat” system. A schematic representation of this type of
unit is presented in Exhibit 7-15.
This unit is similar in configuration to the single zone unit. Return air from al1 of the individual
spaces is induced into the unit by a return air fan (optional). The outside air is filtered to remove
airborne dust, and is then mixed with the return air in the mixing area behind the filter.
As with the single zone unit, the amount of fresh air and return air that are al1owed to mix is
control1ed through the use of dampers located in the fresh air, return air and relief air ducts. The
return air that is not recirculated to the air handling unit is exhausted to the environment. The
dampers are modulated to provide sufficient fresh air for ventilation to the space while at the same
time minimizing the energy required for tempering the mixed air. Because of load variations in
the various zones, it is often necessary to reheat the air cooled by the central unit at the reheat
coils in order to avoid overcooling in the zones. This mode of operation can be extremely
inefficient, resulting in high operating costs.
Exhibit 7-15: Multiple zone heating and cooling unit with reheat

90
Multiple Zone and Dual Duct Units
Multiple zone (multi-zone) and dual duct systems are used to provide space conditioning to
multiple building zones having wider differences in environmental conditioning requirements
than the type of units previously discussed. Indeed, multi-zone and dual duct systems are capable
of providing heating to one building zone while simultaneously cooling another zone. A
schematic representation of this type of system is presented in Exhibit 7-16. A number of
variations from the schematic presented are possible (e.g. separate hot deck and cold deck supply
air fans, minimum outdoor air and maximum outdoor air dampers in separate ducts), offering
greater or lesser degrees of flexibility, but the basic principles of operation of al1 of these
configurations are the same. These units are arranged in a blow through configuration, with the
cooling and heating coils downstream of the supply fan.
In the configuration shown, outdoor air and return air are mixed in the mixing section, similar to
the single or multiple zone units previously discussed. The control over the relative amounts of
fresh air and return is again provided by a series of dampers.
After the supply air fan, the mixed air stream is split into two separate streams, a hot air stream or
“hot deck” and a cold deck air stream or “cold deck”. The hot deck is fitted with a heating coil
and the cold deck is fitted with a cooling coil. Air from the hot and cold decks is mixed in varying
proportions in order to achieve the desired supply air temperature to each zone. The proportion of
hot and cold air is controlled by a room thermostat in each zone.
The actual mixing of the two air streams can be conducted either at the air handling unit or
remotely, in terminal devices known as mixing boxes. When the mixing dampers are built into the
air handling unit, the unit is known as a multi-zone air handling unit. The mixing dampers are
mounted on a common shaft so that as the hot deck damper opens, the cold deck damper closes,
and vice versa. Individual ducts must be run to each zone from the air handling unit. Due to space
limitations, factory-built multi-zone units are typically limited to a maximum of 12 to 14 zones.
In dual duct systems, only two ducts are run from the air handling unit: the hot deck duct and the
cold deck duct. The mixing of the two air streams is performed in remote mixing boxes, which are
simple mixing devices containing dampers and actuators. The only limitation on the number of
mixing boxes (and thus zones served) is the total supply air capacity of the central air handling
unit, resulting in increased flexibility as compared to multi-zone systems.
With both multi-zone and dual duct systems, there is a necessary mixing of both heated and
cooled air at al1 but the extreme positions of the mixing dampers. This blending of the two air
streams can result in inefficient and uneconomical operation unless the unit controls are designed
to minimize the temperature differential between the two zones.
Exhibit 7-16: Multiple zone dual duct heating and cooling unit

91
7.4.1.2 Variable Air Volume Systems
Variable air volume systems are relatively new compared to constant air volume systems, and
provide a similar level of space comfort control while operating with reduced energy
requirements. They are applied in situations where a single air handling unit serves multiple
building zones having differing comfort conditions.
One major difference between variable and constant air volume systems is that variable air
volume systems have the ability to change total air flow in response to changing heating or
cooling loads. As will be seen below in the discussion of the fan laws, reducing air flow
significantly reduces fan energy consumption and power requirements. A second major difference
is that variable air volume systems generally operate at a fixed supply air temperature (constant
air volume systems modulate supply air temperature), controlling the space temperature by
modulating the volumetric flow of supply air into that space.
Advantages of variable air volume (VAV) systems over constant volume systems are as follows:
 The VAV concept, when combined with separate perimeter heating, results in inexpensive
temperature control for multiple zones and a high degree of heating-cooling flexibility.
 VAV systems, which are sized on simultaneous peaks rather than the sum of the peaks for
constant volume systems, take advantage of changing loads from lights, occupancy, solar and
equipment; first cost savings may be realized for fans, refrigeration, heating, and auxiliaries, as
well as for ductwork, insulation and piping systems.
 VAV systems are self-balancing: manual adjustment of air flows into individual zones is not
required as is with constant volume systems.
 VAV systems accommodate subdivision of the spaces served into new zones with more
flexibility than constant volume systems.
 Operating costs are typically lower for VAV systems as compared to constant volume systems
because of reduced fan operating speeds, and reduced refrigeration and heating requirements.
Variable air volume systems may be configured as single duct systems (with or without zone
reheat) or as dual duct systems. The simplest type of VAV system is a cooling only system (see
Exhibit 7-17), relying on perimeter radiation systems or an independent constant volume variable
air temperature system to provide heating for the space. The fan system is sized to handle the
largest simultaneous load (not the sum of the individual peak loads). Each zone served by the
VAV system wi11 have its peak cooling load at a different time of the day; the VAV system
“borrows” the extra air needed to meet the zone peak requirements from off-peak zones.
Exhibit 7-17: Simple cooling only variable air volume system

92
Another variation of the simple VAV system is one incorporating reheat. This type of unit can be
applied to applications requiring full heating and cooling capability in exterior and interior zones.
Such a system permits air flow reduction as the first step in control. Heat turns on when the air
flow reaches a predetermined minimum. During the summer, the reheat coils are inactivated.
A typical dual duct VAV system is illustrated in Exhibit 7-18. In this system, separate supply air
fans are used for the hot deck and cold deck. The output of each fan is controlled independently
by static pressure sensors located in the hot deck and cold deck ducts. The return air fan is
controlled relative to the sum of the hot deck and cold deck output volumes.
Exhibit 7-18: Typical duel duct variable air volume system
Fan Laws
Savings in fan energy consumption is the primary benefit of VAV Systems. Hence, a brief review
of fan laws is important. The fan laws relate the performance variables for any dynamically
similar series of fans. The fan laws can also be used to predict the performance of a given fan
under different operating conditions. The variables are: fan size; rotational speed; air density;
volumetric flow rate; either static or total pressure; and power. The fan laws are as follows:
Fan Law 1 shows the effect of changing size speed or density on volume flow, pressure and
power level:
3
 m 3   m 3   rps2   D2 
       
 s    s   rps (Law 7-1a)
 2  1  1   D1 
2 3
 rps2   D2 
Sp 2  Sp1     (Law 7-1b)
 rps1   D1 
3 5
 rps2   D2   2 
kW2  kW1       (Law 7-1c)
 rps1   D1   1 

93
where
 m3 
 
 s  = volumetric flow rate, cubic meters per second
 
rps = fan speed, revolutions per second
Sp = Static pressure, Pa
kW = Power, kilowatts
ρ = Air density, kg/m3
When the fan diameters are the same, Law 7-1a simplifies to an expression showing that fan
capacity is directly proportional to fan speed. When the fan diameters are the same and gas
density is constant, Law 7-1b simplifies to an expression showing that pressure (static, velocity or
total) is proportional to fan speed; Law 7-1c simplifies to an expression showing that fan power is
proportional to the cube of fan rotational speed.
Fan Law 2 shows the effect of changing size, pressure or density on volume flow rate, speed, and
power.
0.5 2 0.5
 m 3   m 3   kW2   D2   1 
         
 s    s   kW (Law 7-2a)
 2  1  1   D1   2 
0.5 0.5
 kW   D1   1 
rps2  rps1  2      (Law 7-2b)
 kW1   D2   2 
0.5 2 0.5
 Sp   D2   1 
kW2  kW1  2      (Law 7-2c)
 Sp1   D1   2 
Fan Law 3 shows the effect of changing size, volume flow or density on speed, pressure and
power.
0.5
  m3  
  
  s  2   D1 
3
rps2  rps1     (Law 7-3a)

  m    D2 
3
 s  
 1 
2
  m3  
  
  s  2   D1 
4
 2 
Sp 2  Sp1       (Law 7-3b)
  m    D2   1 
3
 s  
 1 

94
2
  m3  
  
  s  2   D1 
4
 1 
kW2  kW1       (Law 7-3c)
  m    D2   2 
3
 s  
 1 
The example below illustrates the use of the fan laws in common space conditioning calculations.
Example 7-1
A fan is delivering 10 m3/s at a static pressure of 250 Pa (gauge). The fan is operating at 300 rpm
(5 rps) and requires 4 kW. If the fan speed is changed to 350 rpm (5.83 rps), what are the capacity,
static pressure and power requirements?
From equation 1a (with no change in fan size)
 m3   m 3   rps 2 
      = (10) × (350/300) = 11.667 m3/s
 s    
  2  s 1  rps1 
From equation 1b (with constant density and no change in fan size)

2
 rps2 
Sp 2  Sp1   = (250) × (350/300)2 = 340 Pa
 rps1 
From equation 1c (with constant density and no change in fan size
3
 rps2 
kW2  kW1   = (4) × (350/300)3 = 6.35 kW
 rps1 
7.4.2 Chilled Water Systems

In most installations, water serves as the cooling medium for the condenser. When used for
condensing, water is piped from city mains, from wells, from a reservoir, to and from a cooling
tower, or through an evaporative-condenser spray circuit. When the system is closed and
relatively simple, which is usually the case, a water velocity from 1 to 3 m/s proves most
economical.
In some installations, water is also used as the heat transferring medium for the in-direct
Expansion Cooling Coils. In this case, unlike the condenser application, it is a closed circuit, the
water being pumped from the chiller to the cooling coils (through a header) and back to the chiller
after passing through the usual flow control and isolating valves etc. A small make-up/surge tank,
fitted with a float valve connected to the water supply, is generally installed at the highest level of
the chilled water piping system.
7.5 Cooling Towers

Most air refrigeration systems (mechanical vapor compression or absorption) which use water to
cool the condenser use cooling towers in turn to cool this condenser water. While it is possible to
use a steady stream of cool water for once-through condenser cooling this practice is wasteful and
can be expensive. In Pakistan, water in the quantities needed is generally not available in any
event.

95
Air cooled condensers are used on smaller sized direct expansion air conditioners, but for larger
sized central refrigeration systems the first cost and operating cost of the fans to provide the flow
of air over the condenser coil is very high and not economical. In addition, air cooled condensers
with condenser water as the medium being cooled, cannot provide the cooling effect required: the
condenser water can be cooled to about 11°C higher than the ambient air economically. This
temperature is generally too high for the condenser cooling water of most refrigeration systems.
Cooling towers overcome these problems and are more commonly used. The water consumption
rate of a cooling tower is about 5 to 10 percent of that for a once-through cooling system. The
primary advantage is the ability of the cooling tower to cool water to within 3 to 6°C of the
ambient wet-bulb temperature, or about 19°C lower than air-cooled systems of reasonable sizes.
7.5.1 Cooling Tower Principles

Cooling towers cool water by a combination of heat and mass transfer. The water to be cooled is
distributed in the tower by spray nozzles or splash bars. The objective is to expose a very large
water surface area to atmospheric air. The air is circulated by fans, convective currents, natural
wind currents, or inductive effect from sprays.
The thermal capability of any cooling tower may be defined by the following parameters:
 Entering and leaving water temperatures
 Entering air wet bulb temperature
 Water flow rate
A portion of the water in the cooling tower absorbs heat to transform from a liquid to a vapor. The
heat of vaporization at atmospheric pressure is transferred from the water remaining in the liquid
state to the air stream. Exhibit 7-19 shows the temperature relationship between water and air as
they flow through a countercurrent cooling tower. The curves indicate the drop in water
temperature from Point A to Point B and the rise in the wet bulb temperature of the air from Point
C to Point D.
Exhibit 7-19: Analysis of heat transfer in a cooling tower
(a) Temperature between water and air in a (b) Psychrometric analysis of air passing
counterflow cooling tower through a cooling tower

96
The thermal performance of a cooling tower depends on the wet bulb temperature of the entering
air stream.1 A psychrometric analysis of a cooling tower is also illustrated in Exhibit 4.21. Air
enters the cooling tower at Point A, absorbs heat and mass from the· water, and exits at Point B in
a saturated condition2 (the air is at 100 percent relative humidity). The amount of heat transferred
from the water to the air is proportional to the difference in enthalpy of the air between entering
and leaving condition (hB - hA). Because the lines of constant enthalpy on the psychrometric chart
correspond almost exactly to lines of constant wet bulb temperature, the change in enthalpy of the
air may be determined solely by the change in wet bulb temperature.
The vector AB in Exhibit 7-19 may be separated into two components: AC and CB. Component
AC represents sensible air heating (or sensible water cooling), while component CB represents
latent air heating (latent water cooling). If the entering air condition is changed to Point D at the
same wet bulb temperature but a higher dry bulb temperature, the total cooling effect achieved
remains constant, but the sensible and latent components have changed. Vectors AB and BD in
the diagram both represent the total amount of heat transferred from the water to the air stream,
but the relative contributions of the heat transfer mechanisms (sensible and latent) have changed.
Vector AB represents sensible cooling of the water by evaporation and sensible and latent heating
of the air. Vector BD also represents sensible cooling of the water by evaporation, but in this case
the air stream is subjected to sensible cooling and latent heating. Therefore, for the same water
cooling load, the amount of evaporation depends on the amount of sensible cooling or heating of
the air.
The ratio of latent to sensible heat is important in analyzing the water usage of a cooling tower.
Mass transfer by evaporation occurs only in the latent portion of the heat transfer process and is
proportional to the change in specific humidity. The entering air dry bulb temperature (or relative
humidity) affects the ratio of latent to sensible heat transfer, and hence also affects the rate of
evaporation. In the exhibit, the rate of evaporation in case AB (wB - wA) is less than in case DB
(wD – wB) because the latent heat transfer (mass transfer) represents a smaller portion of the total.
The evaporation rate of a cooling tower at typical design conditions is approximately 1 percent of
the total water flow rate for each 7°C of water temperature range. The actual annual evaporation
loss is generally less than the design value because the sensible component of the total heat
transfer increases as the entering air temperature decreases.
The thermal capability of cooling towers for air conditioning is generally expressed in nominal
tonnage, based on a heat dissipation of 1.25 kW per kW of condenser heat (15,000 Btu/hour per
condenser ton) and a water circulation rate of 0.054 liters per second per kW (3 gallons per minute
per ton) cooled from 35 to 29.4°C (95 to 85°F) at 25.6°C (78°F) wet bulb temperature.
7.5.2 Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers

There are two basic types of evaporative cooling devices used: those involving direct contact
between the heated water and the atmosphere and those where the heated water and atmosphere
do not come into direct contact (indirect or “dry” cooling towers). Since the direct type of cooling
towers is most commonly used, therefore they will be discussed here. There are a number of
different types of direct contact cooling towers, but the mechanical draft cooling tower is the most
common for air conditioning purposes. The discussion following will be restricted to this type of
cooling tower.
1 While entering air dry bulb temperature and relative humidity has a slight effect on the cooling tower's
thermal performance, these variables have a more significant effect on the rate and amount of water
evaporated from the tower.
2 At low loads, the leaving air may not be saturated.

97
Mechanical draft cooling towers use motor driven fans to force or draw air through the tower. The
fans may be on the inlet air side (forced draft) or the outlet side (induced draft). Water always
flows from the top of the tower to the bottom by gravity. However, a number of different cooling
tower configurations, based on air-to-water flow, i.e. crossflow or counterflow configuration. In a
crossflow design the air flow is directed perpendicular to the water flow (Exhibit 7-20). Air flow
enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill material. Water flows
(perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The air continues through the fill and thus
past the water flow into an open plenum area. A distribution or hot water basin consisting of a
deep pan with holes or nozzles in the bottom is utilized in a crossflow tower. Gravity distributes
the water through the nozzles uniformly across the fill material. While, in a counterflow design
the air flow is directly opposite of the water flow (Exhibit 7-21). Air flow first enters an open area
beneath the fill media and is then drawn up vertically. The water is sprayed through pressurized
nozzles and flows downward through the fill, opposite to the air flow. Both crossflow and
counterflow designs can be used in natural draft and mechanical draft cooling towers.
Exhibit 7-20: Crossflow mechanical draft cooling tower
Some useful terms, commonly used in the cooling tower industry:

 Drift - Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust air. Drift
droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the water entering the tower. The drift rate
is typically reduced by employing baffle-like devices, called drift eliminators, through which the
air must travel after leaving the fill and spray zones of the tower.
 Blow-out - Water droplets that are blown out of the cooling tower by wind, generally at the air
inlet openings. Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind, through splashing or misting.
Devices such as wind screens, louvers, splash deflectors and water diverters are used to limit
these losses.
 Plume - The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling tower. The plume is visible
when water vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler ambient air, like the saturated air
in one's breath fogs on a cold day. Under certain conditions, a cooling tower plume may present
fogging or icing hazards to its surroundings. Note that the water evaporated in the cooling
process is "pure" water, in contrast to the very small percentage of drift droplets or water blown
out of the air inlets.
 Blow-down - The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed in order to maintain the
amount of dissolved solids and other impurities at an acceptable level.

98
 Leaching - The loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the water flowing
through a wood structure cooling tower.
 Noise - Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given distance and
direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by the movement of air by
fans, the fan blades moving in the structure, and the motors, gearboxes or drive belts.
Exhibit 7-21: Counterflow mechanical draft cooling tower
7.5.3 Cooling Tower Capacity Control

Cooling towers encounter substantial changes in ambient wet bulb temperature and load
conditions during the normal operating season. Hence, some form of capacity control is desirable.
The simplest method of providing this capacity control is the cycling of forced or induced draft
fans. Mechanical draft cooling towers may be configured as multiple cells sharing a common
basin. The basin acts as a sump for the cooled water. Each cooling tower cell is equipped with its
own fan. When the cooling load is high, all of the cells are operating; when the cooling load
drops, individual fans may be turned off as needed. This type of control may be effected either
manually (e.g. operation of individual fans with individual chillers), or the control may be
achieved automatically. In this latter case, the temperature of the condenser water returned from
the cooling tower is monitored. If the temperature exceeds preset limits, one or more cooling
tower fans are energized. If the condenser water temperature drops, fans may be shut off.
Another option is the use of two-speed motors. During low cooling tower load conditions, the fans
may be shut down or operating at half speed. As the load increases, fans may be energized or
shifted from half speed to full speed operation. This type of control can be achieved manually, but
to obtain the minimum use of fan energy, automated controls are preferable.
Exhibit 7-22 presents an example of this type of control for a typical cooling tower. The exhibit
presents graphically the cooling outlet water temperature versus wet bulb temperature for a
number of ranges. Consider the case where a design cooling water temperature of 30°C must be
provided. At decreasing wet bulb temperatures, the cooling tower can meet this condition at half
speed. For a range of 11°C, the cooling tower can meet this condition when the wet bulb

99
temperature is below about 17.5°C. Theoretically, operating the fan at half speed decreases fan
energy requirements to one eighth of full speed requirement.3 In other words, a 100 kW motor
operating at half speed would have a demand of only about 12.5 kW.4 As can be seen in the
exhibit, there may be times when sufficient condenser water cooling can be provided with the
cooling tower fan off, and the condenser water simply circulated through the cooling tower.
Exhibit 7-22: Use of two speed motors in mechanical draft cooling towers
Another approach to cooling tower capacity control is the use of variable pitch blades on the
cooling tower fans (when propeller fans are used). Automatically varying the pitch of the fans at a
constant motor speed can provide an infinite range of air flows through the cooling tower in
response to cooling load requirements, and cooling load requirements can be met precisely by the
cooling tower with little or no excess energy use.
A comparison of cooling tower capacity control methods and relative energy consumption is
presented in the table below. This comparison is based on the computer simulation of a
mechanical cooling tower which is required to meet a fixed hourly cooling load (industrial
cooling). The simulation was conducted using actual hourly weather data for Houston Texas for a
full year of continuous cooling tower operation (comparable to Karachi for certain times of the
year). The results of the simulation are as follows:
3According to the fan laws (described elsewhere in this manual), fan power requirements are directly
proportional to the cube of the air flow. Hence, halving the air flow results in a reduction in a power
requirements of (1/2)3, or 1/8 of maximum.
4In actual practice, half speed operation would reduce fan energy demand to about 17 percent instead of
12.5 percent; this is because of inherent motor losses at lower loads.

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Control Method Relative Energy Use
No control 1.00
Automatic on-off control 0.63
Automatic on-off control with dual speed fans 0.59
Automatic variable pitch fans 0.50
The figures in the table are very sensitive to ambient conditions, and for cooling towers used for
air conditioning the heat load pattern and may not reflect the performance of such systems in
Pakistan.
For cooling tower systems where centrifugal blower fans are employed, another option for
capacity control is with the use of modulating dampers to control air flow. Often, modulating
dampers are combined with two speed motors to provide more precise control when the cooling
tower load is a modulating one.
7.5.4 Performance Measurement of Cooling Towers

Cooling tower performance curves are generally provided by the manufacturer. The comparison
of actual operating conditions to the manufacturer's performance curve is a relatively simple
procedure. The temperature of the condenser water entering the cooling tower is measured, as is
the temperature of the cooled condenser water leaving the cooling tower. The surveyor also
measures the ambient air dry bulb and wet bulb temperature at a point adjacent to the cooling
tower but far enough so that the higher local relative humidity conditions due to evaporation of
water in the cooling tower is not reflected in the readings.
The range is computed as the difference between entering and leaving condenser water
temperature. On the performance curve (Exhibit 7-16), the energy surveyor marks the point
plotted on the curve which represents the wet bulb temperature and the range (the point which
predicts cooling tower performance):
 If the cooling tower is operating near design capacity, the two points should be very close or
coincident.
 If the point which represents actual operation is higher (on the cold water temperature axis) than
the point which represents the predicted cooling tower performance, the cooling tower is
providing less than the correct amount of cooling.
 If the point which represents actual operation is lower (on the cold water temperature axis) than
the point which represents the predicted cooling tower performance, the cooling tower is
providing more cooling than predicted.
When conducting such tests, the energy surveyor should keep in mind that the results reflect only
a snapshot of cooling tower performance at a single operating condition. Performance varies
simultaneously with ambient wet bulb temperature and with the temperature of the entering
condenser water. Unless there is a great difference between the predicted and actual values, the
energy surveyor must be careful when drawing conclusions. Even if a log is kept of entering and
leaving condenser water temperatures, the energy surveyor should keep in mind that these values
taken at the refrigeration machine may vary significantly from the values that may be recorded at
the same time at the cooling tower due to heat gains and losses in the condenser water pipework.
He should also keep in mind that the manufacturer’s curves are based on design flow rates of
condenser water through the cooling tower. Unless it can be verified that these rates are
maintained at the condenser water pump, the conclusions drawn from this testing may also be
misleading.

101
7.5.5 Cooling Tower Systems ECOs
During the cooling season, the following checks of the cooling tower system should be made on a
regular basis:
 Check fan by visual inspection for proper belt alignment; there should be no unusual noise or
vibration in the motor or the fan; lubricate fan bearings as required.
 The water basin level should be checked; the proper operation of the float valve providing make
up water to the basin should be verified.
 Cooling tower water blowdown (bleed) rate should be checked by measuring basin water TDS
levels; it is important to realize that high TDS levels will not only have impact on the cooling
tower, but can also have a significant impact on the heat transfer at the condenser itself.
 Inspect the nozzle spray for clogging by scale or algae; inspect the tower baffles or packing for
contamination by algae or bacterial slime; clean and flush the system and the water treatment
system if needed.
 Inspect the tower basin for mud, slime, silt, etc.; drain, clean and refill the basin to prevent these
deposits from entering the condenser water system.
 Perform urgent repairs as required and schedule other repairs for end of cooling season.
 At the end of the cooling season, the following shut down procedures should be followed:
 Clean and flush out tower; leave drain open to eliminate accumulation of
rain water.
 Remove belts from the fan assembly and store them in a place safe from
extreme weather.
 Repair any rusted areas and repaint areas where there is need; use a marine
- type paint over a suitable primer.
Exhibit 7-22 presents saving potential from reduction in condenser water temperature.

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8 Instrumentation and Controls
Chapter 6 and 7 discussed in detail the prime movers for the refrigeration operation and other
primary components of the refrigeration system: condensers, evaporators and flow control
devices. Air and chilled water distribution systems and cooling towers have been addressed in the
previous chapters. In this chapter the instrumentation and controls required for the proper
operation of refrigeration systems are described.
The control system of a refrigeration plant is essential for efficient plant operation as well as
maintenance of required temperatures. Inoperable or insufficient instruments and control systems
are the primary cause of ineffective and inefficient refrigeration systems.
8.1 Instrumentation
There should be sufficient instrumentation on a plant to enable the performance to be assessed and
faults diagnosed. With smaller commercial systems pressure gauges, thermometers and amp
probes of the type carried by service engineers are likely to be sufficient. With larger installations
permanent instrumentation should be considered to measure/monitor:
 Pressures
 Temperatures
 Current and/or power
Exhibit 8-1 shows where such measurements should be taken on a water chilling system.
Pressure
Pressure measurements indirectly show at what condensing and evaporating conditions a system
is operating, and can indicate blockage or fouling of evaporators and condensers.
Refrigeration quality pressure gauges should be used, and must be regularly calibrated. Most
pressure gauges also have scales showing saturation temperatures; however these scales are
inaccurate, especially at low pressures, and their use is not recommended.
Temperature
Accurate temperature measurement is important especially where there are very small temperature
differences, for example across many chillers. For pipes above 18 mm diameter the best position
for temperature probes is in a pocket in the fluid flow. This pocket should be filled with heat sink
compound to aid heat transfer. On systems without such pockets, the sensor should be securely
fixed to the outside of a pipe and insulated from the surrounding air.
Thermocouples and resistance thermometers with displays are the most suitable for refrigeration
system measurement. Thermocouples can give accuracies of 0.5°C, and platinum resistance
thermometers accuracies of up to 0.1°C. The display need not be permanently connected to the
sensor, but can be carried by the maintenance engineer.
Electrical Power
Ammeters can be used on smaller motors (up to 5 kW), whereas larger motors should be fitted
with power meters. It is also useful to have a display showing which motors are operating, for
example to show which compressors on a multi-compressor pack or fan motors on a multi-fan
condenser are working at any one time.

103
Exhibit 8-1: Simple direct expansion water chilling system
Additional information
Sight glasses should be fitted to liquid refrigerant lines to show if gas is present, and in oil return
lines to show when oil is returning to a compressor from a reservoir.
Where possible, flow meters should be installed on secondary refrigerant circuits and on the water
side of water-cooled condensers.
Many compressors can be used on part capacity, and the number of cylinders operating on a
reciprocating compressor can be indicated by the signal to the solenoid valves which unload
cylinders. On centrifugal or screw compressors an analogue indication of the control signal can be
useful.
Level gauges should be fitted to all vessels that contain liquid refrigerant, i.e. liquid receivers,
shell and tube evaporators and condensers, and interstage vessels on two stage systems. The
normal refrigerant level, and the acceptable maximum and minimum levels should be marked on
the gauge.
8.1.1 Purposes of Instrumentation and Controls

Instrumentation and controls can serve four different functions:
1. They maintain design conditions (temperature, humidity) in the space.
2. They reduce the amount of human labor needed to operate and maintain the system, thus
reducing labor costs and the chances of errors. For example, the controls may be designed

104
to open an outside air damper to provide fresh air, rather than have operating personnel do
this manually.
3. They minimize energy use and costs. One of the most important considerations in planning
and operating a control system is based on its ability to minimize the use of energy at all
times. For example, the controls may automatically change the amount of outside air
introduced to the building so that free cooling is obtained from this air when suitable.
4. Controls that serve the purposes already described -- maintaining space conditions,
reducing labor, conserving energy -- are called operating controls. Often the same controls
are providing all of these functions. Some controls serve a different purpose.
5. They keep operation of equipment at safe levels, thus preventing damage to property or
injury to people. This type of control is a safety control. It usually functions as a limiting
device, to limit the values of temperature, pressure, or similar variables in the equipment.
Although some references to them will be made here, our emphasis will be on the
operating controls.
8.2 Control System

Every control system has the following elements:
1. A process variable. This is a condition that is to be controlled, such as temperature, humidity, or
pressure.
2. A controller. Senses the extent of deviation between a predetermined setpoint signal and the
signal of the controlled variable. Based on the extent and direction of the deviation, it responds by
outputting a control signal to the control device. Thermostats, humidistats, and pressurestats are
examples of controllers. Note that a controller has two functions -- to sense the extent and
direction of a deviation and to output a signal based on the deviation.
3. A source of energy. This provides the means of power to transmit the controller output to the
control device. Two examples are compressed air (pneumatic) and electrical energy sources.
4. A control device. This is the final control element which receives the control signal from the
controller and causes the change in the process variable. Examples of control devices are a valve,'
damper, or the motor driving an oil burner, pump, fan, or refrigeration compressor.
5. A control agent. This is the medium regulated by the controlled device. Examples are water
flowing through a valve, air through a damper, or the electric current of a motor.
6. A process plant. The regulation of the control agent changes the output or operation of equipment
called the process plant. Examples are a cooling or heating coil, oil burner, fan, pump,
compressor, and duct. The change in performance of the process plant changes the condition of
the controlled variable, thus completing the desired action.
The sequence of action is shown by a functional block control diagram (Exhibit 8-2).
Feedback is the transmission of information about the results of an action back to the sensor. A
control strategy that employs a feedback mechanism is called a closed-loop control system. A
control system without feedback is called an open-loop control system.
Exhibit 8-2: Functional block diagram for an open loop control system

105
8.2.1 Controllers
The controller serves two functions: to sense the deviation between a setpoint and process
variable signal and to output a control signal to the control device based on the deviation. The
variables most often requiring control in HVAC systems are temperature, humidity, pressure, and
flow.
Temperature controllers are also called thermostats. Numerous types of sensing elements for
thermostats are available. A bimetal element is made of two attached strips of different metals.
The metals change lengths at different rates when their temperature changes, forcing a bending of
the element (Exhibit 8-3). The bimetal strip may be straight or wound in a spiral shape. The
bimetallic sensing element is used often in room thermostats.
Another type of sensor uses a bulb filled with a fluid (Exhibit 8-4). Changes in temperature cause
the fluid pressure to change, and this pressure acts to move a diaphragm or bellows.
The sensor is usually inserted in a duct or pipe. When the sensing bulb is attached directly to the
control element, it is called an immersion thermostat. When a long capillary tube connects the
sensor to the control element, it is called a remote thermostat. This allows location of the control
in a more convenient, accessible place than might otherwise be possible.
Exhibit 8-3: Bimetallic temperature sensor Exhibit 8-4: Remote thermostat with
fluid filled bulb type sensor
Another type of temperature sensor is called a resistance element. This is a thin wire whose
electrical resistance changes with temperature. It is applicable to both room type and remote
thermostats.
Humidity controllers are also called humidistat. One type of humidity sensing element uses two
different materials attached together that absorb water vapor at different rates, thus bending or
moving, much like a bimetal temperature sensor.
Pressure controllers are also called pressurestats. The sensing element is often an open tube
connected directly to the fluid where pressure is to be controlled. The fluid pressure may act on a
diaphragm or bellows, or a mechanical type linkage.
Flow controllers often use pressure as a sensing signal. The velocity of the fluid where flow is to
be controlled is converted to a static pressure by a sensing element such as a pitot tube, and this
signal is used to control flow.

106
An electric transmitter may consist simply of two electric contacts that are connected to the
controlled device shown in the thermostat in Exhibit 8-5. When the bimetal element bends from
temperature change, it closes or opens an electrical circuit thus operating the controlled device.
A mercury switch is often used instead of open electric contacts. A glass tube filled with liquid
mercury has two electrodes inserted in it (Exhibit 8-6). The sensing mechanism tips the tube so
that the mercury either completes or breaks the electrical circuit through the electrodes. The
mercury switch has the advantage over open contacts of being enclosed, and therefore is not
subject to dirt, dust, or moisture, which would affect the performance of the electrical contacts.
A pneumatic transmitting element adjusts the air pressure that is supplied to the controlled device.
In one type the signal from the sensor moves a flapper that covers the opening to a branch of the
tube carrying the control air (Exhibit 8-7). As the flapper moves away from the opening, some air
bleeds out and the pressure in the main line decreases. This reduces the pressure transmitted to the
controlled device, causing a changed action. The opposite happens when the signal moves the flap
toward the opening. This arrangement is called a bleed type controller. That is, some of the
control air is bled off from the control circuit. A non-bleed type arrangement is also often used. It
has the advantage of lower air requirement.
Exhibit 8-5: Thermostat with open electric contacts to transmit signal
Exhibit 8-6: Mercury switch
Pneumatic controllers have the desirable feature of being inherently proportional type devices.
The outputted control air pressure, which varies with the flapper position, proportionately
positions the control device.

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Exhibit 8-7: Pneumatic thermostat
8.2.2 Controlled Devices

Valves, dampers, relays, and motors are examples of control devices used in refrigeration
systems.
Control valves may be either two or three-way devices. Three-way valves are either of the mixing
or diverting type (Exhibit 8-8). A mixing valve has two inlets and one outlet. A diverting valve
has one inlet and two outlets.
Two-way valves are used to vary flow rate to the heating or cooling equipment by throttling.
Mixing and diverting valves can also be used to vary flow rates through the unit, as shown in
Exhibit 8-8, while still maintaining the same total flow rate.
Mixing and diverting valves can also be used to control capacity by varying water temperature
instead of quantity (Exhibit 8-8). In this application supply and return water are mixed to provide
water at the desired temperature.
Exhibit 8-8: Three way valves
Use of 3-way valves to control flow rate
The capacity of a cooling coil can be changed either by varying the water flow rate or the
temperature. However, the output does not change as much with flow rate variation as it does with
water temperature. For this reason water temperature control is often preferred. On the other hand,
flow rate control with a two-way valve is usually less expensive, and normally is used on room
terminal units.

108
Automatic dampers are used as controlled devices for varying air flow, mixing air, or for
bypassing (diverting) air. As with valves, the purpose is usually to vary heating or cooling
capacity of equipment. Except for very small sizes they are of multi-blade construction in order to
achieve better control of the air flow rate. Two arrangements are available; parallel and opposed
blade (Exhibit 8-9). The opposed blade arrangement will give better modulation of air flow rate.
Parallel blade dampers should be used only for two-position (open-closed) control.
Electric motors are used for modulating dampers in electric control systems and pistons are used
as damper operators in pneumatic systems.
There are other auxiliary devices used in control systems that will not be discussed here. Although
they are of practical importance, a description of them will not add to a discussion of control
principles.
Exhibit 8-9: Multi-blade damper arrangements

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9 Systems Applications
Refrigeration systems are used to condition air for comfort cooling applications in offices, stores,
schools, hospitals, hotels, residences and manufacturing facilities to name a few and to chill
processes and products in industrial applications such as food processing, textiles, chemicals,
petroleum refining and plastics fabrication. The types of systems used for all these applications
may vary significantly but there is also surprising uniformity of systems within a large number of
applications. In this section, sizing of refrigeration equipment for various applications as well as
typical systems for each of the above applications will be discussed.
9.1 Load Calculations
9.1.1 Air-conditioning Load Calculation

The cooling load to maintain temperature and humidity within an air-conditioned space has four
components:
1. Sensible heat gain by conduction through the envelope components: walls, roof, floor, windows,
and doors
2. Sensible heat gain by solar radiation onto envelope components and through transparent
components such as windows and skylights
3. Sensible and latent heat gain by forced and natural convection from fresh air intakes and air
infiltration
4. Sensible and latent gain from internal heat sources such as lighting, people, and machinery
Conduction
The peak sensible heat gain by conduction through envelope components is determined by
assuming a maximum outdoor design temperature and an acceptable indoor temperature, and then
calculating the steady state heat gain by the general heat flow equation:
Qc  A To  Ti U (Eq. 9-1)

where A = surface area
To = outside air design temperature
Ti = inside design temperature
U = overall heat conductance of the surface
To determine the overall heat conductance of the surface the inside and outside surface thermal
resistance must be combined with the conductive resistance of the materials themselves.
Design temperatures recommendations based on geography and facility type, surface thermal
resistance values for various conditions, and conductive resistance for typical building materials
are available in the 2005 ASHRAE Handbook on Fundamentals.
Solar Radiation
Sensible heat gain from solar radiation (Qs) is determined using calculated or published data for
angles of incidence, and by taking into account the type of transparent surface and the absorption
characteristics of non-transparent building materials. Shading devices such as blinds, drapes, or
architectural projections must also be included in the estimated gain. Data on solar gain is
available in the 2005 ASHRAE Handbook on Fundamentals.

111
Convection
Sensible and latent heat gain from fresh air intakes and by natural air infiltration (Qi) is
determined by knowing the amount of total air exchange rate during the peak load period. Often
buildings are maintained at a positive pressure so that the amount of fresh air intake for the air-
conditioning system will closely match the total air exchange rate. Since incoming air has both
sensible and a latent component, total heat gain can be calculated by multiplying the difference in
enthalpy between the ambient and the inside space air by the total air exchange rate as follows:
Qi  E ho  hi  (Eq. 9-2)
where E = total air exchange rate (kg/s)

ho = ambient air enthalpy (kJ/kg)
hi = inside air enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Internal Heat Sources
Total internal heat gain includes heat generated by people, lighting, machinery, and other heat
generating devices. This load has both a sensible and a latent component. Data on sensible and
latent heat generation from people for various activity levels is available in the ASHRAE
Fundamentals Handbook. For electrical machinery, the load is simply the combined coincident
electrical load. For example the total heat gain from electric motors is not just the heat given off
by the motor, but rather its total electrical input, since all of mechanical motion generated will
result in heat. In the case of lighting, often only a percent of the total lighting electrical load is
included such as 80%, since the exhaust systems of many buildings reject some of this heat before
it reaches the cooling coil.
The four types of air-conditioning loads discussed above are cyclic in nature during a 24 hour
period and often are not in phase with each other. Therefore it is necessary to analyze them to
determine when the total air-conditioning peak load will occur. Generally the peak occurs during
summer afternoons work days when all these loads are at or near their peak.
9.1.2 Refrigeration Load Calculation

The components of total refrigeration load are as follows:
1. Removal of sensible and/or latent heat from a product.
2. Heat gain conducted through the surfaces of the room, tank or piping from warmer
surroundings. This heat gain is also affected by any radiant heat from the outside.
3. Sensible and latent heat gain from infiltration or ventilation of outside air.
4. Heat gain from internal sources such as lights, motors, and personnel.
The total amount of sensible and latent heat to be removed in refrigerating a product is given by:
H  M ca Ta   hl  cbTb  (Eq. 9-3)
where H = total heat removed

M = mass of the product
ca = specific heat capacity above freezing
Ta = temperature decrease above freezing
hl = latent heat of freezing
cb = specific heat capacity below freezing
Tb = temperature decrease below freezing

112
Heat gain to maintain the product at a desired temperature includes the loads numbered 2 through
4 above. To estimate these loads, the same procedures described in the previous section on
estimating air-conditioning load can be used.
Certain refrigerated foodstuffs are living organisms and give off heat as the sugar or starch
reserves are slowly consumed. This is known as heat of respiration, and must be included in the
internal load calculation of refrigeration load. Data on heat of respiration for various foodstuffs is
included in the 2005 ASHRAE Handbook on Fundamentals.
9.2 Typical Systems
9.2.1 Incremental Room Equipment

Incremental equipment encompasses window air conditioners, thru-wall air conditioners, and
console-type air conditioners. These are small capacity units in the range of 1.8 to 14 kWR (0.5 to
4 tons) that contain a complete direct expansion refrigeration circuit, operating and temperature
controls, supply air fan, air filter, and supply and return grilles. They may be cooling only or
combination heating/cooling units. Incremental room air conditioners are self-contained units that
are not designed to accommodate ductwork, and a separate unit must therefore be installed in each
room that requires cooling. A schematic diagram of an incremental room air conditioner is shown
in Exhibit 9-1.
Exhibit 9-1: Schematic of window or in-the-wall comfort cooling unit

113
Typical applications for incremental room units include hotel and motel rooms, hospital patient
rooms, and school rooms. The advantages of incremental room units include low initial cost,
individual room temperature control, and the ability to interrupt heating and cooling to spaces that
are unoccupied. Incremental equipment typically enjoys greater reliability of the refrigeration
components since the entire refrigeration circuit is factory assembled, charged, sealed and tested.
The drawbacks to incremental equipment are their relatively high noise level (due to the location
of the compressor), and the maintenance requirements of multiple refrigeration circuits, air filters,
and other components.
The refrigeration condensers in incremental room air conditioners are usually air-cooled, although
water-cooled equipment is also available. Water cooled units can be located on interior walls
since they do not require outdoor air for cooling. If heating is provided, it is most often by electric
resistance heating coils, although incremental heat pumps are also popular. Incremental heat
pumps may also be air or water-cooled.
9.2.2 Unitary Equipment

Unitary HVAC units, like incremental room equipment, contain a complete direct expansion
refrigeration circuit, supply (and possibly return) air fans, and air filters; however, they are
designed to connect to a field erected duct system, and therefore can provide space conditioning to
more than one room. The capacity range of unitary equipment is much broader than that of
incremental room units, typically covering a range from 5 to 100 kWR (1.5 to 30 tons). Custom-
engineered systems are available in even larger sizes. Two typical unitary air-conditioning units
are shown in Exhibit 9-2.
Unitary equipment is manufactured in a tremendous variety of configurations. As a result of this
variety, they have been used in virtually every imaginable application, including schools,
hospitals, office buildings, restaurants, retail stores, hotels, and residences. Advantages include
moderate initial cost, redundancy of refrigeration equipment, factory assembled and tested
refrigeration components, and installation simplicity.
Roof-mounted units, commonly known as rooftop units, are installed on a roof curb or frame for
supporting the unit, through which the ductwork passes. Pad-mounted units are similar to rooftop
units except that the supply-air and return-air ductwork are connected to the side of the unit,
which is most often mounted on a concrete pad on the ground. Wall-hung units are attached to an
exterior building wall, with ductwork entering the building through the wall.
Unitary equipment may be either air-cooled or water-cooled. Since air-cooled units must be
located outdoors, they incur additional inefficiencies resulting from heat gain and loss through the
cabinet panels, and more significantly from air leakage from poorly gasketed or loose-fitting panel
sections and access doors. Water-cooled units may be located indoors, providing improved
serviceability and building aesthetics; however, they must be provided with a source of cooling
water. This cooling water is usual1y provided by a central cooling tower, although city water and
well water are options that reduce initial cost at the expense of potentially exorbitant operating
costs.
Unitary equipment is most commonly single-zone, and as a result, multiple units are normally
required for areas with wide variations in thermal load. Units of this type are sometimes used in
conjunction with variable air volume (VAV) systems; however, special attention must be paid to
capacity control of the refrigeration circuit at reduced air flow. A few designs of multi-zone units
are also manufactured, many of which use waste heat from the refrigeration condensers for the hot
deck heat source. Unitary equipment can incorporate a variety of heat sources, including electric
resistance, indirect gas fired, hot water coils, and heat pump mode of operation.

114
Exhibit 9-2: Packaged water chillers
(a) Air cooled
(b) Water cooled
9.2.3 Direct Expansion Mini-Split Systems

Direct expansion mini-split systems utilize a split refrigeration circuit, with the refrigeration
compressor and condenser located in a condensing unit, and the direct expansion (DX) coil
located in the air handling unit. The condensing unit and air handling unit are physically separated
from each other, connected by refrigerant piping. This enables the air handling portion of the
system to be located indoors, while the condensing unit (if air cooled) is located outdoors. Exhibit
9-3 shows a split-system air conditioner.
The applications for split systems include virtually the same broad range as unitary equipment.
Capacities cover a similar range, from about 5 to 100 kWR (1.5 to 30 tons) for standard
equipment, although field engineered systems of much greater capacity have been installed,
including central VAV systems for retail stores and office buildings. The benefits of split systems
over unitary systems include improved serviceability and reduced energy and air losses as a result
of the indoor location of the air handling components. The major disadvantage is the potential for
problems in the refrigeration circuit resulting from improperly designed or installed refrigerant
piping systems or failure to properly clean and evacuate field refrigerant piping, which can lead to
premature compressor failure.
The condensing unit of a split system may be air-cooled or water-cooled, although air-cooled is
the most common arrangement. Air-cooled heat pump split systems are also popular, and offer
excellent operating efficiency. The air handling side of the system may take a variety of forms,

115
including constant volume single zone, variable volume, or multi-zone. Where air flow across the
cooling coil may be variable, as with variable volume and multi-zone systems, some means of
capacity reduction must be provided in order to avoid excessive compressor cycling. This is
usually accomplished with cylinder unloading, possibly supplemented with hot gas bypass at very
low loads. The use of hot gas bypass for capacity reduction is extremely inefficient and should be
minimized.
Exhibit 9-3: Split package air-conditioners
9.2.4 Central Chilled Water Systems

Chilled water systems utilize chilled water as the cooling medium inside the tubes of the cooling
coil, as opposed to refrigerant in a DX system. Chilled water systems utilize a centralized chiller
plant to produce the chilled water that .is circulated to remote air handling units through an
insulated piping system. Chilled water systems are normally applied to large installations with
substantial capacity requirements, although reciprocating chillers are available in sizes as small as
7 kWR (2 tons). Exhibit 9-4 shows a centrifugal compressor typical of what is used in larger
central chilled water systems.
Exhibit 9-4: Centrifugal compressor unit
Chilled water systems offer tremendous flexibility in facilities with widely varying requirements,
including hotels, shopping malls, and high-rise office buildings. Centralization of the refrigeration
components provides maintenance benefits and reduced electrical wiring cost, as well as reduced
noise levels in the occupied space. The additional cost of the piping system and associated pumps
and valves makes these systems the most costly.

116
The air distribution side of chilled water systems can take many forms. The smallest air systems
for chilled water application are known as fan-coil units. Similar to incremental units, fan-coils
are small, single-room air handlers which may have finished, painted cabinets or may be
concealed behind walls or ceilings. Because they do not require outdoor air for cooling, they may
be located on interior walls.
Chilled water can be used as the cooling medium in all types of factory and field fabricated air
distribution systems, including single-zone, multi-zone, double duct, and VAV. Capacity control
is achieved simply by throttling the flow of chilled water through the cooling coil, avoiding the
problems of reduced capacity operation of DX units.
The selection of the central water chilling system is primarily a function of the capacity
requirement. Reciprocating chillers are limited to approximately 175 kWR (50 tons) per unit, and
may be air-cooled or water-cooled. Centrifugal chillers are available in sizes from about 350 kWR
(100 tons) to over 3,500 kWR (1,000 tons). Most centrifugal chillers are water cooled, but unitary
air-cooled centrifugal chillers are available from at least one manufacturer up to about 1,100 kWR
(320 tons). Absorption chillers are an option to electric chillers when low cost steam or fossil
fuels are available.
9.2.5 Comparison of Various Air Conditioning Systems

As discussed, the main types of air conditioners for household use are window air conditioners,
mini-split systems and central ducted air conditioning units.
Advantages of the window air conditioners are:
 Room air conditioners are less expensive than ductless mini- split systems.
 They are less expensive to operate than central systems, for cooling only a part of the house.
 Individual rooms can be kept at different temperatures.
 They are easy to install. Smaller units can be installed in most operable windows using existing
electrical outlets. Larger models may require special adaptations and dedicated electric circuits.
 They don’t require a duct system in the house.
While the disadvantages of the room air conditioners are:

 Room air conditioners are noisier than remotely installed central systems.
 They may create a security problem.
 Window units block views and incoming light and prevent the use of the window for natural
ventilation.
 Window air conditioners have a lower average efficiency than modern mini-split units and
central units.
Like conventional central air conditioners, mini-splits use an outside compressor and condenser,
and indoor air handling units. The difference is that each room or zone to be cooled has its own
air handler. Each indoor unit is connected to the outdoor unit via a conduit carrying the power,
refrigerant and condensate lines. Under this arrangement, it is easier to meet the varying comfort
needs of different rooms. By avoiding the use of ductwork, mini-splits also avoid energy losses
associated with central forced-air systems.
Since mini splits have no ducts, they avoid the energy losses associated with ductwork of central
forced air systems. Duct losses can account for more than 30% of energy consumption for space
conditioning, especially if the ducts are in an unconditioned space such as an attic. The dedicated
mini-split systems are extensively replacing window air conditioners.

117
They are often easier to install than other types of space conditioning systems. For example, the
hook-up between the outdoor and indoor units generally requires only an 8 centimeter hole
through a wall for the conduit. If necessary, the outdoor unit can be located as far away as 15
meters from the indoor evaporator. This makes it possible to locate compressor in a more
advantageous or inconspicuous place on the outside of the building.
In comparison to other systems, mini-split units offer more flexibility in interior design options.
The indoor air handlers can be suspended from a ceiling, mounted flush into a drop ceiling, or
hung on a wall. Floor-standing models are also available. Most indoor units usually come with
sleek, high tech-looking jackets. They also offer a remote control to make it easier to turn the
system on and off.
Split systems have the advantage of being quieter indoors during operation. Split-systems can also
help to keep the home safer since there is only a small hole in the wall, while window air-
conditioners can provide an easy entrance for intruders.
The primary disadvantage of mini-splits is the cost. They can cost 30% more than window air
conditioners and typical central ducted air conditioners of the same size. But, when considering
the cost and energy losses associated with installing new central ductwork, buying a ductless
mini-split may be a good deal, especially considering the long-term energy savings.
Technological advancements in the air conditioning equipment have drastically improved
operating efficiency over the last few years. The improved air conditioning systems tend to use
half the energy of typical former models. As the cost of energy continues to rise, it has become
very important to the air conditioning industry to find new ways to deliver the same cooling
power with less overall energy consumption.
While both can be equally efficient, split systems tend to be more efficient than window air
conditioners for a particular size range as their components are generally less constrained by size.
Today’s best air conditioners use 30%–50% less energy to produce the same amount of cooling as
air conditioners made in the mid 1970s. Even if the air conditioner is only 10 years old, it may
save 20%–40% of the cooling energy costs by replacing it with a newer, more efficient model.
The average “lifespan” of a central air conditioner is about 15 to 20 years.
Major technological advancement in compressor technology was the invention of the scroll
compressor, produced with the application of precision machining and computer-aided
manufacturing. These compressors are now being used in residential and small commercial air
conditioners and heat pumps. The scroll compressor is approximately 10 percent more efficient
than the standard reciprocating compressor.
During the past 15 years, their have also been major technological improvements in the area of
control systems. With microprocessors, it is possible to have control systems that can adapt more
easily to changes in both indoor and outdoor conditions. For example, many newer systems
control both temperature and humidity; systems manufactured a decade ago controlled only
temperature.
Another technological improvement in vapor compression systems has been in motor technology.
The high-efficiency system of the late 1970s had single-speed motors for the compressor and
indoor and outdoor fans. A contemporary high-efficiency system has a variable-speed compressor
with a variable-speed indoor fan motor. Electronically controlled variable-speed technology
provides efficiency advantages over older single-speed systems.
Heat transfer enhancements have been made on both the air and refrigerant side in the heat
exchanger equipment. Microfins inside refrigerant tubes plus slit (or lanced) fins on the air side of
heat exchangers have allowed manufacturers to reduce the material used in heat exchangers by
approximately 15 to 20 percent while maintaining the same overall heat transfer as older designs.

118
9.3 Industrial Process Refrigeration
9.3.1 Typical Process Refrigeration Loads and Systems

Industrial refrigeration makes use of all the systems mentioned in the preceding sections. The
cooling applications are also diverse. Frozen foods are chilled until processed, quick frozen
immediately after processing and then held in cold storage until used. Textile plants use
refrigeration to control humidity. Chemical and petroleum industries use refrigeration to control
volatiles, separate constituents of differing solubilities and produce selective chemical reactions.
Refrigeration allows increased cycle times in plastics fabrication.
At one time or another, virtually all of the common refrigerants, as well as many of the less
common ones, have been used in industrial refrigeration. All of the usual considerations in
selecting either refrigerants or secondary coolants must be made. Factors such as flammability,
toxicity, and compatibility with proposed construction materials may influence the final selection
more seriously than in commercial and residential applications. Special attention must be paid to
the consequences of leakage between the process materials and the refrigerant or the secondary
coolant.
Two methods are commonly used in applying refrigeration in industrial processes. In direct
expansion systems the evaporator is placed in the space which is cooled. Direct expansion
systems are usually of the dry expansion or flooded evaporator design. In brine systems, the brine
is cooled by contact with the evaporator surface and the brine is sent to the space to be
refrigerated. Brine systems require 40 to 60 percent more surface than direct expansion systems.
However, brine systems have a tempering effect due to the large heat capacity of cold brine, are
safer (of particular concern if the refrigerating effect must be carried considerable distances or
widely distributed), and permit closer temperature regulation than is possible with direct
expansion. Brine systems are recommended for larger cold storage plants. If two temperatures are
to be held, the lower may be by direct expansion, the higher by brine cooling. The development of
better controls and newer piping methods, however has made direct expansion more attractive
with the result being that direct expansion systems are gaining wider acceptance in many
industrial applications.
Brines used for industrial refrigeration are usually aqueous solution of either calcium chloride or
sodium chloride. Calcium chloride should not contain over 0.2 percent magnesia, calculated as
magnesium chloride. The purest economically available salt should be used in making sodium
chloride brines (magnesia and sulfates are especially undesirable as they will form sludge).
Calcium chloride brines are recommended down to -43°C and sodium chloride brines are
recommended only for -18°C and above. Brines should be chemically neutral. Acid brines attack
ferrous materials. Alkaline brines attack zinc. If ammonia mixes with the brine due to a leak, the
brine will attack most non-ferrous metal. Corrosion by brine is increased by the presence of
oxygen, air or carbon dioxide and by galvanic action between dissimilar metals. The contact of
brine with air, therefore, should be minimized. Corrosion inhibitors such as sodium chromate and
sodium dichromate are widely used.
9.3.2 Food Processing

In the food processing industry, refrigeration is used for cold storage, quick freezing, freeze
concentration, and freeze drying. Various physical and thermal properties of foods are given in
Exhibit 9-5.

119
Exhibit 9-5: Thermal and related properties of food and food materials
Highest Specific Heat Latent Highest Specific Heat Latent

Water Freezing Above Below Heat of Water Freezing Above Below Heat of
Food or Food Food or Food
Content Point, Freezing Freezing Fusion Content Point, Freezing Freezing Fusion
Materials o Materials
%(mass) C kJ/kg.oC kJ/kg.oC kJ/kg %(mass) o
C kJ/kg.oC kJ/kg.oC kJ/kg
Vegetables Grapes, Vinifera 82 -2.1 3.73 1.87 275
Artichokes, Lemons 89 - 1.4 3.90 1.96 298
Globe 84 -1.2 3.78 1.90 281 Limes 86 -1.6 3.83 1.92 288
Jerusalem 80 -2.5 3.68 1.85 268 Mangoes 8\ -0.9 3.70 1.86 217
Asparalus 93 -0.6 4.00 2.01 312 Melons, Casaba QJ - 1.1 4.00 2.01 312
Beans, Snap 89 -0.7 3.90 1.96 298 Melons, Crenshaw 93 -1.1 4.00 2.01 312
Beans, Lima 67 -0.6 3.35 1.68 224 Melons. Honeydew 93 -0.9 4.00 2.01 312
Beans, Dried 11 - 1.95 0.98 37 Melons, Persian 93 -0.8 4.00 2.01 312
Beets, Roots 88 -1.1 3.88 1.95 295 Melons, Watermelon 93 -0.4 4.00 2.01 312
Broccoli 90 -0.6 3.93 1.97 302 Nectarines 82 -0.9 3.73 1.87 275
Brussels Sprouts 85 -0.8 3.80 1.91 285 Olives 7S - 1.4 3.55 1.79 251
Cabbage, Late 92 -0.9 3.98 2.00 308 Oranges 87 -0.8 3.85 1.94 292
Carrots, Roots 88 -1.4 3.88 1.95 295 Peaches, Fresh 89 -0.9 3.90 1.96 298
Cauliflower 92 -0.8 3.98 2.00 308 Peaches, Dried 2S - 2.30 1.16 84
Celeriac 88 -0.9 3.88 1.95 295 Pears 83 - 1.6 3.75 1.89 278
Celery 94 -0.5 4.03 2.02 315 Persimmons 78 - 2.2 3.63 1.82 261
Collards 87 -0.8 3.85 1.94 291 Pineapples 8S -1.0 3.80 1.91 285
Corn, Sweet 74 -0.6 3.53 1.77 248 Plums 86 -0.8 3.83 1.92 288
Cucumbers 96 -0.5 4.08 2.05 322 Pomegranates 82 -3.0 3.73 1.87 275
Eggplant 93 -0.8 4.00 2.01 312 Prunes 28 - 2.37 1.19 94
Endive (Escarole) 93 -0.1 4.00 2.01 312 Quinces 8S - 2.0 3.80 1.91 285
Garlic 61 -0.8 3.20 1.61 204 Raisins 18 - 2.12 1.07 60
Ginger, Rhizomes 87 - 3.85 1.94 291 Raspberries 81 -0.6 3.70 1.86 271
Horseradish 75 - 1.8 3.55 1.79 251 Strawberries 90 -0.8 3.93 1.97 302
Kale 87 -0.5 3.85 1.94 291 Tangerines 87 -1.1 3.85 1.94 291
Kohlrabi 90 -1.0 3.93 1.97 302 Whole fish
Leeks 85 -0.7 3.80 1.91 285 Haddock - Cod 78 - 2.2 3.63 1.82 261
Lettuce 95 -0.2 4.06 2.04 318 Halibut 7S - 2.2 3.55 1.79 251
Mushrooms 91 -0.9 3.95 1.99 305 Herring, Kippered 70 - 2.2 3.43 1.72 235
Okra 90 - 1.8 3.93 1.97 302 Herring, Smoked 64 - 2.2 3.28 1.65 214
Onions, Green 89 -0.9 3.90 1.96 298 Menhaden 62 - 2.2 3.23 1.62 208
Onions, Dry 88 -0.8 3.88 1.95 295 Salmon 64 -2.2 3.28 1.65 214
Parsley 85 -1.1 3.80 1.91 285 Tuna 70 - 2.2 3.43 1.72 235
Parsnips 79 -0.9 3.65 1.84 265 Filets or Steaks
Peas, Green 74 -0.6 3.53 1.77 248 Haddock-Cod-Perch 80 - 2.2 3.68 I.85 268
Peas, Dried 12 - 1.97 0.99 40 Hake – Whiting 82 - 2.2 3.73 1.87 275
Peppers, Dried 12 - 1.97 0.99 40 Pollock 79 -2.2 3.65 1.84 265
Peppers, Sweet 92 -0.7 3.98 2.00 308 Mackerel H -2.2 3.10 1.56 191
Potatoes, Early 81 -0.6 3.70 1.86 271 Shellfish
Potatoes, Main Crop 78 -0.6 3.63 1.82 261 Scallop, Meat 80 -2.2 3.68 I.85 268
Potatoes, Sweet 69 -1.3 3.40 1.71 231 Shrimp 83 -2.2 3.75 1.89 278
Yarns 74 - 3.S3 1.77 248 Lobster, American 79 - 2.2 3.65 1.84 265
Pumpkins 91 -0.8 3.95 1.99 305 Oysters – Clams,
Radishes 95 -0.7 4.06 2.04 318 Meat and Liquor 87 - 2.2 3.85 1.94 291
Rhubarb 95 -0.9 4.06 2.04 318 Oyster in Shell 80 -2.8 3.68 1.85 268
Rutabagas 89 -1.1 3.90 1.96 298 Beef
Salsify 79 -1.1 3.65 1.84 265 Carcass (60% lean) 49 -1.7 2.90 1.46 164
Spinach 93 -0.3 4.00 2.01 312 Carcass (54% lean) 4' -2.2 2.80 1.41 151
Squash, Summer 94 -0.5 4.03 2.02 315 Sirloin, Retail Cut S6 - 3.08 I.55 188
Squash, Winter 85 -0.8 3.80 1.91 285 Round, Retail Cut 67 - 3.35 1.68 224
Tomatoes, Dried, Chipped 48 - 2.88 1.44 161
Mature Green 93 -0.6 4.00 2.01 312 Liver 70 -1.7 3.43 1.72 235
Ripe 94 -0.5 4.03 2.02 315 Veal, Carcass (81% lean) 66 - 3.33 1.67 221
Turnip Greens 90 -0.2 3.93 1.97 302 Pork
Turnip 92 -1.1 3.98 2.00 308 Bacon 19 - 2.15 1.08 64
Watercress 93 -0.3 4.00 2.01 312 Ham, light Cure 57 - 3.10 1.56 191
Fruits Ham, Country Cure 42 - 2.72 1.37 141
Apples, Fresh 84 -1.1 3.78 1.90 281 Carcass (47% lean) 37 - 2.60 1.31 124
Apples, Dried 24 - 2.27 1.14 80 Bellies (33% lean) 30 - 2.42 1.22 101
Apricots 85 -1.1 3.80 1.91 285 Backfat (100% Fat) 8 - 1.87 0.94 27
Avocados 65 -0.3 3.30 1.66 218 Shoulder (67% lean) 49 - 2.2 2.90 1.46 164
Bananas 75 -0.8 3.55 1.79 251 Ham (74% lean) 56 -1.7 3.08 I.55 188
Blackberries 85 -0.8 3.80 1.91 285 Sausage
Blueberries 82 -1.6 3.73 1.87 275 links or Bulk 38 - 2.62 1.32 127
Cantaloupes 92 -1.2 3.98 2.00 308 Country Style,
50 - 3.9 2.93 1.47 168
Cherries, Sour 84 -1.7 3.78 1.90 281 Smoked
Cherries, Sweet 80 -1.8 3.68 1.85 268 Frankfurters 56 -1.7 3.08 I.55 188
Cranberries 87 -0.9 3.85 1.94 291 Polish Style 54 - 3.03 1.52 181
Currants 8S -1.0 3.80 1.91 285 Lamb
Dates, Cured 20 - 15.7 2.17 1.09 67 Composite of Cuts
Figs, Fresh 78 - 2.4 3.63 1.82 261 (67% lean) 61 - 1.9 3.20 1.61 204
Figs, Dried 23 - 2.25 1.13 77 Leg (83% lean) 65 - 3.30 1.66 218
Gooseberries 89 -1.1 3.90 1.96 298
Grapefruit 89 -1.1 3.90 1.96 298
Grapes, American 82 - 1.6 3.73 1.87 275

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Exhibit 9-5: Thermal and related properties of food and food materials (continued)
Highest Specific Heat Latent Highest Specific Heat Latent

Water Freezing Above Below Heat of Water Freezing Above Below Heat of
Food or Food Food or Food
Content Point, Freezing Freezing Fusion Content Point, Freezing Freezing Fusion
Materials o Materials
%(mass) C kJ/kg.oC kJ/kg.oC kJ/kg %(mass) o
C kJ/kg.oC kJ/kg.oC kJ/kg
Dairy Products Chicken 74 -2.8 3.53 1.77 248
Butter 16 - 2.07 1.04 54 Turkey 64 - 3.28 1.65 214
Cheese, Duck 69 - 3.40 1.71 231
Camembert 52 - 2.98 1.50 174 Miscellaneous
Cheddar 37 - 12.9 2.60 1.31 124 Honey 17 - 2.10 1.68 57
Cottage, Uncreamed 79 -1.2 3.65 1.84 265 Maple Syrup 33 - 2.50 1.26 111
Cream 51 - 2.95 1.48 171 Popcorn, Unpopped 10 - 1.92 0.97 34
Limburger 45 -7.4 2.80 1.41 151 Yeast, Bakers, Comp. 71 - 3.45 1.73 238
Roquefort 40 - 16.3 2.67 1.34 134 Candy,
Swiss 39 - 10.0 2.65 1.33 131 Milk Chocolate I - 1.70 0.85 3
Process. American 40 -6.9 2.68 1.34 134 Peanut Brittle 2 - 1.72 0.87 7
Cream, Fudge, Vanilla 10 - 1.92 0.97 34
Half and Half 80 - 3.68 1.85 268 Marshmallows 17 - 2.10 1.05 57
Table 72 - 2.2 3.48 1.75 241 Peanuts, Shelled
Whipping, Heavy 57 - 3.10 1.56 191 with Skins 6 - 1.82 0.92 20
Ice Cream (10% Fat) 63 -5.6 3.25 1.63 211 with Skins Roasted 2 - 1.72 0.87 7
Milk, Pecans 3 - 1.75 0.88 10
Cond. Sweetened 27 - 15.0 2.35 1.18 90 Almonds 5 - 1.80 0.90 17
Evap. Unsweet. 74 -1.4 3.53 1.77 248 Walnuts, English 4 - 1.78 0.89 13
Dried (Whole) 2 - 1.72 0.87 7 Filberts 6 - 1.82 0.92 20
Dried (Nonfat) 3 - I.75 0.88 10
Fluid (3.7% Fat) 87 -0.6 3.85 1.94 291 Water contents of fruits and vegetables are from Lutz and Hardbenburg
Fluid (Skim) 91 - 3.95 1.99 305 (1968), except for Jerusalem artichokes; dried beans; and peas, yams,
Whey, Dried 5 - 1.80 0.90 17 dried apples figs, peaches, prunes, and raisins; the latter are from Watt
Poultry Products and Merill; water contents of eggs (yolks, salted) and fish are from
Eggs, ASHRAE (1972, 1974, and 1978).
Whole (Fresh) 74 -0.6 3.53 1.77 247 Freezing points of fruits and vegetables are from Whiteman (1957), and
Whites 88 -0.6 3.88 1.95 295 average freezing points of other foods are ASHRAE (1972, 1974, and
Yolks 51 -0.6 2.95 1.48 171 1978).
Yolks (Sugared) 51 - 3.9 2.95 1.48 171 Specific heat was calculated from Siebel’s formulas (1892).
Yolks (Salted) 50 - 17.2 2.93 1.47 168 Latent heat of fusion was obtained by multiplying water content
Dried (Whole) 4 - 1.77 0.89 13 expressed in decimal form by 144, the heat of fusion of water in Btu/lb.
Dried (White) 9 - 1.90 0.95 30
Cold Storage
In the typical cold storage house the space may be divided into: (i) coolers, (ii) carrying freezers,
and (iii) sharp freezers. The coolers may be further subdivided into warm coolers, chill rooms and
holding rooms.
The food rooms are held above the freezing temperature of the perishables. Rooms that are kept
above 5°C are for storage of those products that preserve best at relatively high temperatures.
Those that are kept at temperatures between 5°C and -2°C are either for chilling incoming
products or for long-term holding storage.
Carrying freezers are generally held between -30oC and -10oC for the long term holding of frozen
products. Sharp freezer storage is used for quick freezing of unfrozen goods with little change in
the temperature of the freezing room. Commonly the product is subsequently transferred to
carrying freezers.
Successful food preservation requires low temperatures, correct humidity, proper atmosphere and
odor control. The storage temperature and humidity vary greatly by foodstuffs to be preserved.
Some foodstuffs preserve longer in controlled atmospheres such as carbon dioxide rich (oxygen
poor) atmospheres. Such storage rooms are kept tightly sealed.
Quick Freezing
Quick freezing is the process of rapidly chilling foodstuffs so as not to damage the texture of the
product. Quick freezing is not applicable to or desirable in all food categories. Slow freezing of
meats often acts as a tenderizing mechanism. Quick freezing is typically accomplished by: (i) cold
air blast, (ii) metal plates, (iii) containerized freezing, and (iv) liquid immersion or spraying.

121
In cold air blast freezing, high velocity chilled air is blown across the product until it is
sufficiently frozen. Typical1y the blast freezer is a tunnel or chamber in which the product is
conveyed linearly or in a spiral as it is being frozen. Because the rate of heat transfer from product
to still air is relatively slow, this rate is increased through high air velocities and large temperature
differentials. Temperatures as low as -40°C and velocities as great as 25 m/s are not uncommon.
Cold air blast freezing is more acceptable for smaller products because of the large surface area
relative to overall product volume.
Metal plates have been used successful1y for quick freezing since the inception of the frozen food
industry. The plates can be cooled by direct expansion or by brine. Many devices have been
described in which a loose product, such as berries, peas and lima beans, are moved by conveyers
while in contact with chilled metal surfaces. Typically the metal surface is stationary and the
product is conveyed along its surface by a scraper or screw. In another design the foodstuffs are
packaged and the package brought into contact with chilled metal plates. The plates· may be
stationary or movable. The package may be frozen from one side or both. A common design is a
double plate press freezer. Boxed product is loaded into the freezer, the plates are brought into
contact with the top and bottom of the box, and the product is chilled until frozen then unloaded.
A disadvantage of this freezing method is that most packaging materials act as insulation. Plate
freezers have been developed that freeze the product prior to packaging.
In containerized freezing the product is sterilized, canned, sealed, and then submerged in a low-
temperature brine until frozen. High heat transfer rates are obtained by rapid circulation of brine
over the cans, by movement of the cans and by agitation of the product in the cans. Another
method employed in containerized freezing is immersing the hermetically sealed packages in a
bath of evaporating liquid propane.
Immersion and spraying systems were recommended in the latter part of the 18th century.
Aqueous solutions containing common salt are suggested for treating meat, fish and vegetables.
Sugar syrups and solutions containing other sugar and other soluble carbohydrates are used to
freeze fruits. Poultry is sometimes frozen by submersion in a bath of carbon dioxide with the gas
being recovered for reuse. Another method of immersion freezing is cal1ed “polyphase” freezing.
A typical medium is composed of dextrose, sucrose and water which is maintained in solid, liquid
and vapor phases at the same time. This method has the advantages of extremely high thermal
capacity and increased thermal conductivity.
Freeze Drying
Certain products cannot be kept in the liquid form for an appreciable time and must be reduced to
dry powders, which can then be kept at chill or ambient temperatures. The water must be removed
to make them into powders, but any heating above ambient to boil off the water would lead to
rapid deterioration. The water must therefore be removed at low temperature, requiring low
pressures of the order of 125 Pa.
The process is carried out in a vacuum chamber fitted with refrigerated contact freezing plates,
heaters and a vacuum pump. Between the chamber and the pump may be a refrigerated separator
to prevent too much of the moisture entering the pump. The product is placed in containers on the
plates and frozen down to about -25°C, depending on the product, but sometimes as low as -50oC.
The vacuum and, at the same time, a carefully controlled amount of heat are then applied, to
provide the latent heat of sublimation (ice to vapor) without allowing the temperature to fall. As
the water is driven off, the product collapses to a dry powder. This is extremely hygroscopic and
must be packed in air-tight containers as quickly as possible on completion of the cycle.
This process was developed for the preservation of antibiotics, but is now in widespread use for
other products such as "instant" coffee, tea, and soup.

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Freeze Concentration
Freeze concentration is most widely known for its use in the concentrated juice industry. This
method is based on the natural freezing process by which water freezes out of solution, leaving
the fruit solids behind. Freeze concentration only requires 15 percent of the energy needed to
remove water by evaporation. In industrial practice, the juice is frozen in a continuous slush
freezer and the slush is centrifuged to further concentrate the fruit solids. Juices are concentrated
by two other popular methods: (i) low-temperature vacuum evaporation, and (ii) high-speed, high-
temperature evaporation. In these two methods, the juice is heated and the water vapor is
condensed from the air onto a chilled evaporator surface.
9.3.3 Textiles
Refrigeration use in the textile industry is for comfort and humidity control. Worldwide, the most
common refrigeration machine is an air washer. An air washer is analogous to a large evaporative
cooler which uses chilled water to bring the wet bulb temperature of the air significantly below
that of ambient conditions. This results in dehumidification and filtration in hot and humid
climates. In dry climates, air washers can be operated without chilled water in which case they act
as evaporative coolers and humidifiers.
Air washers are not used in Pakistan. Evaporative coolers can provide comfort cooling in most
areas of the country. By adding moisture to the air, the evaporative coolers can reduce the supply
air temperature to within a few degrees of the outdoor wet bulb temperature.
9.3.4 Chemicals
At one time or another, virtually all of the common refrigerants, as well as many less common
ones, have been used in the chemical industry. Because of their nontoxic, nonflammable
properties, the halogenated hydrocarbons are in predominant use throughout much of the chemical
industry. However, hydrocarbons such as methane, propane, ethane, propylene, ethylene, or
ammonia are used in many cases where the process stream involves them as constituents.
Of the secondary coolants, calcium and sodium chloride brines have been used most often,
although glycols and such halocarbons as methylene chloride, trichlorethylene, R-11, and R-12
also have been frequent choices. Many of the same factors that influence refrigerant selection
must be considered in choosing a secondary coolant. Corrosivity, toxicity, and stability are again
of special significance in determining suitability for chemical plant service.
Although the broad range of refrigeration requirements within the chemical industry requires the
use of all types of systems, the use of an indirect type, in which brine or chilled water is circulated
to air washers, cooling coils, and process heat exchangers from a central refrigeration plant, is
much more prevalent than in the food industry or in residential or light commercial comfort air
conditioning. This is particularly true where large capacities or low temperature levels are
involved. The indirect systems permit centralization of the refrigeration equipment and associated
auxiliaries in one location, which may offer significant advantages in operation and maintenance,
particularly if remote location of the refrigeration equipment permits design, operation, and
maintenance in a non-hazardous location. It also may permit the installation of a minimum
number of large units rather than many small units located in remote areas. For low temperature
systems of significant capacity, it has become common to install an indirect brine cooling system
in the process area close to the process users.
Where it is possible to minimize the number of process heat exchangers requiring cooling and the
length of piping involved, a direct system, which uses the refrigerant in the process heat exchange
equipment, often proves to be the optimum design, particularly for small or medium loads. Since
an indirect heat exchanger is not required in this case, a higher operating suction pressure and a
consequent higher COP will result, and both operating and investment savings may be possible.

123
Direct systems are also frequently used when a refrigerant is involved in the manufacturing
process stream, as in the production of ammonia or many petrochemicals. Here, the length of
refrigerant lines, with possible high refrigerant losses because of leakage, is a less significant
factor in system selection.
Direct systems are usually of the dry expansion or flooded evaporator design. The use of flooded
coil systems of the gravity feed or pumped liquid overfeed design is relatively uncommon within
the chemical industry at present; however, in certain special cases, this type of installation has
proved to be the best choice.
9.3.5 Petroleum Refining

In petroleum processing, refrigeration is used: (i) to control vapor pressure of highly volatile
constituents (methane, ethane, propane, and butane), such control being necessary during
distillation, during processing and for recovery of gasoline fractions from natural gas; (ii) to shift
the solubility relationship so that undesired constituents such as asphalt and wax in lubricating
oils may be removed by precipitation; (iii) to produce selective chemical reactions such those
which occur when sulfuric acid is used to remove gum-forming constituents from light fuels or
when an alkylate fuel fraction is formed by combining a low molecular weight unsaturated with a
similar saturated hydrocarbon. Alkylate is a valuable and important constituent of aviation fuels.
To control the vapor pressure of highly volatile constituents, temperature ranging from -40°C or
lower to 10°C or l5°C are required. The typical refrigerants used are ammonia, propane or butane.
For the higher temperatures spray-cooled water or jet refrigerating units are sometimes
satisfactory.
To precipitate asphalt and wax it is possible to use propane as a combined solvent and refrigerant.
The evaporation of the propane causes the required cooling with the temperature (approx. -40°C)
being controlled by the pressure held on the equipment. The propane vapor is recompressed,
condensed and reused as in any compression cycle.
For producing selective chemical reactions, temperatures of -7°C to l5°C are typically required.
Ammonia is satisfactory for this temperature range and is widely used.
The petroleum industry makes common use of hydrocarbon refrigerants such as methane,
propane, ethane, propylene, ethylene and ammonia. This is particularly true when the process
stream involves them as constituents. Likewise, because of the large quantities of available
combustible byproducts of petroleum refining, absorption refrigeration units are frequently
utilized.
The trend in the petroleum industry is toward more widespread use of refrigeration and toward
lower temperatures because the recovery of the lightest petroleum fractions is becoming more
widely practiced and because more carefully prepared products are being demanded. Even at low
temperatures, the use of refrigeration is economical if efficient heat transfer equipment is used to
cool the incoming warm streams to the temperature of the exiting cold streams. In the ideal case,
refrigeration is only needed for the removal of heat liberated at the lower temperatures.
9.3.6 Plastics Fabrication

Refrigeration in plastics fabrication is primarily to chill molds which allows for faster cycle times.
There is a limited number of comfort cooling and humidity control applications but none of them
are peculiar to the plastics industry.
Typical process refrigeration equipment consist of small mold chillers for plastics that have
mildly exothermic reactions during extrusion or injection, individual or group chillers for small
numbers of molding machines forming plastics with stronger exothermic reactions, and central

124
chillers for large banks of molding machines. The small mold chillers frequently heat and cool the
same working fluid (usually water) at different parts of the mold cycle.
One mold chiller serves each molding machine. Again, these small mold chillers are typically
used in polycarbonate and polystyrene molding.
Polyethylene and polypropylene molds are typically cooled with individual, group or central
chillers. In older installations each chiller typically serves one to three molding machines. This
practice has the advantage of lower initial cost for each plant expansion (plastics plants usually
grow by several machines at a time, each with its associated chiller). Significant energy savings
are possible by replacing the individual or group chillers by a central chiller that serves all the
molding machines.
Halocarbon refrigerants are typically used in the plastics fabrication industries. Compressors and
chillers are usually reciprocating or centrifugal, being driven by electrical motors. Absorption
units are infrequently employed.

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10 Operation and Maintenance Practices
Operation and maintenance practices have a significant effect on the energy efficiency of all types
of refrigeration equipment. Although proper maintenance and operation is needed to ensure useful
life, a secondary benefit is the energy cost savings achieved. This chapter will review those
operation and maintenance practices which have a direct energy use impact.
10.1 Automatic Control Systems

Check Thermostat Settings - Setting thermostats for space cooling lower than 22°C will
greatly increase energy consumption. Energy use will increase approximately 5% for every 1°C
reduction in setpoint temperature. But simply setting a thermostat at 22oC does not guarantee that
is what one will get. Check the calibration of each thermostat every six months with an accurate
thermometer and make the necessary adjustments.
Minimize Run Times - The most important function of any control system is the scheduling of
equipment (turning it on and off). Tremendous savings can be achieved by ensuring that cooling
equipment does not run in unoccupied buildings. Seven-day mechanical time clocks have been
widely utilized for equipment scheduling and are perfectly adequate if properly maintained. All
too often, however, pins are removed or the clock is bypassed, causing equipment to run
continuously. During holidays and other unusual periods of non-use, reset the time clock to ensure
that equipment stays off. Electronic time clocks are also effective when properly maintained and
may offer additional benefits such as pre-programmed holiday schedules, increased ease of
schedule changes, automatic correction for daylight savings time, and multichannel capability.
Make sure that an electronic time clock has a battery back-up system and that the battery is
replaced periodically.
Calibration - Check control systems for proper control function and calibration at least every
six months, preferably every three. Develop a control system check-out and calibration procedure
for each building. Because pneumatic controls are more susceptible to drift and loss of calibration
than electric and electronic controls, they should receive more frequent attention. Clean, dry air is
essential for proper operation of pneumatic controls. Compressed-air dryers should be checked
and serviced regularly because moisture in the compressed-air system can cause extensive and
expensive damage.
10.2 Central Refrigeration Equipment

Central air-conditioning equipment includes electric and absorption chillers, air-cooled and water-
cooled condensing units, cooling towers, evaporative condensers, pumps, controls, and other
miscellaneous equipment. Because these are usually big energy users, proper operation and
maintenances will payoff in significant energy savings. In addition to following manufacturers’
operational and maintenance recommendations for central refrigeration equipment, the attention
to the following items will significantly affect energy use.
Reduce Water-Side Fouling - Fouling on the water-side of the chiller bundle (evaporator) by
dirt or scale buildup will cause the suction pressure to drop. Fouling of water-cooled condensers
will raise discharge pressures. Both cause higher head pressures for the compressor, resulting in
increased energy use. Fouling of the water-cooled condenser is more likely because the condenser
water is usually open to the atmosphere. Check for fouling at least annually. Changes in suction or
discharge pressures greater than 21 kPa are a good indication of significant fouling.

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Raise Chilled-Water Temperature - Keep chilled-water temperatures as high as possible
and condenser water temperatures as low as possible. Exhibit 10-1 shows graphically the percent
energy savings, and Exhibit 10-2 presents the chiller COP relationship with chiller water
temperature. Increasing the chilled-water temperature raises the refrigerant pressure in the
evaporator and therefore the compressor suction pressure. An increase in chilled-water
temperature alone of 5°C can reduce compressor power consumption by as much as 15 percent.
Chilled-water systems typically produce 5°C to 7°C chilled water. Such a low temperature may be
required during the hottest days of the year, however, chilled-water temperatures as high as 13°C
can be utilized during moderate periods. Raising chilled-water temperatures will affect humidity
levels so care must be taken if humidity levels are already critical. Lowering condenser water
temperatures can be accomplished by adjustment of the cooling tower fan operation. Usually, the
cooling-tower fan is set to turn on when condenser water temperature reaches 29°C and off when
it reaches 27°C. A more energy-efficient setting is 24°C (fan on) and 21°C (fan off). Compressor
power is reduced by approximately 10 percent for every 5°C reduction in condenser water
temperature. The lowest setting for condenser water temperature, usually 18°C, is set by the
chiller manufacturer.
Exhibit 10-1: Energy savings from reset of chilled water and condenser water temperature
Exhibit 10-2: Chiller COP relationship with chilled water temperature

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Reduce Hot-Gas Bypass - Another enemy of efficient chiller operation is a control technique
known as hot-gas bypass. This allows larger compressors to operate at low load levels by
diverting some of the hot gas from the compressor discharge directly to the evaporator, bypassing
the condenser. This hot gas places a false cooling load on the system and maintains a minimum
load on the compressor. It is very much like controlling the speed of your car with the brakes
while holding the throttle open. While the degree of control that hot-gas bypass affords may be
necessary for certain critical applications, such as in a hospital operating room, it is often over
applied and unnecessary.
Check Compressor Capacity Control - The proper operation of compressor capacity
controls is essential for efficient part-load operation. Check cylinder unloaders for proper
sequencing and adjustment. If hot-gas bypass is utilized, adjust the bypass valve so that it does not
begin to open until the compressor has reached its minimum capacity level through cylinder
unloading. Check the staging of the hot-gas bypass and the compressor unloaders at least each
spring. Hot-gas bypass often can be eliminated entirely by substituting a low-limit supply air
temperature or refrigerant pressure control to cycle the compressor.
Check Automatic Control Systems - Check chiller controls frequently for proper function
and calibration. And consider installing an outdoor air thermostat that will lock out the chiller
when the outdoor temperature drops. If such a control already exists, then gradually raise the
setpoint until the maximum acceptable temperature is found.
Clean and Flush Cooling Towers - Clean and flush tower basins semiannually. Also
provide an automatic bleed to remove some of the concentrated water in the basin, introducing
fresh make-up water with lower mineral content. Chemical treatment is also necessary to inhibit
scale buildup and to prevent the growth of algae. Chemical treatment for cooling towers and
evaporative condensers is a difficult task involving some sensitive environmental concerns. A
competent chemical treatment firm can provide appropriate advice.
Clean Air-Cooled Condensers - Air-cooled refrigeration equipment depends upon effective
heat removal from the condenser coils to the atmosphere for efficient operation. Clean condenser
coils annually with a high-pressure washer and coil-brightening solution, and check frequently for
trash and debris that can collect on the coils. Keep weeds and grass clear of the air intakes and
maintain adequate clearance for airflow on all sides. Installation of solid fencing or bushes to hide
these units may be appealing; however, if the hot discharge air is short-circuited to the unit's
intake, capacity, efficiency, and equipment life will all decline.
10.3 Packaged HVAC Units

The category of packaged HVAC units covers a broad range of equipment, from individual room
air conditioners to large rooftop air-conditioners. Packaged units include a complete refrigeration
system (either air- or water-cooled), a supply air blower and motor, air filters, and controls. They
may also incorporate heating from an electric strip heater, gas furnace, or heat pump mode of
operation. Highlights for O&M energy savings follow.
Turn It Off - The easiest way to save energy with packaged equipment is to turn it off in
unoccupied areas. For individual room units, this may involve indoctrinating the primary
occupants into the habit of turning equipment off at the end of the day. Also, have the custodial
staff double check that units are turned off. Check control timers regularly for proper settings. For
units not on a time clock or other timing device, consider replacing the thermostats with a
programmable electronic set-back thermostat.
Check the Charge - Maintaining a proper refrigerant charge is essential to maintaining the
efficiency of packaged units. An inadequate charge increases the run time of the equipment and
can increase energy consumption substantially. Heat pumps operating in the heating mode are

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particularly sensitive to refrigerant charge. Check refrigerant levels at the beginning of the cooling
season and again at mid-season. Check heat pumps again in the fall and mid-winter.
Reduce Air Leakage - Another source of energy loss from packaged units located on the
building exterior is air leakage through the unit panels and from exposed ductwork. Check
equipment panels for leaks and straighten or replace gaskets if necessary. Check for leaks in
exposed ductwork and caulk with silicone sealant. Also check for proper outdoor air percentage,
usually 10 percent.
Replace Air Filters - Overloaded filters reduce airflow across the cooling coil, which drives
down the refrigerant temperature and pressure in the coil and lowers efficiency. Window air
conditioners tend to receive the poorest maintenance of all, and filters are often removed
altogether. With no filter, dirt will accumulate directly on the cooling coil and can be very
difficult to remove. In general, replace air filters every one to two months, depending on the
operating environment and total operating hours.
Adjust Belt Drives - Loose and slipping V-belts on supply fans (and sometimes on condenser
fans) can also cause loss of airflow and therefore efficiency. Regularly inspect belts for cracks and
proper tension. Replacing all belts annually as part of a preventive maintenance program will pay
for itself through reduced service calls and higher operating efficiency. When replacing V-belts,
consider using the notched-type belts instead of the conventional type because they offer longer
life and lower drive losses.
10.4 Air Handling and Air Distribution Equipment

Larger central station air-handling units and other air distribution such as exhaust systems also
need substantial maintenance to maintain optimum efficiency. The more complex types, such as
multi-zone, double-duct, and VAV (variable air volume), often involve complicated control
strategies and require frequent calibration of the control devices. Attention to the following areas
will result in significant energy savings.
Adjust Timing Controls - Adjust timing controls for the minimum run times based on
occupancy. Also, ensure that exhaust fans are interlocked with air-handling units.
Check Economizer Controls - Economizer controls vary the amount of outside air brought
into the building based on outdoor temperature (dry-bulb economizer) or on both outdoor
temperature and humidity (enthalpy economizer). Economizer controls do save energy but they
are notoriously difficult to maintain and keep calibrated. This is especially true with enthalpy
economizers. Improper calibration can actually increase energy usage over a system with no
economizer. Check these controls at least every six months.
Check Motors and Drives - Supply fan motors consume considerable energy. The total
connected load of these motors may even exceed that of the chiller (See section 10-6). For air-
handling units incorporating variable inlet vanes or fan speed control, check for airflow
modulation. Check these controls monthly for proper function.
Reduce Air Leakage - Air leakage from ductwork located in unconditioned areas such as
attics, basements, and crawl spaces can represent a substantial waste of energy. Check ductwork
in these locations for leaks and properly seal them. Air leakage around grilles and registers is also
fairly common and should be corrected. Of course, check all ductwork in unconditioned areas to
ensure that it is insulated.

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10.5 Piping Distribution System
The refrigeration's piping distribution systems factors greatly into overall system energy use. The
following areas deserve attention to save energy.
Review Piping Layout - Review the piping layout to identify areas of unnecessary pressure
drop caused by constrictions, unnecessary turns or small radius elbows, turns too close to pump
exits, non-smooth transitions, incorrectly sized piping or flow stations.
Insulate Pipes - Watch for missing or inadequate insulation on any piping carrying cooled
fluids (chilled water, chilled glycol, etc.). If the surface of the insulation feels cool to the touch, it
is probably not doing its job. Consider adding an additional layer to marginally insulated pipes. A
good rule of thumb estimate of heat loss can be determined by using a heat transfer coefficient of
11 Watts/m2 .oC, where m2 reflects the pipe surface area and °C reflects the temperature difference
between the pipe surface and ambient space temperature. Wet insulation usually results from leaks
in the pipes or fittings; however, condensation can penetrate the insulation on chilled piping if
there is no vapor barrier jacket around the insulation.
Clean Pipe Strainers - Strainers should be cleaned frequently to ensure that flow is not
impeded.
Motors and Drives - Check for proper drive alignment and lubrication. Follow
recommendation in Section 10-6 for care of motors.
10.6 Electric Motors

As the primary driver for most refrigeration system components, proper operation and
maintenance of electric motors is needed for efficient system operation. Unfortunately, because
electric motors require little attention to operate, maintenance is often neglected.
To ensure efficient motor operation, the following activities should be performed on a regular
basis (at least quarterly):
 Keep motor clear and well ventilated.
 Keep motor and drive clean.
 Adjust tension on drive belt.
 Lubricate as specified.
 Check for loose electrical connections.
 Check alignment of motor and drive.
 Check for overheating.
 Check for voltage and phase balance.
 Check for vibration.
Keeping motors clean, lubricated, and well ventilated helps them run cool. This will save energy
and increase motor life. Supply voltage should also be kept within 10% of motor nameplate data
to avoid overheating. And for three-phase motors, the voltage of each phase should be within 1 to
2% to avoid overheating. Phase imbalance can result from loose or dirty connections, improperly
connected transformers, and unbalanced loads. Very rarely, voltage imbalance comes from the
utility as a result of a serious load imbalance at a neighboring facility. Just a 2% voltage
imbalance can cause a 10% increase in motor losses and a 5% imbalance can increase losses by
30%.

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Check for proper loading. The operating efficiency of any type of motor is at maximum at full
load and decreases sharply as the load falls below 50% of the motor input rating. Motor loading
can be checked by measuring the motor’s RPM and comparing it to nameplate data or by
measuring voltage, current, and power factor at the motor terminals and comparing those to a
motor performance curve. A professional usually conducts this type of testing.
When motors do fail, careful consideration should be given to the type of new motor purchased or
the quality of rewinding done. Generally, motors should be rewound only once as they decrease in
efficiency by approximately 3% each time they are rewound. Specify high-quality materials when
rewinding to minimize efficiency loss. When replacing motors, the additional cost for a high-
efficiency type will usually be offset by energy saving in less than one year. High efficiency
motors are built with special lamination, more copper, and closer tolerances than standard motors
in order to increase efficiency.
10.7 Plant monitoring

The instrumentation fitted to a system enables on-site plant operators or off-site contractors to
monitor performance and detect faults before they cause major decline in efficiency.
10.7.1 Log Sheets

Plant log sheets should be kept, containing information on normal operation as well as recording
day to day operation. These logs allow performance to be assessed providing that:
 Data is measured and recorded accurately, and information is correctly analyzed.
 Problems found are followed by appropriate action and recorded.
The data recorded on a log sheet for a specific plant will depend on the characteristics of that
plant. Exhibit 10-3 shows an example log sheet for the plant shown in Exhibit 8-1.
Exhibit 10-3: Example log sheet

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Performance Monitoring and Measurement
The data recorded on the log sheet should be sufficient to allow plant performance to be assessed,
if this is possible, and compared with the design performance. If a drop in performance is
discovered, the cause should be found and rectified as quickly as possible.
In order to calculate capacity the following information is necessary:
 Flow rate of the fluid being cooled
 Temperature difference of cooled fluid
 Fluid heat capacity
Where air is being cooled it is not always possible to measure true air flow accurately, so such a
calculation cannot be carried out.
Compressor power draw and calculated capacity can be compared against the standard data for the
compressor at the actual operating conditions of the system.
The condenser performance can also be checked, although again this is more difficult for an air-
cooled condenser.
Automatic Performance Monitoring and Expert Systems
Purpose designed microprocessor-based systems are now available to provide local and remote
control and monitoring. To comply with safety standards the compressor high pressure switch
should remain hard wired, but all other controls and switches can be connected to the
microprocessor. Visits to site by a skilled refrigeration engineer are still necessary to ensure that
warning signs, such as oil leaks and unusual noises, are not overlooked.
The microprocessor can be programmed to complete the performance calculations, or data can be
input into a separate computer for further processing. Component data, e.g. for the compressor,
can be included so that thorough analysis can be carried out by the computer.
10.7.2 Fault Finding and Diagnosis

The monitoring and analysis described above often gives a very good indication of system
problems. A skilled refrigeration engineer, with a good basic understanding of the principles of
refrigeration, should be able to diagnose faults from the results. Exhibit 10-4, which lists common
faults and causes, is not intended as a substitute for such an engineer, but gives further
information on how system efficiency is affected by faults. The figures quoted for loss of
efficiency and capacity are typical of those found in real installations - the actual value could be
better or worse depending on the system and the duration of the fault.
Faults which have developed to such an extent that safety switches trip must be rectified before
the plant is re-started and left to run unattended.
A microprocessor-controlled system can be programmed to diagnose faults automatically,
enabling them to be put right before they cause major problems due to lack of cooling. If such a
system is not available, a separate computer can be used for data entry and fault diagnosis. This
will be much cheaper, but will not be as accurate because a continuous log of events will not be
available.

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Exhibit 10-4: Common faults in refrigeration systems
Major symptom Other symptoms Fault solution Operational cost

penalty
Low cooling duty Bubbles in liquid line System undercharged Add refrigerant to Up to 25% or more
compared with and low or zero LP float or TEV correct level reduction in duty and
compressor curves subcooling from system COP
condenser
On HP float systems: HP float valve stuck Determine why Up to 50% reduction
open, bypassed, gas bypass valve was in duty and COP
passing opened initially.
Correct fault and
close bypass valve
High actual Broken or obstructed Repair valve and Loss of duty in
compressor reciprocating identify and rectify proportion to
discharge compressor suction cause of blockage Or cylinders affected
temperature and low valve obstruction
compressor absorbed
power
High actual Broken or obstructed Repair valve and Loss of duty and
compressor reciprocating identify and rectify COP in proportion to
discharge compressor cause of breakage or cylinders affected
temperature discharge valve obstruction
Poor evaporator Low evaporating Fouling of air/water Clean evaporator and Up to 15% loss in
effectiveness pressure high side of evaporator locate and cure COP, 25% loss of
water/air side source of fouling cooling duty
pressure drop
Low evaporating Blocked suction Clean suction Up to 15% loss in
pressure high strainer strainer. Identify and COP, 25% loss of
apparent superheat rectify source of cooling duty
blockage
Loss of oil from Oil accumulation in Remove excess oil, Up to 30% reduction
compressor crankcase flooded evaporator install effective oil in COP
drain or rectification
system
Loss of oil from Poor oil return from Re-design suction Up to 25% reduction
compressor expansion valve side pipework in COP
crankcase system
In all systems, Obstruction in liquid Locate and clear Up to 25% reduction
possible high liquid line obstruction. Identify in duty and COP
line subcooling, high cause and rectify
suction superheat
Poor condenser High condensing Very high Remove excess Up to 10% loss of
effectiveness temperature, high overcharge of LP charge duty, 15% reduction
liquid subcooling float or TEV system in COP
High condensing, Air or non- Purge non- Up to 10% loss in
high liquid condensable gas in condensable gas in COP
subcooling system system
High water/air side Fouling of air/water Clean condenser and Up to 25% loss in
pressure drop side of condenser locate and cure COP, 10% loss in
source of fouling duty
Low suction LP float and TEV: Incorrect or faulty Identify and rectify Up to 15% reduction
superheat possible low expansion device fault in duty. Potential
compressor control compressor failure
discharge due to liquid carry
temperature over
High suction HP float: low liquid System undercharged Add refrigerant to Up. to 10% loss of
superheat level in evaporator correct level duty, 7½% reduction
in COP

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10.7.3 Plant Records
A complete set of plant records is essential for the efficient and safe operation of a refrigeration
system. They should consist of:
 A schematic refrigeration circuit or flow diagram
 Wiring diagrams
 A regularly updated plant register containing: - system specification
 full details of each component

 pressure tests and maximum working pressures
 safety device checks
 regular inspection details
Full details of what should be included are contained in the Institute of Refrigeration Codes of
Practice.
 A complete copy of the commissioning test readings and calculations - these give the
best evidence of correct plant performance.
Plant Inspection and Maintenance
Users should draw up a scheme appropriate to the range of equipment installed, and should
identify staff within or outside their organization who are able to carry out the tasks. The Institute
of Refrigeration Codes of Practice contain specimen schedules.

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11 Purchasing Refrigeration Equipment
11.1 Specifying the System Requirements

This Section covers information which should be included in the specification for a system.
Cooling Capacity
The way that cooling capacity is defined will vary according to the application. A full set of
product or process data is necessary to enable the application engineer to calculate accurately the
duty cycle that the installation will have to match.
For instance, a process cooling load might specify:
 The quantity and type of liquid to be cooled
 The temperature of the liquid into the evaporator
 The temperature required after cooling
An acceptable tolerance will usually be given for each of these parameters.
Any data specific to an application must be noted, so that allowance can be made in the system
design to match any change in load; for example, if there can be variations in both the supply
temperature and the flow, but the final processed temperature has to remain stable.
If the application is for food storage additional data will be required to specify:
 The quantity of food being delivered.
 The storage period
 The type of packaging
Ambient Conditions
Ambient conditions set the limits within which the plant will have to operate. For instance,
anticipated dry bulb temperatures will be required for air-cooled condensers, whereas wet bulb
conditions will be required for evaporative condensers. Ambient conditions will depend on the
area in which the plant is being installed.
Capital and Operating Costs
The method by which the capital and operating costs will be evaluated should be stated. This will
allow proposals to be drawn up giving options on the split between a high or low capital
investment, with the corresponding variations in the plant’s operating costs. Depending on the
projected life of the installation, the most economic full life proposal can then be selected.
11.2 Standards and Codes of Practice

The Institute of Refrigeration publishes Codes of Practice for all applications which list other
Standards and relevant publications relating to the design, construction and maintenance of
refrigeration plant. Particular notice is drawn to the matters related to the safety of refrigeration
systems. It should also be noted that there are specific safety requirements that apply to ammonia
plants, independent of those for halocarbon installations.

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11.3 Commissioning
A full performance check should be requested in the plant specification, to be completed before
plant is handed over to the end user. Equally, it is up to the end user or a representative to ensure
that the system is working to the required specification and the plant should not be accepted until
its operation is satisfactory.
A complete set of the plant’s operating documentation should be given to the end user at the time
of handover, to enable future servicing to maintain the installation at its design efficiency. This
data should be kept in a safe place on site, and made available to service technicians on request.
11.4 Information Required in Proposals

Any proposals submitted for a contract should contain the proposed price, together with a full set
of details on what the contractor is offering in both equipment and operating parameters. Without
this type of information it is impossible to make comparisons.
One method of ensuring that the required information appears in proposals is to request specific
data in a pro forma table, which should be returned with the tender. An example of such a pro
forma table is given below.
Evaporator
 Surface area
 No. and size of tubes
 No. of passes
 Overall dimensions
 Chilled fluid flow rate
 Chilled fluid inlet temperature
 Chilled fluid exit temperature
 Chilled water side pressure drop
 Design point evaporating temperature
 Design point heat transfer coefficient
Compressor
 Manufacturer's designation
 Design point suction pressure and temperature
 Design point discharge pressure and temperature
 Design point power requirement
 75% load power requirement
 Complete statement of operating limits (pressure difference, absolute pressures
and % load)
Additional Information
 Manufacturer's brochures on compressor and cooling tower
 Refrigerant and process flow diagrams

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 Annual running cost based on load profile supplied by prospective purchaser, split
into power cost of compressor only and power cost of all auxiliary loads quoted
for in tender
Shell and Tube Condenser
 Surface area
 No. and size of tubes
 No. of passes
 Overall dimensions Condensing fluid flow rate
 Condensing fluid flow inlet temperature
 Condensing fluid exit temperature
 Design point evaporating temperature
 Design point heat transfer coefficient
 Design water velocity in tubes
Chilled Water Pump
 Pump manufacturer and designation
 Pump operating different pressure
 Pump speed
 Motor rating
 Motor design point power
Cooling Tower
 Design point wet bulb temperature
 Design air flow rate
 Design water flow rate
 Design water inlet temperature
 Design water exit temperature
Condenser Water Pump
 Pump manufacturer and designation
 Pump operating different pressure
 Pump speed
 Motor rating
 Motor design point power
Air Cooled Condenser
 Design point dry bulb temperature
 Design air flow rate
 Design point air on temperature
 Design point air off temperature

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12 Energy Conservation Opportunities
Refrigeration comprises over 25 percent of the average office building’s annual energy use. In
refrigerated processes such as meat packing, refrigeration is 50 to 75 percent of the energy
consumed by the company. This chapter discusses and suggests means for saving energy in
refrigeration systems.
The most effective way to conserve energy in refrigeration systems is to properly design and size
the systems prior to installation. Plant engineers and energy auditors seldom have this
opportunity; hence, this section addresses recommendations that are applicable to existing
systems. The chapter begins with recommendations for comfort conditioning in the areas of
controls, distribution systems and thermal storage. It continues with recommendations more
typical of process refrigeration such as using a cooling tower for process refrigeration and
recovering waste condenser heat. The chapter concludes with several recommendations applicable
to both comfort and process refrigeration.
12.1 Comfort Conditioning
12.1.1 Control Systems

Even the most advanced refrigeration system equipped with state-of-the-art energy-saving
features can be a major energy user if not properly controlled. Typical system controls were
discussed in section 8.2 and control-related operation and maintenance procedures were presented
in chapter 10. This section will focus on external controls such as timers, programmable
thermostats and energy management systems.
Control strategies for energy conservation encompass four areas of potential savings. In an
average commercial building with minimal energy management controls, on/off savings are
typically 65% of the potential savings (see Exhibit 12-1) with demand limiting, optimized
start/stop and duty cycling representing 15, 10 and 10%, respectively. Since the savings potential
is greatest for on/off savings (and, therefore, the cost effectiveness of the control system is usually
greatest), every energy conservation strategy should include some type of on/off control.
Exhibit 12-1: Energy management system potential savings

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The most basic control strategy is the employee. When the last employee goes home, he turns off
the air conditioning system. This strategy is also the least expensive but is sometimes unreliable.
It should be the first control option considered before investment is made in more automated
systems.
Besides controlling the refrigeration system, the controls mentioned in this section can also
control lighting, relays and bells.
12.1.1.1 Timeclocks, the Bottom End

A mechanical timeclock is basically a clock with movable pins (See Exhibit 12-2). At preset
times; the pins strike a mechanical switch turning the air conditioning system on or off.
Mechanical timeclocks are reliable and can control a period of 24 hours to seven days. Control
can typically be achieved to within 15 to 30 minutes of the desired time, depending on the spacing
of the pins. A major drawback is that the pins are frequently removed and not put back in place,
allowing the system to operate during unneeded periods. Other disadvantages include the inability
to program the timers for holidays or other special occasions (timeclocks can be manually
overridden), and the inability to tie the timeclock to an energy management or building
automation system.
Electronic timeclocks are used in the same manner as mechanical timeclocks. The less expensive
electronic timeclocks provide the same features as their mechanical counterparts while the better
electronic timeclocks have many features usually associated with energy management systems.
These will be discussed in the next section.
Exhibit 12-2: Electromechanical time controls
12.1.1.2 Mid-level Controls

Mid-level controls (Exhibit 12-3) is a catch-all category for all the controllers that fall into the
wide grey area between simple timeclocks and energy management systems. As a family the
capabilities of the mid-level controls include greater flexibility in scheduling holidays and special
events, multi-channel capability, temperature setup/setback, and start/stop optimization. Multi-
channel capability allows several loads to be controlled by the same timeclock but with different
operating schedules. Temperature setup/setback permits space conditions to be raised (cooling
mode) or lowered (heating mode) when the room is unoccupied. Temperature setup/setback
should be applied whenever the unoccupied period exceeds four hours. Start/stop optimization
control computes heating and cooling requirements by using data received from indoor and

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outdoor sensors integrated with a record of past load requirements. Optimal start/stop frequently
reduces distribution equipment run time by half an hour in the morning and half an hour at the end
of the day.
Exhibit 12-3: Mid-level controller
12.1.1.3 Energy Management Systems

Energy management systems (EMS) typically include all the above functions (holiday and special
event scheduling, multi-channel capability, temperature setup/setback, and start/stop optimization)
and add to them demand control, more specialized control options, and advanced options for
monitoring, recording, interfacing and reporting. The more recent energy management systems
interface with other building automation systems which allow capabilities such as the generation
of a preventive maintenance work order based on the actual hours of chiller operation. An EMS
control panel is shown in Exhibit 12-4.
Detailed descriptions of the more frequently selected control options when an EMS is specified
are given below. It should be noted that the EMS can also control reheat coils, heating boilers,
lights and other equipment as well as the cooling side of the refrigeration system.
Exhibit 12-4: Energy management system control panel

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Scheduled Start/Stop
The scheduled start/stop program consists of starting and stopping equipment based on the time of
day and day of week. Scheduled start/stop is the simplest of all EMS functions to implement. This
program provides potential for energy conservation by turning off equipment or systems during
unoccupied hours. In addition to sending a start/stop command, it is important, although not
mandatory, to have a feedback signal indicating the status (on-off or open-closed) of the
controlled equipment. The feedback signal verifies that the command has been carried out and
provides the EMS operator with an alarm when the equipment fails or is locally started or
stopped.
The scheduled start/stop program operates in conjunction with optimum start/stop, day/night
setback, ventilation/recirculation, and lighting control programs.
Optimum Start/Stop
The scheduled start/stop program described can be refined by automatically adjusting the
equipment operating schedule in accordance with space temperature and outside air (OA)
temperature and humidity. HVAC systems are normally restarted prior to occupancy to cool down
or heat up the space on a fixed schedule independent of OA and space conditions. The optimum
start/stop program automatically starts and stops the system on a sliding schedule. The program
will automatically evaluate the thermal inerta of the structure, the capacity of the HVAC system to
either increase or reduce space temperatures, and OA conditions. This accurately determines the
minimum time of HVAC system operation needed to satisfy the space environmental
requirements at the start of the occupied cycle, and determines the earliest time for stopping
equipment at the day’s end.
The optimum start/stop program operates in conjunction with the scheduled start/stop program,
day/night setback, and ventilation/recirculation programs.
Duty Cycling
Duty cycling is defined as the shutting down of equipment for predetermined short periods of time
during normal operating hours. This function is normally only applicable to HVAC systems. Duty
cycling operation is based on the presumption that HVAC systems seldom operate at peak design
conditions. If the system is shut off for a short period of time, it has enough capacity to overcome
the slight temperature drift which occurs during the shutdown period. Although the interruption
does not reduce the energy required for space heating or cooling, it does reduce energy input to
auxiliary loads such as fans and pumps. Duty cycling also reduces OA heating and cooling loads
since the OA intake damper is closed (under local loop control) while an air handling unit is off.
Systems are generally cycled off for some fixed period of time, typically 15 minutes, out of each
hour of operation. The off time period and its frequency must be program adjustable. The off time
period is automatically increased or decreased according to space conditions. When the duty
cycling program is used in conjunction with the demand limiting program it is necessary to
interlock the off time period of each piece of equipment to prevent starting and stopping of
equipment in excess of what is recommended by the manufacturer or appropriate standard.
The duty cycling program is used in conjunction with demand limiting, schedule start/stop, and
optimum start/stop programs. Duty cycling is not advisable for variable capacity loads such as
variable volume fans, chillers, or variable capacity pumps.
Demand Limiting
Demand Limiting consists of shedding electrical loads to prevent exceeding an electrical demand
peak value (target). This prevents an increase in electrical rates where demand oriented rate
schedules apply. Peak demand contract values are established by the utility company using fixed
demand intervals, sliding window intervals, and time of day schedules. Many complex schemes
exist for reducing peak demand billings; however, all schemes continuously monitor power

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demand and calculate the rate of change of the demand value in order to predict future peak
demand. When the predicted peak exceeds present limits, predetermined scheduled electrical
loads are shut off on a prescheduled priority basis to reduce the connected load before the peak is
exceeded. The most commonly shed loads are HVAC systems. The reasoning used in the duty
cycling program applies; i.e., allow the temperature drift in the space by shutting off the HVAC
equipment. Within a particular priority group, the order in which a load is shed is changed by the
program so that after a load has been the first to be shed in a group, it is moved to last in the group
and another load becomes first.
The demand limiting program is used in conjunction with the duty cycling program to prevent any
one load from being cycled on or off during the wrong time interval or an excessive number of
times. The demand limiting program is also used in conjunction with scheduled start/stop and
optimum start/stop programs.
Day/Night Setback
The energy required for heating or cooling during unoccupied hours can be reduced by lowering
the heating space temperature setpoint or raising the cooling space temperature setpoint. This
applies only to facilities that do not operate 24 hours a day. Space temperature can be reduced
from the normal 18°C winter inside design temperature to a 10°C or l3°C space temperature
during the unoccupied hours. In the space that requires air conditioning during unoccupied hours,
the normal temperature setting can be reset upwards to a temperature that is compatible with the
space special requirements. OA dampers for the HVAC system are closed when the equipment
operates during the unoccupied periods in order to avoid imposing additional OA thermal loads.
The day/night setback program operates in conjunction with the scheduled start/stop and optimum
start/stop programs. In cold climates, space temperature sensors must be located to preclude
freezing during the night setback period.
Economizer (Dry Bulb Control)
The utilization of an all OA dry bulb economizer cycle in air conditioning systems can be a cost
effective conservation measure, depending on climatic conditions and the type of mechanical
systems. The dry bulb economizer cycle utilizes OA to reduce the building's cooling requirements
when the OA dry bulb temperature is less than the required mixed air temperature. The
changeover temperature at which outside air is used for cooling is based on the OA dry bulb
temperature (enthalpy changeover point is determined by the total air heat content). When the OA
dry bulb temperature is above the changeover temperature, the outside air dampers, return air
dampers, and relief air dampers are positioned to provide minimum required outside air. When the
OA dry bulb temperature is below the changeover temperature, the OA, return air and exhaust air
dampers are positioned to maintain the required mixed air temperature. This program cannot be
used where humidity control is required, or when the enthalpy program is selected.
Economizer (Enthalpy Control)
The utilization of an OA enthalpy program can be a cost effective energy conservation measure,
depending on climatic conditions and the type of mechanical system. The enthalpy cycle utilizes
OA to reduce the buildings’ cooling requirements when the enthalpy (total heat content) of the
OA is less than that of the return air. When the OA enthalpy is less than the return air enthalpy,
the OA and return air dampers are allowed to modulate to admit sufficient OA to minimize
cooling requirements. When the OA enthalpy is greater than the return air enthalpy the outside air
dampers, return air dampers, and relief air dampers are positioned to provide minimum required
outside air. The enthalpy program cannot be used when the dry bulb economizer program is
selected.

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Ventilation and Recirculation
The ventilation and recirculation program controls the operation of the OA dampers when the
introduction of OA would impose an additional thermal load during warm-up or cool-down cycles
prior to occupancy of the building. This program can also be used in those facilities which
maintain environmental conditions for electronic equipment or other humidity sensitive devices
during building unoccupied periods. During unoccupied periods, the OA dampers remain closed.
During building occupied cycles, the OA, return and relief dampers are under local loop control.
This program operates in conjunction with scheduled start/stop and optimum start/stop programs
prior to building occupancy.
Hot Deck/Cold Deck Temperature Reset
The hot deck/cold deck temperature reset program can be applied to dual duct systems and
multizone HVAC systems. These systems utilize a parallel arrangement of heating and cooling
surfaces, commonly referred to as hot and cold decks, for providing heating and cooling
capabilities simultaneously. The hot and cold air streams are combined in mixing boxes or
plenums to satisfy the individual space temperature requirements. In the absence of optimization
controls, these systems mix the two air streams to produce the desired temperature. While the
space temperature may be acceptable, a greater difference between the temperature of the hot and
cold decks results in inefficient system operation. This program selects the areas with the greater
heating and cooling requirements, and establishes the minimum hot and cold deck temperature
differentials which will meet the requirements, thus maximizing system efficiency. Space
temperature sensors and mixing box or plenum damper positions are used to determine the
minimum and maximum deck temperatures necessary to satisfy the space temperature
requirements during the building occupied period. Where humidity control is required, the
program will prevent the cooling coil from further upward cooling coil control. This program
operates in conjunction with the chilled water reset program.
Chiller Optimization
The chiller optimization program can be implemented in chilled water plants with multiple
chillers. Based on chiller operating data and the energy input requirements obtained from the
manufacturer for each chiller, the program will select the chiller or chillers required to meet the
load with the minimum energy consumption. When a chiller or chillers are started, chiller capacity
must be limited (prevented from going to full load) for a predetermined period to allow the system
to stabilize characteristics versus the actual operating chiller characteristics make it possible to
determine when heat transfer surfaces need cleaning to maintain the highest efficiency. The
program must follow the manufacturer's startup and shutdown sequence requirements. Interlocks
between chilled water pumps, condenser water pumps, and chiller must be in accordance with the
chiller manufacturer requirements. Chillers may be started automatically by the EMS or manually
by the chiller operator depending on site requirements.
Chiller Water Temperature Reset
The energy required to produce chilled water in a reciprocating or centrifugal refrigeration

machine is a function of the chilled water leaving temperature. The refrigerant suction
temperature is also a direct function of the leaving water temperature; the higher the suction
temperature, the lower the energy input per ton of refrigeration. Chiller discharge water
temperatures (leaving chiller) can be reset upward during non-peak design operating hours to the
maximum which will still satisfy space cooling requirements. The program resets chilled water
temperature upward until the required space temperature or humidity setpoints can no longer be
maintained. This determination is made by monitoring positions of the chilled water values on
various cooling systems or by monitoring space temperatures. The chilled water temperature reset
program will affect any system requiring chilled water.

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Condenser Water Temperature Reset
The energy required to operate systems is directly related to the temperature of the condenser
water temperature entering the machine. Conventionally, heat rejection systems are designed to
produce a specified condenser water temperature such as 30°C at peak wet bulb temperatures. In·
many instances, automatic controls are provided to maintain a specified temperature at conditions
other than peak wet bulb temperatures. In order to optimize the performance of refrigeration
systems, condenser water temperature can be reset downward when OA wet bulb temperature will
produce lower condenser water temperature. The program must incorporate manufacturer
requirements governing acceptable condenser water temperature range.
Chiller Demand Limiting
Centrifugal water chillers are normally factory equipped with an adjustable control system which
limits the maximum available cooling capacity; thus, the power the machine can use. An interface
between the field interface device (FID) and the chiller controls allows EMS to reduce the
maximum available cooling capacity in several fixed steps in a demand limiting situation, thereby
reducing the electric demand without completely shutting down the chiller. The method of
accomplishing this function varies with the manufacturer of the chiller. The chiller percent
capacity can be obtained by monitoring the chiller current input. When a chiller is selected for
demand limiting, a single step signal is transmitted, reducing the chiller limit adjustment by a
fixed amount. The chiller demand limit adjustment can be performed by shutting out taps of
transformers in the control circuit or by resetting the control air pressure to the chiller compressor
vane operator. As further need arises, additional stop signals can be transmitted until the demand
limiting situation is corrected. Extreme caution must be exercised when applying this program,
since incorrect control can cause the refrigeration machine to operate in a surge condition,
potentially causing it considerable damage. The chiller manufacturer's recommended minimum
cooling capacity limit must be incorporated into the program logic. In general, surges occur in
chillers at loads less than 20% of the rated capacity.
Much more could be said about EMS’s because there are many systems with very diverse
capabilities and costs on the market. It is advisable, however, to keep the system as
unsophisticated as possible for two reasons: (i) it may be more cost effective to limit the
capabilities of the EMS to the largest cost saving options instead of obtaining an ultra-
sophisticated EMS, and (ii) no matter what system is first installed, the HVAC operator will
disable options until the EMS works satisfactorily at the level that he understands.
Example 12-1: An EMS Application
Three 88-kWR (25-ton) air-conditioning units cool an office space. The units provide
approximately 3.5 kWR (one ton) of cooling per kilowatt of electrical energy demand. Air
distribution fans draw 4 kW of energy. The units are manually turned off in the evening between
8:00 and 10:00 pm by the night watchman. They are restarted around 6:00 in the morning by the
custodial staff. It takes approximately 30 minutes to cool the building down to comfort conditions
in the morning. The office is occupied from 7:30 am until 4:30 pm. Some employees work until
6:00 pm but not on a regular basis.
Prior studies have shown that peak demand occurs between 2 and 4 in the afternoon indicating
that the air conditioning contributes to the peak load. The office temperature is maintained at a
constant 24°C throughout the day. Building load calculations (see Section 9.1) indicate that if
only two air conditioners were used during the two-hour peak demand period that the indoor
temperature would rise to 28°C by 4:00 pm.
The EMS is selected to control start/stop times of equipment, provide optimal start/stop
capabilities and to shed peak demand. With the first option it is possible to reduce equipment run
time from 15 hours per day to 9 1/2 hours per day. Since the air conditioning compressors are
lightly loaded during unoccupied hours, their energy consumption will be neglected for the sake

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of this example. In actual practice this energy consumption may be significant and should be fully
investigated. Potential savings for reducing the system run time are:
Savings = 4 kW × (15 hours - 9.5 hours) = 22 kWh/day
As mentioned above, optimal start/stop of equipment typically reduces run time by one hour per
day (half an hour in the morning and an equal length of time in the afternoon). Potential savings
for optimal start/stop are:
Savings = 4 kW × 1 hour = 4 kWh/day
Demand control can be accomplished by cycling one air conditioning unit off for specified
periods of time. One should not be turned off for the entire two-hour period because the area
served by the unit will grow uncomfortable hot. None of the units should be cycled off for less
than 10 minutes at a time because short cycling will reduce motor life. Assuming one compressor
is shut off demand control can save:
Savings = 88 kWR / 3.5 kWR/kW = 25 kW
On an annual basis, assuming 260 office days per year, the savings is 6,760 kWh and 25 kW. The
actual cost savings will be a function of the applicable rate structure. Note that demand control
only reduces demand costs and not consumption costs. Heat must still be removed from the
building but it is removed during off-peak periods. Controlled start/stop and optimal start/stop
save only on consumption because the hours during which they realize energy savings are outside
of the peak hours.
12.1.2 Distribution Systems
12.1.2.1 Recover Energy from Exhaust Air

Outside air is supplied to and exhausted from building to provide adequate ventilation and to
remove odors and contaminants. Typical office environments are designed for ventilation
requirements of 2.4 L/s (5 cfm) to 9.5 L/s (20 cfm) per person. Industrial outside air ventilation
requirements are frequently greater due to higher concentrations of contaminants in the
atmosphere. Most systems provide a minimum of 10 percent outside air.
Outside air must be conditioned before being brought into the space. To relieve the pressure of
bringing in outside air, air must be exhausted. This exhaust air has already been conditioned and
contains valuable energy. Recovery of the energy in exhaust air can result in substantial savings.
Energy can be recovered from the exhaust air using a number of devices. The more popular of
these are heat wheels, plate heat exchangers, run-around coils and heat pipe heat exchangers.
Heat Wheels
Heat wheels resemble large wheels (Exhibit 12-5) filled with heat exchange medium. Exhaust air
passes through one side of the wheel, cooling the heat transfer fill. The cooled fill then rotates into
the fresh air stream, cooling the fresh air stream. Between the exhaust and fresh air streams, there
is a purge section which prevents exhaust air from mixing with and contaminating fresh air.
Heat wheels can recover both sensible heat and latent heat. In the example at the end of this
section, both sensible and latent heats are recovered. Heat wheels can recover up to 90 percent of
the sensible heat in the air and 70 to 85 percent of the total heat. Due to the small passages in the
heat transfer fill, heat wheels are best suited for relatively clean environments.

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Exhibit 12-5: Heat wheel equipped with purge section
Plate Heat Exchangers
Heat transfer is accomplished by counter-flowing two streams between plates. A plate heat
exchanger is shown in Exhibit 12-6. This type of heat recovery device is suitable for dirtier
environments but filters are still required to remove oil mists and similar contaminants prior to the
exchanger. Because there are no moving parts, maintenance is minimized. About 70 percent of the
sensible heat is recovered by plate heat exchangers.
Exhibit 12-6: Plate heat exchangers
Run-around Coils
A run-around coil permits heat to be recovered from two air streams that are not physically next to
each other. An air to fluid heat exchanger is placed in each air stream and a fluid, frequently
ethylene glycol, is pumped between the two exchangers to transfer heat. Runaround coils recover
60 to 65 percent of the sensible heat between the two streams.
Heat Pipe Heat Exchangers
A heat pipe heat exchanger is shown in Exhibit 12-7. One end of the heat pipes is in the exhaust
stream and the other end is in the fresh air stream. The heat pipe is basically a tube with a
cylindrical wick lining its inside surface and containing a fixed amount of fluid. The type of

149
working fluid used depends on the operating temperature. Fluids include fluorocarbons, water,
high temperature organic liquids, and liquid metals such as mercury and sodium.
Exhibit 12-7: Heat pipe bundle incorporated in gas to gas regenerator
Heat pipe operation is shown in Exhibit 12-8. The cold air stream condenses vapor in the heat
pipe and the condensate flows by capillary action to the evaporator end. The hot air steam
vaporizes the condensate, giving up heat and decreasing in temperature. Differential vapor
pressure causes the vapor to flow to the condenser end where the fluid condenses and gives up its
latent heat to the cold gas stream, starting the process over again.
Fins are attached to the heat pipe tubes to increase heat transfer surface area. In very dirty
environments the fins may become clogged. Like all heat exchangers, maintaining the heat
transfers surfaces improves performance. Heat pipe type heat exchangers recover 60 to 80 percent
of the sensible heat in the exhaust air stream.
Exhibit 12-8: Heat pipe schematic
Example 12-2: Heat Recovery

An office complex in Karachi is cooled by a 3,500-kWR (1,000-ton) air-conditioning system. The
system supplies 10 percent outside air and, due to timeclocks (see section 12.1.1), operates 10
hours per day, 5 days per week. The system is designed on 54 L/s-kWR (400 cfm/ton) supply air
rate. The system efficiency is 0.23 kW /kWR (0.8 kW /ton). An 85 percent effective heat wheel
capable of recovering sensible and latent heat is selected. Inside air conditions are maintained at
24°C and 50 percent relative humidity throughout the 9-month cooling season.
To accurately determine the magnitude of savings possible by heat recovery it is necessary to
calculate the savings on an hour-by-hour basis. As an estimate and an example of the calculations,

150
however, average conditions for one month will be used in the following calculation. Exhibit 12-9
summarizes savings for a 12-month period.
Exhibit 12-9: Heat recovery using enthalpy heat wheel summary of savings
The make-up air flow rate is determined by:

Make-up Air = (3,500 kWR) (54 L/s kWR) × 0.1 = 18,900 L/s (for 10% outside air)
Mass Flow Rate = (18,900 L/s × 1.2 kg/m3) / (1000 L/m3) = 22.7 kg/s
Because 85 percent of the total energy content of the exhausted air can be recovered, the heat
recovery rate must be based on the enthalpies of the outside and exhaust air. At 24°C and 50%
relative humidity (RH) the enthalpy of exhaust air is 47.8 kJ/kg. The average outside air enthalpy
by month is given in Exhibit 12-9. For the month of June, the average enthalpy is 93.5 kJ/kg.
Assuming an average of 208 operating hours per month (2,500 hrs per yr / 12 months per yr) the
potential energy savings is given below. In the following equation, the heat removed from the
outside air by heat recovery is treated as a reduction in the refrigeration load and is converted
from kJ to kWR.
kWh Saved = 22.7 kg/s × (93.5 kJ/kg - 47.8 kJ/kg) × 0.85 × 0.23 kW/kWR × 208 hrs × 1 kWR.s/kJ
= 42,200 kWh for June
Likewise, if only sensible heat were being recovered, the above equation would be based on the
specific heat of the air multiplied by the difference in air temperatures.
12.1.2.2 Provide Separate Make-Up Air for Exhaust Hoods

Exhaust hoods are used to remove contaminants from a localized area within a building.
Examples of exhaust hood use include laboratory fume hoods and industrial paint booths. Make-
up air for the exhaust hoods is typically taken from the building. If this air has been conditioned
the use of exhaust hoods result in needless energy waste. As an initial step the use of exhaust
hoods should be minimized and they should be turned off when not needed. This applies to
kitchen and bathroom exhausts as well. Providing unconditioned outside air make-up to the
exhaust hoods can result in significant energy savings.
Exhibit 12-10 schematically depicts an outside air make-up for a paint booth. The outside air is
directed in front of the operator so that the bulk of exhausted air is unconditioned air. Depending
on the application, the loss of conditioned air typically can be reduced by 50 to 80 percent.

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Exhibit 12-10: Ducting arrangement for using outside air in paint booths
Example 12-3: Reduced Make-up Air

One of the offices in the example from the previous section has a small paint booth which is used
two hours per day. Bringing in unconditioned outside air can replace an estimated 80 percent of
the conditioned make-up air now exhausted. The paint booth exhausts 1,400 L/s of conditioned
air. The refrigeration system efficiency is 0.23 kW/kWR (0.8 kW/ton). Like the preceding
example, the energy savings is in sensible and latent heat and, therefore, enthalpies of the outside
and conditioned air will be used in the calculations. Inside air conditions are maintained at 24°C
and 50% relative humidity throughout the 9-month cooling season.
To accurately determine the magnitude of savings possible by reducing conditioned air loss it is
necessary to calculate the savings on an hour-by-hour basis. As an estimate and an example of the
calculations, however, average conditions for one month will be used in the following calculation.
Exhibit 12-11 summarizes savings for a 12-month period. The make-up air flow rate is
determined by:
Mass Flow Rate of Make-up Air = 1,400 L/s × 1.2 kg/m3/ 1,000 L/m3 = 1.7 kg/s
Unconditioned outside air can replace 80 percent of the conditioned air now being exhausted. At
24°C and 50 percent R.H. the enthalpy of exhaust air is 47.8 kJ/kg. The average outside air
enthalpy by month is given in Exhibit 12-11. For the month of March, the average enthalpy is
61.5 kJ /kg. Assuming an average of 42 operating hours per month (2 hrs/day × 21 days/month)
the potential energy savings is given below. In the following equation, the heat removed from the
outside air by heat recovery is treated as a reduction in the refrigeration load and is converted
from kJ to kWR.
Exhibit 12-11: Monthly energy savings summary for air make-up to exhaust hoods

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kWh Saved = 1.7 kg/s × (61.5 kJ/kg - 47.8 kJ/kg) × 0.8 × 0.23 kW/kWR × 42 hrs × 1 kWR.s/kJ
= 180 kWh for March
For the year the estimated savings would be 2,920 kWh. If a 0.5 kW outside air supply fan were
installed (consuming 0.5 kW × 42 hours or 21 kWh per month) the annual net savings would be
2,670 kWh.
12.1.3 Install Thermal Storage

In countries where cheaper electricity is available at certain times of the day, another energy
conservation option in refrigeration and air conditioning is to install thermal storage. Thermal
storage permits use of cheaper electricity and also helps in reducing demand charges. Although
“Time of use tariff” is not yet available in Pakistan, this option is discussed here for the
information of the readers.
Ice storage permits the refrigeration system to be operated during the night and other “offpeak”
times resulting in demand charge savings while providing adequate comfort cooling. The on-peak
energy usage becomes that which is required to operate the water and air distribution systems.
Compressor energy demand is moved to off-peak hours or hours of lower facility (or electrical
system) demand. Whenever the difference between on-peak and off-peak rates is greater than
1.25, thermal storage systems should be investigated.
Thermal storage systems can not only substantially reduce refrigeration operating costs but can
also substantially reduce capital outlays when systems are suitably designed for new commercial
and industrial buildings. Engineers can specify reduced size chillers which operate during the 14
to 18 off-peak hours instead of full size chillers which operate during the 6 to 10 hours of high
building refrigeration load. In retrofit applications it may be possible to provide cooling for an
addition without adding chiller capacity.
Example 12-4: Typical System
In conventional air conditioning system design, cooling loads are measured in terms of “tons of
refrigeration” required, or more simply, “tons”. Kilowatts of refrigeration (kWR) are also widely
used. Ice storage systems, however, are more precisely measured in terms of “ton-hours” (or
kWR-h). Exhibit 12-12 represents a theoretical cooling load of 100 tons maintained for 10 hours,
or a 1,000 ton-hour load. Each of the 100 squares in the exhibit represents 10 ton-hours.
Exhibit 12-12: 1,000 ton-hr load

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Realistically, no building air conditioning system operates at 100 percent capacity for the entire
daily cooling cycle. Air conditioning loads frequently peak in the afternoon when ambient
temperature is highest. Exhibit 12-13 represents a typical building air conditioning load profile
during a design day.
Exhibit 12-13: Typical air conditioning load
As can be seen, the full 100-ton chiller capacity is needed for only two of the ten hours during the
cooling day. For the other eight hours, the chiller operates at partial load. Summing all the shaded
squares totals to 75 squares representing 10 ton-hours each. The building, therefore, has a true
cooling load of 750 ton-hours. A 100-ton chiller must be specified, however, to handle the peak
cooling load of 100 tons. “Diversity factor” is defined as the ratio of the actual cooling load to the
total potential chiller capacity as shown below:
Diversity Factor = Actual Ton-Hrs/Total Potential Ton-Hrs = 750 Ton-Hrs/1,000 Ton-Hrs = 75 %
This chiller has a diversity factor of 75 percent. It is capable of providing 1,000 ton-hours of
cooling when only 750 ton-hours are required. If the diversity factor is low, the system’s cost
efficiency is also low.
Dividing the total ton-hours of the building by the number of hours the chiller is in operation
gives the building's average load throughout the cooling period. If the air conditioning load could
be shifted to off-peak hours or leveled to the average load, less chiller capacity would be needed,
100 percent diversity would be achieved and better cost efficiency would result.
Two refrigeration load management strategies are typically used with ice storage systems. When
rates call for complete load-shifting, a conventionally sized chiller can be used with enough
energy storage to shift the entire load· into off-peak hours. This is called a full storage system and
is most frequently used in retrofit applications using existing chiller capacity. Exhibit 12-14
shows the same building air conditioning load profile but with the cooling load completely shifted
into fourteen off-peak hours. The chiller is used to build and store ice in ice banks during the
night. The 0°C energy stored in the ice then provides the required 750 ton-hours of cooling during
the day. Moving the refrigeration load off peak results in significantly reduced demand charges.
The average load is lowered to 53.6 tons (750 ton-hours / 14 hours = 53.6 tons).

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Exhibit 12-14: Full ice storage
In new construction, a partial ice storage system is usually the most practical and cost effective ice
storage load management strategy. With partial ice storage the chiller runs continuously, charging
the ice storage system at night and cooling part of the load directly during the day with the
remainder of the cooling coming from the stored ice. Extending the hours of operation from 14 to
24 hours per day results in the lowest average load (750 ton-hours / 24 hours = 31.25 tons) as
depicted in Exhibit 12-15. Demand charges are greatly reduced and chiller capacity can be
reduced by about 50 percent.
Exhibit 12-15: Partial ice storage
The calculation of actual energy savings from thermal storage can be performed using the same
method as the demand control calculations. Please refer to the control systems (Section (12.1.1)
for an example of savings from a reduction in demand.
In Exhibit 12-16 an exemplary ice storage system is shown. The prime mover is an open type
compressor with a 30 kW motor producing, on average, 21.9 tons (77 kWR) of refrigeration. The
evaporator is water cooled to keep the head pressure low. The system operates at 100 percent
capacity when it runs between the hours of 6 pm and 7 am. It does not run during the day.

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Exhibit 12-16: Exemplary ice storage system
The refrigeration plant operation is entirely automatic. Electronic time controls allow the plant to
operate, at maximum, eighteen hours per day during off-peak and mid-peak hours of 6 pm to 12
noon throughout the week. The chilled water system is an open tank, flat plate ice builder. In this
design, refrigeration coils are fastened to heavy metal plate and ice is built on the plate and coils
alike. A full load of ice measures about 8 cm thick on the coils. Two resistance-type sensors
measure ice thickness and stop the plant when the desired amount of ice has been formed.
The chilled water is circulated to the air handling units by a 1.1-kW pump with a capacity of 6.5
liters per second. A bypass valve is provided across the chilled water supply and return lines to
limit the temperature difference on the ice bank to 5°C or less. The only system equipment in
operation during peak demand hours is the pump and air handling unit fan.
The main disadvantage of ice storage systems is the reduced system COP because the compressor
operates at a larger pressure differential than does a conventional system.
The COP of an ice storage system is in the range of 2.4 as compared with a standard chiller whose
COP is in the range of 3.0. Whenever the cost of on-peak electricity is 1.25 times the cost of off-
peak electricity (3.0 / 2.4 = 1.25), ice storage should be investigated.
12.2 Industrial Process Refrigeration Systems
12.2.1 Use Cooling Tower for Process Cooling

Depending on the application chilled water is sometimes required on cooler days. On these cooler
days it is frequently possible to provide adequate process cooling by bypassing the chiller and
using cooling tower water directly.

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Whenever the process requires cooled water less than 5°C above the ambient wet bulb
temperature (cooling towers are typically designed to cool water to within 5°C of the ambient wet
bulb temperature), a cooling tower can provide the necessary cooling. Cooling towers use about
20 percent as much energy per kW of cooling as a typical chiller.
In a typical chilled water system arrangement, the chiller is automatically turned off to prevent
damage to the chiller when the minimum condenser water temperature is reached. In order to
provide cooling to processes or internal loads, the chiller is artificially loaded by bypassing the
cooling tower or turning the cooling tower fans off. This permits the condenser water
temperature· to rise. In this scenario, the chiller is kept running even when the cooling tower is
capable of producing water at temperatures below the desired chilled water temperature.
Chiller bypasses can be either open or closed loops. Open loops simply divert the chilled water
flow around the chiller directly to the cooling tower. Closed loop bypasses use a heat exchange to
cool the chilled water flow with cooling tower water without exposing it directly to the
atmosphere. This will prevent contaminants such as sand and other particulates (and biological
matter) entrained in the cooling tower water from fouling the chilled water system (coils and
chiller heat exchanger). For closed loop systems the temperature difference between the outside
air and the chilled water will be greater than for the open loop. Open chiller bypass loops are
cheaper because an additional heat exchanger is not necessary. The actual savings generated will
vary because of regional and seasonal variations in outside temperature.
Example 12-5: Chiller Bypass
Currently, cooling oil for machining is chilled to approximately 35°C by a 300-kWR (85-ton) air-
cooled refrigeration system. Since the factory is located in Karachi (the 1 percent design wet bulb
is 28°C, 7°C below the required cooling oil temperature), a cooling tower can replace the
refrigeration system throughout the entire year. The refrigeration unit is 75 percent loaded and
operates 4,800 hours per year. One kW of refrigeration is provided by 3.5 kW of electrical energy.
The cooling tower provides one kW of cooling for 0.7 kW of electricity. The consumption and
demand savings are shown below.
kWh Savings = 300 kWR × 0.75 × (0.284 kW / kWR - 0.057 kW / kWR) × 4,800 hrs/yr
= 245,000 kWh/yr
kW Savings = 300 kWR × 0.75 × (0.284 kW / kWR - 0.057 kW / kWR) = 51 kW
To implement this recommendation, it is necessary to purchase an oil/water heat exchanger and a
cooling tower. The heat exchanger could be an integral part of the cooling tower or separate from
it. If it were an integral part installation may be simplified and existing oil pumps could be used.
If the heat exchanger is separate, it could be located in the machining area or next to the cooling
tower. The same cooling tower pump could be used to circulate chilled water to the heat
exchanger.
12.2.2 Recover Waste Heat from Condenser

In the earlier discussion of the refrigeration cycle, it was noted that the heat removed from the
controlled space is eventually rejected to the atmosphere. This heat rejection occurs in the
condensing section of the system. In water-cooled systems the cooling tower removes heat from
the condenser and rejects it to the atmosphere.
If a proper use could be found for the rejected or waste heat, the overall energy efficiency of the
system would be increased. For example, by properly designing the condenser and adjusting the
flow rates, cool fresh water can be heated to quite high temperatures. If this heated water were
stored for later use, the resulting system function would be like that of a standard water heater.
Frequently the waste heat is used to preheat boiler make-up water, wash water or domestic hot
water.

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Heat exchangers used in retrofit systems for condenser heat recovery may be standard shell-and-
tube type or a double wall tube-in-tube type. The double wall design is more desirable if potable
water is to be heated because cross contamination is possible with single wall heat exchangers.
Other types of heat exchangers are available but these two types are more common.
Example 12-6: Typical System
Examining a typical system will illustrate the practical application of the principles discussed previously.
System type: Ammonia (R-717), Single stage

Refrigeration Capacity: 350 kWR (100 tons)
Evaporator Refrigerant Temperature: -20oC
Condensing Refrigerant Temperature: 36oC
Operating Hours: 6,000 hrs/yr
Suppose the facility needs hot water at 70°C for clean-up purposes. The use of hot water in this fashion is
usually on a short-term, high-volume basis, as shown in Exhibit 12-17. Hence, a storage tank will be
necessary to hold enough water in reserve for the high usage period. Assume that the temperature of the
water entering to the plant is 25°C.
Exhibit 12-17: Typical hot water usage
From the Mollier diagram for ammonia (Exhibit 12-18), it is found that the discharge and suction pressures
that correspond to the system temperatures are 1,300 kpa and 200 kpa respectively.
The operating envelope for this system is outlined in Exhibit 12-18. Note that all end point pressures and
temperatures are defined for compression, condensation, expansion, and vaporization of the refrigerant.
These end points are tabulated below.
Pressure Enthalpy
Point Location Temperature (oC)
(kPa) (kJ/kg)
1 Compressor Suction -20 200 475
2 Compressor Discharge 120 1,300 720
2A Saturated Vapor 36 1,300 525
3 Condenser Outlet 36 1,300 -600
4 Evaporator Inlet -20 200 -600

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Exhibit 12-18: Pressure-enthalpy diagram for refrigerant 717 (ammonia)

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System Design
In order to design a typical waste heat recovery system, a calculation of the available waste heat is
required. The two regimes of superheat and latent heat are determined separately.
Hah = h2 - h2a = 720 kJ /kg - 525 kJ /kg = 195 kJ/kg
hlh = h2a - h3 = 525 kJ /kg - (-600 kJ/kg) = 1,125 kJ/kg
As is the case for most refrigerants, the amount of available latent heat is much greater than the
available superheat. However, the actual recoverable heat is limited by the exit temperature of this
stage, which is 36°C in .this case. Even if 100% utilization were made of the available latent heat,
the low temperature of this heat would not result in suitable final water temperatures {or the heat
recovery process}. For one-pass series flow heat recovery systems, a fraction of the available
latent heat, and all of the superheat, is recovered.
Next, a determination of the refrigerant mass flow rate percent at average conditions must be
made. For a 350-kWR (100-ton) system operating at 60% average load:
mr = Qevap/ hevap = [350 kWR × 0.60 × 1 kJ/kWR-s] / [474 kJ/kg - (-600 kJ/kg)]
= 0.195 kg/s
This is the mass flow rate through the compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator of
the system. Note that the refrigerant flow rate is a function of the load on the evaporator, and may
vary from rated conditions to 40 percent or lower of the rated capacity. This variation will affect
the amount of recovered heat. In our example we have assumed an average load of 60 percent for
the year.
To calculate the amount of hot water produced by the waste heat recovery system, some
assumptions and design decisions must be made. For this example, it is assumed that all of the
available superheat will be used, due to the high temperature. As a compromise, an exit
temperature of 32°C, shown in Exhibit 12-19 will be selected for the recovery of latent heat. This
will then determine the fraction of latent heat recovered and the amount of hot water produced.
q lh  m rEvap  h lh  0.195 kg/s 1,125 kJ/kg  219kJ/s
q sh  m rEvap  h sh  0.195 kg/s 195 kJ/kg  38 kJ/s
For complete recovery of superheat, the mass flow rate of water, entering at 32°C and exiting at
70°C, is given by:
q sh  m H 2O  c PH 2O  (70 o C  32 o C)
38 kJ/s  m H 2O  4.19 kJ/kg o C  38o C
m H 2O  0.24 kg/s  0.24 L/s
For 24-hour-per-day operation, this amounts to over 20,600 liters per day. This number represents
100% efficiency in the heat exchange process, which is not likely to occur. A more realistic figure
might be 95%, which still yields 19,600 liters per day.
Notice the small percentage of latent heat being recovered. For a 32°C exit temperature and 25oC
inlet temperature:
qlh (actual) = 0.24 kJ/s × 4.19 kJ/kg °C × (32°C - 25°C) = 7 kJ/s

7 kJ/s
% Utilization =  0.032 (3.2%)
219 kJ/s

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This is caused by the high temperature requirements for hot water and a relatively low condensing
temperature. In fact, of the total 257 kJ/s waste heat that is available, only 17.5% is being
recovered. The remainder is rejected to the ambient in the traditional manner.
Exhibit 12-19: Heat recovery schematic
Storage Requirements
Since the typical hot water demand is on a short-term, high-volume basis, some type of storage
tank will be required. The size of this tank can be determined by comparison of the demand and
production rates of the hot water. As a simple example, suppose the plant used in the design
exercise had a demand profile as illustrated in Exhibit 12-20. Hot water demand is seen as a step
function beginning at seven hours into the period and continuing for eight hours.
Exhibit 12-20: Hot water demand profile
Assuming a constant 14.4 liter per minute hot water production 24 hours per day and a demand of
40 liters per minute for an eight-hour period, one can determine the storage requirements. As

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shown in Exhibit 12-21, the tank should be sized so that it is nearly empty at the end of the
demand cycle. Some reserve capacity may be desired, but anything over this amount would be
excess capacity. In this case it is found that a 13,000-liter tank would be sufficient to handle the
25.6 liter per minute depletion rate during the demand cycle. If less hot water is used in a 24-hour
period than the system is capable of producing, the storage capacity can be reduced. However, if
more hot water is used in a repeating study period than is produced, auxiliary heating must be
provided.
Exhibit 12-21: Hot water tank sizing
When the temperature of the waste heat is too low for the recovery application (in this example,
the latent heat was at such a low temperature that most of it could not be recovered to preheat
water) a heat pump can be used to increase the quality of the waste heat. A heat pump can be used
to boost the temperature of the latent heat recovered from the ammonia condenser to a
temperature at which the latent heat can be used. Because the heat pump is electrically driven,
care should be taken that the heat pump does not contribute to the plant peak demand since this
could negate any savings from the heat pump heat recovery system. This heat pump application is
not further developed here but should be considered when evaluating condenser heat recovery.
12.3 ECO'S Applicable to Comfort and Process

Refrigeration
12.3.1 Replace Air-Cooled Condenser with Cooling Tower

The condensing temperature of a refrigeration machine may be significantly lowered by replacing
the air-cooled condenser by a cooling tower in locations with fewer than 15,000 wet bulb degree
hours. This can be effected on a one-to-one basis if the air-cooled condenser is large or one
cooling tower can replace a number of small air-cooled condensers. Whichever method is
adopted, each refrigeration machine will require the addition of a water/refrigerant heat
exchanger.
The efficiency and COP of chillers and compressors increase as condensing temperature is
decreased. For a 5°C reduction in condenser temperature the COP for a screw compressor will

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increase 15 percent, for a reciprocating compressor 10 percent, for an absorption unit 6 percent
and for a centrifugal compressor 3 percent. As a word of caution it should be noted that each type
of machine has practical limits of the lowest acceptable condensing temperature and this limit
should not be exceeded, particularly with some of the older type absorption machines.
Air-cooled condensers commonly operate at temperature differences of 10°C between air and
refrigerant, thus if the outdoor air temperature is 35°C dry bulb, then the condensing temperature
will be 45°C. Cooling tower performance is related to wet bulb temperature, commonly operating
at temperature differences of 5°C between the air wet bulb and condenser water. Thus, if the
outdoor air is 22°C wet bulb, the condenser water temperature would be 27°C off the tower.
Example 12-7: Replacing an Air-cooled Condenser
On a design day in Karachi, the dry bulb temperature is 38°C and the wet bulb is 28°C. An air-cooled
condenser would cool refrigerant to 48°C (10°C temperature difference between the air and the condenser).
A water-cooled condenser could reduce refrigerant temperature to approximately 36°C (5°C between the
tower water and the air and a 3°C approach temperature for a counterflow refrigerant/water heat
exchanger).
The net temperature difference between the two systems is 12oC. For each 5°C that the condenser
temperature is reduced to percent for reciprocating compressors. This results in a total savings of 24
percent. Assuming that a 100 kWR (30 ton) refrigeration system operates 2,400 hours per year with an
average energy consumption of 0.284 kW R (1 kW /ton) the annual savings is as follows.
kW Saved = 100 kWR × 0.284 kW/kWR × 0.24 = 6.8 kW
kWh Saved = 6.8 kW × 2,400 hours/yr = 16,360 kWh/yr
12.3.2 7.4.2 Install Variable Speed Drives

Chilled water pumps, cooling tower pumps, distribution fans and centrifugal compressors observe
what are commonly called “fan laws”. Fan laws state that operational power increases as the cube
of the flow rate. Conversely, if the flow can be reduced, the power required drops by the same
cubic relationship. During times of lower loads, water, air and refrigerant flows can be reduced
with significant energy savings.
Pumps and Fans
The total energy cost of producing chilled water is not limited to the cost of operating the chiller
itself. Cooling tower fans, condenser water circulating pumps, and chilled water circulating
pumps must also be included. In fact, in centrifugal chilling plants, the power required to drive
this auxiliary equipment often consumes 25% or more of the energy used to produce chilled water
at full load.
Each of these components is designed to meet full load performance demands so they are
oversized when part load conditions exist. Thus during part load conditions, the auxiliary
equipment can consume as much as half of the energy used to produce chilled water.
Chilled water systems are typically designed so that at full load, the returning chilled water
temperature is approximately 5°C warmer than the leaving chilled water temperature. This design
temperature rise provides adequate cooling to all parts of the building and allows good chiller
performance without excessive chilled water pumping costs. However, if the chilled water flow
rate remains constant while the cooling load drops, the returning chilled water temperature will
move closer to the leaving chilled water temperature. Cooling water temperature ranges of less
than 5°C are of little effect on chiller performance but can constitute substantial waste in chilled
water pumping costs.
Similarly, condenser water temperature ranges decrease as the cooling load decreases. Once again
reduced condenser water temperature range below 5°C produces a marginal improvement in
chiller efficiency but the additional pumping costs typically outweigh any compressor power
reductions. Cooling tower fan speeds can also be reduced but unless the tower water temperature

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is approaching the lower allowable limit, the reduced tower efficiency will cause the tower water
temperature to rise enough to offset most of the savings. A typical example is presented to
illustrate these effects.
Example 12-8
A chiller plant has the following components and horsepowers.
3 Centrifugal chillers - 400 kW each
3 Cooling towers with one 25 kW fan on each
3 Condenser water circulating pumps of 30 kW each
2 Chilled water pumps of 90 kW each
During winter, only one chiller is required and it typically operates at 40% of rated capacity. The other two
chillers and their cooling towers and condenser water pumps are shut down. Only one of the circulating
water pumps is still operating. The system is designed with the standard SOC ranges on both condenser
water and chilled water at full load. Thus the following power consumptions are noted:
Compressor 160 kW
Cooling tower fan 25 kW
Condenser water pump 30 kW
Chilled water pumps 90 kW
Under these conditions the condenser water temperature range is 2.5°C and the chilled water temperature
range is only l.4°C.
To improve the systems overall performance, variable speed drives can be fitted to the condenser water
pump and one of the circulating water pumps. These drives would be automatically controlled to maintain
5°C temperature ranges on both chilled water and condensing water. The result would be the following
component power consumptions:
Compressor 160 kW
Cooling tower fan 25 kW
Condenser water pump 5 kW
Chilled water pumps 18 kW
The net savings for the variable speed drives on the pumps is 97 kW. Although these savings are extreme
because of operating far from design conditions, they are not uncommon for chiller systems that are
operated in winter.
Centrifugal Chillers
Centrifugal chillers are typically driven by fixed speed electric motors. As has already been
discussed, capacity reduction is achieved by the use of prerotation vanes which swirl the
refrigerant before it enters the impeller. This swirling reduces the momentum imparted to the
refrigerant gas and thus the system head and capacity. Although this method of capacity reduction
is effective, it is not highly efficient because of the suction throttling effect and turbulence
induced by the partially closed prerotation vanes.
A more efficient method of capacity reduction is to reduce the compressor speed. This method of
capacity reduction is easily accomplished when steam or gas turbine drives are used but with the
more common electric drives speed reduction is not easily obtained. Also, speed reduction alone
is not usually sufficient to meet the wide range of loads experienced in most facilities because of
low speed compressor surging. Practical capacity control with speed reduction requires a
combination of speed control and prerotation vanes. Retrofit systems are available with inverter
drives and control logic that anticipates low speed surging and automatically adjusts the
combination of speed and prerotation vane settings to give optimum chiller performance.
The savings generated by variable speed drive ranges considerably and depends heavily on how
far from the design conditions the chiller is operating. In fact, at full load design conditions, the

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power through the inverter causes a loss of approximately 5%. However, in most installations part
load operation is the norm instead of the exception and seasonally adjusted savings are usually
20% or more for machines using this system.
Application of variable speed drive should usually be limited to one chiller per installation. When
more than one chiller is required to meet the load, the fixed speed unit(s) can be base loaded and
load swings taken on the variable speed chiller.
12.3.3 Remove Heat Sources from Refrigerated Spaces

Comfort conditioning removes both internally generated heat and heat which enters the building
from the outside. One way to reduce the internal heat gain is to move the heat generating
equipment out of the conditioned space. These heat sources can be isolated by moving them
outside of the conditioned space, building an enclosure around them to prevent heat from entering
the refrigerated space or ducting the waste heat outside. Examples of heat-generating equipment
which are frequently located in conditioned spaces include air compressors, curing and heat treat
ovens, and process motors.
Example 12-9: Calculation
Two large (75-kW) process motors are located in a conditioned process area. The motors operate
16 hours per day at 85 percent load with a rated efficiency of 90 percent. Although the plant
operates continuously throughout the year, the process area requires conditioning for only 9
months per year. The refrigeration equipment draws 0.3 kW per kW of refrigeration.
The motors’ contribution to the internal heat gain is found below. Note that any energy that is not
being transferred to the process by the rotational movement of the motor is being lost as heat in
the room. A motor that is 90 percent efficient is losing 11 percent of its rated capacity as heat.
Heat Load = 2 motors × 75 kW × 0.85 × [(1.00 - 0.90) / 0.90] = 14 kWR
In the above calculation, note that the kW of heat given off by the motor first had to be converted
to kW of refrigeration. In equivalent English units this would have been given in tons of
refrigeration. The next step is to convert the kW of refrigeration load to kW of compressor energy
draw. The annual savings is determined below.
Savings = 14 kWR × 16 hrs/day × 365 days/yr × (9 mo/12 mo) × 0.3 kW/kWR

= 18,400 kWh/yr
12.3.4 Install More Efficient Refrigeration Equipment

Equipment is frequently selected on the basis of least capital cost and availability and not on
energy efficiency. Likewise, facilities often expand in small increments and, therefore, have
several small machines installed whose load could be better served by a lesser number of larger
machines. Combining these two real world facts, there exist a large number of inefficient
machines whose replacement by more efficient units and/or higher efficiency units would result in
significant operation and maintenance savings.
For example, smaller reciprocating refrigeration units (70 to 140 kWR) with hot gas bypass
commonly used in the injection molding plastics industry draw 0.37 to 0.4 kW /kWR. Larger state-
of-the-art centrifugal refrigeration machines with inlet vanes for capacity control draw 0.17 kW
/kWR on the average. Older single-stage absorption air-conditioning units consume approximately
6 kJ/ kWR (19 to 20 Btu/ton) while newer two-stage units consume only 3 to 3.6 kJ/ kWR (10 to
12 Btu/ton).

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Example 12-10: Higher Efficiency Equipment
In a plastics injection molding shop, 14 injection-molding machines are chilled by 11
reciprocating chillers rated at 100 kWR each. The reciprocating chillers unload through hot gas
bypass. On average, the chillers are unloaded 17 percent of the time although all may be loaded or
unloaded at the same time. The chillers draw 0.38 kW/ kWR and operate 6,000 hours per year. It is
proposed that the eleven 100 kWR reciprocating chillers be replaced by one 1,100 kWR centrifugal
chiller which uses inlet vanes to control loading (note: using a variable speed chiller could
significantly increase savings). The 1,100 kWR centrifugal chiller draws 0.17 kW / kWR.
An estimate of savings by eliminating hot gas bypass is given below. The calculations assume that
the hot gas bypass loads the chillers to 50 percent load conditions.
kW Reduction = 0.38 kW / kWR × 11 chillers × 100 kWR /chiller × 0.50
= 209 kW
kWh Savings = 209 kW × 6,000 hrs/yr x 0.17 = 213,000 kWh/yr
The savings due to improved chiller efficiency are calculated below. The centrifugal chiller is
assumed to run at an average load of (1 - 0.17) or 83 percent.
kW Reduction = (0.38 kW / kWR - 0.17 kW / kWR) × 1,100 kWR × 0.83 = 192 kW
kWh Savings = 192 kW × 6,000 hrs/yr = 1,152,000 kWh/yr
Total energy consumption savings is 1,365,000 kWh per year. Demand savings will be 195 kW
when the interactive effects of both the hot gas bypass and chiller efficiency improvement are
considered.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1.1

1.1 Cogeneration - Definition ......................................................................................................... 1.1
1.2 Benefits of Cogeneration .......................................................................................................... 1.5
1.3 Challenges of Cogeneration ...................................................................................................... 1.7
1.4 Application of Cogeneration..................................................................................................... 1.9
2. BASIC CONCEPTS 2.1
2.1 History ...................................................................................................................................... 2.2
2.3 Energy, Heat and Related Definitions ...................................................................................... 2.3
2.3.1 Energy .................................................................................................................. 2.3
2.3.2 Heat ...................................................................................................................... 2.6
2.3.3 Work and Power ................................................................................................... 2.8
2.3.4 Thermodynamics ................................................................................................ 2.10
2.3.5 The Laws of Thermodynamics ........................................................................... 2.11
2.3.6 Entropy ............................................................................................................... 2.16
2.3.7 Enthalpy ............................................................................................................. 2.18
2.3.8 Thermodynamic Processes ................................................................................. 2.24
2.3.9 Adiabatic Process ............................................................................................... 2.26
2.3.10 Isothermal Process.............................................................................................. 2.28
2.3.11 Isentropic Process............................................................................................... 2.30
2.3.12 Thermodynamic cycle ........................................................................................ 2.31
2.3.13 Power cycles ....................................................................................................... 2.32
2.3.14 Refrigeration cycles ............................................................................................ 2.32
2.4 Fuel energy Savings ratio (FESR) .......................................................................................... 2.33
2.5 Power to Heat Ratio................................................................................................................ 2.35
2.6 The Mollier diagram ............................................................................................................... 2.35
2.7 Steam Tables .......................................................................................................................... 2.43
2.8 Terminology ........................................................................................................................... 2.43
3. COGENERATION SYSTEM 3.1
3.1 Cogeneration vs. Conventional Power Generation ................................................................... 3.1
3.2 Cogeneration Plants .................................................................................................................. 3.7
3.3 Components of a Cogeneration System .................................................................................... 3.7
3.4 Types of Cogeneration Technology .......................................................................................... 3.9
3.5 Cogeneration Configuration ................................................................................................... 3.15
3.5.1 Steam Turbine Cycle .......................................................................................... 3.17
3.5.2 Gas Turbine Cycle .............................................................................................. 3.21
3.5.3 Reciprocating Engine – Waste Heat Recovery Boiler ........................................ 3.24
3.5.4 Compression-Ignition (Diesel) Engine Cogeneration Systems ........................... 3.29
3.5.5. Spark-Ignition Engines ....................................................................................... 3.29
i
3.5.6 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) ........................................................................... 3.30

3.5.7 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle ............................................................ 3.33
3.5.8 Absorption Refrigeration Cycle.......................................................................... 3.35
3.5.9 Piggy-Back Combination Refrigeration Cycle ................................................... 3.44
3.5.10 Combined Cycle ................................................................................................. 3.45
3.5.11 Trigeneration ...................................................................................................... 3.48
3.5.12 Micro turbines .................................................................................................... 3.50
3.5.13 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)............................................... 3.52
3.5.14 Fuel Cell ............................................................................................................. 3.54
3.6 Effect of Power-to-Heat Ratio ................................................................................................ 3.57
3.6.1 High-Power-to-heat Ratio .................................................................................. 3.59
3.6.2 Medium Power-to-heat Ratio ............................................................................. 3.60
3.6.3 Low Power-to-heat Ratio ................................................................................... 3.61
4. EQUIPMENT FOR COGENERATION 4.1
4.1 Boilers ...................................................................................................................................... 4.1
4.2 Turbines .................................................................................................................................... 4.4
4.2.1 Gas Turbines ........................................................................................................ 4.5
4.2.2 Steam Turbines................................................................................................... 4.21
4.2.3 Expansion Turbines ............................................................................................ 4.34
4.3 Reciprocating Engines ........................................................................................................... 4.35
4.3.1 Gas Engines ........................................................................................................ 4.40
4.3.2 Diesel Cycle Furnace Oil Engine ....................................................................... 4.44
4.4 Waste Heat Recovery Boilers (WHRB) ................................................................................. 4.46
4.5 Central Heating and Cooling Equipment Based on Thermal Energy Utilization .................... 4.51
5. COGENERATION PROJECT EVALUATION ................................................................................. 5.1

5.1 General Parameters for Project evaluation ............................................................................... 5.1
5.2 Project development ................................................................................................................ 5.2
5.3 Steps in Evaluation of Cogeneration ........................................................................................ 5.4
5.4 Data Collection ......................................................................................................................... 5.4
5.4.1 Data on Electrical Loads ...................................................................................... 5.5
5.4.2 Data on Thermal Loads ........................................................................................ 5.9
5.4.3 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 5.13
5.5 Identification of Cogeneration Options .................................................................................. 5.16
5.6 Preliminary Engineering Design ............................................................................................. 5.19
5.6.1 Steam Turbine .................................................................................................... 5.19
5.6.2 Gas Turbines ...................................................................................................... 5.23
5.6.3 Reciprocating Engines ........................................................................................ 5.25
5.7 Preliminary Financial Analysis ............................................................................................... 5.29
5.7.1 Definition of Base Case and Calculation of Base Case Costs ............................ 5.29
5.7.2 Calculation of Simple Pay Back Period ............................................................. 5.29
5.8 Comparative Evaluation of Cogeneration Cycle Alternatives ................................................ 5.31
6. FINANCIAL CONSIDERATION AND COSTING .......................................................................... 6.1
6.1 Capital Financing...................................................................................................................... 6.3
6.1.1 Equity ................................................................................................................... 6.3
6.1.2 Depreciation Fund ................................................................................................ 6.3
6.1.3 Retained Profit ..................................................................................................... 6.4
ii
6.1.4 Borrowing ............................................................................................................ 6.4

6.1.5 Leasing ................................................................................................................. 6.4
6.2 Estimating Costs ....................................................................................................................... 6.5
6.2.1 Estimating Equipment Costs ................................................................................ 6.5
6.2.2 Estimating Equipment Operating Costs ................................................................ 6.9
6.2.3 Estimating the Incremental Cost of Cogeneration ................................................ 6.9
6.3 Measuring Financial Attractiveness ........................................................................................ 6.10
6.3.1 Simple Payback Period ....................................................................................... 6.11
6.3.2 Discounted Cash Flow........................................................................................ 6.12
6.3.3 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) ............................................................................. 6.17
6.3.4 Sensitivity Analysis ............................................................................................ 6.21
7. CASE STUDIES ................................................................................................................................. 7.1
7.1 Case Study 1 ............................................................................................................................. 7.1
7.2 Case Study 2 ............................................................................................................................. 7.4
7.2.1 Fuel Chargeable to Power (FCP) .......................................................................... 7.6
8. COGENERATION, POTENTIAL AND IMPEDIMENTS ................................................................ 8.1
8.1 Cogeneration Opportunities ...................................................................................................... 8.1
8.1 Technical Potential ............................................................................................... 8.1
8.2 Economic Potential .............................................................................................. 8.2
8.3 Market Potential ................................................................................................... 8.2
8.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 8.2
8.3 Electricity Statistics .................................................................................................................. 8.3
8.4 Technology ............................................................................................................................... 8.6
8.5 Technology Advances .............................................................................................................. 8.7
8.6 Waste to Energy ....................................................................................................................... 8.7
8.7 Renewable Fuel Sources ........................................................................................................... 8.7
8.8 Gas to Electricity Price Ratio ................................................................................................... 8.8
8.9 Actions for Promotion of Cogeneration ................................................................................... 8.8
8.10 Potential for Cogeneration in Textile Industry ........................................................................ 8.8
8.11 Potential for Cogeneration in Sugar Industry ........................................................................ 8.10
8.12 Potential for Cogeneration in Cement Industry ..................................................................... 8.13
iii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE
A Equipment Selection and Guide Specifications ...................................................................... A.1

B-1 Calculation of Fixed and Variable Cost of Power ...............................................................B-1.1
B-1 Calculation of Steam Costs .................................................................................................B-2.1
B-3 Steam Turbine Calculations ................................................................................................B-3.1
B-4 Quick Procedure for Calculation of Electrical Output of Steam Turbine ............................B-4.1
B-5 Preliminary Financial Analysis Cogeneration with Steam Turbine .....................................B-5.1
B-6 Preliminary Financial Analysis Cogeneration with Gas Turbine ........................................B-6.1
B-7 Preliminary Financial Analysis Cogeneration with Reciprocating Engines ........................B-7.1
C Glossary .................................................................................................................................C-1
D Saturated Steam Tables ........................................................................................................ D-1
E Conversion Table .................................................................................................................. E-1
F List of Abbrevations .............................................................................................................. F-1
ix
Appendix-A: Refrigerants
A.1 Classification of Refrigerants

This text is based on the American standard ANSI/ASHRAE 34 published in 2001 and entitled
“Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants”.
This classification makes it possible to designate all refrigerants used in a clear and internationally
recognized manner by classifying them according to their chemical composition.
1 Numbering of Refrigerants
An identifying number shall be assigned to each refrigerant. It consists of a prefix made up of
letters and a suffix made up of digits.
1.1 Prefixes
The prefix is composed of the letter R (for refrigerant).
Examples: R-22, R-134a, R-600a, R-717
Sometimes, the letter C is used in the prefix to denote carbon, preceded by B, C or F (or a
combination of these letters in the same order) to indicate the presence of bromine, chlorine or
fluorine. Compounds containing hydrogen must be preceded by the letter H.
Examples: HCFC-22, HFC-134a
These prefixes must only be used in non-technical publications.
Note: the name of the brand or of the manufacturer is also used sometimes; these names must not
be used in official documents (identification labels, etc.).
1.2 Suffixes
 Hydrocarbons and derivatives
The first digit on the right (units) is the number of fluorine (F) atoms. The second digit on the
right (tens) is one more than the number of hydrogen (H) atoms. The third digit on the right
(hundreds) is one less than the number of carbon (C) atoms (when the digit is zero, it is omitted
from the number). The third digit on the right (thousands) is equal to the number of unsaturated
carbon-carbon bonds (when the digit is zero, it is omitted from the number).
For refrigerants that contain bromine (Br), the letter B is added after the identification number,
followed by the number of atoms present. These refrigerants are no longer manufactured in
developed countries since the application of the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the
ozone layer.
The number of chlorine (Cl) atoms is found by subtracting the sum of fluorine, bromide, and
hydrogen atoms from the total number of atoms that can be connected to the carbon atoms: 4 for
methane derivatives (CH4), 6 for ethane derivatives (C2H6), etc.
Example: R-22 (chlorodifluoromethane – CHClF2)
R-022
0: Number of carbon atoms – 1
2: Number of hydrogen atoms + 1
2: Number of fluorine atoms
Number of chlorine atoms : 1
(i.e. 4 minus 1 hydrogen atom and minus 2 fluorine atoms)

167
For cyclic derivatives, the letter C is used before the refrigerant’s identification number.
Example: R-C318 (octafluorocyclobutane – C4F8)
In the case of isomers in the ethane series, each has the same number, with the most symmetrical
one indicated by the number alone. As the isomers become more and more unsymmetrical,
successive lowercase letters (i.e. a, b or c) are appended.
Example: R-134 and R-134a
 Azeotropic and zeotropic mixtures
Mixtures are designated by their respective refrigerant numbers and mass proportions.
Refrigerants shall be named in order of increasing normal boiling points of the components.
Zeotropic mixtures shall be assigned an identifying number in the 400 series. This number
designates which components are in the mixture but not the amount of each. To differentiate
among zeotropes having the same components with different amounts (percent by mass), an
uppercase letter shall be added as a suffix.
The numbers are in chronological order of the refrigerant’s approval by ASHRAE.
Example: R-407A (R-32/R-125/R-134a (20/40/40)), R-407B (R-32/R-125/R-134a (10/70/20)),
R-407C (R-32/R-125/R-134a (23/25/52)), R-407D (R-32/R-125/R-134a (15/15/70)),
R-407E (R-32/R-125/R-134a (25/15/60))
Zeotropic mixtures shall be assigned an identifying number in the 500 series.
Example: R-507 (R-125/R-143a (50/50))
 Miscellaneous organic compounds
Miscellaneous organic compounds shall be assigned a number in the 600 series; numbers are
given in numerical order.
Example: R-600a, isobutane
 Inorganic compounds
Inorganic compounds shall be assigned a number in the 700 series, identification numbers are
formed by adding the relative molecular mass of components to 700.
Example: R-717 and R-718 correspond to ammonia and water which have molecular weights of
17 and 18 respectively.
2 Safety group classifications
This classification consist of two alphanumeric characters (e.g. A2); the capital letter corresponds
to toxicity and the digit to flammability.
2.1 Toxicity classification
Refrigerants are divided into two groups according to toxicity:
 Class A signifies refrigerants for which toxicity has not been identified at concentrations less
than or equal to 400 ppm;
 Class B signifies refrigerants for which there is evidence of toxicity at concentrations below 400
ppm.
2.2 Flammability classification
Refrigerants are divided into three groups according to flammability:
 Class 1 indicates refrigerants that do not show flame propagation when tested in air at 21°C and
101 kPa;

168
3
 Class 2 indicates refrigerants having a lower flammability limit of more than 0.10 kg/m at
21°C and 101 kPa and a heat of combustion of less than 19 kJ/kg;
 Class 3 indicates refrigerants that are highly flammable as defined by a lower flammability limit
3
of less than or equal to 0.10 kg/m at 21°C and 101 kPa or a heat of combustion greater than or
equal to 19 kJ/kg.
2.3 Mixtures
Mixtures, whether zeotropic or azeotropic, with flammability and/or toxicity characteristics which
may change as the composition changes during fractionation, shall be assigned a safety group
classification based on the worst case of fractionation.
Example: R-404A is classified A1
A.2 Classification of Refrigerants (Examples)

Classification Denomination Composition or chemical formula Safety classification
(mass percentage)
INORGANIC COMPOUND
R-717 ammonia NH3 B2
R-718 water H2O A1
R-744 carbon dioxide CO2 A1
ORGANIC COMPOUND
Hydrocarbons
R-170 ethane CH3CH3 A3
R-290 propane CH3CH2CH3 A3
R-600a isobutane CH(CH3)2CH3 A3
Halocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Bromofluorocarbons (BFCs)
R-11 trichlorofluoromethane CCl3F A1
R-12 dichlorodifluoromethane CCl2F2 A1
Hydrochlorofluorocarbures (HCFC)
R-22 chlorodifluoromethane CHClF2 A1
R-141b 1,1-dichloro-1-fluoroethane CH3CCl2F A2
R-142b 1-chloro-1,1-difluoroethane CH3CClF2 A2
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
R-32 difluoromethane CH2F2 A2
R-125 pentafluoroethane CHF2CF3 A1
R-134a 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane CH2FCF3 A1
R-143a 1,1,1-trifluoroethane CH3CF3 A2
R-152a 1,1-difluoroethane CH3CHF2 A2
Azeotropic mixtures
R-502 R-22/R-115 (48.8/51.2) A1
R-507 R-125/R-143a (50/50) A1
Zeotropic mixtures
R-404A R-125/R-143a/R-134a (44/52/4) A1
R-407C R-32/R-125/R-134a (23/25/52) A1
R-410A R-32/R-125 (50/50) A1

169
Appendix-B: Properties of R-12
B.1 Saturated and Superheated R-12 Properties

The table below can be used to determine specific volume (v), specific internal energy (u), enthalpy (h), and entropy (s) of saturated and
superheated Freon - Dichlorodifluoromethane (CF2Cl2) - also known as refrigerant 12.
Due to its ozone-depleting potential, R-12 is currently replaced by R-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane), R-142b (Chloro-1-difluoro-1,1-ethane) or
R-409a (mixture containing 60 % of R-12).
Saturated Properties Superheated Properties (t - ts)

Tem.p Press. Specific Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy 15 K 30 K
- ts - - ps - Volume saturated saturated saturated saturated Specific Specific Specific Specific
(oC) (bar) - vi - liquid vapor liquid vapor Enthalpy Entropy Enthalpy Entropy
(m3/kg) - hf - - hg - - sf - - sg - -h- -s- -h- -s-
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K)
-100 0.0118 10.100 -51.84 142.00 -0.2567 0.8628 148.89 0.9019 156.10 0.9428
-95 0.0181 6.585 -47.56 144.22 -0.2323 0.8442 151.23 0.8830 158.55 0.9195
-90 0.0284 4.416 -43.28 146.46 -0.2083 0.8274 153.59 0.8649 161.02 0.9010
-85 0.0424 3.037 -39.00 148.73 -0.1856 0.8122 155.98 0.8493 163.52 0.8851
-80 0.0617 2.138 -34.72 151.02 -0.1631 0.7985 158.39 0.8351 166.04 0.8706
-75 0.0879 1.538 -30.43 153.32 -0.1412 0.7861 160.82 0.8226 168.57 0.8578
-70 0.1227 1.127 -26.13 155.63 -0.1198 0.7749 163.26 0.8110 171.12 0.8459
-65 0.1680 0.8412 -21.81 157.96 -0.0988 0.7649 165.70 0.8008 173.68 0.8355
-60 0.2262 0.6379 -17.49 160.29 -0.0783 0.7558 168.15 0.7915 176.26 0.8259
-55 0.2998 0.4910 -13.14 162.62 -0.0582 0.7475 170.60 0.7830 178.84 0.8172
-50 0.3915 0.3831 -8.78 164.95 -0.0384 0.7401 173.07 0.7753 181.43 0.8093
-45 0.5044 0.3027 -4.40 167.28 -0.0190 0.7335 175.54 0.7685 184.01 0.8023
-40 0.6417 0.2419 0 169.60 0 0.7274 178.00 0.7623 186.60 0.7959
-35 0.8071 0.1954 4.42 171.90 0.0187 0.7219 180.45 0.7568 189.18 0.7902
-30 1.004 0.1594 8.86 174.20 0.0371 0.7170 182.90 0.7517 191.76 0.7851
-25 1.237 0.1312 13.33 176.48 0.0552 0.7127 185.33 0.7473 194.33 0.7805
-20 1.509 0.1088 17.82 178.73 0.0731 0.7087 187.75 0.7432 196.89 0.7764
-15 1.826 0.0910 22.33 180.97 0.0906 0.7051 190.15 0.7397 199.44 0.7728
-10 2.191 0.0766 26.87 183.19 0.1080 0.7020 192.53 0.7365 201.97 0.7695
-5 2.610 0.0650 31.45 185.38 0.1251 0.6991 194.90 0.7336 204.49 0.7666
0 3.086 0.0554 36.05 187.53 0.1420 0.6966 197.25 0.7311 206.99 0.7641
5 3.626 0.0475 40.69 189.66 0.1587 0.6943 199.56 0.7289 209.47 0.7618
10 4.233 0.0409 45.37 191.74 0.1752 0.6921 201.85 0.7268 211.92 0.7598
15 4.914 0.0354 50.10 193.78 0.1915 0.6901 204.10 0.7251 214.35 0.7580
20 5.673 0.0308 54.87 195.78 0.2078 0.6885 206.32 0.7235 216.75 0.7565
25 6.516 0.0269 59.70 197.73 0.2239 0.6869 208.50 0.7220 219.11 0.7552
30 7.449 0.0235 64.59 199.62 0.2399 0.6853 210.63 0.7208 221.44 0.7540
35 8.477 0.0206 69.55 201.45 0.2559 0.6839 212.72 0.7196 223.73 0.7529
40 9.607 0.0182 74.59 203.20 0.2718 0.6825 214.76 0.7185 225.98 0.7519
45 10.84 0.0160 79.71 204.87 0.2877 0.6811 216.74 0.7175 228.18 0.7511
50 12.19 0.0142 84.94 206.45 0.3037 0.6797 218.64 0.7166 230.33 0.7503
55 13.66 0.0125 90.27 207.92 0.3197 0.6782 220.48 0.7156 232.42 0.7496
60 15.26 0.0111 95.74 209.26 0.3358 0.6765 222.23 0.7146 234.45 0.7490
65 16.99 0.00985 101.36 210.46 0.3521 0.6747 223.89 0.7136 236.42 0.7484
70 18.86 0.00873 107.15 211.48 0.3686 0.6726 225.45 0.7125 238.32 0.7477
75 20.88 0.00772 113.15 212.29 0.3854 0.6702 226.89 0.7113 240.13 0.7470
80 23.05 0.00682 119.39 212.83 0.4027 0.6673 228.21 0.7099 241.86 0.7463
85 25.38 0.00601 125.93 213.04 0.4204 0.6636 229.39 0.7084 243.50 0.7455
90 27.89 0.00526 132.84 212.80 0.4389 0.6591 230.43 0.7067 245.03 0.7445
95 30.57 0.00456 140.23 211.94 0.4583 0.6531 231.30 0.7047 246.47 0.7435
100 33.44 0.00390 148.32 210.12 0.4793 0.6449 231.93 0.7023 247.80 0.7424
105 36.51 0.00324 157.52 206.57 0.5028 0.6325 232.22 0.6994 248.97 0.7412
110 39.79 0.00246 169.55 197.99 0.5334 0.6076 232.47 0.6964 250.10 0.7399
112 41.15 0.00179 183.43 183.43 0.5690 0.5690 232.80 0.6958 250.58 0.7394

171
 Molecular Weight : 120.93 g/mol
 Liquid Density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 1486 kg/m3 (250 K : 1468 kg/m3) (300 K : 1304 kg/m3)
 Liquid Specific Heat Capacity (cp) (250 K : 0.902 kJ/kg.K) (300 K : 0.980 kJ/kg.K)
 Liquid/gas equivalent (1.013 bar and 15oC (59oF)) : 292 vol/vol
 Liquid Dynamic Viscosity (250K : 336 106 Ns/m2) (300K : 213 106 Ns/m2)
 Liquid Thermal Conductivity (250 K : 86.8 106 kW/m.K) (300 K : 68.6 106 kW/m.K)
 Boiling point (1.013 bar) : -29.8oC
 Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 166.95 kJ/kg
 Critical point - Critical temperature : 112oC - Critical pressure : 41.15 bar
 Gas Density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 6.25 kg/m3
 Gas Density (1.013 bar and 15oC (59oF)) : 5.11 kg/m3
 Gas Compressibility Factor (Z) (the ratio of the actual volume of the gas to the volume determined according to the perfect gas law)
(1.013 bar and 15oC (59oF)) : 0.995
 Gas Specific Gravity (air = 1) (1.013 bar and 21oC (70oF)) : 4.2
 Gas Specific volume (1.013 bar and 21oC (70oF)) : 0.195 m3/kg
 Gas Specific Heat Capacity at constant pressure (cp) (1.013 bar and 15oC (59oF)) : 0.074 kJ/(mol.K)
 Gas Specific Heat Capacity at constant volume (cv) (1.013 bar and 15oC (59oF)) : 0.065 kJ/(mol.K)
 Gas Ratio of Specific Heats (Gamma:Cp/Cv) (1.013 bar and 15oC (59oF)) : 1.138889
 Gas Dynamic Viscosity (1.013 bar and 0oC (32oF)) : 0.0001168 Poise
 Gas Thermal conductivity (1.013 bar and 0oC (32oF)) : 9.46 mW/(m.K)
B.2 Saturated Refrigerant R-12 - Temperature Table

Spec. Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy Entropy
kPa m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K
deg-C Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat.
Temp Press Liquid vapor liquid vapor Liquid vapor liquid vapor
T 0C p_sat@T vf vg uf ug hf hg sf sg
-90 2.8 0.000608 4.41555 -43.29 133.91 -43.28 146.46 -0.2086 0.8273
-80 6.2 0.000617 2.13835 -34.73 137.82 -34.72 151.02 -0.1631 0.7984
-70 12.3 0.000627 1.12728 -26.14 141.81 -26.13 155.64 -0.1198 0.7749
-60 22.6 0.000637 0.63791 -17.50 145.86 -17.49 160.29 -0.0783 0.7557
-50 39.1 0.000648 0.38310 -8.80 149.95 -8.78 164.95 -0.0384 0.7401
-45 50.4 0.000654 0.30268 -4.43 152.01 -4.40 167.28 -0.019 0.7334
-40 64.2 0.000659 0.24191 -0.04 154.07 0 169.59 0 0.7274
-35 80.7 0.000666 0.19540 4.37 156.13 4.42 171.90 0.0187 0.7219
-30 100.4 0.000672 0.15937 8.79 158.19 8.86 174.20 0.0371 0.7170
-29.8 101.3 0.000672 0.15803 8.98 158.28 9.05 174.29 0.0379 0.7168
-25 123.7 0.000679 0.13117 13.24 160.25 13.33 176.48 0.0552 0.7126
-20 150.9 0.000685 0.10885 17.71 162.31 17.82 178.74 0.0731 0.7087
-15 182.6 0.000693 0.09102 22.20 164.35 22.33 180.97 0.0906 0.7051
-10 219.1 0.000700 0.07665 26.72 166.39 26.87 183.19 0.1080 0.7019
-5 261.0 0.000708 0.06496 31.26 168.42 31.45 185.37 0.1251 0.6991
0 308.6 0.000716 0.05539 35.83 170.44 36.05 187.53 0.1420 0.6965
5 362.6 0.000724 0.04749 40.43 172.44 40.69 189.65 0.1587 0.6942
10 423.3 0.000733 0.04091 45.06 174.42 45.37 191.74 0.1752 0.6921
15 491.4 0.000743 0.03541 49.73 176.38 50.10 193.78 0.1915 0.6902
20 567.3 0.000752 0.03078 54.45 178.32 54.87 195.78 0.2078 0.6884
25 651.6 0.000763 0.02685 59.21 180.23 59.70 197.73 0.2239 0.6868
30 744.9 0.000774 0.02351 64.02 182.11 64.59 199.62 0.2399 0.6853
35 847.7 0.000786 0.02064 68.88 183.95 69.55 201.45 0.2559 0.6839
40 960.7 0.000798 0.01817 73.82 185.74 74.59 203.20 0.2718 0.6825
45 1084.3 0.000811 0.01603 78.83 187.49 79.71 204.87 0.2877 0.6811
50 1219.3 0.000826 0.01417 83.93 189.17 84.94 206.45 0.3037 0.6797
55 1366.3 0.000841 0.01254 89.12 190.78 90.27 207.92 0.3197 0.6782
60 1525.9 0.000858 0.01111 94.43 192.31 95.74 209.26 0.3358 0.6765
65 1698.8 0.000877 0.00985 99.87 193.73 101.36 210.46 0.3521 0.6747
70 1885.8 0.000897 0.00873 105.46 195.03 107.15 211.48 0.3686 0.6726
75 2087.5 0.000920 0.00772 111.23 196.17 113.15 212.29 0.3854 0.6702
80 2304.6 0.000946 0.00682 117.21 197.11 119.39 212.83 0.4027 0.6672
85 2538.0 0.000976 0.00600 123.45 197.80 125.93 213.04 0.4204 0.6636
90 2788.5 0.001012 0.00526 130.02 198.14 132.84 212.80 0.4389 0.6590
95 3056.9 0.001056 0.00456 137.01 197.99 140.23 211.94 0.4583 0.6531
100 3344.1 0.001113 0.00390 144.59 197.07 148.31 210.12 0.4793 0.6449
105 3650.9 0.001197 0.00324 153.15 194.73 157.52 206.57 0.5028 0.6325
110 3978.5 0.001364 0.00246 164.12 188.20 169.55 197.99 0.5333 0.6076
112 4116.8 0.001792 0.00179 176.06 176.06 183.43 183.43 0.5689 0.5689

172
B.3 Superheated Refrigerant R-12 Table
deg-C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K
p = 0.025 MPa (Tsat = -58.26 C) p = 0.05 MPa (Tsat = -45.18 C) p = 0.10 MPa (Tsat = -30.10 C)
T v u H s v U h s v u h s
Sat. 0.58130 161.10 0.7527 0.30515 167.19 0.7336 0.15999 174.15 0.7171
-30 0.66179 176.19 0.8187 0.32738 175.55 0.7691 0.16006 174.21 0.7174
-20 0.69001 181.74 0.8410 0.34186 181.17 0.7917 0.16770 179.99 0.7406
-10 0.71811 187.40 0.8630 0.35623 186.89 0.8139 0.17522 185.84 0.7633
0 0.74613 193.17 0.8844 0.37051 192.70 0.8356 0.18265 191.77 0.7854
10 0.77409 199.03 0.9055 0.38472 198.61 0.8568 0.18999 197.77 0.8070
20 0.80198 204.99 0.9262 0.39886 204.62 0.8776 0.19728 203.85 0.8281
30 0.82982 211.05 0.9465 0.41296 210.71 0.8981 0.20451 210.02 0.8488
40 0.85762 217.20 0.9665 0.42701 216.89 0.9181 0.21169 216.26 0.8691
50 0.88538 223.45 0.9861 0.44103 223.16 0.9378 0.21884 222.58 0.8889
60 0.91312 229.77 1.0054 0.45502 229.51 0.9572 0.22596 228.98 0.9084
70 0.94083 236.19 1.0244 0.46898 235.95 0.9762 0.23305 235.46 0.9276
80 0.96852 242.68 1.0430 0.48292 242.46 0.9949 0.24011 242.01 0.9464
90 0.99618 249.26 1.0614 0.49684 249.05 1.0133 0.24716 248.63 0.9649
100 1.02384 255.91 1.0795 0.51074 255.71 1.0314 0.25419 255.32 0.9831
110 1.05148 262.63 1.0972 0.52463 262.45 1.0493 0.26121 262.08 1.0009
120 1.07910 269.43 1.1148 0.53851 269.26 1.0668 0.26821 268.91 1.0185
deg-C p = 0.20 MPa (Tsat = -12.53 0C) p = 0.3 MPa (Tsat = -0.86 0C) p = 0.4 MPa (Tsat = 8.15 0C)
Sat. 0.08354 182.07 0.7035 0.05690 187.16 0.6969 0.04321 190.97 0.6928
0 0.08861 189.80 0.7325 0.05715 187.72 0.6989
10 0.09255 196.02 0.7548 0.05998 194.17 0.7222 0.04363 192.21 0.6972
20 0.09642 202.28 0.7766 0.06273 200.64 0.7446 0.04584 198.91 0.7204
30 0.10023 208.60 0.7978 0.06542 207.12 0.7663 0.04797 205.58 0.7428
40 0.10399 214.97 0.8184 0.06805 213.64 0.7875 0.05005 212.25 0.7645
50 0.10771 221.41 0.8387 0.07064 220.19 0.8081 0.05207 218.94 0.7855
60 0.11140 227.90 0.8585 0.07319 226.79 0.8282 0.05406 225.65 0.8060
70 0.15506 234.46 0.8779 0.07571 233.44 0.8479 0.05601 232.4 0.8259
80 0.11869 241.09 0.8969 0.07820 240.15 0.8671 0.05794 239.19 0.8454
90 0.12230 247.77 0.9156 0.08067 246.90 0.8860 0.05985 246.02 0.8645
100 0.12590 254.53 0.9339 0.08313 253.72 0.9045 0.06173 252.89 0.8831
110 0.12948 261.34 0.9519 0.08557 260.58 0.9226 0.06360 259.81 0.9015
120 0.13305 268.21 0.9696 0.08799 267.50 0.9405 0.06546 266.79 0.9194
130 0.13661 275.15 0.9870 0.09041 274.48 0.9580 0.06730 273.81 0.9370
140 0.14016 282.14 1.0042 0.09281 281.51 0.9752 0.06913 280.88 0.9544
150 0.14370 289.19 1.0210 0.09520 288.59 0.9922 0.07095 287.99 0.9714
deg-c p = 0.50 MPa (Tsat = 15.60 0C) p = 0.75 MPa (Tsat = 30.26 0C) p = 1.00 MPa (Tsat = 41.64 0C)
Sat. 0.03482 194.03 0.6899 0.02335 199.72 0.6852 0.01744 203.76 0.6820
30 0.03746 203.96 0.7235
40 0.03921 210.81 0.7457 0.02467 206.91 0.7086
50 0.04091 217.64 0.7672 0.02595 214.18 0.7314 0.01837 210.32 0.7026
60 0.04257 224.48 0.7881 0.02718 221.37 0.7533 0.01941 217.97 0.7259
70 0.04418 231.33 0.8083 0.02837 228.52 0.7745 0.02040 225.49 0.7481
80 0.04577 238.21 0.8281 0.02952 235.65 0.7949 0.02134 232.91 0.7695
90 0.04734 245.11 0.8473 0.03064 242.76 0.8148 0.02225 240.28 0.7900
100 0.04889 252.05 0.8662 0.03174 249.89 0.8342 0.02313 247.61 0.8100
110 0.05041 259.03 0.8847 0.03282 257.03 0.8530 0.02399 254.93 0.8293
120 0.05193 266.06 0.9028 0.03388 264.19 0.8715 0.02483 262.25 0.8482
130 0.05343 273.12 0.9205 0.03493 271.38 0.8895 0.02566 269.57 0.8665
140 0.05492 280.23 0.9379 0.03596 278.59 0.9072 0.02647 276.90 0.8845
150 0.05640 287.39 0.9550 0.03699 285.84 0.9246 0.02728 284.26 0.9021
160 0.05788 294.59 0.9718 0.03801 293.13 0.9416 0.02807 291.63 0.9193
170 0.05934 301.83 0.9884 0.03902 300.45 0.9583 0.02885 299.04 0.9362
180 0.06080 309.12 1.0046 0.04002 307.81 0.9747 0.02963 306.47 0.9528
deg-c p = 1.50 MPa (Tsat = 59.22 0C) p = 2.00 MPa (Tsat = 72.88 0C) p = 4.00 MPa (Tsat = 110.32 0C)
Sat. 0.01132 209.06 0.6768 0.00813 211.97 0.6713 0.00239 196.90 0.6046
80 0.01305 226.73 0.7284 0.00870 219.02 0.6914
90 0.01377 234.77 0.7508 0.00941 228.23 0.7171
100 0.01446 242.65 0.7722 0.01003 236.94 0.7408
110 0.01512 250.41 0.7928 0.01061 245.34 0.7630
120 0.01575 258.10 0.8126 0.01116 253.53 0.7841 0.00375 225.18 0.6777
130 0.01636 265.74 0.8318 0.01168 261.58 0.8043 0.00433 238.69 0.7116
140 0.01696 273.35 0.8504 0.01217 269.53 0.8238 0.00478 249.93 0.7392
150 0.01754 280.94 0.8686 0.01265 277.41 0.8426 0.00517 260.12 0.7636
160 0.01811 288.52 0.8863 0.01312 285.24 0.8609 0.00552 269.71 0.7860
170 0.01867 296.11 0.9036 0.01357 293.04 0.8787 0.00585 278.90 0.8069
180 0.01922 303.70 0.9205 0.01401 300.82 0.8961 0.00615 287.82 0.8269
190 0.01977 311.31 0.9371 0.01445 308.59 0.9131 0.00643 296.55 0.8459
200 0.02203 318.93 0.9534 0.01488 316.36 0.9297 0.00671 305.14 0.8642
210 0.02084 326.58 0.9694 0.01530 324.14 0.9459 0.00697 313.61 0.8820
220 0.02137 334.24 0.9851 0.01572 331.92 0.9619 0.00723 322.01 0.8992

173
Appendix-C: Properties of R-22
C.1 General Properties of R-22

R-22 is a single hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) compound.
Density Volume Enthalpy Entropy

Temperature Presssure kJ/kg kJ/kg K
oC kg/m3 m3/kg
MPa
liquid vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor
-100 0.00200 1571.7 8.2980 90.24 358.93 0.5027 2.0545
-90 0.00480 1545.1 3.6548 100.95 363.82 0.5629 1.9982
-80 0.01035 1518.3 1.7816 111.66 368.75 0.6197 1.9508
-70 0.02044 1491.1 0.94476 122.36 373.68 0.6738 1.9109
-60 0.03747 1463.6 0.53734 133.11 378.58 0.7253 1.8770
-50 0.06449 1435.5 0.32405 143.91 383.39 0.7748 1.8480
-48 0.07140 1429.8 0.29469 146.08 384.35 0.7844 1.8427
-46 0.07890 1424.1 0.26849 148.25 385.29 0.7940 1.8376
-44 0.08700 1418.4 0.24507 150.43 386.23 0.8035 1.8326
-42 0.09575 1412.6 0.22410 152.61 387.17 0.8130 1.8277
-40 b) 0.10132 1409.1 0.21256 153.93 387.72 0.8186 1.8249
-40 0.10518 1406.8 0.20526 154.80 388.09 0.8224 1.8230
-38 0.11533 1401.0 0.18832 156.99 389.01 0.8317 1.8184
-36 0.12623 1395.1 0.17306 159.19 389.93 0.8410 1.8140
-34 0.13793 1389.2 0.15927 161.40 390.84 0.8502 1.8096
-32 0.15045 1383.3 0.14680 163.61 391.74 0.8594 1.8054
-30 0.16384 1377.3 0.13551 165.82 392.63 0.8685 1.8013
-28 0.17815 1371.3 0.12525 168.04 393.52 0.8776 1.7973
-26 0.19340 1365.2 0.11593 170.27 394.39 0.8866 1.7934
-24 0.20965 1359.1 0.10744 172.51 395.26 0.8955 1.7896
-22 0.22693 1352.9 0.09970 174.75 396.12 0.9044 1.7859
-20 0.24529 1346.8 0.09262 177.00 396.67 0.9133 1.7822
-18 0.26477 1340.5 0.08615 179.26 397.81 0.9222 1.7787
-16 0.28542 1334.2 0.08023 181.53 398.64 0.9309 1.7752
-14 0.30728 1327.9 0.07479 183.81 399.46 0.9397 1.7719
-12 0.33040 1321.5 0.06979 186.09 400.27 0.9484 1.7686
-10 0.35482 1315.0 0.06520 188.38 401.07 0.9571 1.7653
-8 0.38059 1308.5 0.06096 190.69 401.85 0.9657 1.7621
-6 0.40775 1301.9 0.05706 193.00 402.63 0.9743 1.7590
-4 0.43636 1295.3 0.05345 195.32 403.39 0.9829 1.7560
-2 0.46646 1288.6 0.05012 197.66 404.14 0.9915 1.7530
0 0.49811 1281.8 0.04703 200.00 404.87 1.0000 1.7500
2 0.53134 1275.0 0.04417 202.35 405.59 1.0085 1.7471
4 0.56622 1268.1 0.04152 204.72 406.30 1.0170 1.7443
6 0.60279 1261.1 0.03906 207.10 406.99 1.0254 1.7415
8 0.64109 1254.0 0.03676 209.49 407.67 1.0338 1.7387
10 0.68119 1246.9 0.03463 211.89 408.33 1.0422 1.7360
12 0.72314 1239.7 0.03265 214.31 408.97 1.0506 1.7333
14 0.76698 1232.4 0.03079 216.74 409.60 1.0590 1.7306
16 0.81277 1225.0 0.02906 219.18 410.21 1.0673 1.7280

175
Density Volume Enthalpy Entropy
Temperature Presssure kJ/kg kJ/kg K
oC kg/m3 m3/kg
MPa
liquid vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor
18 0.86056 1217.6 0.02744 221.63 410.80 1.0756 1.7254
20 0.91041 1210.0 0.02593 224.10 411.38 1.0840 1.7228
22 0.96236 1202.4 0.02451 226.59 411.93 1.0923 1.7202
24 1.0165 1194.6 0.02319 229.09 412.46 1.1006 1.7177
26 1.0728 1186.8 0.02194 231.60 412.98 1.1088 1.7151
28 1.1314 1178.8 0.02077 234.14 413.46 1.1171 1.7126
30 1.1924 1170.7 0.01968 236.69 413.93 1.1254 1.7101
32 1.2557 1162.5 0.01864 239.25 414.37 1.1336 1.7075
34 1.3215 1154.2 0.01767 241.84 414.79 1.1419 1.7050
36 1.3898 1145.7 0.01675 244.44 415.18 1.1501 1.7024
38 1.4606 1137.1 0.01589 247.06 415.54 1.1584 1.6999
40 1.5341 1128.4 0.01507 249.71 415.87 1.1667 1.6973
42 1.6103 1119.5 0.01430 252.37 416.17 1.1749 1.6947
44 1.6892 1110.4 0.01357 255.06 416.44 1.1832 1.6921
46 1.7709 1101.2 0.01288 257.77 416.68 1.1915 1.6894
48 1.8555 1091.8 0.01223 260.51 416.87 1.1998 1.6867
50 1.9431 1082.1 0.01161 263.27 417.03 1.2081 1.6840
55 2.1753 1057.1 0.01020 270.31 417.24 1.2291 1.6768
60 2.4274 1030.5 0.00895 277.56 417.14 1.2503 1.6692
65 2.7008 1001.8 0.00784 285.06 416.65 1.2718 1.6610
70 2.9967 970.4 0.00684 292.90 415.69 1.2940 1.6518
75 3.3168 935.3 0.00594 301.18 414.09 1.3169 1.6413
80 3.6627 894.8 0.00511 310.10 411.60 1.3413 1.6287
85 4.0368 845.1 0.00433 320.05 407.72 1.3680 1.6128
90 4.4416 777.5 0.00355 331.98 401.33 1.3998 1.5907
95 4.8820 665.4 0.00264 348.86 387.46 1.4442 1.5491
96.14 c) 4.9900 523.8 0.00191 366.59 366.59 1.4918 1.4918
Note: b) = boiling point and c) = critical point

R-22 is a single hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) compound. It has low chlorine content and ozone depletion potential and only a
modest global warming potential. ODP1) = 0.05 and GWP2) = 1700
R-417A is the zero ODP1) replacement for R-22 suitable for new equipment and as a drop-in replacement for existing systems.
1) ODP - The ODP or Ozone Depletion Potential. The potential for a single molecule of the refrigerant to destroy the Ozone Layer. All
refrigerants use R-11 as a datum reference where R-11 has an ODP of 1.0. The less the value of the ODP - the better the refrigerant
is for the ozone layer and the environment.
2)GWP - The GWP, or Global Warming Potential. A measurement (usually measured over a 100-year period) of how much effect a
refrigerant will have on Global Warming in relation to Carbon Dioxide. CO2 has a GWP of 1. The lower the value of GWP - the better
the refrigerant is for the environment.

176
C.2 R-22 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

177
Appendix-D: Properties of R-134a
D.1 Saturated R-134a Temperature Table

Spec. Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy Entropy
deg-C MPa m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K
Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat.
Temp.
pressure liquid vapor liquid vapor liquid vapor liquid vapor
T 0C p_sat@T vf vg uf ug hf hg sf sg
-24 0.11160 0.0007296 0.1728 19.21 213.57 19.29 232.85 0.0798 0.9370
-22 0.12192 0.0007328 0.1590 21.68 214.70 21.77 234.08 0.0897 0.9351
-20 0.13299 0.0007361 0.1464 24.17 215.84 24.26 235.31 0.0996 0.9332
-18 0.14483 0.0007395 0.1350 26.67 216.97 26.77 236.53 0.1094 0.9315
-16 0.15748 0.0007428 0.1247 29.18 218.10 29.30 237.74 0.1192 0.9298
-12 0.18540 0.0007498 0.1068 34.25 220.36 34.39 240.15 0.1388 0.9267
-8 0.21704 0.0007569 0.0919 39.38 222.60 39.54 242.54 0.1583 0.9239
-4 0.25274 0.0007644 0.0794 44.56 224.84 44.75 244.90 0.1777 0.9213
0 0.29282 0.0007721 0.0689 49.79 227.06 50.02 247.23 0.1970 0.9190
4 0.33765 0.0007801 0.0600 55.08 229.27 55.35 249.53 0.2162 0.9169
8 0.38756 0.0007884 0.0525 60.43 231.46 60.73 251.80 0.2354 0.9150

12 0.44294 0.0007971 0.0460 65.83 233.63 66.18 254.03 0.2545 0.9132
16 0.50416 0.0008062 0.0405 71.29 235.78 71.69 256.22 0.2735 0.9116
20 0.57160 0.0008157 0.0358 76.80 237.91 77.26 258.35 0.2924 0.9102
24 0.64566 0.0008257 0.0317 82.37 240.01 82.90 260.45 0.3113 0.9089
26 0.68530 0.0008309 0.0298 85.18 241.05 85.75 261.48 0.3208 0.9082

28 0.72675 0.0008362 0.0281 88.00 242.08 88.61 262.50 0.3302 0.9076
30 0.77006 0.0008417 0.0265 90.84 243.10 91.49 263.50 0.3396 0.9070
32 0.81528 0.0008473 0.0250 93.70 244.12 94.39 264.48 0.3490 0.9064
34 0.86247 0.0008530 0.0236 96.58 245.12 97.31 265.45 0.3584 0.9058
36 0.91168 0.0008590 0.0223 99.47 246.11 100.25 266.40 0.3678 0.9053

38 0.96298 0.0008651 0.0210 102.38 247.09 103.21 267.33 0.3772 0.9047
40 1.0164 0.0008714 0.0199 105.30 248.06 106.19 268.24 0.3866 0.9041
42 1.0720 0.0008780 0.0188 108.25 249.02 109.19 269.14 0.3960 0.9035
44 1.1299 0.0008847 0.0177 111.22 249.96 112.22 270.01 0.4054 0.9030
48 1.2526 0.0008989 0.0159 117.22 251.79 118.35 271.68 0.4243 0.9017

52 1.3851 0.0009142 0.0142 123.31 253.55 124.58 273.24 0.4432 0.9004
56 1.5278 0.0009308 0.0127 129.51 255.23 130.93 274.68 0.4622 0.8990
60 1.6813 0.0009488 0.0114 135.82 256.81 137.42 275.99 0.4814 0.8973
70 2.1162 0.0010027 0.0086 152.22 260.15 154.34 278.43 0.5302 0.8918

80 2.6324 0.0010766 0.0064 169.88 262.14 172.71 279.12 0.5814 0.8827
90 3.2435 0.0011949 0.0046 189.82 261.34 193.69 276.32 0.6380 0.8655
100 3.9742 0.0015443 0.0027 218.60 248.49 224.74 259.13 0.7196 0.8117

179
Appendix-E: DuPont Freon Refrigerants Guide

181
Appendix-F: DuPont Suva Refrigerants
Pressure-Temperature Guide
Pressure Temperature Guide - SI

183
Pressure Temperature Guide - SI

184
Appendix-G: DuPont ISCEON 9 Series Refrigerants
Pressure-Temperature Guide
Pressure – Temperature Guide

185
Appendix-H: Properties of Ammonia (NH3)
The table below can be used to determine specific volume (v), specific internal energy (u), enthalpy (h), and entropy (s) of saturated
and superheated ammonia - NH3 - also known as Refrigerant-717.
Superheated Properties
Saturated Properties
(t - ts)
Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy 50 K 100 K
Specific
Temperature Pressure saturated saturated saturated saturated Specific Specific Specific Specific
Volume
- ts - - ps - liquid vapor liquid vapor Enthalpy Entropy Enthalpy Entropy
- vi -
(°C) (bar) - hf - - hg - - sf - - sg - -h- -s- -h- -s-
(m3/kg)
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K)
-50 0.4089 2.625 -44.4 1373.3 -0.194 6.159 1479.8 6.592 1585.9 6.948
-45 0.5454 2.005 -22.3 1381.6 -0.096 6.057 1489.3 6.486 4596.1 6.839
-40 0.7177 1.552 0 1390.0 0 5.962 1498.6 6.387 1606.3 6.736
-35 0.9322 1.216 22.3 1397.9 0.095 5.872 1507.9 6.293 1616.3 6.639
-30 1.196 0.9633 44.7 1405.6 0.188 5.785 1417.0 6.203 1626.3 6.547
-28 1.317 0.8809 53.6 1408.5 0.224 5.751 1520.7 6.169 1630.3 6.512
-26 1.447 0.8058 62.6 1411.4 0.261 5.718 1524.3 6.135 1634.2 6.477
-24 1.588 0.7389 71.7 1414.3 0.297 5.686 1527.9 6.103 1638.2 6.444
-22 1.740 0.6783 80.8 1417.3 0.333 5.655 1531.4 6.071 1642.2 6.411
-20 1.902 0.6237 89.8 1420.0 0.368 5.623 1534.8 6.039 1646.0 6.379
-18 2.077 0.5743 98.8 1422.7 0.404 5.593 1538.2 6.008 1650.0 6.347
-16 2.265 0.5296 107.9 1425.3 0.440 5.563 1541.7 5.978 1653.8 6.316
-14 2.465 0.4890 117.0 1427.9 0.475 5.533 1545.1 5.948 1657.7 6.286
-12 2.680 0.4521 126.2 1430.5 0.510 5.504 1548.5 5.919 1661.5 6.256
-10 2.908 0.4185 135.4 1433.0 0.544 5.475 1551.7 5.891 1665.3 6.227
-8 3.153 0.3879 144.5 1435.3 0.579 5.447 1554.9 5.863 1669.0 6.199
-6 3.413 0.3599 153.6 1437.6 0.613 5.419 1558.2 5.836 1672.8 6.171
-4 3.691 0.3344 162.8 1439.9 0.647 5.392 1561.4 5.808 1676.4 6.143
-2 3.983 0.3110 172.0 1442.2 0.681 5.365 1564.6 5.782 1680.1 6.116
0 4.295 0.2895 181.2 1444.4 0.715 5.340 1567.8 5.756 1683.9 6.090
2 4.625 0.2699 190.4 1446.5 0.749 5.314 1570.9 5.731 1687.5 6.065
4 4.975 0.2517 199.7 1448.5 0.782 5.288 1574.0 5.706 1691.2 6.040
6 5.346 0.2351 209.1 1450.6 0.816 5.263 1577.0 5.682 1694.9 6.015
8 5.736 0.2198 218.5 1452.5 0.849 5.238 1580.1 5.658 1698.4 5.991
10 6.149 0.2056 227.8 1454.3 0.881 5.213 1583.1 5.634 1702.2 5.967
12 6.585 0.1926 237.2 1456.1 0.914 5.189 1586.0 5.611 1705.7 5.943
14 7.045 0.1805 246.6 1457.8 0.947 5.165 1588.9 5.588 1709.1 5.920
16 7.529 0.1693 256.0 1459.5 0.979 5.141 1591.7 5.565 1712.5 5.898
18 8.035 0.1590 265.5 1461.1 1.012 5.118 1594.4 5.543 1715.9 5.876
20 8.570 0.1494 275.1 1462.6 1.044 5.095 1597.2 5.521 1719.3 5.854
22 9.134 0.1405 284.6 1463.9 1.076 5.072 1600.0 5.499 1722.8 5.832
24 9.722 0.1322 294.1 1465.2 1.108 5.049 1602.7 5.478 1726.3 5.811
26 10.34 0.1245 303.7 1466.5 1.140 5.027 1605.3 4.458 1729.6 5.790
28 10.99 0.1173 313.4 1467.8 1.172 5.005 1608.0 5.437 1732.7 5.770
30 11.67 0.1106 323.1 1468.9 1.204 4.984 1610.5 5.417 1735.9 5.750
32 12.37 0.1044 332.8 1469.9 1.235 4.962 1613.0 5.397 1739.3 5.731
34 13.11 0.0986 342.5 1470.8 1.267 4.940 1615.4 5.378 1742.6 5.711
36 13.89 0.0931 352.3 1471.8 1.298 4.919 1617.8 5.358 1745.7 5.692
38 14.70 0.0880 362.1 1472.6 1.329 4.898 1620.1 5.340 1748.7 5.674
40 15.54 0.0833 371.9 1473.3 1.360 4.877 1622.4 5.321 1751.9 5.655
42 16.42 0.0788 381.8 1473.8 1.391 4.856 1624.6 5.302 1755.0 5.637
44 17.34 0.0746 391.8 1474.2 1.422 4.835 1626.8 5.284 1758.0 5.619
46 18.30 0.0706 401.8 1474.5 1.453 4.814 1629.0 5.266 1761.0 5.602
48 19.29 0.0670 411.9 1474.7 1.484 4.793 1631.1 5.248 1764.0 5.584
50 20.33 0.0635 421.9 1474.7 1.515 4.773 1633.1 5.230 1766.8 5.567

187
 Molecular weight : 17.03 g/mol
 Melting point : -78°C
 Latent heat of fusion (1,013 bar, at triple point) : 331.37 kJ/kg
 Liquid Density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 682 kg/m3 (250 K : 669 kg/m3) (300 K : 600 kg/m3) (400 K : 346 kg/m3)
 Liquid Specific Heat Capacity (cp) (250 K : 4.52 kJ/kg.K) (300 K : 4.75 kJ/kg.K) (400 K : 6.91 kJ/kg.K)
 Liquid/gas equivalent (1.013 bar and 15°C (59°F)) : 947 vol/vol
 Liquid Dynamic Viscosity (250K : 245 106 Ns/m2) (300K : 141 106 Ns/m2) (400K : 38 106 Ns/m2)
 Liquid Thermal Conductivity (250 K : 592 106 kW/m.K) (300 K : 477 106 kW/m.K) (400 K : 207 106 kW/m.K)
 Boiling point (1.013 bar) : -33.5°C
 Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 1371.2 kJ/kg
 Vapor pressure (at 21°C or 70°F) : 8.88 bar
 Critical point - Critical temperature : 132.4°C - Critical pressure : 112.8 bar
 Gas Density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 0.86 kg/m3
 Gas Density (1.013 bar and 15°C (59°F)) : 0.73 kg/m3
 Gas Compressibility Factor (Z) (the ratio of the actual volume of the gas to the volume determined according to the
perfect gas law) (1.013 bar and 15°C (59°F)) : 0.9929
 Gas Specific Gravity (air = 1) (1.013 bar and 21°C (70°F)) : 0.597
 Gas Specific volume (1.013 bar and 21°C (70°F)) : 1.411 m3/kg
 Gas Specific Heat Capacity at constant pressure (cp) (1.013 bar and 15°C (59°F)) : 0.037 kJ/(mol.K)
 Gas Specific Heat Capacity at constant volume (cv) (1.013 bar and 15°C (59°F)) : 0.028 kJ/(mol.K)
 Gas Ratio of Specific Heats (Gamma:Cp/Cv) (1.013 bar and 15°C (59°F)) : 1.309623
 Gas Dynamic Viscosity (1.013 bar and 0°C (32°F)) : 0.000098 Poise
 Gas Thermal conductivity (1.013 bar and 0°C (32°F)) : 22.19 mW/(m.K)
 Gas Solubility in water (1.013 bar and 0°C (32°F)) : 862 vol/vol
 Gas Autoignition temperature : 630°C

188
Appendix-I: Properties of Brines and Glycols
I.1 Properties of Pure Calcium Chloride Brine
Pure Specific Crystallization

CaCl2 Heat at 15 °C Starts Density 15 °C, kg/m3 Density at Various Temperatures, kg/m3
% by Mass J/kg K °C CaCl2 Brine -20 °C -10 °C 0 °C 10 °C
0 4184 0.0 0.0 999
5 3866 -2.4 52.2 1044 1042 1040
6 3824 -2.9 63.0 1049 1051 I050
7 3757 -3.4 74.2 1059 1060 1058
8 3699 -4.1 85.5 1068 1070 1067
9 3636 -4.7 96.9 1078 1079 1077
10 3577 -5.4 108.6 1087 1088 1086
11 3523 -6.2 120.5 1095 1097 1095
12 3464 -7.1 132.5 1104 1107 1104
13 3414 -8.0 144.8 1113 1116 1113
14 3364 -9.2 157.1 1123 1126 1123
15 3318 -10.3 169.8 1132 1140 1136 1133
16 3259 -11.6 182.6 1141 1150 1145 1142
17 3209 -13.0 195.7 1152 1160 1155 1152
18 3163 -14.5 209.0 1161 1170 1165 1162
19 3121 -16.2 222.7 1171 1179 1175 1172
20 3084 -18.0 236.0 1180 1189 1185 1182
21 3050 -19.9 249.6 1189
22 2996 -22.1 264.3 1201 1214 1210 1206 1202
23 2958 - 24.4 278.7 1211
24 2916 -26.8 293.5 1223 1235 1231 1227 1223
25 2882 -29.4 308.2 1232
26 2853 -32.1 323.1 1242
27 2816 -35.1 338.5 1253
28 2782 -38.8 354.0 l264
29 2753 -45.2 369.9 1275
29.87 2741 -55.0 378.4 1289
30 2732 -46.0 358.4 1294
32 2678 -28.6 418.1 1316
34 2636 -15.4 452.0 1339
Mass of Type 1 (77% min) CaCl2 = (mass of pure CaCl2 )/(0.77)
Mass of Type 2 (94% min) CaCl2 = (mass of pure CaCl2 )/(0.94)
Mass of water per unit volume = Brine mass minus Ca Cl2 mass

189
I.2 Properties of Pure Sodium Chloride Brines
Pure Specific Crystallization
NaCl Heat at 15 °C Starts Density 15 °C, kg/m3 Density at Various Temperatures, kg/m3
% by Mass J/kg K °C NaCl Brine -20 °C -10 °C 0 °C 10 °C
0 4184 0.0 0.0 1000
5 3925 -2.9 51.7 1035 1038 1036 1034
6 3879 - 3.6 62.5 1043 1045 1043 1041
7 3836 -4.3 73.4 1048 1053 1051 1048
8 3795 -5.0 84.6 1057 1061 1058 1055
9 3753 - 5.8 95.9 1065 1069 1066 1063
10 3715 -6.6 107.2 1072 1076 1074 1070
11 3678 -7.3 118.8 1080 1084 1081 1078
12 3640 -8.2 130.3 1086 1092 1089 1085
13 3607 -9.1 142.2 1094 1100 1097 1093
14 3573 -10.1 154.3 1102 1108 1104 ·1100
15 3544 -10.9 166.5 1110 1119 1116 1112 1108
16 3515 -11.9 178.9 1118 1127 1124 1120 1116
17 3485 -13.0 191.4 1126 1135 1132 1128 1124
18 3456 -14.1 204.1 1134 1144 1140 1136 1131
19 3427 -I5.3 217.0 1142 1153 1148 1144 1139
20 3402 -16.5 230.0 1150 1160 1156 1154 1147
21 3376 -17.8 243.2 1158 1169 1165 1160 1155
22 3356 -19.1 256.6 1166 1177 1173 1168 1163
23 3330 -20.6 270.0 1174 1186 1181 1177 1172
24 3310 -15.7 283.7 1182 1194 1190 1185 1180
25 3289 - 8.8 297.5 1190
25.2 0.0
Mass of commercial NaCl = (mass of pure NaCl required ) × 100/(% purity of commercial NaCl)
Mass of water per unit volume = Brine mass minus Na Cl mass
I.3 Summary of Properties of Inhibited Glycols

Property Ethylene Glycol Propylene Glycol
Molecular Weight 62.07 76.10
Density at 20oC , kg/m3 1113 1036
Boiling Point , °C at 101.3 kPa 198 187
at 6.67 kPa 123 116
at 133 kPa 89 U
Vapor Pressure at 20oC, Pa 6.7 9.3
Freezing Point, oC -12.7 Sets to glass below -60
Viscosity, mPa.s at 0°C 57.4 243
at2 0°C 20.9 60.'
at 40°C 9.5 18.0
Refractive Index, nD , at 20°C 1.4319 1.4329
Specific Heat at 20°C, kJ/kg 2.347 2.481
Heat of Fusion at -12.7°C, kJ/kg 187
Heat of Vaporization at 101.3 kPa, kJlkg 846 688
Heat of Combustion at 20°C, kJ/kg 19246 23969

190
Appendix-J: Alternate Refrigerants Guide
J.1 Honeywell (Genetron) Alternate Refrigerants Guide

Commercial Refrigeration Long Term Refrigerants
ASHRAE # Trade Name Manufacturer Replaces Type (b) (e) Typical Lubricant (a) Applications Comments
R-404A 125/143a/134a Genetron® 404A Honeywell R-502 R-22 Blend HFC Synthetic New Equipment Most widely used low and
(44%/52%/4%) Suva® HP62 DuPont HP-80 R-408A (low glide) (POE, PVE etc.) Retrofits medium temperature
Forane® 404A Arkema replacement.
R-507 Genetron® AZ-50® Honeywell R-502 R-22 Azeotrope Synthetic (POE, New Equipment Slightly higher pressures and
125/143a Suva® 507 DuPont HP-80 R-408A (no glide) HFC PVE etc.) Retrofits efficiency than R-404A Best
(50%/50%) choice for systems with flooded
evaporators.
R-422A 125/134a/600a One Shot® ICOR R-502 Blend HFC Synthetic New Equipment Similar performance to R-404A.
(85.1%/11.5%/3.4%) Isceon® 79 DuPont R-22 (POE, PVE etc.) Retrofits Equipment with suction line
accumulators and receivers
should use synthetic oils to avoid
oil return issues.
R-417A NU-22® ICOR R-22 Blend (high glide) Synthetic New Equipment Significantly lower refrigeration
125/134a/600 Isceon® 59 DuPont HFC (POE, PVE etc.) Retrofits capacity. Equipment with suction
(46.6%/50%/3.4%) line accumulators and receivers
should use synthetic oils to avoid
oil return issues.
R-407C Genetron® 407C Honeywell R-22 Blend (high glide) Synthetic (POE, New Equipment Reasonable performance match
32/125/134a Suva® 9000 DuPont HFC PVE etc.) Retrofits to R-22 in medium temperature
(23%/25%/52%) Forane® 407C Arkema refrigeration. Lower capacity in
low temperature refrigeration
system.
R-134a Genetron® 134a Honeywell R-12 Single Synthetic New Equipment Performs well in small hermetic
Suva® 134a DuPont Component Fluid (POE, PVE etc.) systems.
Forane® 134a Arkema HFC
Klea® 134a INEOS
Interim HCFC Based Refrigerants

R-401A 22/152a/124 Genetron® MP39 Honeywell R-12 Blend (moderate Alkylbenzene Med Temp Retrofits In most cases no oil change is
(53%/13%/34%) Suva® MP39 DuPont glide) HCFC/HFC Synthetic (c) needed. Best for applications
(POE, PVE etc.) with >0 degrees F suction.
Mineral Oil
R-401B Genetron® MP66 Honeywell R-12 Blend (moderate Alkylbenzene Transport In most cases no oil change is
22/152a/124 Suva® MP66 DuPont R-500 glide) HCFC/HFC Synthetic Refrigeration Low needed. Best for low temp R-12
(61%/11%/28%) (POE, PVE etc.) Temp Retrofits(c) and R-500 retrofit applications.
Mineral Oil Retrofits including air
conditioners and
dehumidifiers.
R-409A Genetron® 409A Honeywell R-12 Blend Alkylbenzene Retrofits(c) In most cases no oil change is
22/124/142b Suva® 409A DuPont R-500 (high glide) Synthetic Low and Med Temp needed.
(60%/25%/15%) Forane® FX-56 Arkema HCFC (POE, PVE etc.) Good broad range R-12
Mineral Oil substitute.
Similar to R-409A.
R-414A GHG®-X4® Autofrost ® R-12 Blend Alkylbenzene Retrofits
22/124/600a/142b (d) Appliance R-500 (high glide) Synthetic Low and Med Temp
(51%/28.5%/4%/16.5%) Care Products HCFC/Hydrocarb (POE, PVE etc.)
on Mineral Oil
R-414B Hot Shot™ ICOR R-12 Blend Alkylbenzene Retrofits Similar to R-409A.
22/124/600a/142b (d) R-500 (high glide) Synthetic Low and Med Temp
(50%/39%/1.5%/9.5%) HCFC/Hydrocarb (POE, PVE etc.)
on Mineral Oil
R-416A FRIGC FR-12® CFC Refimax R-12 Blend Synthetic Retrofits Lower capacity and pressure
134a/124/600 (d) (low glide) (POE, PVE etc.) Medium Temp than 134a. Poor low temp
(59%/39.5%/1.5%) HFC/HCFC/Hydr performance.
ocarbon
R-402A 125/290/22 Genetron® HP80 Honeywell R-502 Blend (low glide) Alkylbenzene Retrofits Low and Most widely used R-502 retrofit
(60%/2%/38%) Suva® HP80 DuPont HFC/HC/HCFC Synthetic Med Temp substitute. Higher discharge
(POE, PVE etc.) pressure than R502. Use either
synthetic oil or blend of AB/MO
with AB>50%.
R-402B 125/290/22 Genetron® HP81 Honeywell R-502 Blend (low glide) Alkylbenzene Ice Machines Niche refrigerant used in some
(38%/2%/60%) Suva® HP81 DuPont HFC/HC/HCFC Synthetic ice machines.
(POE, PVE etc.)
R-408A Genetron® 408A Honeywell R-502 Blend (low glide) Alkylbenzene Retrofits Low and Works well as R-502 substitute.
125/143a/22 Suva® 408A DuPont HFC/HCFC Synthetic Med Temp Higher discharge temperatures
(7%/46%/47%) Forane® FX-10 Arkema (POE, PVE etc.) than R-502. Use either synthetic
oil or blend of AB/ MO with
AB>50%.

191
Ultra Low Temp Refrigerants
R-23 Genetron® 23 Honeywell R-13 Single Synthetic (POE, New Equipment Higher discharge temperatures
Suva® 23 DuPont R-503 Component Fluid PVE etc.) Retrofits than R-13 or R-508B
HFC
R-508B Genetron® 508B Honeywell R-13 Azeotrope Synthetic (POE, New Equipment Lower discharge temperatures
23/116 Suva® 95 DuPont R-503 HFC PVE etc.) Retrofits than R-13 and R-23. Good
(46%/54%) performance matches to R-503.
Air Conditioning
Centrifugal Chiller Refrigerants
R-123 Genetron® 123 Honeywell R-11 Single Alkylbenzene New Equipment Due for phase out in 2030
Suva® 123 DuPont Component Fluid Mineral Oil Retrofits
Forane® 123 Arkema HCFC Synthetic
(POE, PVE etc.)
R-245fa Genetron® 245fa Honeywell R-11 Single Synthetic (POE, New Equipment Equipment redesign
Component Fluid PVE etc.) Organic Rankine Cycle & as
HFC Heat Transfer Fluid
R-134a Genetron® 134a Honeywell R-12 R-500 Single Synthetic New Equipment Used in many new chiller
Suva® 134a DuPont Component Fluid (POE, PVE etc.) Retrofits designs.
Forane® 134a Arkema HFC
Klea® 134a INEOS
Long Term Refrigerants — Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps

R-407C Genetron® 407C Honeywell R-22 R-500 Blend (high glide) Synthetic (POE, New Equipment Best retrofit alternative to R-22.
32/125/134a Suva® 407C DuPont HFC PVE etc.) Retrofits Close performance match with
(23%/25%/52%) Forane® 407C Arkema slightly higher operating
pressures.
R-410A Genetron® AZ-20® Honeywell R-22 Azeotropic Synthetic (POE, New Equipment High pressure, high efficiency
32/125 Suva® 410A DuPont Mixture (near PVE etc.) refrigerant designed for new
(50%/50%) Forane® 410A Arkema zero glide) HFC equipment.
Puron® NOT FOR RETROFITTING.
R-417A 125/134a/600 NU-22® Isceon® 59 ICOR DuPont R-22 R-500 Blend (high glide) Synthetic (POE, New Equipment Lower cooling capacity than R-
(46.6%/50%/3.4%) HFC PVE etc.) Mineral Retrofits 22. Oil return issues with suction
Oil & AB in some line accumulators and receivers
applications if mineral oil used.
R-134a Genetron® 134a Honeywell R-12 R-500 Single Synthetic (POE, New Equipment Used in large screw chillers
Suva® 134a DuPont Component Fluid PVE etc.) Retrofits
Forane® 134a Arkema (no glide) HFC
Klea® 134a INEOS
Notes
(a) Check with the compressor manufacturer for their recommended lubricant.
(b) Interim replacements contain HCFCs that are scheduled for phase out.
(c) Not recommended for automotive air conditioning.
(d) The refrigerant R-600 is butane. The refrigerant R-600a is isobutane.
(e) CFC=Chlorofluorocarbon: HCFC=Hydrochlorofluorocarbon: HFC=Hydrofluorocarbon HC=Hydrocarbon: FC=Fluorocarbon
Trademarks
Genetron® , AZ-20® , AZ-50® are registered trademarks of Honeywell International;
Puron® is a registered trademark of Carrier Corporation;
Klea® is a registered trademark of INEOS;
Suva® is a registered trademark of DuPont;
Forane® is a registered trademark of Arkema;
Hot Shot™ is a trademark of ICOR International;
GHG® Refrigerant - 12 Substitute is a registered trademark of GHG® Dev. Labs, Inc.;
Isceon® is a registered trademark of DuPont;
Autofrost® is a registered trademark of Monroe Air Tech, Inc.;
FRIGC is a registered trademark of Intercool Energy Corporation
Source: Honeywell Genetron® Refrigerants

192
J.2 DuPont Alternate Refrigerants Guide
R-22 REPLACEMENTS
ISCEON@M079 ISCEON@M059 ISCEON@M029 Suva@ 410A Suva@ 407C
R-422A R-417A R-422D R-410A R-407C
HFC HFC HFC HFC HFC

Retrofit Retrofit Retrofit New Equipment New Equipment
New Equipment Only
Lubricant Designed for R-
410A
Lubricant Lubricant MO Lubricant
MO MO AB POE
Lubricant
AB AB POE
POE
POE POE
Evaporator Temp
Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp High Evaporator Temp
Medium High Medium High
Evaporator Temp
Low Medium Low Medium
High
Medium
Applications Applications Applications
Refrigeration: AC: AC: Applications
Applications
Commercial Commercial DX Water AC:
chillers AC:
Industrial Residential Commercial
Commercial Lt Commercial
Residential Commercial
Refrigeration: Residential
Heat Pumps
Commercial Refrigeration:
Refrigeration: Residential
Commercial
Commercial
Industrial
R-12 REPLACEMENTS
ISCEON® 39TC® Suva® 134a Suva® MP39 Suva® MP66 Suva® 409A
R-423A R-134a R-401A R-401B R-409A
HFC HFC HFC HCFC HCFC

Retrofit New Equipment Retrofit Retrofit Retrofit
Retrofit Also replaces R-500
Lubricant Lubricant Lubricant Lubricant Lubricant

POE POE AB AB AB
Single lubricant PAG (auto ac) MO MO MO
change
Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp
High High Medium Medium Medium
Medium Medium Low Low Low
(Above +20°F/-7°C) (Above -15°F /- (Below -15°F /-26°C) (Above -15°F /-
27°C) 26°C)
Applications Applications Applications
Centrifugal Commercial Applications Refrigeration: Applications
Chillers Refrigeration: Refrigeration: Freezers Refrigeration:
Appliances Supermarket Transport Super Market
Chillers System (Medium System
Automotive AC temp) (Medium
Walk in Coolers temp)
Walk in Coolers

193
SUGGESTED OIL GUIDE
ISCEON® Recommended Alternate Suva® Recommended Alternate
Refrigerant Lubricant Lubricant Refrigerant Lubricant Lubricant
®
ISCEON M029 (R-422D) MO AB - POE ®
Suva 134a POE/PAG
ISCEON® 39TC® (R-423A) POE (Auto Ac)
(Single lubricant change) ®
Suva MP39 (R-401A) AB MO
ISCEON® MO59 (R-417A) MO AB – POE Suva® 409A AB MO
ISCEON® MO7 (R-422A) MO AB - POE Suva® MP66 (R-401B) AB MO
Suva® 95 (R-508B) POE
Suva® 404A POE
Suva® 507 POE
Suva® HP80 (R-402A) AB MO
ISECON® 9 Series Refrigerants – Oil Change
Suva® 408A AB MO
Guidelines
Suva® HP81 (R-402B) AB MO
 ISCEON® 9 Series Refrigerants are compatible Suva® 407C POE
with traditional and new lubricants – mineral oil, Suva® 410A POE
alkylenzene and polyol ester; in most cases no Suva® 123 MO AB
change of lubricant type during retrofit is needed.
 Oil return is determined by a number of operating ISECON® Refrigerants – Oil Change Guidelines
and design conditions, in some systems with  Where possible, use OEM recommended oil type,
complex piping configurations, POE may need to charge size, and viscosity.
be added.  When converting many CFC systems to an HCFC
 Field experience has shown that ISCEON® M079, service refrigerant (Suva® MP39, 409A, MP66, HP80,
M059 and M029 will work successfully with the 408A, or HP81), AB is the recommended lubricant for
existing mineral oil in most systems. In systems optimum oil return. One compressor oil change to ABN
where oil return is a potential concern such as will typically remove between 50 and 80% of the
flooded evaporators or in systems where the existing MO which satisfies the
suction line accumulator acts as a low pressure recommendations/requirements of most compressor
receiver, replacement of all, or part (-25%) of the manufacturers.
compressor oil charge with an OEM approved  When converting a CFC or HCFC system to an
polyol ester is recommended. HFC refrigerant such as Suva® 134a or 95, POE is the
 ISCEON® 39TC® requires one lubricant change to recommended lubricant. At least 95% of the MO or AB
POE during retrofit. ISCEON® 39TC® tolerates high should be replaced with POE of similar viscosity. This
residual levels of mineral oil; therefore no system typically requires multiple oil changes.
flushing is required after changing the original
lubricant to POE. MO = Mineral Oil AB = Alkyl benzene
POE = Polyol Ester
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF REPLACEMENT REGRIGERANTS

Compared Discharge Discharge Est. Cooling Est.
Refrigerant To Pressure (psi) Temp (oF) Capacity (%) EER (%)
R-22 HFC replacements LT MT** LT* MT** LT* MT** LT* MT**
ISCEON® M029 R-22 +10 +12 -31 -66 +8 -5 -14 Same
ISCEON® M079 R-22 +45 +53 -40 -70 +29 Same +13 -8
ISCEON® M059 R-22 -19 -23 -25 -62 -5 -13 +12 -1
R-502HFC Replacements
ISCEON® M079 R-502 +3 +30 -13 -19 -1 Same -4 Same
Suva® 404A R-502 +1 +27 Same -10 +1 +1 -2 -3
*Low Temperature: -25oF(-32oC) evaporator,105oF(41oC) condenser, 65oF(18oC) return gas,10oF(6oC)subcooling

**Medium Temperature: 20oF(-7oC) evaporator,120oF(49oC)condenser,65oF(18oC)return gas,10oF(6oC) subcooling
R-22 assumes demand cooling with discharge temp of 275 oF(135oC)
Refrigerant Compared Discharge Discharge Est. Cooling

to Pressure (psi) Temp (oF) Capacity (%)
R-12 HFC replacements
ISCEON® 39TC® R-12 +30 -20 0 to -5
Suva® 95 R-12 +10 -10 -10
R-13,R-23,R-503 PFC Replacements
Suva® 95 R-503 +2 -40 -2
Service Refrigerants*
Suva® MP39 R-12 +20 +25 +10
Suva® MP66 R-12 +30 +30 +15
Suva® 409A R-12 +25 +30 +10
Performance data based on normal application conditions and is intended to serve as a guide; actual performance will vary depending on system design and
conditions
+ is increase – is decrease
*HCFCs are subject to phase-out under the Montreal Protocol

194
PRESSURE CONTROL SETTINGS GUIDE
(approximate)
SUPERMARKET REGRIGERATION RETROFITS

This pressure control setting guide provides you with approximate setting that can be used as starting points to help you optimize system.
Recognize that the values expressed can vary with specific conditions, such as actual related humidity, pressure drop, store lay out,
equipment location and design. If your current settings for R-22 vary from the baseline values given below, the alternative refrigerant
settings will vary proportionally.
Application Temp Evap Refrigerant

Range AT R-22 ISCEON® ISCEON® R-404A R-407 HP80 (R- R-502
(oF) (oF) M029 M079 402A)
Out In Out In Out In Out In Out In Out In
Beverage Cooler 35 to 38 15 41 66 42 69 52 82 53 82 56 86 59 91 50 78
Floral Cooler
Produce Cooler
Smoked Meat Cooler 32 to 35 15 38 62 39 64 49 77 49 77 52 82 55 86 47 73
Meat Reach Thru
Service Deli
Seafood
Multi-Deck Fresh Meat 36 to 29 15 32 54 33 56 42 69 42 68 45 72 47 76 40 65
Frozen Glass Door -10 to 0 10 9 24 9 23 14 32 15 33 16 35 37 48 31 41
Frozen Glass Walk in
Frozen Ice Cream -30 to 20 10 0 10 0 10 4 15 4 16 5 18 6 20 3 15
Frozen Food – open
Type
GENERAL RETROFIT GUIDE

Recover refrigerant from system and weigh amount removed
Record base line date

Power OFF system
*Recover refrigerant
from system and weigh
amount removed
Retrofit examples-no oil change

Easy retrofit to
R-22 to ISCEON® M079, M059, M029
ISCEON®
R-502 to ISCEON® M079
Refrigerants
No Oil Change
Replace filter/drier
Evacuate system to 500 Charge with ISCEON® Start system, make Monitor oil level. top
microns and check for refrigerant. Remove as adjustments. up with AB or MO Label
leaks liquid only from cylinder. DO NOT overcharge .add POE if required System
(90-95%)
*For retrofit to HFC multiple oil changes. DO NOT remove CFC refrigerants until AFTER oil flushing is complete.

195
DuPont Refrigerants
GENERAL REPLACEMENT GUIDE
R-502 REPLACEMENTS
ISCEON@M079 Suva@ 404A Suva@ 408A Suva@ 507 Suva@ HP80
R-422A R-404A R-408A R-507 R-402A
HFC HFC HCFC HFC HCFC

Retrofit New Equipment Service New Equipment Service
New Equipment Refrigerant Refrigerant
Lubricant Lubricant Lubricant Lubricant Lubricant

MO POE AB POE AB
AB MO MO
POE
Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp
Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Low Low Low Low Low
Applications Applications Applications Applications Applications

Refrigeration: Refrigeration: Refrigeration: Refrigeration: Refrigeration:
Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial
Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial
R-11 REPLACEMENTS R-13, R-23, R-503 REPLACEMENTS

Suva@ 123 Suva@ 95
R-123 R-508B
HCFC PFC
New Equipment New Equipment
Retrofit Retrofit
Lubricant Lubricant
MO POE
Evaporator Temp Evaporator Temp

High Very low temp (VLT)
Medium Below-40oF
Applications
Applications Refrigeration:
Centrifugal Cascade Systems
Chillers
Note:
MO = Mineral oils
AB = Alkyl benzenes
POE = Polyol esters

196
Appendix-K: Heat loss graphs for various materials
and surface temperatures
A wide variety of pipe insulation products is available from many different manufacturers. The
heat loss graphs are based on four common product types, which are given below.
 Preformed rigid polyisocyanurate or (up to 100°C) polyurethane sections

(Exhibits K-1 through K-3)
 Preformed expanded nitrile rubber and polyethylene foam sections
(Exhibits K-4 through K-5)
(Preformed rigid polyisocyanurate or polyurethane sections)

197

198
(Preformed expanded nitrile rubber and polyethylene foam sections)
(Preformed expanded nitrile rubber and polyethylene foam sections)

199
Appendix-L: Useful Equations and Relationships
Air:
1. Q  AV Q  Quantity, m3 s
 1.2  A  Area, m
2
2. V  1.3 V p  
 d  V  Velocity, m s
3. V  1.3 VP for standard air V p  Velocity pressure, Pa
2
V ρ  Air density, kg m
3
4. V P    for standard air
 1.3  V m  Measured velocity, m s
1.2
5. V  V m
ρ
other than standard air T p  Total pressure, Pa
6. Tp  Vp  Sp V p  Velocity pressure, Pa
Sp  Static pressure, Pa
Fan Laws:
 rps2  Q = Air quantity, m3 s
7. Q 2  Q1  

 rps1  rps = Revolutions per second
2 S p = Static pressure, Pa
 rps 2 
8. Sp 2 = Sp1   kW = kilowatts
 rps1 
3
 rps 
9. kW 2  kW1  2 
 rps1 
Pulley Laws:
d R = Revolutions/sec, driven pulley
10. R  r  
D r = Revolutions/sec, driver pulley
D D = Diameter driven pulley, metres

11. r  R  
d d = Diameter driver pulley, metres
r
12. D  d  
R
R
13. d  D  
r
Gas Laws:
3
P1 V 1 = Initial volume , m
14. V 2  V1 3
P2 V2 = Final volume , m
T1 = Initial temperature , absolute, K
T2
15. V 2  V1 T2 = Final temperature, absolute , K
T1 P1 = Initial absolute pressure , Pa
T2 P2 = Final absolute pressure , Pa
16. P 2  P1
T1

201
Heat Transfer: Air:
17. H = C ρ Q T
H = Heat flow, watts
simplified for standard air; C = Specific heat, kJ kg C
18. H, sensible = 1.206 Q T T = Temperature difference, C
o
19. H, latent heat  3 Q ΔW

W = Humidity ratio, g H 2O kg dry air
20. H, total = 1.2 Q h
h = Enthalpy difference, kJ kg dry air
Q = Air flow rate, litres per second
ρ = Density of air, kg m3
Heat Transfer: Water: H = Heat flow, watts

21. H  1000  4.2 Q T
Q = Water flow, liters per second
4.2 = Specific heat of water, kJ kg , K
simplified for standard water;
22. H  4200 Q T 1000 = Density of water, kg m3
o
T = Temp. differ. between inlet and outlet water, C
Heat Transfer: Solid Materials: H = Heat flow, watts
23. H  A U T 2
A = Area, m
o
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, W m 2 C
o
T = Temperature diffenence of the two sides, C
Fan Duty: Air:
 QP  1 W = Fan power, watts
24. W   
 1000  η f Q = Air quantity, liters per second
Where the efficiency is not known assume 62.8% P = Fan pressure, Pa

or simplified; 1000 = a constant
QP
25. W = η = Fan efficiency, as fracion of 1 (one)
628 f
QP T PT = Total pressure, Pa
26. Fan total efficiency, % 
10W PS = Static pressure, Pa
QPS D = diameter of impeller, mm
27. Fan static efficiency, % 
10W Rpm = Revolutions per min.
πDRpm
28. Ts  Ts = Tip speed, meters per minute
1000
Pump Duty: Water:
 Qh  1 W = Pump power, watts
29. W   
 1000  η p Q = Water flow, liters per second
Where the efficiency is not known assume 70% or h = Head, Pa

simplified; η  Pump efficiency, as fraction of 1 (one)
p
Qh
30. W  1000 = a constant
700
Control Valve: p = Pressure difference, Pa
2
 Q Q = Water flow, liters per second
31. p   
 CV  CV = Control valve constant
32. Q  CV Δp

202
Appendix-M: ASHRAE Handbook – Volumes
2006 ASHRAE Handbook

Refrigeration
Contents Distribution of Chilled and Frozen Food
Refrigeration System Practices Chapter
Chapter 30. Cargo Containers, Rail Cars, Trailers, and Trucks
1. Liquid Overfeed Systems 31. Marine Refrigeration
2. System Practices for Halocargbon Refrigerants 32. Air Transport
3. System Practices for Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide
Refrigerants Industrial Applications
4. Secondary Coolants in Refrigeration Systems Chapter
5. Refrigerant System Chemistry 33. Insulation Systems for Refrigerant Piping
6. Control of Moisture and Other Contaminants in 34. Ice Manufacture
Refrigerant Systems 35. Ice Rinks
7. Lubricants in Refrigerant Systems 36. Concrete Dams and Subsurface Soils
8. Refrigerant Containment, Recovery, Recycling, and 37. Refrigeration in the Chemical Industry
Reclamation
Low-Temperature Applications
Food Storage and Equipment Chapter
Chapter 38. Cryogenics
9. Thermal Properties of Foods 39. Ultralow-Temperature Refrigeration
10. Cooling and Freezing Times of Foods 40. Biomedical Applications of Cryogenic Refrigeration
11. Commodity Storage Requirements
12. Food Microbiology and Refrigeration Refrigeration Equipment
13. Refrigeration Load Chapter
14. Refrigerated Facility Design 41. Absorption Cooling, Heating, and Refrigeration
15. Methods of Precooling Fruits, Vegetables, and Cut Equipment
Flowers 42. Forced-Circulation Air Coolers
43. Component Balancing in Refrigeration Systems
Food Refrigeration 44. Refrigerant-Control Devices
Chapter 45. Factory Dehydrating, Charging, and Testing
16. Industrial Food Freezing Systems
17. Meat Products Unitary Refrigeration Equipment
18. Poultry Products Chapter
19. Fishery Products 46. Retail Food Store Refrigeration and Equipment
20. Dairy Products 47. Food Service and General Commercial Refrigeration
21. Eggs and Egg Products Equipment
22. Deciduous Tree and Vine Fruit 48. Household Refrigerators and Freezers
23. Citrus Fruit, Bananas, and Subtropical Fruit
24. Vegetables
General Chapter
25. Fruit Juice Concentrates and Chilled Juice Products
26. Beverages Chapter
27. Processed, Precooked, and Prepared Foods 49. Codes and Standards
28. Bakery Products
29. Chocolates, Candies, Nuts, Dried Fruits, and Dried
Vegetables

203
2005 ASHRAE Handbook
Fundamentals
Contents
Theory
Chapter
1. Thermodynamics and Refrigeration Cycles
2. Fluid Flow) 23. Thermal and Moisture Control in Insulated Assemblies—
3. Heat Transfer Fundamentals
4. Two-Phase Flow 24. Thermal and Moisture Control in Insulated Assemblies—
5. Mass Transfer Applications
6. Psychrometrics 25. Thermal and Water Vapor Transmission Data
7. Sound and Vibration 26. Insulation for Mechanical Systems
General Engineering Information Load and Energy Calculations

Chapter Chapter
8. Thermal Comfort 27. Ventilation and Infiltration
9. Indoor Environmental Health 28. Climatic Design Information
10. Environmental Control for Animals and Plants 29. Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations
11. Physiological Factors in Drying and Storing Farm Crops 30. Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations
12. Air Contaminants 31. Fenestration
13. Odors 32. Energy Estimating and Modeling Methods
14. Measurement and Instruments
15. Fundamentals of Control Duct and Pipe Design
16. Airflow Around Buildings Chapter
33. Space Air Diffusion
Basic Materials 34. Indoor Environmental Modeling
Chapter 35. Duct Design
17. Energy Resources 36. Pipe Sizing
18. Combustion and Fuels
19. Refrigerants General
20. Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants Chapter
21. Physical Properties of Secondary Coolants (Brines) 37. Abbreviations and Symbols
22. Sorbents and Desiccants 38. Units and Conversions
39. Physical Properties of Materials
40. Codes and Standards
2004 ASHRAE Handbook -

HVAC Systems and Equipment
Contents
Air-Conditioning and Heating Systems Heating Equipment
Chapter Chapter
1. HVAC System Analysis and Selection 26. Automatic Fuel-Burning Equipment
2. Building Air Distribution 27. Boilers
3. In-Room Terminal Systems 28. Furnaces
4. Central Cooling and Heating 29. Residential In-Space Heating Equipment
5. Decentralized Cooling and Heating 30. Chimney, Gas Vent, and Fireplace Systems
6. Panel Heating and Cooling 31. Unit Ventilators, Unit Heaters, and Makeup Air Units
7. Cogeneration Systems and Engine and Turbine Drives 32. Hydronic Heat-Distributing Units and Radiators
8. Applied Heat Pump and Heat Recovery Systems 33. Solar Energy Equipment
9. Design of Small Forced-Air Heating and Cooling
Systems General Components
10. Steam Systems Chapter
11. District Heating and Cooling 34. Compressors
12. Hydronic Heating and Cooling System Design 35. Condensers
13. Condenser Water Systems 36. Cooling Towers
14. Medium- and High-Temperature Water Heating Systems 37. Liquid Coolers
15. Infrared Radiant Heating 38. Liquid-Chilling Systems
39. Centrifugal Pumps
Air-Handling Equipment 40. Motors, Motor Controls, and Variable-Speed Drives
Chapter 41. Pipes, Tubes, and Fittings
16. Duct Construction 42. Valves
17. Room Air Distribution Equipment 43. Heat Exchangers
18. Fans 44. Air-to-Air Energy Recovery
19. Evaporative Air-Cooling Equipment
20. Humidifiers Unitary Equipment
21. Air-Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils Chapter
22. Desiccant Dehumidification and Pressure Drying 45. Unitary Air Conditioners and Unitary Heat Pumps
Equipment 46. Room Air Conditioners and Packaged Terminal Air
23. Air-Heating Coils Conditioners
24. Air Cleaners for Particulate Contaminants 47. Mechanical Dehumidifiers and Heat Pipes
25. Industrial Gas Cleaning and Air Pollution Control 48. Codes and Standards

204
2003 ASHRAE Handbook - HVAC
Applications
Contents
Comfort Applications Energy-Related Applications
Chapter Chapter
1. Residences 32. Geothermal Energy
2. Retail Facilities 33. Solar Energy Use
3. Commercial and Public Buildings 34. Thermal Storage
4. Places of Assembly
5. Hotels, Motels, and Dormitories Building Operation and Management
6. Educational Facilities Chapter
7. Health Care Facilities 35. Energy Use and Management
8. Justice Facilities 36. Owning and Operating Costs
9. Surface Transportation 37. Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing
10. Aircraft 38. Operation and Maintenance Management
11. Ships 39. Computer Applications
40. Building Energy Monitoring
Industrial Applications 41. Supervisory Control Strategies and Optimization
Chapter 42. New Building Commissioning
12. Industrial Air Conditioning
13. Enclosed Vehicular Facilities General Applications
14. Laboratories Chapter
15. Engine Test Facilities 43. Building Envelopes
16. Clean Spaces 44. Building Air Intake and Exhaust Design
17. Data Processing and Electronic Office Areas 45. Control of Gaseous Indoor Air Contaminants
18. Printing Plants 46. Design and Application of Controls
19. Textile Processing Plants 47. Sound and Vibration Control
20. Photographic Material Facilities 48. Water Treatment
21. Museums, Libraries, and Archives 49. Service Water Heating
22. Environmental Control for Animals and Plants 50. Snow Melting and Freeze Protection
23. Drying and Storing Selected Farm Crops 51. Evaporative Cooling Applications
24. Air Conditioning of Wood and Paper Product Facilities 52. Fire and Smoke Management
25. Power Plants 53. Radiant Heating and Cooling
26. Nuclear Facilities 54. Seismic and Wind Restraint Design
27. Mine Air Conditioning and Ventilation 55. Electrical Considerations
28. Industrial Drying Systems 56. Codes and Standards
29. Ventilation of the Industrial Environment
30. Industrial Local Exhaust Systems
31. Kitchen Ventilation

205
Appendix-N: SI Conversion Tables
LENGTH meters kilometer inch feet miles

1 meter 1 1.000E-03 3.937E+01 3.281 6.214E-04
1 kilometer 1000 1 3.937E+04 3281 6.214E-01
1 inch 2.540E-03 2.540E-05 1 8.330E-02 1.578E-05
1 foot 3.048E-01 3.048E-04 1.200E+01 1 1.894E-04
1 mile 1609 1.609 6.336E+04 5280 1
AREA m2 cm2 ft2 inch2

1 square meter 1 1.000E+04 10.76 1550
1 square centimeter 1.000E-04 1 1.076E-03 1.550E-01
1 square foot 9.290E-02 929 1 1.440E+02
1 square inch 6.452E-04 6.452 6.944E-03 1
1 Square mile = 27,878,400 ft2 = 640 acre 1 acre = 43,560 ft2
1 hectare = 10,000 mi2 = 2.471 acre
VOLUME m3 cm3 ft3 Inch3

1 cubic meter 1 1.000E+06 35.31 6.102E+04
1 cubic centimeter 1.000E-06 1 3.531E-05 6.102E-02
1 cubic foot 2.832E-02 2.832E+01 1 1728
1 cubic inch 1.639E-05 1.639E+01 5.787E-04 1
1 U.S. fluid gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 128 fluid ounces = 231 cubic inches
1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters (1 cubic foot of water = 62.4 pounds of water)
MASS gram kilogram lb-mass (lbm) Slug ton-mass

1 gram 1 1.000E-03 2.205E-03 6.852E-05 1.102E-06
1 kilogram 1000 1 2.205 6.852E-02 1.102E-03
1 pound mass 453.6 4.536E-01 1 3.108E-02 5.000E-04
1 slug 14590 14.59 32.17 1 1.609E-02
1 ton-mass 9.072E+05 9.070E+02 2000 62.16 1
1 metric ton = 1000 kg = 2205 pounds 1 stone = 14 pounds 1 carat = 0.2 grams
TIME year day hour minute second

1 year 1 365.2 8766 5.259E+05 3.156E+07
1 day 2.739E-03 1 24 1.440E+03 8.640E+04
1 hour 1.141E-04 4.167E-02 1 60 3600
1 minute 1.901E-06 6.944E-04 1.667E-02 1 60
1 second 3.169E-08 1.157E-05 2.778E-04 1.667E-02 1
FORCE dyne kgf N Lb pdf

1 dyne 1 1.020E-06 1.000E-05 2.248E-05
1 kilogram force 9.807E+05 1 9.807 2.205 7093
1 newton 1.000E+05 1.020E-01 1 0.2248 7.233
1 pound 4.448E+05 4.536E-01 4.448 1 32.17
1 poundal 1.383E+04 1.410E-02 1.383E-01 3.108E-02 1

207
PRESSURE atmosphere inches of water cm of Hg pascal (Pa) lb/in2 (psi)
1 atmosphere 1 4.068E+02 7.6 E01 1.013E+05 1.470E+01
1 inch of water 2.458E-03 1 1.868E-01 2.491E+02 3.613E-02
1 cm of Hg 1.316E-02 5.353 1 1.333E+03 1.934E-01
1 pascal (Pa) 9.869E-06 4.105E-03 7.501E-04 1 1.450E-04
1 lb/in2 6.805E-02 2.768E+01 5.171 6.895E+03 1
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2

1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 pascals (Pa)
1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2 = 29.92 in of Hg (mercury) = 33.92 ft of water = 2,117 lb/ft2
1 cm of water = 98.07 N/m2 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg 1 ft of water = 62.43 lb/ft2
ENERGY Btu ft-lb J kcal kWh

1 British themal unit 1 7.779E+02 1.055E+03 2.520E-01 2.930E-04
1 foot-pound 1.285E-03 1 1.356 3.240E-04 3.766E-07
1 joule 9.481E-04 0.7376 1 2.390E-04 2.778E-07
1 kilocalorie 3.968 3.086E+03 4.184E+03 1 1.163E-03
1 kilowatt-hour 3.412E+03 2.655E+06 3.600E+06 8.602E+02 1
1 Btu = 252 calories = 778 ft-lb = 1,055 joules 1 joule = 0.239 calories
1 calorie = 3.09 ft-lb = 4.18 joules 1 ft-lb = 0.324 calories 1 kcal = 1,000 calories
POWER Btu/hr ft-lb/sec hp kcal/sec W

1 Btu/hr 1 2.161E-01 3.929E-04 7.000E-05 2.931E-01
1 ft-lb/sec 4.628 1 1.818E-03 3.239E-04 1.356
1 horsepower 2.545E+03 5.500E+02 1 0.1782 7.457E+02
1 kcal/sec 1.429E+04 3.087E+03 5.613 1 4.184E+03
1 watt 3.413 7.376E-01 1.341E-03 2.390E-04 1
Ton
HEAT Btu/h Btu/min kcal/s Watt
(refrigeration)
1 Btu/h 1 1.670E-02 8.33E-05 7.00E-05 2.931E-01
1 Btu/min 60 1 5.000E-03 4.200E-03 17.5686
1 ton (refrigeration) 12000 200 1 8.400E-01 3.514E+03
kcal/s 1.429E+04 238.0992 1.1905 1 4.183E+03
watt 3.413 5.690E-02 2.846E-04 2.391E-04 1
1 ton (refrigeration) = 12,000 Btu/hr

208
Appendix-O: Glossary
Air vent - A valve , either manual or automatic that is

used to remove unwanted air from the highest point of a
Absolute Humidity - Is the amount of humidity in the piping system.
air, indicated by grains
Air to Air - both the condensing and evaporating
Absolute Pressure - is the sum of gauge and mediums are air.
atmospheric pressure (bar a).
Alcohol Brine - Water and alcohol solution which
Absolute Temperature - Is temperature measured on remains a liquid below 0oC.
the Kelvin scale
Ambient Temperature - The prevailing temperature of
Absolute Zero - The lowest temperature theoretically the atmosphere surrounding the component under
attainable on the Kelvin scale . Approx. -273.16o C consideration.
Absolute humidity - The humidity of the air measured Anemometer- an instrument that measures air speed.
buy the number of grains of water vapor present in one
cubic meter of air. Anticipation - to realize in advance, i.e. a heat
anticipator on a thermostat is used to shut down a
Absorbent - A substance with the ability to absorb furnace prior to the set point, as we are anticipating that
another substance. the furnace will continue to run until the heat exchange
Absorption- in physics, the taking up of light, heat, or is cooled and we will be at set point buy that time .
other energy by molecules. The absorbed energy is ASHRAE - American Society of Heating Refrigeration
converted into heat; Absorption in chemistry is the and Air Conditioning Engineers.
taking up of one substance by another. For example, a
gas such as oxygen may be absorbed, or dissolved, in Aspect Ratio - The ratio of length to width of a
water. In the HVAC industry we absorbed heat energy rectangular air grill or duct.
from the medium being cooled and transfer that energy Aspiration - The movement is a fluid produced by
in the refrigerant. suction.
Active Cooling - Compressor driven air-conditioning. Atmospheric Pressure - Is the pressure that the
Accumulator - A shell device installed in the suction atmosphere exerts on us. At sea level the is 14.7 psig
line of a HVAC system to prevent liquids from entering also written as 760 mm or 29.92 " Hg.
the compressor. Atmospheric Condenser - A condenser operated with
Acrolein - An Agent added to methyl chloride, to make water that is exposed to the atmosphere.
you aware of refrigerant leaks. Atmospheric pressure - The pressure exerted by the
Activated Alumina - a type of aluminum oxide that column of air in the atmosphere above the reference
absorbs moisture. (used in refrigerant driers). point.
Activated Carbon - A processed carbon used in filter Automatic Expansion Valve - A pressure actuated
driers, commonly used in air filters to clean the air. metering device to regulate the flow of refrigerant into
the evaporator according to the evaporator pressure.
Adiabatic - A change in gas condition where no heat is
added or removed except in the form of work. Azeotropes - refrigerants that are mixtures or blends of
different refrigerants that are at the same ratio in vapor
Adsorption-Adsorption, which is often confused with as well as in liquid state.
absorption, refers to the adhering of molecules of gases
and liquids to the surfaces of porous solids. Adsorption Azeotropes - (Near) - A zeotrope having a temperature
is a surface phenomenon; absorption is an intermingling glide sufficiently small that it is inconsequential.
or interpenetration of two substances. Azeotropic mixture - is a combination of different
Air Balance- To distribute air through a system to refrigerants to mask one with desirable refrigerant
precisely match the required amount. properties, an example of this is R-502 which is a
mixture of 48.8% R-22 and 51.2% R-115.
Air Conditioner - A device used to control temperature
and humidity of the air. Back Pressure - This is the refrigerant pressure in the
low side of the system also called low side pressure or
Air Conditioning - To condition air, transfer of heat suction pressure.
and humidity from one medium to an other.
Baffle - A device used to divert the flow of a substance
Air-cooled condenser - A condenser cooled by natural (air or liquid).
or forced flow of air.
Balanced Pressure - when the both the inside and
Air Handler - A fan-blower , heat transfer coil and outside pressure of a container equal each other.
housing parts of a system.
Barometer- is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Air Infiltration - The unwanted entrance of air due to
suck things as leakage, temperature difference or wind.

209
Barometric Damper - Also called draft damper, is a Carbon Filter - Air filter housing activated carbon.
device installed in a chimney to allow for the
Carbon Monoxide - Colorless, odorless, and poisonous
adjustment of dilution air.
gas produced when carbon or carbonaceous fuels
Bellows - A corrugated cylindrical container which incorrectly burnt.
moves with a pressure change.
Carbon Tetrachloride - a chemical used as a solvent
Bernoulli's Theorem - In stream of liquid, the sum of for removing grease oil and sludge.
elevation head, head pressure, and velocity remains
Cascade system - A refrigeration system composed of
constant along any line of flow, provided no work is
more than one circuit where the evaporation process of
done by or upon liquid on course of its flow ; decreases
the higher temperature circuit cools the condenser of
in portion to energy lost in flow.
the lower temperature circuit.
Bimetal - A temperature regulating or indicating device
Cavitation - Localized gaseous condition that is found
which works on the principal that two dissimilar metals
within a liquid stream.
with unequal expansion rates, welded together and will
bend as their temperature changes. Celsius Temperature Scale - Temperature scale used
in metric system.
Blast Freezer - A low -temperature evaporator that
uses a fan to force air rapidly over a evaporator surface. Centimeter - Metric unit of linear measurement.
Bleed-Valve - A valve with a small opening witch Centrifugal Compressor - A compressor employing
permits a minimum fluid flow when the valve is closed. centrifugal force for compression.
Blend - A mixture consisting of two or more single Centralized Computerized Controller - Energy
components. control device, centrally located, which makes control
decisions based on operating data, programmed
Boiling Point - The temperature at which evaporation
information, and stored data.
of liquid takes place at a specific pressure.
Central Station - Central location of condensing unit
Booster - A term used for the first stage compressor in
with either wet or air-cooled condenser. Evaporator
a cascading system.
located as needed and connected to the central
Bore - The inside diameter of a cylinder. condensing unit.
Boyle's Law - Boyle’s law states that the volume of a CFC - Chlorofluorocarbon - a derivative of a
given amount of gas varies inversely with its pressure, hydrocarbon containing chlorine.
if temperature is constant. This means that at a constant
Charge - The amount of refrigerant in a system.
temperature, the pressure of a gas will increase as the
volume of the gas is decreased. Change of State - the point at which a substance
changes from a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas due
Brazing - a method of joining two metal surfaces by
to addition of heat. Or, the reverse, in which a substance
using nonferrous filler metal heated to above 430° C
changes from a gas to a liquid, or a liquid to a solid, due
(800° F), but below the melting point of the metals to
to removal of heat.
be joined.
Charles' Law - Volume of a given mass of gas at a
Brine - A salt water mixture commonly used as a
constant pressure varies according to its temperature.
secondary refrigerant.
Change of State - To change from one state to another
Bypass - The passage at one side of or around a regular
ie. liquid to vapor.
passage.
Charging - to add a charge of refrigerant to a system.
Calcium Sulfate - is used as a drying agent or
desiccant in the liquid line driers. Check Valve - A check valve is a mechanical device
normally applied to a piping system which allows fluid
Calibrate – To determine accurate measurements and
to flow in only one direction.
reset instrument to these settings.
Chiller - A cooling system used to cool water or brine.
Calorie - the amount of heat ( by weight) that is
required to raise the temperature of water 1 degree Chemical Refrigeration - System of cooling using a
Celsius. disposable refrigerant.
Calorimeter - Device used to measure the quantities of Chill Factor - Calculated number based on temperature
heat. and wind velocity.
Capacity- The amount of heat energy that a HVAC Choke Tube - Throttling device used to maintain
system can add or removed from a medium. correct pressured difference between high side and low
side in refrigerating mechanism.
Capacity Control - Variation in the quantity of
refrigerant circulated in order to vary the refrigeration Closed Loop - Any piping system where the internal
capacity. fluids are sealed from their surroundings. Commonly
referred to as glycol loops
Capillary Tube - a metering device that uses it's
internal diameter, length and pressure drop to determine Coefficient of Conductivity - Measure of the relative
it's capacity and has a fixed regulation. rate at which different materials conduct heat.
Carbon Dioxide - Compound of carbon and oxygen, is Coefficient of Expansion - Increase in unit length,
sometimes used in refrigerants area, or volume for one degree rise in temperature.

210
Coefficient of performance (COP) - The ratio of the Condensing Unit - A collection of components usually
refrigeration capacity to the power absorbed by the consisting of a compressor, condenser and receiver
compressor. assembled onto a common base frame.
Cogeneration - Primary source of energy that is also Conductivity- the ability of as material to transfer heat.
used to produce a secondary source of energy.
Conduction - the passage of heat from one point to
Coil Refrigeration- Any cooling element made of another by transition of molecular energy from particle
piping. to particle through a conductor.
Cold - The absence of heat. Conductor - Substance or body capable of transmitting
electricity or heat.
Cold Storage - The process of preserving perishable
items on a large scale. Constrictor - Tube or orifice used to restrict flow of a
gas or a liquid.
Cold Wall - Refrigerator construction which has the
refrigerator serving as the cooling surface. Contaminant - Substance such as dirt, moisture, or
other matter foreign to refrigerant or refrigerant oil in
Colloids - Miniature cells peculiar to meats, fish, and
system.
poultry which disrupted, cause food to become rancid.
Low temperatures minimize this action. Control - any device to start stop regulate or protect a
system.
Comfort Chart - A psychometric chart for the propose
of showing effective temperatures. Control, Low Pressure - a Safety device connected to
low-pressure side of system.
Comfort Zone - Area on psychometric chart which
shows condition of temperature, humidity in which Control, Refrigerant - A device used to regulate flow
people are comfortable. of liquid refrigerant into evaporator.
Compound Compressor- A compressor with one ore Control, Temperature - Temperature-operated
more head. thermostatic device which automatically opens or
closes a circuit.
Compound Gauge - Instrument for measuring pressure
both above and below atmospheric pressure. Control System - All of the components required for
the automatic control of a process variable.
Compound Refrigerating Systems - System, which
has several compressors or compressor cylinders in Control Valve - Valve which regulates the flow or
series. pressure of a medium which affects a controlled
process.
Compression - Term used to denote increase of
pressure on a fluid using mechanical energy. Controller - A group of controls and circuits used to
accurately and automatically operate a device.
Compression Ratio - The ratio of the absolute
pressures before and after compression. Convection - Transfer of heat from one point to another
by means of gravity.
Compressor - A machine for mechanically increasing
the pressure of a gas. Convection, Forced - Transfer of heat resulting from
forced movement of liquid or gas by means of a fan or
Compressor Reciprocating - Compressor which uses a
pump.
piss cylinder mechanism to provide pumping action.
Convection, Natural - Circulation of a gas or liquid
Compressor, Rotary - Compressor which uses vanes,
due to difference in density resulting from temperature
a mechanisms, or other rotating devices to provide
differences.
pumping action.
Cooler - Heat exchanger which removes heat from a
Condensate - A fluid formed when a gas is cooled.
substance.
Condensation - Liquid or droplets which form when a
Cooling Tower - Device which cools by water
gas or cooled below its dew point.
evaporation in air.
Condense - The process of changing a vapor into a
COP – See COOEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
liquid by the extraction of heat.
Core, Air - Coil of wire not having a metal core.
Condenser - A heat exchanger in which a vapor is
liquefied by the removal of heat. Corrosion - Deterioration of materials from chemical
action.
Condenser, Air Cooled - Heat exchanger that transfers
heat to the surrounding air. Couplings - Mechanical device joining refrigerant
lines.
Condenser, Water Cooled - Heat exchanger that
transfers heat to water. Crankshaft Seal - Leak proof joint between crankshaft
and compressor body.
Condenser Fan - A fan used to move air through air-
cooled condenser. Crisper - Drawer or compartment in refrigerator
designed to provide high humidity along with low
Condensing Pressure - The pressure at which a vapour
temperature to keep vegetables especially leafy
changes into a liquid at a specific temperature.
vegetables-cold and crisp.
Condensing Temperature - The temperature of a fluid
at which condensation occurs when at a known
pressure.

211
Critical Pressure - Compressed condition of Deodorizer - A device that absorbs odors, usually by
refrigerant, which gives liquid and gas the same principle of absorption.
properties.
Design Pressure - Highest or most severe pressure
Critical Temperature - Temperature at which vapor expected during operation.
and liquid have same properties.
Desiccant - A substance used to remove moisture from
Critical Vibration - Vibration which is noticeable and refrigerant.
harmful to structure.
Desuperheat - Removal of part or all of the superheat
Cryogenics -Refrigeration which deals with producing in a gas.
temperatures of 2500F below zero and lower.
Dew - Condensed atmospheric moisture deposited in
Current Relay - Device which opens or closes a circuit small drops on cool surfaces.
upon a change in current flow.
Dew Point -: Temperature at which vapors begin to
Cupro-nickel - 90% copper / 10% nickel alloy which condense.
has high corrosion resistance to water containing salt,
Diaphragm –A flexible material usually made of thin
sulphur, chlorides and other dissolved minerals.
metal, rubber, or plastic.
Cut –in - The value at which the control circuit closes.
Dilution Air - is air that is mixed with the products of
Cut-out - The value at which the control circuit opens. combustion prior to them exiting the vent.
Cycle - Series of events or operations which have Differential - The difference between the cut-in and
tendency to repeat in the same order. cut-out of a control.
Cylinder, Refrigerant - A cylinder used to store Direct Digital Control (DDC) - Use of a digital
refrigerant. computer to perform required automatic control
operations.
Cylinder Head - Plate or cap which encloses
compression end of compressor cylinder. Direct Expansion (DX) - When the refrigerant is the
system is either condensed or evaporated directly by the
Dalton’s Law - Vapor pressure created in a container
medium being heated or cooled.
by a mixture of gases is equal to sum of individual
vapor pressures of the gases contained in mixture. Discharge - The output side of the compressor.
Damper - A device used to regulate to flow of air. Discharge temperature - The temperature of the
compressed fluid discharged from the compressor.
Deaeration - Act of separating air from fluids.
Discharge pressure - The pressure of the compressed
Decibel - Unit used for measuring relative loudness of
fluid discharged from the compressor.
sounds.
Displacement - Volume obtained by multiplying area
Defrost - Elimination of an ice deposit from the surface
of cylinder bore by length of piston stroke.
of an evaporator.
Distilling Apparatus - Fluid-reclaiming device used to
Defrost Cycle - Refrigerating cycle in which
reclaim used refrigerants.
evaporator frost and is melted.
Distribution Controls - Systems which help evenly
Defrost Timer – A device which shuts unit off the
and efficiently transfer the heating or cooling medium
compressor long enough to permit ice and frost
to the area where it is needed.
accumulation on evaporator to melt.
District Heating and Cooling - Use of a central utility
Defrosting - See defrost
system designed to provide heating and cooling to large
Defrost on Demand - An automatic defrost system residential and industrial areas.
which is initiated by an unacceptable build up of ice
Dome-Hat - Sealed metal container for the motor
and terminated when the coil has cleared.
compressor of a refrigerating unit.
Degreasing - Solution or solvent used to remove grease
Double Duty Case - Commercial refrigerator in which
from equipment.
a part of space is for refrigerated storage and part is
Degree Day - The number of degrees that the mean equipped with glass windows for display purposes.
temperature for that day is below 18°C.
Draft - A heating term used to ensure the escape of flue
Dehumidify - the process of removing moisture from gases and aid combustion.
the air.
Draft Gauge - An Instrument used to measure the draft
Dehumidifier - Device used to remove moisture from in an appliance.
air.
Draft Regulator - Device which maintains a desired
Dehydrator - A device used to dry refrigerant. draft in a combustion-heated appliance by automatically
Dehydrator –Receiver – A liquid refrigerant receiver controlling the chimney draft to the desired value.
that also contains a desiccant to remove moisture. Drip Pan - Pan-shaped panel or trough used to collect
Deice Control - Device for operating a refrigerating condensate from evaporator.
system in such a way as to provide melting of the Drier- same as dehydrator.
accumulated ice and frost.
Dry Bulb Temperature - The actual temperature as
Density - The mass per unit volume. recorder on a standard thermometer.

212
Dry Capacitor Condenser - Electrical device made of Evacuation – The removal of contaminants in a
dry metal and dry insulation; used to store an electrical refrigeration system.
charge.
Evaporating temperature - The temperature at which
Dry Ice -Refrigerating substance made of solid carbon a fluid vaporizes within an evaporator at a specific
dioxide which changes directly from a solid to a gas pressure.
(sublimates).
Evaporating pressure - The pressure at which a fluid
Dry System - Refrigeration system which has the vaporizes within an evaporator at a specific
evaporator liquid refrigerant mainly in the atomized or temperature.
droplet condition.
Evaporative Condenser - is one that utilizes the
Duct- a device used to distribute air. evaporation of water by air at the condenser surface as a
means of heat dissipation.
Ebullator - A device inserted in a flooded evaporator
tubes to prevent the evaporator from becoming oil Evaporation - Is the change of state from a liquid to a
bound. vapor.
Eccentric – Is a disk mounted off center on a shaft. Evaporator - A heat exchanger in which a liquid is
vaporized to produce refrigeration.
EER - See ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATIO.
Evaporator, Dry Type - Evaporator in which the
Effective Area - Actual flow area of an air inlet or
refrigerant is in the liquid droplet form.
outlet.
Evaporator, Flooded - Evaporator containing liquid
Effective Temperature - Overall effect on a human of
refrigerant at all times.
air temperature, humidity, and air movement.
Evaporator Fan - A mechanical device that increases
Efficiency - Output of a device, system, or activity,
airflow over the heat exchange surface of evaporators.
divided by the input necessary to create the output.
Exfiltration - Slow flow of air from the building to the
Ejector - A device which uses high fluid velocity, such
outdoors.
as a venturi, to create low pressure or vacuum at its
throat to draw in fluid from another source. Exhaust Port - That opening which carries the fluid to
the downstream pressure of a fluid system.
Electronic expansion valve - An electro-mechanical
expansion valve controlled by a microprocessor which Exhaust Valve -A movable port which provides an
has sensors attached to the evaporator and adjacent pipe outlet for the cylinder gases in a compressor.
work.
Exothermal - A chemical reaction in which heat is
Endothermal - Chemical reaction in which heat is released.
absorbed.
Expansion Valve – Is one type of metering device in
Energy - The ability to do work. refrigerating system, which reduces the pressure from
the high side to the low side and is operated by
Energy Audit - To accurately determining the current
pressure.
energy consumption for a given area.
Expendable Refrigerant System – A system which
Energy conservation – To look for, determine and
discards the refrigerant after it has evaporated.
institute changes that will conserve energy.
External Drive - A Term used to indicate a compressor
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) - Cooling capacity in
driven directly from the shaft or by a belt using an
BTU/hr divided by electrical energy consumed in watts.
external motor.
Energy Management Control System - A system that
External Equalizer - Tube connected to the outlet of
optimizes total energy usage in a building.
the evaporator to allow the diaphragm of the
Energy Utilization Index (EUI) - A number which is thermostatic expansion valve to disregard any pressure
used to compare energy usages for different areas. It is drop in the evaporator.
calculated by dividing the energy consumption (in
Externally Cooled - A compressor which is cooled by
Btus) by the square footage of the conditioned area.
air or water passing over the outside of its housing.
Enthalpy - Total amount of heat in unit mass of a
Extraction rate - The quantity of heat which a
substance.
refrigeration plant is capable of extracting under
Entropy - Mathematical factor used in engineering specified conditions of time and temperature.
calculations. Energy in a system.
Fail Safe Control – A device that fails in the open or
Environment - The surrounding conditions. safe position if and when it ceases to operate.
Enzyme - Organic substance, that speeds up chemical Fan - Radial or axial flow device used for moving or
changes in foods. producing flow of gases.
Eutectic - That certain mixture of two substances Faraday Experiment - Silver chloride absorbs
providing lowest melting temperature of all the various ammonia when cool and releases it when heated.
mixes of the two substances.
Fast Food Freezing – A freezing method that uses
Eutectic Point - Freezing temperature for eutectic liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide to turn fresh food into
solutions. long lasting frozen food.

213
Feedback - Information on current operation of a Fractionation - A change in composition of a blend by
system or device used by the control system to modify preferential evaporation or condensation of the more or
future operation. less volatile component.
Feedback Control System – A control system that is Free Wheeling - Continued rotation of magnetic clutch
constantly correcting the condition. on automotive compressor when clutch is disengaged.
Filter - is used to remove solid material from a gas or Freeze Drying - Uses liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide
liquid buy means of straining. to turn fresh food into long lasting, frozen food.
Fin block - A group of tubes which have been Freezer Burn - Condition applied to food which has
expanded into fins to form a heat exchanger. not been properly wrapped and that has become hard,
dry, and discolored.
Flammability - The ability for a material to burn.
Freeze-up - Is the formation of ice inside the metering
Flammable Liquids - Liquids having a flash point
device and causing improper refrigeration to accrue.
below 140 0F (60 0C) and a vapor pressure not
exceeding 40 psia (276 kPa) at 1OO 0F (35 0C). Freezing Point - The temperature at with if any more
heat is removed it will solidify.
Flapper Valve - Thin metal valve used in refrigeration
compressors which allows gaseous refrigerants to flow Freezing Point Depression - The temperature at which
in only one direction. ice will form in solution of water and salt.
Flash Gas - The gas resulting from the instantaneous Freon - Brand name refrigerant manufactured by
evaporation of the refrigerant when it's pressure is Dupont.
lowered.
Frequency - The number of cycles per second for any
Flash point- Temperature at which flammable liquid periodic waveform - unit : Hertz
will give off sufficient vapor to support a flash flame
Frost Back - This is caused my the flooding of
but will not support continuous combustion.
refrigerant liquid in the suction line.
Flash Weld – A resistance type weld in which mating
Frost Control, Automatic -Control that automatically
parts are brought together under considerable pressure
cycles refrigerating system to remove frost formation
while a heavy electrical current is passed through the
on evaporator.
joint to be welded.
Frost Control, manual - Manual control used to
Float Valve - A valve that controls the level of a fluid
change operation of refrigerating system to produce
by the means of the sensing element floating in the
defrosting conditions.
fluid.
Frost Control, Semiautomatic - Control which starts
Flooded System - A refrigerating system in which
defrost part of a cycle manually and then returns system
liquid refrigerant fills most of the evaporator.
to normal operation automatically.
Flooded System, High-Side Float - Refrigeration
Frost Free Refrigerator – A refrigerator that
system which has a float operated by the rate of the
incorporates automatic defrost.
high-side liquid refrigerant being condensed.
Frosting Type Evaporator -Refrigerating system
Flooded System, Low-Side Float - Refrigeration
which maintains the evaporator at frosting temperatures
system which has a float operated by the rate of
during all phases of cycle.
evaporation of liquid refrigerant from the evaporator.
Fuel Oil - Kerosene or any hydrocarbon oil as specified
Flooding – The allowing a liquid to flow into a part of
by U.S. Department of Commerce Commercial
a system.
Standard CS1 2 or ASTM D296, or the Canadian
Flow Check Piston – A metering device that has a Government Specification Board, 3-GP-28, and having
piston assembly, with an orifice in the center. a flash point not less than 100°F (38°C).
Flow Meter – An instrument used to measure velocity Full Floating - Mechanism construction in which a
of fluid movement. shaft is free to turn in all parts in which it is inserted.
Flush - Operation to remove any material or fluids Full Package - Self contained heat pump which has
from refrigeration system parts by purging them to the blower and compressor section integrated into one unit.
atmosphere using refrigerant or other fluids.
Furnace, Central – A self-contained appliance
Flux – A substance of a joint prior to it being brazed or designed to supply heated air through ducts to spaces
soldered. remote from or adjacent to the appliance location.
Foaming - Formation of foam in an oil-refrigerant Fusible Plug- A heat sensitive plug used on pressure
mixture due to rapid evaporation of liquid refrigerant vessels that will let go at a predetermined temperature.
dissolved in the oil.
Gas - The vapor state of a material.
Forced Convection - Movement of fluids by
Gas, Non-condensable - Gas that will not form into a
mechanical force.
liquid under the operating pressure-temperature
Force-Feed Oiling - Lubrication system that uses a conditions.
pump to force oil to surfaces of moving parts.
Gas Valve – A device for starting, stopping, or
regulating flow of gas.

214
Gas Regulator – A device for the regulation of gas. Heat Exchanger - A device designed to transfer heat
between two physically separated fluids.
Gauge Manifold - A Chambered device constructed to
hold both compound and high-pressure gauges. Valves Heat Intensity – The heat in a substance as measured
control flow of fluids through it. by the dry bulb temperature.
Gauge Vacuum – An Instrument used to measure Heat Lag - The time it takes for heat to travel through a
pressures below atmospheric pressure. substance.
Geothermal Energy - Heat energy stored in the earth's Heat Leakage -Flow of heat through a substance.
crust by the absorption of solar energy and by
Heat Load – The amount of heat removed by a given
conduction with the earth's hot interior.
system over a 24hour period.
Glide - The temperature difference between the starting
Heat Source - The area or media from which heat is
and ending temperatures of a phase change within a
removed from .
system, exclusive of any subcooling or superheating.
Heat of Compression - Mechanical energy of pressure
Glycerol - Is a lubricant but has found little use because
changed into energy of heat.
of its tendency to rapidly absorb moisture.
Heat of Fusion - Heat released from a substance when
Grain - Unit of weight and equal to 1/7000 lb. It is
a change of state occurs from a liquid to solid state.
used to indicate the amount of moisture in the air.
Heat of Respiration - Process by which oxygen and
Gravity Cooling - Evaporator does not have a fan to
carbohydrates are assimilated by a substance; also when
distribute the air.
carbon dioxide and water are given off by a substance.
Gravity Heating- heat is distributed by gravity this
Heat recovery - The reclaim of heat from a
king of unit has no fan.
refrigeration system for use in a heating process.
Grille - A cover or louvered opening placed in a room
Heat Recovery System - Produces and stores hot water
at the end of an air passageway.
by transferring heat from condenser to cooler water.
Halide Refrigerants - Refrigerants containing halogen
Heat Sink - The area or media where heat is absorbed
chemicals.
into.
Halide Torch - A propane torch used in the process of
Heat Transfer - Movement of heat from one body or
leak checking.
substance to another.
Halogens - Substance containing fluorine, chlorine,
Heat Transfer Module - Primary system of heat
bromine, and iodine.
transfer in a glycol water solution forced-air furnace.
HCFC - Hydrochlorofluorocarbon. The heat transfer module contains the ignitor, burner,
and primary solution-circulating coil.
Head – Is another word for Pressure.
Heating Coil - Heat transfer device consisting of a coil
Head, Static - Is the amount of pressure a pump has to
of piping, which releases heat.
work against.
Heating Control – A device that controls the
Head, Total Static - Static head from the surface of the
temperature of a substance by operating a unit which
supply source to the free discharge surface.
releases heat.
Head Friction - Head required to overcome friction of
Heating Value - Amount of heat which may be
the interior surface of a conductor and between fluid
obtained by burning a fuel. The heating value is usually
particles in motion.
expressed in Btu per lb
Head Pressure - The discharge pressure in the system.
Hermetic Compressor - A compressor directly
Head Pressure Control - A Pressure actuated safety coupled to an electric motor and contained within a gas-
control which opens electrical circuit if high-side tight welded casing.
pressure becomes too high.
Hermetic Motor - Compressor drive motor sealed
Head Velocity - Height of fluid equivalent to its within same casing which contains compressor.
velocity pressure inflowing fluid.
Hermetic system - Refrigeration system which has a
Header - A piping arrangement where several pipes are compressor driven by a motor contained in compressor
distributed from one common pipe. dome or housing.
Heat - Basic form of energy that may be partially Hg. (Mercury) - Heavy silver-white metallic element;
converted into other forms of energy. only metal that is liquid at ordinary room temperature.
Heat Anticipator - Is a wire-wound variable resistor High Side – The side of the refrigeration system that
that is placed near the bimetal element of a thermostat the condensing takes place.
to provide extra sources of heat to help prevent the
High Pressure Switch - A switch designed to stop the
thermostat from allowing the system to overheat the
compressor motor should the discharge pressure reach
room. Connected in series with the R-W circuit.
a predetermined maximum value.
Causes the spiral bi-metal element to open before room
set-point is reached. High Side Float – A metering device that controls the
level of the liquid refrigerant in the high-pressure side
Heat Content - See total heat.
of the device.

215
High-Vacuum Pump – A pump that can create a Inhibitor – A chemical that prevents corrosion or
vacuum in the 1000 to 1 micron range. oxidation.
Horsepower-A unit of power. Work done at a rate of Insulation, Thermal – A material with low heat
33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or 550 foot -pounds per conductivity.
second.
Intermittent Cycle – A cycle which repeats itself.
Hot Gas Bypass - A system whereby some or all of the
Interrupted Cycle – A cycle that does not repeats it
discharge refrigerant is passed directly back into the
self.
compressor suction.
Ion- Group of atoms or an atom electrically charged.
Hot Gas Defrost - Defrosting system in which hot
refrigerant gas from the high side is directed through Isobutane - A flammable hydrocarbon refrigerant.
evaporator for short period of time and at Isothermal - Changes of volume or pressure under
predetermined intervals, in order to remove frost from conditions of constant temperature.
evaporator.
Isothermal Expansion and contraction - an action
Hot Junction - That part of thermoelectric circuit which takes place without a temperature change.
which releases heat.
Jet Cooling System – A jet pump is used to produce a
Hot water Heating System – A system in which water vacuum so water or refrigerant may evaporate at
is circulated through heating coils relatively low temperatures. These systems usually
Hot Wire – The wire that has the voltage difference require large condenser and have a low efficiency to
between it and ground. remove heat.
Humidifier – A device used to add humidity to a space. Joule- Metric unit of heat.
Humidistat - A control which is operates the Joule –Thomson Effect - The change in the
humidifier and is affected by changing humidity temperature of a gas on its expansion through a porous
plug from a higher pressure to a lower pressure.
Humidity – Is Moisture in the air.
Kata Thermometer - An alcohol thermometer used to
HVAC- Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning
measure air speed or atmospheric conditions by means
Hydraulics - Branch of physics having to do with the of cooling effect.
mechanical properties of water and other liquids in
Kelvin Scale - Thermometer scale on which unit of
motion.
measurement equals the Celsius degree and according
Hydrocarbons - A series of chemicals of similar to which absolute zero is 0 degree, the equivalent of -
chemical nature ranging from methane through butane , 273.16°C. Water freezes at 273.16 K and boils at
octane ... to heave oils. 373.16 K.
Hydrochloric Acid - An acid formed when appreciable Kilopascal (kPa) - See PASCAL.
quantity of moisture are present in A CFC or methyl
Kilowatt - 1000 watts of power or 1.34 horse power.
chloride.
KWH - Kilowatt hours - Electrical term - 1 Kwh equals
Hydrolysis - Reaction of a CFC with water . Acids are
the use of 1000 watts for one hour.
generally formed.
Latent Heat- Heat that when added to or removed from
Hydrostatic Pressure - The pressure created when
a substance causes a change of state but not a change in
trying to compress a liquid.
temperature.
Hydraulic – A heating system which circulates a
Latent Heat of Evaporation - The amount of heat
heated fluid, usually water, through baseboard coils by
added to a substance during the change of state.
means of a circulating pump which is controlled by a
thermostat. Lag of Temperature Control - The delay in action of
a temperature element due to the time required for the
Hygrometer – An instrument used to measure the
temperature of the element to reach the medium
amount of moisture in the air.
temperature.
Hygroscopic - Ability of a substance to absorb and
Leak Detector - A device to locate refrigerant leaks.
release moisture and change physical dimensions as its
moisture content changes. Liquid Line - The line that caries the high temperature
high pressure sub cooled liquid from the receiver line
Ice Melting Equivalent (IME) – (ICE MELTING
to the metering device.
EFFECT): Amount of heat absorbed by melting ice at
32 0F (0 0C1 is 144 Btu per pound of Ice or 288 000 Btu Liquid Receiver - A device used to store refrigerant till
per ton it is required.
Immiscible - A condition where oil and refrigerant are Liquid refrigerant injection - Introduction of liquid
incapable of being mixed. refrigerant into high temperature refrigerant gas to cool
it.
Impeller – a part of a pump that causes the fluid to
move. Similar to a blade. Liquid-to-Air - A system which absorbs heat from a
liquid and rejects it to the air.
Infiltration - The passage of outside air into building
through doors, cracks around windows, etc. Liquid-to-Liquid heat pump - A heat pump which
absorbs heat from a liquid and also rejects it to a liquid.

216
Load - The required rate of heat removal. Pascal – SI unit of pressure is pascal (Pa), defined as 1
newton of force per square metre (1 N/m2).
Low side - The area of the refrigeration cycle that
operates under a lower pressure compared to the high Passive Cooling - A process whereby a secondary
side. refrigerant is pumped directly to a evaporator and
cooling is accomplished without a the operation of a
Manometer - A U-shaped device used to measure
mechanically driven refrigeration system.
pressure difference.
Package Heat Pump - A refrigeration system that has
Mechanical Cooling - Conventional cooling provided
all required components in one cabinet.
by a mechanical means. Term can be interchanged with
"active cooling". Packless Valve - A valve that does not use packing to
prevent leaks.
Mechanical Efficiency - The ratio of work done by a
machine compared to the amount of energy used. Performance data - The extraction rate and power
input of a refrigeration system.
Methyl Alcohol - is sometimes used as an antifreeze.
Plant room - A secure area where most of the high
Methyl Chloride - One type of Refrigerant.
pressure components of a refrigeration system are
Moeller Diagrams - A graphical representation of the located along with the electrical panel.
thermal properties of fluids with total heat and entropy
Power - The rate of doing work measured in watts ,
as coordinates.
horse power ...
Montreal Protocol - International legislation to phase
Pour Point - The temperature at witch oil will not
out production of CFCs and other ozone depleting
change is the container is tilted.
substances.
Performance Factor - The ratio of heat removed
Motor - A device used to convert electrical energy into
compared to the energy used to do it.
mechanical energy.
Photocell - A device that changes resistance with light.
Needle Valve - A valve having a slender point fitting
into a conical seat, used to regulate accurately the flow Pressure - The force exerted per unit area.
of a liquid or gas.
Primary - The input side of a transformer.
Nipple - A pipe coupling threaded on both ends.
Psychrometer - a device used to measure web bulb
Noncondensables - Gases mixed with refrigerants that temperature.
cannot be condensed at the same temperature and
Pyrometer - A device used to measure high
pressures as refrigerants.
temperatures.
Nonconductors (Insulators) - Nonconductors resist
Psychometric Chart - A chart used to determine the
electron flow. The atoms have almost no free electrons.
specific volume , heat content. dew point, relative
Examples would be: A perfect vacuum, quartz, glass,
humidity , absolute humidity and dry and wet bulb
ceramics, rubber, wood, plastics.
temperatures.
Normal Air – Air having a temperature of 20°C and
Purge - A momentary opening to allow a fluid to
relative humidity of 36% at 1 bar absolute. The
escape
conditions are referred to as NTP. Density of air at NTP
is approximately 1.2 kg/m3. Pre Purge - The flushing of air through the combustion
and heat exchanger prior to the burner firing.
Oil Separator - A device for separating oil from
refrigerant vapour. Post Purge - The flushing of air through the
combustion and heat exchanger after the burner has
Oil trap - A device to trap oil from leaving the
completed firing.
compressor and entering the system.
Primary Air - air that mixes with a fuel prior to the
Open Compressor - A compressor driven by an
fuel being burnt.
external power unit (say motor), requiring a shaft seal.
Radiant Floor Heating - Process of embedding tubing
Open Loop - A system where water is pumped from a
directly in a concrete floor so that hot water can be
water well, pond, lake or other surface source for use in
pumped through the tubing for the purpose of heating
a heat pump.
the floor and thus the building.
Operating Conditions - The conditions under which a
Radiation - The passage of heat from one object to one
refrigeration systems works, including the evaporating
other without warming the space between.
pressure and condensing pressure.
Receiver - A vessel permanently installed in the
Output - The part of the circuit where the process
refrigeration system between the condenser and the
signal is available.
expansion valve to provide a reservoir of liquid
Oversized Evaporator - A evaporator with a greater refrigerant.
capacity than the nominal capacity of the system.
Reciprocating - A positive displacement compressor
Ozone - The O3 from oxygen .It's used as a odor with piston(s) moving linearly and alternately in
eliminator. opposite directions in the cy linder( s).
Ozone Depletion Potential - The potential of a Refrigerant - The working fluid in a refrigeration
substance to destroy stratospheric ozone. system, which absorbs heat at a low temperature (by

217
evaporation) and rejects heat at a high temperature (by Sludge - A decomposition product formed in a
condensation) refrigerant due to impurities in the oil or due to
moisture.
Refrigeration Capacity - The quantity of heat which a
refrigeration plant is capable of extracting under Solubility - The ability of one material of one material
specified conditions of time and temperature. to enter into a solution with another.
Refrigeration system - A combination of parts in witch Solenoid - A coil of wire that is long compared to its
a refrigerant is circulated for the propose of extracting diameter, through which a current will flow and
heat. produce a magnetic flux to push or pull a rod.
Relative Humidity- The amount of moisture in the air Source Temperature - This is the temperature of the
compared with the amount of moisture the air can hold. medium from which the refrigeration system extracts
its heat.
Relay - An electromechanical device containing a coil
and a set of contacts. The contacts close when the coil Specific Gravity - The weight of a volume of a
is energized. material compared to the weight of the same quantity of
water.
Relief Device - A device designed to open under a high
pressure. Specific Heat - The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one unit of mass of a substance by one
Resistance - The opposition to current flow. or the
degree.
reciprocal of thermal conductivity.
Specific Volume - The volume of a definite weight of a
Reversing Heat Pump - A heat pump in which the
material.
condenser and evaporator coils of the unit reverse roles
in response to a reverse in the direction of the flow of Split System - A refrigeration system that is housed in
refrigerant in the machine. one ore more cabinets or split apart .
Rotary Compressor - A compressor in which the Standard Air – Air having a temperature of 0°C and
rotation of the component varies the volume of the relative humidity of 36% at 1 bar absolute. The
compression chamber. conditions are referred to as STP. Density of air at STP
is approximately 1.29 kg/m3.
Running Time - The percentage of time a refrigeration
compressor runs. Static Pressure - Pressure exerted outward against
walls, tubes or ducts.
Saturated Vapor - Vapor of 100 % quality but not
superheated. Subcooled Liquid - A liquid whose temperature is
lower than the condensing temperature at its given
Saturation - A condition at which liquid and vapour
pressure.
may exist when in contact with each other.
Sublimation - The change of state from a solid to a
Schematic - Another name for a circuit diagram.
vapor state without and intermediate liquid state.
Seasonal Coefficient of Performance (SCOP) - Is the
Suction - The low pressure section of a compressor
average COP over the entire heating season.
into which gas is drawn from the system.
Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) - The
Suction Cooled - A compressor in which the motor is
average cooling efficiency over an entire cooling
cooled by refrigerant gas passing over the motor
season.
windings.
Secondary Air - Air that is mixed with a fuel while it is
Suction Line - The piping between the evaporator
burning.
outlet and the compressor inlet.
Semi-hermetic Compressor - A compressor directly
Suction Pressure - The pressure on the low side of the
coupled to an electric motor and contained within a gas-
system.
tight bolted housing.
Suction Return Temperature - The temperature at
Sensible Heat - heat that when added to of removed
which refrigerant gas enters the compressor.
from a substance causes a change of temperature and
not a change of state. Sulfur Dioxide - A type of refrigerant.
Shell and Tube - A heat exchanger that has ca coil Superheat - The quantity of heat added to dry saturated
inside a shell. vapor to raise it from its saturation temperature to a
higher temperature.
Short-Circuit - An un-intended path that conducts
electricity. Superheated Gas - A gas temperature higher than the
evaporation temperature at the exiting pressure.
Shut-off Valve - A valve used to isolate particular
items of equipment. Sweating - Condensation from the air on surfaces
below the due point of the air.
Sight Glass - A device which allows a visual inspection
of the level of a liquid within a pressurised container. Temperature - Heat level or pressure . The thermal
state of a body with respect to its ability to pick up heat
Silica gel- A desiccant used for drying refrigerant
from or pass heat to another body.
Sink Temperature - This is the temperature of the
Temperature Difference - The difference in
medium into which the refrigeration system must reject
temperature between two substances, surfaces or
it's heat.
environments involving transfer of heat.

218
Temperature, Dry Bulb - It is the temperature Transducer - A substance or device, that converts
measured by thermometers in the home. input energy of one form into output energy of another.
Temperature, Wet Bulb - The result of moisture in the TX Valve - A precision device used to regulate the rate
air or, the saturation temperature of water presently in of refrigerant flow into the evaporator to exactly match
the air. It is attained my using a thermometer enclosed the rate of refrigerant evaporation .
with a damp mesh. When air is blown past the
Unloader - A mechanical device used to reduce the
thermometer, some of the damp will evaporate causing
capacity of a refrigeration compressor.
cooling and lowering the temperature reading. The
difference between the dry bulb and the wet bulb Upper fixed point - The higher of two reference points
temperatures are an indication of the relative humidity used to "fix" a temperature scale. Example: The boiling
of the air. point of water at standard temperature and pressure, is
the upper fixed point of a Celsius scale.
Ternary - Consisting of three single component
refrigerants. Vacuum - A pressure below atmospheric.
Thermistor - Is a heat sensitive resistor that changes Vapor Pressure - The pressure exerted on a liquid and
resistance with a change in temperature. vapor surface.
Thermocouple - A device consisting of 2 different Viscosity - The property of fluid to resist flow or
conductors that when heated creates an electrical change.
potential difference. Water-cooled condenser - A condenser cooled by the
Thermodynamic - The study of the mechanics of heat. circulation of water through it.
Thermometer - A device for indicating temperature. Water-to-Water - A refrigeration system where the
condensing and evaporating medium is water.
Thermostat - An automatic switch which is responsive
to temperature. It is used to control HVAC systems. Watt - Symbol W. The unit of power.
Thermostatic expansion valve (TEV) - A valve which Wet Compression - A system of refrigeration in which
automatically regulates the flow of liquid refrigerant some liquid refrigerant is mixed with vapor entering the
into the evaporator to maintain within close limits the compressor so as to cause the discharge vapors from the
degree of superheat of the vapor leaving the compressor to tend to be saturated rather than
evaporator. It regulates the rate of refrigerant liquid superheated.
flow into the evaporator in the exact proportion to the Xylene - A flammable solvent , used to dissolve or
rate of evaporation of refrigerant liquid in the loosen sludge.
evaporator.
Zeotrope - A blend of refrigerants having a
Ton (of Refrigeration) - The amount of heat energy temperature glide greater than 5 degrees.
absorbed in the conversion of 1 Ton of ice to 1 ton of
water over a 24hour period at 0oC.

219
LIST OF EXHIBITS
Exhibit Description Page
1.1 Electricity Generation Efficiencies 1.2

1.2 Economic Potential of Cogeneration 1.4
1.3 Total Energy Efficiency 1.5
2.1 Cogeneration Capacity Growth in USA 2.3
2.2 Potential Energy 2.5
2.3 Power, Work and Time 2.9
2.4 Steam Engine 2.11
2.5 Heat Engine Diagram 2.14
2.5A Thermodynamic System 2.17
2.6 Ideal Gas 2.27
2.7 Some Isotherms of An Ideal Gasn 2.29
2.8 Isotherms – The Yellow Area Equals Work 2.30
2.9 Fuel-Utilization Characteristics of Cogeneration System 2.34
2.10 A Mollier Chart for Steam 2.37
2.11 Enthalpy Versus Entropy of Water and Steam 2.38
2.12 Enthalpy of Saturated Steam 2.39
2.13 Enthalpy/Pressure Diagram 2.39
2.14 Change in Enthalpy / Mean Temperature 2.40
2.15 Temperature – Entropy Diagram 2.42
3.1 Cogeneration Opportunities based on Natural Gas 3.1
3.2 Comparison of Fuel Use Conventional & Cogeneration Generation Plant 3.2
3.3 Comparison Conventional and CHP Generation 3.3
3.4 Efficiency Comparison between Cogn, and Conventional Generation 3.4
3.5 Temperature - Entropy Diagram for Power Plant Cycle 3.5
3.6 Temperature - Entropy Diagram for Cogeneration Cycle 3.6
3.7 Typical "Topping Cycle" 3.10
3.8 Types of Technologies for Topping Cycle 3.11
3.9 Boiler - Steam Turbine Cogeneration 3.11
3.10 Gas Turbine - Heat Recovery Steam Generator Cogeneration System 3.12
3.11 Reciprocation Engine Heat Recovery Cogeneration System 3.12
3.12 Combined - Cycle Cogeneration System with Exhaust Steam to Process 3.12
3.13 Combined - Cycle Cogeneration with Condensing Turbine. 3.13
3.14 Typical "Bottoming Cycle" 3.13
3.15 Bottoming Cycle Cogeneration System 3.14
3.16 Bottoming Cycle - Heat Recovery from Cement Plant Clinker Cooler 3.14
3.17 Indicative Temp. Ranges for Topping and Bottoming Cogn. Systems 3.15
3.18 Typical Performance Characteristics of Various Types of Cogeneration Configurations 3.16
3.19 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) 3.17
3.20 Cogeneration with Steam Turbine Open Cycle 3.18
v
3.21 Steam Cycle with Back Pressure Turbine 3.19

3.22 Steam Cycle with Extraction - Condensing Turbine 3.20
3.23 Gas Turbine Cycle with Heat Recovery 3.22
3.24 Gas Turbine based Cogeneration System 3.23
3.24A Cheng-Cycle 3.23
3.25 Cogeneration System with Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine 3.27
3.26 Organic Rankine Cycle 3.31
3.27 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle 3.34
3.28 Single-Effect Lithium Bromide/Water Absorption Refrigeration 3.36
3.29 Double-Effect Lithium Bromide/Water Absorption Refrigeration 3.37
3.30 Typical Ammonia/Water Absorption Refrigeration System 3.40
3.31 Industrial Ammonia Absorption Refrigeration Plant 3.41
3.32 Piggy-Back Cogeneration Refrigeration System 3.45
3.33 Combined cycle System 3.46
3.34 Commercial Use of Trigeneration 3.49
3.35 Micro Turbine, Flow Diagram 3.50
3.36 Micro Turbine, Details 3.51
3.37 Micro Turbine System 3.52
3.38 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) 3.53
3.39 Fuel Cell 3.55
3.40 Cogeneration Sizing Option : Excess Electricity 3.58
3.41 Cogeneration Sizing Option : Excess Heat 3.58
3.42 Cogeneration System Selection to Meet Specific Plant Needs 3.59
4.1 Typical Water-Tube Boiler 4.2
4.2 Specification/Analysis of Main Fuels 4.3
4.3 Gas Turbine System 4.5
4.4 Combined Cycle System 4.6
4.5 Gas Turbine Details (Courtesy Siemens) 4.6
4.6 Idealized Braylon Cycle 4.8
4.7 Bryton Cycle Efficiency 4.8
4.8 Bryton Cycle Specific Power Output 4.9
4.9 Gas-Turbine with Reheater 4.10
4.10 Gas-Turbine with Intercooling 4.10
4.11 Gas-Turbine with Regeneration 4.11
4.12 Dual Shaft Gas Turbine 4.17
4.13 Combined Cycle Power Plant Performance Data 4.18
4.14 Gas Turbine Heat Balance 4.20
4.15 Typical Steam Turbine Cycle 4.22
4.16 Difference between an Impulse and a Reaction Turbine 4.24
4.17 View of the Internals of a Typical Power Station Steam Turbine 4.26
4.18 Typical Steam Turbine for a Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) Plant 4.26
4.19 View of Steam Turbine 4.27
4.20 Energy Requirement for Cogeneration 4.29
4.21 Theoretical Steam Rates for Steam Turbines at Some Common Conditions 4.31
4.22 Basic Efficiency of Multi-stage Condensing Turbine 4.32
vi
4.23 Multistage Turbine Theoretical Steam Rate Factors 4.33

4.24 Four Stroke Cycle 4.36
4.25 Wankel Engine 4.38
4.26 Gas Engine Fuel Consumption Curves 4.42
4.27 Heat Balance for Gas Engines 4.43
4.28 Heat Balance for Typical Furnace Oil Engine 4.45
4.29 Waste Heat Recovery Boilers (WHRB) Horizontal 4.47
4.30 Waste Heat Recovery Boilers (WHRB) Vertical 4.47
4.31 Frame Evaporator Layout (Exhibit 4.30) 4.48
4.32 Frame Evaporator Layout (Exhibit 4.31) 4.48
4.33 A-Frame Evaporator Layout Exhibit - 4.32) 4.49
4.34 Horizontal Tube Evaporator Layout (Exhibit 4.33) 4.49
4.35 Single Pressure Flow Schematic 4.50
4.36 Triple Pressure With Integral Deaerator Flow Schematic 4.50
5.1 A Typical Cogeneration Project Development Timeline 5.3
5.2 Steps in Evaluation of Cogeneration 5.4
5.3 Monthly Demand for Electricity 5.6
5.4 Hourly Demand for Electricity 5.7
5.5 Monthly Demand for Steam 5.10
5.6 Hourly Demand for Steam 5.11
5.7 Graphic Presentation of Electrical and Thermal Loads 5.15
5.8 Comparison of Three Topping Cycles 5.17
5.9 Heat Balances for Reciprocating Engines 5.26
5.10 Improvement in Cycle Efficiency of 16% 5.33
5.11 14.6% Improvement at Full Load for a Reciprocating Engine 5.34
5.12 Comparison between Combustion Turbine and Reciprocating Engine 5.34
5.13 Comparison of the Reciprocating Engine and Combustion Engine 5.36
6.1 Comparison of Cash Flows for Two Projects 6.13
6.2 Simple Payback Period vs. Discounted Payback Period (Graph) 6.14
6.3 Simple Payback Period vs Discounted Payback Period (Tabulation) 6.16
6.4 Internal Rate of Return 6.19
6.5 Detailed Financial Analysis for Cogeneration 6.23
7.1 Cogeneration System with Gas Turbine & HRSG 7.3
8.1 Installed Capacity of Electricity Generation 8.3
8.2 Electricity Generation 8.3
8.3 Installed Capacity by Type of Plant 2004-05 8.4
8.4 Electricity Generation by Type of Plant 2004-05 8.4
8.5 Electricity Consumption 2004-05 8.5
8.6 Break-up for Power Generation 8.5
8.7 Specific Temperature requirement in Textile Industry 8.9
8.8 Potential Sources of Waste Heat from Typical Cement Plant 8.13
vii
National Energy Conservation Centre
Ministry of Environment
Government of Pakistan
ENERCON Building, G-5/2, Islamabad
Tel: 051-9206952, 9203379, 9206005
Fax: 051-9202657, 9206004
[email protected]
www.enercon.gov.pk
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 COGENERATION - DEFINITION
Cogeneration or CHP (combined heat and power) is the simultaneous production of electricity
and heat using a single fuel such as natural gas, although a variety of fuels can be used. The heat
produced from the electricity generating process (for example from the exhaust systems of a gas
turbine) is captured and utilized to produce high and low level (pressure) steam. The steam can be
used as a heat source for both industrial, commercial buildings and domestic purposes and can be
used in steam turbines to generate additional electricity (combined cycle power). Cogeneration for
on-site power and heat is well established overseas. Its use is gradually increasing in USA, Europe,
Australia, and China, although optimistic forecasts of rapid implementation and growth in the last
couple of years have yet to be realized. Cogeneration can improve supply reliability, increase
energy utilization efficiency, and reduce energy costs.
The utilization of heat produced in combination with electricity is related to the impossibility of
converting thermal energy into mechanical or electric energy without considerable losses. For
modern coal-fired power stations of 200-600 MW using seawater as coolant, the maximum
conversion efficiencies obtainable will be no better than about 45%. And these levels could be
realized only at steam pressures as high as 240 bar, temperatures of 560°C.and a single reheat of
steam.
The use of natural gas in a combined cycle power plant makes it possible to increase the maximum
efficiency to approximately 50% due to the higher temperature of the working medium. In a
combined cycle plant a gas turbine is placed before a boiler producing steam to operate a steam
turbine.
1– 1
Cogeneration technology provides greater conversion efficiencies than traditional generation

methods, as it harnesses heat that would otherwise be wasted. This can result in up to more than a
doubling of thermal efficiency or higher heat values (HHV) (see Figure 1). Also, carbon dioxide
emissions can be substantially reduced. Furthermore, the heat by-product is available for use
without the need for the further burning of a primary fuel. Cogeneration systems predominantly use
natural gas, a fuel source which emits less than half the greenhouse gas, per unit of energy
produced than the cleanest available thermal power station.
Exhibit -1.1 Electricity Generation Efficiencies
[Source: Australian Cogeneration Association]
Exhibit – 1.1 shows the increasing thermal efficiency from the use of thermal brown coal to
cogeneration and an inverse relationship to carbon dioxide emissions. At a time when there is
increased emphasis on both increased thermal efficiency and the mitigation of carbon dioxide
emissions, electricity generation by cogeneration appears a logical choice. An additional advantage
of cogeneration is that the plant is usually located near the end user and as such no power
transmission losses are suffered.
1– 2
Cogeneration systems compete with electricity provided from large-scale power stations, remote
from electricity consumers and as such require long distance, high voltage transmission networks
(referred to as centralized systems).
Cogeneration also CHP is the use of a heat engine or a power station to simultaneously generate
both electricity and useful heat. Conventional power plants emit the heat created as a byproduct of
electricity generation into the environment through cooling towers, as flue gas, or by other means.
CHP captures the byproduct heat for domestic or industrial heating purposes, either very close to
the plant, or - especially in Europe - for distribution through pipes to heat local housing (district
heating). Byproduct heat at moderate temperatures (100 to 180°C) can also be used in absorption
refrigerators for cooling, that is production of "cold". A plant producing electricity, heat and cold
is sometimes called regeneration or more generally: polygene ration plant.
Cogeneration is thermodynamically the most efficient use of fuel. In separate production of

electricity some energy must be rejected as waste heat, whereas in separate production of heat the
potential for production of high quality energy (electricity or work) is lost.
In addition to cogeneration, there are a number of related technologies which make use of exhaust
steam at successively lower temperatures and pressures. These are collectively known as
"combined cycle" systems. They are more efficient than conventional power generation, but not as
efficient as cogeneration, which normally produces about 30% power and 70% heat. Combined
cycle technologies can be financially attractive despite their lower efficiencies, because they can
produce proportionately more power and less heat.
In gas cogeneration, natural gas is used to power engines, turbines or fuel cells to generate
electricity, and the waste heat is used to produce steam and hot water. The system is used for a
variety of purposes, including factory production, supplying hot water and steam in hotels and
hospitals, heating and air conditioning of buildings, and heating swimming pools.
1– 3
Cogeneration achieves a total energy efficiency of 70% to 80%, providing great energy saving and
economy. It is also attracting attention as a clean, environmentally friendly form of energy that can
be tailored to efficiently meet specific customer needs.
The heat obtained during power generation is used for supplying heating water, steam or drying
heat. By utilization of this waste heat, losses can be kept low and therefore consumption of primary
energy can be reduced. Exhibit – 1.2 explains this connection using the example of a gas and steam
turbine plant of a paper mill.
Economic Potential of Cogeneration
Exhibit – 1.2
[Source: Energy Technology Austria]
This exhibit is based on a comparison of fuel consumption for the production of heat and power
with and without cogeneration. Using e.g. a gas and steam turbine cycle during which waste heat is
1– 4
utilized, primary energy input - at the same level of heat and power production - is significantly
lower than in separate generation of heat and power. The above example shows that the fuel
utilization of a CHP plant amounts to 71 % whereas it only amounts to 55% in separate generation.
This leads to a sustainable use of primary energy which results in a reduction of emissions of
pollutants to the environment.
As indicated in Exhibit 1.3 cogeneration can achieve a total energy efficiency of 70% to 80%,
providing great energy saving and economy. It is also attracting attention as a clean,
environmentally friendly form of energy that can be tailored to efficiently meet specific customer
needs.
Waste Heat
20 – 30%
Electrical Energy
Primary Energy
25 – 40%
100% Total Energy Efficiency
Used Waste Heat 70 – 80%
40 – 50%
Exhibit – 1.3
1.2 BENEFITS OF COGENERATION
Cogeneration is a well-proven technology, recognized worldwide as a cleaner alternative to

traditional power generation. Its long-term future in the global energy markets is secured by its
ability to provide a multitude of financial, operational and environmental benefits from a single
unit of fuel. In general terms, the potential benefits of industrial cogeneration are widely
recognized. Provided the cogeneration is optimized, i.e. sized according to the heat demand, the
following benefits arise:
1– 5
 Increased efficiency of energy conversion and use;
 Lower emissions to the environment, in particular of CO2, the main greenhouse gas;
 In some cases, where there are biomass fuels and some waste materials such as refinery
gases, process or agricultural waste (either anaerobically digested or gasified), these
substances can be used as fuels for cogeneration schemes, thus increasing the cost-
effectiveness and reducing the need for waste disposal;
 ndustrial and commercial

users, and offering affordable heat for commercial and domestic users;
 An opportunity to move towards more decentralised forms of electricity generation,

where plant is designed to meet the needs of local consumers, providing high efficiency,
avoiding transmission losses and increasing flexibility in system use. This will particularly
be the case if natural gas is the energy carrier;
 Improved local and general security of supply - local generation, through cogeneration,
can reduce the risk that consumers are left without supplies of electricity and/or heating.
In addition, the reduced fuel need which cogeneration provides reduces the import
dependency;
 An opportunity to increase the diversity of generation plant, and provide competition in

generation. Cogeneration provides one of the most important vehicles for promoting
liberalisation in energy markets;
 Increased employment - a number of studies have now concluded that the development of
cogeneration systems is a generator of jobs.
Environmental Benefits
In addition to direct cost savings, cogeneration yields significant environmental benefits through
using fossil fuels more efficiently. In particular, it is a highly effective means of reducing carbon
dioxide (CO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are also generally
reduced by the introduction of modern combustion plant.
1– 6
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Savings

The assessment of the carbon savings from a cogeneration project is hotly debated, as it is very
difficult to prove what electricity it displaces. Depending on various factors the savings in carbon
dioxide can vary from 100 kg per MWh to more than 1000 kg MWh.
It is reasonable to assume that most new cogeneration will be gas-fired at least in the next 10 years.
For example, a gas turbine with waste heat recovery boiler is used here to demonstrate the savings:
Cogeneration - Gas turbine with waste heat boiler

Heat to power ratio 1.6
Efficiency 80%
Emissions of CO2 per unit of fuel 225 g/kWh
Emissions of CO2 per kWh of electricity 581 g/kWh
If it is assumed that cogeneration displaces electricity from a mix of fuels and heat from a boiler
with a mixed type of fuels, the savings per kWh will be 615g/kWh.
NOx and SO2 Savings

To calculate NOx and SO2 savings, the same principle applies, it is necessary to look at what is
being displaced. The following savings can be achieved by a gas turbine with a waste heat boiler:
Boiler Replaced NOx SO2

Coal boiler 2.9 g/kWh 23.2 g/kWh
HFO boiler 2.9 g/kWh 23.4 g/kWh
1.3 CHALLENGES OF COGENERATION
In spite of the above mentioned benefits, it must be appreciated that cogeneration may not be
profitably applied in every commercial and industrial installation. Several factors need to be
1– 7
evaluated before the go-ahead for cogeneration can be given the factors influencing a feasible
cogeneration application is:-
 Minimum size to take advantage of economics of scale;
 High initial costs;
 Operating and maintenance costs;
 Careful design and optimization of balance between power generation and

process heat requirements are needed, especially since there is no provision for
selling possible surplus power in Pakistan.
Due to these challenges, one must evaluate each opportunity individually. Primary calculations
will indicate viability or otherwise of cogeneration for any proposed application. This manual is
designed to help in evaluating the cogeneration potential of a given premises.
If on-site energy needs decrease, the economics of cogeneration change as well. Plants may find
themselves selling excess electricity to the local utility for less than it costs to produce, or venting
unneeded thermal energy. If on-site energy needs rise, managers should examine the benefits of
increasing capacity or changing the mix of cogeneration and purchased power.
Manufacturers constantly improve combustion technologies and auxiliary cogeneration equipment.

Lean-burn technology, for example, allows some facilities to increase generation capacity while
staying within legal emission limits. These advances can change the economics of cogeneration.
By checking with vendors periodically, managers can keep informed about technological
improvements and new implementation strategies that will help them manage their facilities more
effectively.
Installing additional cogeneration engines or modifying existing ones can increase energy
production, enabling plants to purchase less electricity or to sell more offsite. Simply shutting
down engines when their operation is not economic can save money and improve overall
effectiveness. Varying an engine's output to match changing loads also helps to eliminate
1– 8
inefficiencies. Selling electricity or thermal energy to third parties or using it at other facilities is
other ways to maximize the benefits of cogeneration.
Cogeneration optimization studies can be done in-house or by qualified engineering consultants.

Because many strategies for optimizing cogeneration involve operational changes rather than
equipment retrofits, implementation costs can be minimal.
1.4 APPLICATION OF COGENERATION
Cogeneration has a long history of use in many types of industry, particularly in the paper and bulk
chemicals industries, which have large concurrent heat and power demands. In recent years the
greater availability and wider choice of suitable technology has meant that cogeneration has
become an attractive and practical proposition for a wide range of applications. These include the
process industries, commercial and public sector buildings, all of which have considerable heat
demand. These applications are summarised in the table below. The table also lists renewable fuels
that can enhance the value of cogeneration, although fossil fuels, particularly natural gas, are more
widely used.
Industrial
 Pharmaceuticals & fine chemicals
 Heavy chemicals & petrochemicals
 Paper and board manufacture
 Ceramics
 Cement
 Food processing
 Textile processing
1– 9
 Oil Refineries
 Iron and Steel
Buildings
 Hotels
 Leisure centres & swimming pools
 College campuses & schools
 Airports
 Supermarkets and large stores
 Office and high-rise buildings
Renewable Energy
 Sewage treatment works
 Poultry
 Energy crops
 Agro-wastes (ex: bio gas)
Energy from waste
 Gasified municipal solid waste
 Municipal incinerators
 Landfill sites
 Hospital waste incinerators
1– 10
2. BASIC CONCEPTS
Cogeneration (also combined heat and power or CHP) is the use of a heat engine or a power
station to simultaneously generate both electricity and useful heat.
Conventional power plants emit the heat created as a byproduct of electricity generation into the
environment through cooling towers, as flue gas, or by other means. CHP captures the byproduct
heat for domestic or industrial heating purposes, either very close to the plant, or for distribution
through pipes to heat local housing. Byproduct heat at moderate temperatures (100 to 180°C) can
also be used in absorption refrigerators for cooling, that is production of "cold". A plant producing
electricity, heat and cold is sometimes called trigeneration or more generally: polygeneration plant.
Cogeneration is thermodynamically the most efficient use of fuel. In separate production of

electricity some energy must be rejected as waste heat, whereas in separate production of heat the
potential for production of high quality energy (electricity or work) is lost.
Thermal power plants (including those that use fissile elements or burn coal, petroleum, or natural
gas), and heat engines in general, do not convert all of their available energy into electricity, with
the excess being wasted as excess heat. By capturing the excess heat, CHP allows a more total use
of energy than conventional generation, potentially reaching an efficiency of 70-90%, compared
with approximately 50% for the best conventional plants. This means that less fuel needs to be
consumed to produce the same amount of useful energy.
CHP is most efficient when the heat can be used on site or very close to it. Overall efficiency is
reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated
pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along a
comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.
2– 1
In addition to cogeneration, there are a number of related technologies which make use of exhaust
steam at successively lower temperatures and pressures. These are collectively known as
"combined cycle" systems. They are more efficient than conventional power generation, but not as
efficient as cogeneration, which normally produces about 30% power and 70% heat. Combined
cycle technologies can be financially attractive despite their lower efficiencies, because they can
produce proportionately more power and less heat. Environmentally, combined cycle systems are
controversial, because the make low-cost power available, reducing the incentive for efficient
consumption, and also because they are not as efficient as true cogeneration.
2.1 HISTORY
At the beginning of the twentieth century, steam was the main source of mechanical power.
However, as electricity became more controllable, many small "power houses" that produced
steam realized they could also produce and use electricity, and they adapted their systems to both
steam and electricity. Then from 1940 to 1970, the concept developed of a centralized electric
utility that delivered power to the surrounding area. Large utility companies quickly became
reliable, relatively inexpensive sources of electricity, so the small power houses stopped
cogenerating and bought their electricity from the utilities.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, interest in cogeneration began to revive, and by the late
1970s the need to conserve energy resources became clear. In the United States, legislation was
passed to encourage the development of cogeneration facilities. Specifically, the Public Utilities
Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978 encouraged this technology by allowing cogenerators to
connect with the utility network to purchase and sell electricity.
In Europe, there has been little government support because cogeneration is not seen as new
technology and therefore is not covered under "Thermie," the European Community's (EC) energy
program. Under Thermie, 40% of the cost for capital projects is covered by the EC government.
However, some individual European countries, like Denmark and Italy, have adopted separate
energy policies. In Denmark, 27.5% of their electricity is produced by cogeneration, and all future
2– 2
energy projects must involve cogeneration or some form of alternative energy. In Italy, low-
interest loans are provided to cover up to 30% of the cost of building new cogeneration facilities.
In USA the level of installed CHP continues to increase with 2005 capacity at over 83 GW, as
indicated in Exhibit – 2.1.
Exhibit – 2.1
Cogeneration Capacity Growth in USA
[Source: US Department of Energy, 2005]
2.3 ENERGY, HEAT AND RELATED DEFINITIONS
2.3.1 Energy
Energy is an important concept in science and it is very convenient quantity which thus
finds applications throughout the natural sciences. Energy is subject to a strict global
conservation law; that is, it can neither be created nor destroyed. Conventional definition
of "energy" is the capacity to do work. This notion of "energy" (or, rather, "available
energy") is extremely useful and is used to calculate practically any kind of energy
2– 3
(usually calculated energy is named after work of certain force - gravitational energy,
electric energy, elastic energy, etc.)
The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. For
example, it is sometimes convenient to distinguish potential energy from kinetic energy. It
may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, electrical energy, thermal
energy, and other forms. These classifications overlap; for instance thermal energy
usually consists partly of kinetic and partly of potential energy.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is defined as a work of certain force (say, gravitational force, or
Coulomb force, etc) during change of the relative positions (configurations) of the objects
within a physical system. Often certain position is termed as reference position (or
reference state) and the work is calculated versus this position. Because the work is
reversible, thus has the potential to change the state of other objects around it (for
example, the configuration or motion) was called potential energy.
Potential energy exists whenever an object which has mass has a position within a force
field. The most everyday example of this is the position of objects in the earth's
gravitational field. The potential energy of an object in this case is given by the relation:
PE=mgh
where
 PE = Energy (in Joules)
 m = mass (in kilograms)
 g = gravitational acceleration of the earth (9.8 m/sec2)
 h = height above earth's surface (in meters)
An object can store energy as the result of its position. For example, the heavy ball of a
demolition machine is storing energy when it is held at an elevated position. This stored
energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Similarly, a drawn bow is able to
2– 4
store energy as the result of its position. When assuming its usual position (i.e., when not
drawn), there is no energy stored in the bow. Yet when its position is altered from its
usual equilibrium position, the bow is able to store energy by virtue of its position. This
stored energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Potential energy is the stored
energy of position possessed by an object.
Exhibit – 2.2
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy exists whenever an object which has mass is in motion with some velocity.
Everything we see moving about has kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object in
this case is given by the relation:
KE=(½ mv2)
where
 KE = Energy (in Joules)
 m = mass (in kilograms)
 v = velocity (in meters/sec)
This equation reveals that the kinetic energy of an object is directly proportional to the
square of its speed. That means that for a twofold increase in speed, the kinetic energy
will increase by a factor of four; for a threefold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will
increase by a factor of nine; and for a fourfold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will
2– 5
increase by a factor of sixteen. The kinetic energy is dependent upon the square of the
speed.
There are many forms of kinetic energy - vibrational (the energy due to vibrational
motion), rotational (the energy due to rotational motion), and translational (the energy due
to motion from one location to another).
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity; it does not have a direction. Unlike velocity,
acceleration, force, and momentum, the kinetic energy of an object is completely
described by magnitude alone. Like work and potential energy, the standard metric units
of measurement for kinetic energy is the Joule.
Conservation of Energy
This principle asserts that in a closed system energy is conserved. This principle can be
tested by using the example below.
In the case of an object in free fall. When the object is at rest at some height “h”,
then all of its energy is PE. As the object falls and accelerates due to the earth's
gravity, PE is converted into KE. When the object strikes the ground, h = 0 so
that PE = 0, then all of the energy has to be in the form of KE and the object is
moving it at its maximum velocity. (In this case air resistance is ignored).
The above definition can be extended to the amount of work one system can do on
another that is, the capability of a system to change another. That is the usual definition of
energy in physics, in particular.
2.3.2 Heat
In physics, heat, symbolized by “Q”, is defined as energy in transit. Generally, heat is a

form of energy transfer associated with the different motions of atoms, molecules and
other particles that comprise matter when it is hot and when it is cold. High temperature
2– 6
bodies, which often result in high heat transfer, can be created by chemical reactions
(such as burning), nuclear reactions (such as fusion taking place inside the Sun),
electromagnetic dissipation (as in electric stoves), or mechanical dissipation (such as
friction). Heat can be transferred between objects by radiation, conduction and
convection.
Temperature, defined as the measure of an object to spontaneously give up energy, is

used as a measure of the internal energy or enthalpy, which is the level of elementary
motion giving rise to heat transfer. Heat can only be transferred between objects, or areas
within an object, with different temperatures, and then, in the absence of work, only in the
direction of the colder body (as per the second law of thermodynamics).
Heat can only be identified as it is being transferred from one system to another. Heat
flows between systems that are not in thermal equilibrium with each other; it
spontaneously flows from the areas of high temperature to areas of low temperature. All
systems (matter) have a certain amount of internal energy. Internal energy is a property
that is a measure of all microscopic ways by which a system can possess energy, for
example the random motion of its atoms or molecules. When two bodies of different
temperature come into thermal contact, they will exchange internal energy until their
temperatures are equalized; that is, until they reach thermal equilibrium. The amount of
heat transferred is equal to the amount of energy exchanged between the two bodies. It is
a common misconception to confuse heat with internal energy. A hot object doesn’t
contain heat it contains internal energy. The adjective hot is used as a relative term to
compare the object’s temperature to that of the surroundings (or that of the person using
the term). The term heat is used to describe the flow of energy. In the absence of work
interactions, the heat that is transferred to an object ends up getting stored in the object in
form internal energy.
Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat that has to be transferred to or from one unit
of mass or mole of a substance to change its temperature by one degree. Specific heat is a
property, which means that it depends on the substance under consideration and its state
as specified by its properties. Fuels when burned, release much of the energy in the
2– 7
chemical bonds of their molecules. Upon changing from one phase to another, a pure
substance releases or absorbs heat without its temperature changing. The amount of heat
transfer during a phase change is known as latent heat and depends primarily on the
substance and its state.
2.3.3 Work and Power
Work
In physics, Work is defined as force acting upon an object to cause a displacement. There
are three key words in this definition - force, displacement, and cause. In order for a force
to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a displacement and the force
must cause the displacement. There are several good examples of work which can be
observed in everyday life - a horse pulling a plow through the fields, a father pushing a
grocery cart down the aisle of a grocery store, a girl student lifting a backpack full of
books upon her shoulder, a weightlifter lifting a barbell above his head, an Olympian
launching the shot-put, etc. In each case described here there is a force exerted upon an
object to cause that object to be displaced.
Power
Power is the quantity, Work has to do with a force causing a displacement. Work has
nothing to do with the amount of time that this force acts to cause the displacement.
Sometimes, the work is done very quickly and other times the work is done rather slowly.
For example, a rock climber takes an abnormally long time to elevate his body up a few
meters along the side of a cliff. On the other hand, a trail hiker (who selects the easier
path up the mountain) might elevate his body a few meters in a short amount of time. The
two people might do the same amount of work, yet the hiker does the work in
considerably less time than the rock climber. The quantity which has to do with the rate at
which a certain amount of work is done is known as the Power. The hiker has a greater
power rating than the rock climber.
2– 8
Exhibit – 2.3
Power is the rate at which work is done. It is the work/time ratio. Mathematically, it is
computed using the following equation.
The standard metric unit of power is the Watt. As is implied by the equation for power, a
unit of power is equivalent to a unit of work divided by a unit of time. Thus, a Watt is
equivalent to a Joule/second. For historical reasons, the horsepower is occasionally used
to describe the power delivered by a machine. One horsepower is equivalent to 746
Watts.
Most machines are designed and built to do work on objects. All machines are typically
described by a power rating. The power rating indicates the rate at which that machine
can do work upon other objects. Thus, the power of a machine is the work/time ratio for
that particular machine. A car engine is an example of a machine which is given a power
rating. The power rating relates to how rapidly the car can accelerate. Suppose that a 40-
horsepower engine could accelerate the car from 0 km/hr to 60 km/hr in 16 seconds. If
this were the case, then a car with four times the horsepower could do the same amount of
work in one-fourth the time. That is, a 160-horsepower engine could accelerate the same
car from 0 km/hr to 60 km/hr in 4 seconds. The point is that for the same amount of work,
2– 9
power and time are inversely proportional. The power equation suggests that a more
powerful engine can do the same amount of work in less time.
The expression for power is work/time. Now since the expression for work is “force x
displacement”, the expression for power can be rewritten as “(force x
displacement)/time”. Yet since the expression for velocity is displacement/time, the
expression for power can be rewritten once more as “force x velocity”. This is shown
below.
This new expression for power reveals that a powerful machine is both strong (big force)
and fast (big velocity).
2.3.4 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics from the Greek “therme”, meaning "heat" and dunamis, meaning
"power" is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure,
and volume on the physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective
motion of their particles using statistics. Roughly, heat means "energy in transit" and
dynamics relates to "movement"; thus, in essence thermodynamics studies the movement
of energy and how energy instills movement. Historically, thermodynamics developed out
of need to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.
2– 10
Exhibit – 2.4
Steam Engine
Shown above is a typical thermodynamic system - heat moves from hot (boiler) to cold
(condenser) and work is extracted.
The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations are the laws of
thermodynamics, which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems
as heat or work. They also postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy, which can
be defined for any system. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions
define its properties, which in turn are related to one another through equations of state.
2.3.5 The Laws of Thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, there are four laws of very general validity, and as such they do not
depend on the details of the interactions or the systems being studied. Hence, they can be
applied to systems about which one knows nothing other than the balance of energy and
matter transfer. Examples of this include Einstein's prediction of spontaneous emission
around the turn of the 20th century and current research into the thermodynamics of black
holes.
2– 11
The four laws are:
 First law of thermodynamics, about the conservation of energy. The change in

the internal energy of a closed thermodynamic system is equal to the sum of the
amount of heat energy supplied to the system and the work done on the system.
 Second law of thermodynamics, about entropy. The total entropy of any isolated
thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a maximum
value.
 Third law of thermodynamics, about absolute zero temperature. As a system

asymptotically approaches absolute zero of temperature all processes virtually
cease and the entropy of the system asymptotically approaches a minimum value;
also stated as: "the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is zero at
absolute zero" or equivalently "it is impossible to reach the absolute zero of
temperature by any finite number of processes".
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics, stating that thermodynamic equilibrium is an

equivalence relation. If two thermodynamic systems are separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal law of conservation of

energy, and identifies heat transfer as a form of energy transfer. The most common
enunciation of first law of thermodynamics is:
“The increase in the internal energy of a thermodynamic system is equal to

the amount of heat energy added to the system minus the work done by the
system on the surroundings.”
2– 12
The mathematical statement of the first law is given by:
dU = δQ - δW
where “dU” is the infinitesimal increase in the internal energy of the system, “δQ” is the
infinitesimal amount of heat added to the system, and “δW” is the infinitesimal amount of
work done by the system on the surroundings. The infinitesimal heat and work are
denoted by ‘δ’ rather than ‘d’ because, in mathematical terms, they are inexact
differentials rather than exact differentials. In other words, there is no function “Q” or
“W” that can be differentiated to yield “δQ” or “δW”.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal law of increasing

entropy. In simple terms, it is an expression of the fact that over time, differences in
temperature, pressure, and density tend to even out in a physical system which is isolated
from the outside world. Entropy is a measure of how far along this evening-out process
has progressed.
The most common definition of second law of thermodynamics is:
“The entropy of an isolated system, not in equilibrium, will tend to increase

over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium”.
Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body. A transformation whose only
final result is to convert heat, extracted from a source at constant temperature, into work,
is impossible.
The second law is only applicable to macroscopic systems. The second law is actually a
statement about the probable behavior of an isolated system. As larger and larger systems
are considered, the probability of the second law being practically true becomes more and
2– 13
more certain. For any system with a mass of more than a few picograms, the second law is
true to within a few parts in a million.
In a general sense, the second law says that temperature differences between systems in
contact with each other tend to even out and that work can be obtained from these non-
equilibrium differences, but that loss of heat occurs, in the form of entropy, when work is
done. Pressure differences, density differences, and particularly temperature differences,
all tend to equalize if given the opportunity. This means that an isolated system will
eventually come to have a uniform temperature. A heat engine is a mechanical device that
provides useful work from the difference in temperature of two bodies:
Exhibit – 2.5
Heat Engine Diagram
During the 19th century, the second law was synthesized, essentially, by studying the
dynamics of the Carnot heat engine in coordination with James Joule's Mechanical
equivalent of heat experiments. Since any thermodynamic engine requires such a
temperature difference, it follows that no useful work can be derived from an isolated
system in equilibrium; there must always be an external energy source and a cold sink.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
The third law of thermodynamics is an axiom of nature regarding entropy and the
impossibility of reaching absolute zero of temperature. The most common definition of
third law of thermodynamics is:
2– 14
“As a system approaches absolute zero of temperature, all processes cease and
the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value.”
The essence of the hypothesis is that the entropy of the given system near absolute zero
depends only on the temperature (i.e. tends to a constant independently of the other
parameters).
In simple terms, the Third Law states that the entropy of a pure substance approaches zero
as the absolute temperature approaches zero. This law provides an absolute reference
point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is the
absolute entropy.
An application of the third law is the fact that at “0” Kelvin no solid solutions should
exist. Phases in equilibrium at “0” Kelvin should either be pure elements or atomically
ordered phases.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
A law that if two systems are separately found to be in thermal equilibrium with a third
system, the first two systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other, that is, all three
systems are at the same temperature.
A system in thermal equilibrium is a system whose properties (like pressure, temperature,

volume, etc.) are not changing in time. A hot cup of coffee sitting on a kitchen table is not
at equilibrium with its surroundings because it is cooling off and decreasing in
temperature. Once its temperature stops decreasing, it will be at room temperature, and it
will be in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium when; 1) both of the systems are in a
state of equilibrium, and 2) they remain so when they are brought into contact; where
'contact' is meant to imply the possibility of exchanging heat, but not work or particles.
2– 15
And more generally, two systems can be in thermal equilibrium without thermal contact if
one can be certain that if they were thermally connected, their properties would not
change in time.
Thus, thermal equilibrium is a relation between thermo-dynamical systems.

Mathematically, the zeroth law expresses that this relation is an equivalence relation.
2.3.6 Entropy
The concept of entropy (Greek: to chase, escape, rotate, turn) in thermodynamics is

central to the second law of thermodynamics, which deals with physical processes and
whether they occur spontaneously. Spontaneous changes occur with an increase in
entropy. Spontaneous changes tend to smooth out differences in temperature, pressure,
density, and chemical potential that may exist in a system, and entropy is thus a measure
of how far this smoothing-out process has progressed. In contrast, the first law of
thermodynamics deals with the concept of energy, which is conserved. Entropy change
has often been defined as a change to a more disordered state at a molecular level. In
recent years, entropy has been interpreted in terms of the "dispersal" of energy. Entropy is
an extensive state function that accounts for the effects of irreversibility in
thermodynamic systems.
Quantitatively, entropy, symbolized by “S”, is defined by the differential quantity as

dS = δQ / T, where “δQ” is the amount of heat absorbed in an isothermal and reversible
process in which the system goes from one state to another, and “T” is the absolute
temperature at which the process is occurring. Entropy is one of the factors that
determines the free energy of the system.
This thermodynamic definition of entropy is only valid for a system in equilibrium

(because temperature is defined only for a system in equilibrium), while statistical
definition of entropy applies to any system. Thus the statistical definition is usually
considered fundamental definition of entropy.
2– 16
When a system's energy is defined as the sum of its "useful" energy, (e.g. that used to
push a piston), and its "useless energy", i.e. that energy which cannot be used for external
work, then entropy may be visualized as the "scrap" or "useless" energy whose energetic
prevalence over the total energy of a system is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the considered system.
Statistical definition of entropy is fundamental definition. All properties of entropy

(including second law of thermodynamics) follow from this definition.
In the ice melting example, the difference in temperature between a warm room (the
surroundings) and cold glass of ice and water (the system and not part of the room),
begins to be equalized as portions of the heat energy from the warm surroundings become
spread out to the cooler system of ice and water.
Exhibit – 2.5A
Thermodynamic System
Over time the temperature of the glass and its contents and the temperature of the room
become equal. The entropy of the room has decreased and some of its energy has been
dispersed to the ice and water. However, as calculated in the example, the entropy of the
system of ice and water has increased more than the entropy of the surrounding room has
decreased. In an isolated system such as the room and ice water taken together, the
dispersal of energy from warmer to cooler always results in a net increase in entropy.
Thus, when the 'universe' of the room and ice water system has reached temperature
2– 17
equilibrium, the entropy change from the initial state is at a maximum. The entropy of the
thermodynamic system is a measure of how far the equalization has progressed.
A special case of entropy increase, the entropy of mixing, occurs when two or more
different substances are mixed. If the substances are at the same temperature and pressure,
there will be no net exchange of heat or work - the entropy increase will be entirely due to
the mixing of the different substances.
2.3.7 Enthalpy
In thermodynamics and molecular chemistry, the enthalpy or heat content (denoted as

“H” or “ΔH”) is a quotient or description of thermodynamic potential of a system, which
can be used to calculate the "useful" work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic
system under constant pressure.
Enthalpy is the heat change which occurs when 1 mol of a substance reacts completely
with oxygen to form products at 298K and 1 atm. The function “H” was introduced by
the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in early 20th century in the following form:
H = E + PV
where “E” represents the energy of the system. In the absence of an external field, the
enthalpy may be defined, as it is generally known, by:
H = U + PV
but can also be surmised into one formula as;
H = E + PV = U + PV
where (all units given in SI)
2– 18
“H” is the enthalpy (joules)

“U” is the internal energy, (joules)
“P” is the pressure of the system, (pascals)
“V” is the volume, (cubic meters)
Standard enthalpy change of combustion

Standard enthalpy of combustion is defined as the enthalpy change observed in a
constituent thermodynamic system when one (1) mole of a substance reacts completely
with oxygen under standard conditions.
Standard enthalpy change of hydrogenation

Standard enthalpy of hydrogenation is the enthalpy change observed in a constituent
thermodynamic system, when one mole of an unsaturated compound reacts completely
with an excess of hydrogen under standard conditions to form a saturated compound.
Standard enthalpy change of formation

Standard enthalpy change of formation is defined as the enthalpy change observed in a
constituent thermodynamic system when a compound is formed from its elementary
antecedents under standard conditions.
Standard enthalpy change of reaction

The standard enthalpy change of reaction (denoted H° or Ho) is the enthalpy change that
occurs in a system when one (1) equivalent of matter is transformed by a chemical
reaction under standard conditions.
A common standard enthalpy change is the standard enthalpy change of formation,

which has been determined for a vast number of substances. The enthalpy change of any
reaction under any conditions can be computed, given the standard enthalpy change of
formation of all of the reactants and products. Other reactions with standard enthalpy
2– 19
change values include combustion (standard enthalpy change of combustion) and

neutralization (standard enthalpy change of neutralization).
Table – 2.1
Examples: Inorganic compounds (at 25 °C)
Chemical Compound Phase (matter) Chemical Δ Hf0 in kJ/mol

formula
Ammonia aq NH3 -80.8
Ammonia g NH3 -46.1
Sodium carbonate s Na2CO3 -1131
Sodium chloride (table salt) aq NaCl -407
Sodium chloride (table salt) s NaCl -411.12
Sodium chloride (table salt) l NaCl -385.92
Sodium chloride (table salt) g NaCl -181.42
Sodium hydroxide aq NaOH -469.6
Sodium hydroxide s NaOH -426.7
Sodium nitrate aq NaNO3 -446.2
Sodium nitrate s NaNO3 -424.8
Sulfur dioxide g SO2 -297
Sulfuric acid l H2SO4 -814
Silica s SiO2 -911
Nitrogen dioxide g NO2 +33
Nitrogen monoxide g NO +90
2– 20
Water l H2O -286
Water g H2O -241.8
Carbon dioxide g CO2 -393.5
Hydrogen g H2 0
Fluorine g F2 0
Chlorine g Cl2 0
Bromine l Br2 0
Bromine g Br2 0
(State: g - gaseous; l - liquid; s - solid; aq = aqueous)
Specific enthalpy
The specific enthalpy of a working mass is a property of that mass used in
thermodynamics, defined as h = u + P v where “u” is the specific internal energy,
“P” is the pressure, and “v” is specific volume. In other words, h = H / m where “m” is
the mass of the system. The SI unit for specific enthalpy is joules per kilogram (J/kg).
Enthalpy Change
The total enthalpy of a system cannot be measured directly; the enthalpy change of a
system is measured instead. Enthalpy change is defined by the following equation:
ΔH = Hfinal - Hinitial
where
“ΔH” is the enthalpy change
“Hfinal” is the final enthalpy of the system, measured in joules. In a chemical

reaction, Hfinal is the enthalpy of the products.
2– 21
“Hinitial” is the initial enthalpy of the system, measured in joules. In a chemical

reaction, Hinitial is the enthalpy of the reactants.
Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

In chemistry and other sciences, STP or standard temperature and pressure is a
standard set of conditions for experimental measurements, to enable comparisons to be
made between sets of data. Internationally, the current STP defined by the IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) is an absolute pressure of 100 kPa
(1 bar) and a temperature of 273.15 K (0°C). Other organizations have established a
variety of alternative definitions for the standard reference conditions of temperature and
pressure.
It was also common in the past, when using the metric system of units, to refer to a
Normal Cubic Meter (Nm³) and to define it as being at 0°C (273.15 K) and 101.325 kPa
(i.e. 1 atmosphere of absolute pressure). As shown in the following section, that notation
is no longer appropriate unless the specific reference conditions are explicitly stated,
since there are currently many different metric system definitions of what constitutes
standard reference conditions.
There are a great many different definitions of the standard reference conditions currently
being used. Table – 2.2 presents twelve such variations of standard condition definitions -
and there are quite a few others as well.
As shown in the table, the IUPAC currently defines standard reference conditions as
being 0°C and 1 bar (i.e., 100 kPa) of absolute pressure rather than the 1 atmosphere (i.e.
101.325 kPa) of absolute pressure used in the past. In fact, the IUPAC's current definition
has been in existence since 1982.
As further shown in the table, the oil and gas industries have to a large extent changed
from their past usage of 60°F and 14.696 psia to their current usage of 60°F and
14.73 psia. This is especially true of the natural gas industry in North America.
2– 22
The table makes it quite obvious that it is absolutely necessary to clearly state the
temperature and pressure reference conditions whenever expressing a gas volume or gas
volumetric flow rate. It is equally important to state whether the gas volume is expressed
on a dry basis or a wet basis. As noted in the table, some of the current definitions of the
reference conditions include a specification of the percent relative humidity (% RH).
Table – 2.2: Standard reference conditions in current use
Temperature Absolute pressure Relative humidity

Publishing or establishing entity
°C kPa % RH
0 100.000 IUPAC (present definition)
0 101.325 IUPAC (former definition), NIST, ISO 10780
[4] [5]
15 101.325 0 , ISA, ISO 13443, EEA, EGIA
20 101.325 EPA, NIST
25 101.325 EPA
25 100.000 SATP
20 100.000 0 CAGI
15 100.000 SPE
°F psia % RH
60 14.696 SPE, OSHA, SCAQMD
60 14.73 EGIA, OPEC, EIA
59 14.503 78 Army Standard Metro
59 14.696 60 ISO 2314, ISO 3977-2
Notes:
 101.325 kPa = 1 atmosphere = 1.01325 bar ≈ 14.696 psi
 100.000 kPa = 1 bar ≈ 14.504 psi
 14.503 psi ≈ 750 mmHg ≈ 100.0 kPa ≈ 1 bar
 14.696 psi ≈ 1 atm = 101.325 kPa
 14.73 psi ≈ 30 inHg ≈ 1.0156 bar ≈ 101.560 kPa
 All pressures are absolute pressures (not gauge pressures)
 59°F = 15°C
 60°F ≈ 15.6°C
 dry = 0 percent relative humidity = 0 % RH
2– 23
The full names of the entities are listed below:
 IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
 NIST: U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology
 ISA: ICAO's International Standard Atmosphere
 ISO: International Organization for Standardization
 EEA: European Environment Agency
 EGIA: Electricity and Gas Inspection Act (of Canada)
 EPA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
 SATP: Standard Ambient Pressure and Temperature
 CAGI: Compressed Air and Gas Institute
 SPE: Society of Petroleum Engineers
 OSHA: U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
 SCAQMD: California's South Coast Air Quality Management District
 OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
 EIA: U.S. Energy Information Administration
 Std. Metro: U.S. Army's Standard Metro (used in ballistics)
2.3.8 Thermodynamic Processes
A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic

system proceeding from an initial state to a final state. Typically, each thermodynamic
process is distinguished from other processes, in energetic character, according to what
parameters, as temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed. Furthermore, it is
useful to group these processes into pairs, in which each variable held constant is one
member of a conjugate pair. The six most common thermodynamic processes are shown
below:
2– 24
1. An Isobaric Process occurs at constant pressure. An example would be to have a

movable piston in a cylinder, so that the pressure inside the cylinder is always at
atmospheric pressure, although it is isolated from the atmosphere. In other
words, the system is dynamically connected, by a movable boundary, to a
constant-pressure reservoir.
2. An Isochoric Process, or isometric is volumetric process, occurs at constant

volume. An isochoric process is one in which the volume is held constant,
meaning that the work done by the system will be zero. It follows that, for the
simple system of two dimensions, any heat energy transferred to the system
externally will be absorbed as internal energy. An example would be to place a
closed tin can containing only air into a fire. To a first approximation, the can
will not expand, and the only change will be that the gas gains internal energy, as
evidenced by its increase in temperature and pressure.. We may say that the
system is dynamically insulated, by a rigid boundary, from the environment.
3. An Isothermal Process occurs at a constant temperature. An example would be

to have a system immersed in a large constant-temperature bath. Any work
energy performed by the system will be lost to the bath, but its temperature will
remain constant. In other words, the system is thermally connected, by a
thermally conductive boundary to a constant-temperature reservoir.
4. An Isentropic Process occurs at constant entropy. For a reversible process this is

identical to an adiabatic process (see below). If a system has entropy which has
not yet reached its maximum equilibrium value, a process of cooling may be
required to maintain that value of entropy.
5. An Isenthalpic Process occurs at a constant enthalpy. Also known as a throttling

process or wire drawing. An isenthalpic process introduces no change in
enthalpy in the system.
6. An Adiabatic Process occurs without loss or gain of heat. An adiabatic process

is a process in which there is no energy added or subtracted from the system by
2– 25
heating or cooling. For a reversible process, this is identical to an isentropic

process. We may say that the system is thermally insulated from its environment
and that its boundary is a thermal insulator. If a system has entropy which has
not yet reached its maximum equilibrium value, the entropy will increase even
though the system is thermally insulated.
Some of the important thermodynamic processes are discussed in detail in the following
sections.
2.3.9 Adiabatic Process
In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process or an isocaloric process is a process in which no

heat is transferred to or from working fluid. The term "adiabatic" literally means an
absence of heat transfer; for example, an adiabatic boundary is a boundary that is
impermeable to heat transfer and the system is said to be adiabatically (or thermally)
insulated. An insulated wall approximates an adiabatic boundary. Another example is the
adiabatic flame temperature, which is the temperature that would be achieved by a flame
in the absence of heat loss to the surroundings. An adiabatic process which is also
reversible is called an isentropic process.
The opposite extreme, in which the maximum heat transfer with its surroundings occurs,
causing the temperature to remain constant, is known as an isothermal process. Since
temperature is thermodynamically conjugate to entropy, the isothermal process is
conjugate to the adiabatic process for reversible transformations
Adiabatic heating and cooling

Adiabatic heating and cooling are processes that commonly occur due to a change in the
pressure of a gas. Adiabatic heating occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased. An
example of this is what goes on in a bicycle pump. After using a bicycle pump to inflate a
pneumatic tire or soccer ball the barrel of the pump is found to have heated up as a result
of adiabatic heating. Diesel engines rely on adiabatic heating during their compression
2– 26
stroke to reach the high temperatures needed to ignite the fuel. Adiabatic heating also
occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example in a katabolic
wind or Foehn wind flowing downhill.
Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure of a substance is decreased, such as when it
expands into a larger volume. An example of this is when the air is released from a
pneumatic tire; the outlet air will be noticeably cooler than the tire, and after all the air
has escaped the valve stem will be cold to the touch. Adiabatic cooling does not have to
involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even
millionths of a degree above the theory of absolute zero) is adiabatic demagnetization,
where the change in magnetic field on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic
cooling. Adiabatic cooling also occurs in the Earth's atmosphere with orographic lifting
and lee waves, and this can form pileus or lenticular clouds if the air is cooled below the
dew point.
It should be noted that no process is truly adiabatic. Many processes are close and can be
easily approximated by using an adiabatic assumption, but there is always some heat loss.
There is no such thing as a perfect insulator.
EXHIBIT – 2.6
IDEAL GAS
2– 27
For a simple substance, during an adiabatic process in which the volume increases, the
internal energy of the working substance must necessarily decrease. The mathematical
equation for an ideal fluid undergoing an adiabatic process is
PVγ = constant
where P is pressure, V is volume, and
Cp a+1
γ = Cv = a
“CP” being the molar specific heat for constant pressure and “CV” being the molar
specific heat for constant volume. “α” comes from the number of degrees of freedom
divided by 2 (3/2 for monatomic gas, 5/2 for diatomic gas). For a monatomic ideal gas,
γ = 5/3, and for a diatomic gas (such as nitrogen and oxygen, the main components of air)
γ = 7/5. Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases..
2.3.10 Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of the system

stays constant: ΔT = 0. This typically occurs when a system is in contact with an outside
thermal reservoir (heat bath), and processes occur slowly enough to allow the system to
continually adjust to the temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange. An
alternative special case in which a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings (Q = 0)
is called an adiabatic process.
Consider an ideal gas, in which the temperature depends only on the internal energy,
which is a function of the mean translational kinetic energy of the molecules, as given by
a Boltzmann distribution; if the internal energy is constant, so is the temperature. Take the
number of moles n as a constant.
ΔU = nRΔT = 0
2– 28
but this means, according to the ideal gas law, that
Δ(PV) = 0
so that
PiVi = PV = PfVf
where “Pi” and “Vi” are the pressure and volume of the initial state, “Pf” and “Vf” are the
pressure and volume of the final state, and the variables “P” and “V” stand for the
pressure and volume of any intermediate state during an isothermal process.
Exhibit – 2.7
Some Isotherms of An Ideal Gas
Curves called isotherms appear as a hyperbolas on a P-V (pressure-volume) diagram

(T = constant). Each one asymptotically approaches both the V (abscissa) and P
(ordinate) axes. This corresponds to a one-parameter family of curves, a function of T,
whose equation is
nRT
P=
V
By the first law of thermodynamics, the isotherms of an ideal gas are also determined by
the condition that
Q=W
2– 29
where ”W” is work done on the system. (While Q and W are incremental quantities, they
do not represent differentials of state functions.) This means that, during an isothermal
process, all heat accepted by the system from its surroundings must have its energy
entirely converted to work which it performs on the surroundings. That is, all the energy
which comes into the system comes back out; the internal energy and thus the temperature
of the system remain constant.
Exhibit – 2.8
[The yellow area equals work.]
In a minute process of this process, the minute work “dW” can be shown as follow.
dW = Fdx = PSdx = PdV
Therefore the entire work of the process from A to B is shown with the integration of the
previous equation.
VB VB
WA B= dW = PdV
VA VA
2.3.11 Isentropic Process
In thermodynamics, an isentropic process is one during which the entropy of the system
remains constant. Second law of thermodynamics states that,
2– 30
δQ < TdS
where “δQ” is the amount of energy the system gains by heating, “T” is the temperature
of the system, and “dS” is the change in entropy. The equal sign will hold for a reversible
process. For a reversible isentropic process, there is no transfer of heat energy and
therefore the process is also adiabatic. For an irreversible adiabatic process, the entropy
will increase. Hence removal of heat from the system (cooling of the system) is necessary
to maintain constant entropy (within the system) for an irreversible process. Thus an
irreversible isentropic process is not adiabatic.
For reversible processes then, an isentropic transformation is carried out by thermally

insulating the system from its surroundings. Temperature is the thermodynamic variable
conjugate to entropy, and so the conjugate process would be an isothermal process in
which the system is thermally connected to a constant-temperature heat bath.
Isentropic flow
An isentropic flow is a flow that is both adiabatic and reversible, that is no energy is
added to the flow, and no energy losses occur due to friction or dissipative effects. For an
isentropic flow of a perfect gas several relations can be derived to define the pressure,
density and temperature along a streamline.
2.3.12 Thermodynamic cycle
A thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes which return a system to

its initial state. Properties depend only on the thermodynamic state and thus do not change
over a cycle. Variables such as heat and work are not zero over a cycle, but rather are
process dependent. The first law of thermodynamics dictates that the net heat input is
equal to the net work output over any cycle. The repeating nature of the process path
allows for continuous operation, making the cycle an important concept in
thermodynamics.
2– 31
Two primary classes of thermodynamic cycles are power cycles and refrigeration
cycles. Power cycles are cycles which convert a heat input into a work output, while
refrigeration cycles transfer heat from low to high temperatures using work input. Cycles
composed entirely of quasistatic processes can operate as power or refrigeration cycles by
controlling the process direction. On a pressure-volume (PV) or Temperature-entropy
(TS) diagram, the clockwise and counterclockwise directions indicate power and
refrigeration cycles, respectively.
2.3.13 Power cycles
Power cycles are the basis for the operation of heat engines, which supply most of the
world's electric power and run almost all motor vehicles. Power cycles can be divided
according to the type of heat engine they seek to model. The most common cycles that
model internal combustion engines are the Otto cycle, which models gasoline engines and
the Diesel cycle, which models diesel engines. Cycles that model external combustion
engines include the Brayton cycle, which models gas turbines, and the Rankine cycle,
which models steam turbines.
2.3.14 Refrigeration cycles
Refrigeration cycles are the models for heat pumps and refrigerators. The difference
between the two is that heat pumps are intended to keep a place warm and refrigerators
designed to cool it. The most common refrigeration cycle is the vapor compression
cycle, which models systems using refrigerants that change phase. The absorption
refrigeration cycle is an alternative that absorbs the refrigerant in a liquid solution rather
than evaporating it. Gas refrigeration cycles include the reversed Brayton cycle and the
Linde-Hampson cycle. Regeneration in gas refrigeration allows for the liquefaction of
gases.
2– 32
2.4 FUEL ENERGY SAVINGS RATIO (FESR)
Cogeneration process efficiency can be expressed in terms of enthalpies or in terms of

thermodynamics efficiency. The second law of thermodynamics defines efficiency as:
Wmin
Efficiency, E =
Wact
Where “Wmin” is the minimum amount of work required to accomplish a task and “Wact” is the
amount of work actually expanded in accomplishing the task.
Exhibit 2.9 shows the result of applying these calculations to typical cogeneration systems. The
exact value of the efficiency depends on the condition of the heat generated (which differs from
system to system) as well on the system configuration.
The fuel to energy savings ratio (FESR) can be defined as
NF - CF
FESR =
NF
Where
CF = Cogeneration fuel energy (fuel required to cogenerate the mix of steam

and electricity),
NF = Non-cogeneration fuel energy (fuel required to generate the same mix

separately).
Thus an FESR value of 0.2 means that the cogeneration process uses 20 percent less energy than
non-cogeneration of the same power steam mix.
2– 33
Exhibit 2.9
Fuel-Utilization Characteristics of Cogeneration Systems
Process Electricity Fuel Fraction Heat Ratea Second-Law FESRc

Steam Production Converted to (kcal/kWh) Efficiencyb
Pressure (kWh per million Electricity
(kg/cm2g) kcal of steam)
Steam Turbine 3.5 278 0.16 1,146 0.40(0.32) 0.21

Gas Turbine 3.5 596 0.30 1,360 0.48(0.34) 0.29
Gas/Steam Turbine 3.5 1,270 0.36 1,486 0.50(0.35) 0.30
Diesel 3.5 1,509 0.35 1,448 0.47(0.36) 0.25

Steam Turbine 10.5 199 0.13 1,146 0.42(0.35) 0.17
Gas Turbine 10.5 794 0.30 1,436 0.50(0.36) 0.27
Diesel 10.5 1,608 0.35 1,751 0.48(0.37) 0.24
a) Fuel required to produce electricity, in excess of that required for process-steam generation alone, with
88 percent boiler efficiency assumed for process-steam production alone.
b) Value for separate generation of process steam and central-station electricity is shown in parentheses.
c) Fuel saved by cogeneration divided by fuel required to produce the same mix of steam and electricity
separately, with heat rate for central-station power plant assumed to be 2,519 kcal/kWh and boiler
efficiency for steam production assumed to be 88 percent.
Exhibit 2.9 illustrates some important general differences among systems:
 Diesel and gas turbine systems have higher thermodynamic efficiencies than
steam turbine systems.
 Diesel and gas turbine systems require more energy per kWh of electricity
generated than steam turbine systems but still significantly less than the
2,519 kcal/kWh common to central-station power generation.
 Diesel systems generate more electricity per unit of process heat than do gas
turbines, while gas turbines are superior in this regard to steam turbine.
2– 34
Ultimately the choice of a system must be made on overall economic grounds from amongst
systems capable of producing electricity and process steam in a ratio that would meet the plant’s
needs.
2.5 POWER TO HEAT RATIO
The relative requirements for electric power and thermal energy vary from industry to industry.
Some industrial need little energy as heat while others may require a substantial portion of their
energy inputs as thermal energy. Similarly, different prime movers provide different amounts of
electric power relative to the thermal energy rejected. In order to select a suitable configuration
for cogeneration system the concept of power to heat ratio is used to select the most appropriate
prime mover. The plant power to heat ratio can be calculated as follows:
Annual Power required (kWh)

Plant Power to Heat Ratio =
Process Steam required x Load Factor
The power to heat ratio is expressed in kWh/Mkcal of steam. The process steam requirements in
the above equation are calculated in million kcal/hr while the load factor is the number of
hours/year that the steam is required. Simultaneous power and steam requirement of the plant
determine the cycle to be chosen. The importance of power to heat ratio is discussed further in
Chapter 3.
2.6 THE MOLLIER DIAGRAM
Mollier diagram is a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties and states of

materials involving "Enthalpy" on one of the coordinates. Mollier diagrams are named after
Richard Mollier. Mollier diagrams are routinely used in the design work associated with power
plants (fossil or nuclear), compressors, steam turbines, refrigeration systems, air conditioning
equipment to visualize the working cycles of thermodynamic systems.
2– 35
The Mollier diagram, shown in Exhibit – 2.10 , is a chart on which enthalpy (h)versus entropy (s)
is plotted. It is sometimes known as the “h-s” diagram. The chart contains a series of constant
temperature lines, a series of constant pressure lines, a series of constant moisture or quality lines,
and a series of constant superheat lines. The Mollier diagram is used only when quality is greater
than 50% and for superheated steam.
Lines of constant absolute pressure (in pounds per square inch) slope up from left to right. In the
low-pressure region at the right-hand side, dotted lines represent absolute pressure (in inches of
mercury) and are convenient for exhaust steam calculations. Below the saturation line, curves of
constant moisture content, (in percentage), slope down from left to right. Above the saturation line
are lines of constant temperature and lines of constant superheat, (both in oF).
Available energy, as per the Ranking cycle, is the enthalpy change for an isentropic expansion,
thus following the line of constant entropy on Mollier chart. The condition of exhaust steam can be
read from the chart at the intersection of the exhaust pressure and enthalpy lines.
In throttling service, the enthalpy of steam remains unchanged provided no heat is lost by
radiation, and thus a line of constant enthalpy represents the throttling process on the Mollier
Chart.
Exhibit – 2.11, a simplified version of Mollier Diagram, can be used to determine enthalpy versus
entropy of water and steam.
The Mollier diagram is useful when analyzing the performance of adiabatic steady-flow processes,
such as flow in nozzles, diffusers, turbines and compressors.
2– 36
Exhibit – 2.10
2– 37
Exhibit – 2.11
Mollier Diagram development and use is discussed below:.
Since the temperature and pressure at which water boils are in a fixed relationship to each other,
Exhibit – 2.12 could equally be drawn to show enthalpy against temperature, and then turned so
that temperature became the vertical ordinates against a base of enthalpy, as in Exhibit – 2.13.
2– 38
Exhibit – 2.12
[Enthalpy/Pressure Diagram]
Exhibit – 2.13 [Temperature/Enthalpy Diagram]
2– 39
Lines of constant pressure originate on the saturated water line. The horizontal distance between
the saturated water line and the dry saturated steam line represents the amount of latent heat or
enthalpy of evaporation, and is called the evaporation line; (enthalpy of evaporation decreases with
rising pressure). The area to the right of the dry saturated steam line is the superheated steam
region, and lines of constant pressure now curve upwards as soon as they cross the dry saturated
steam line.
A variation of the diagram in Exhibit – 2.13, that can be extremely useful, is one in which the
horizontal axis is not enthalpy but instead is enthalpy divided by the mean temperature at which the
enthalpy is added or removed. To produce such a diagram, the entropy values can be calculated.
By starting at the origin of the graph at a temperature of 0°C at atmospheric pressure, and by
adding enthalpy in small amounts, the graph can be built. As entropy is measured in terms of
absolute temperature, the origin temperature of 0°C is taken as 273.15 K. The specific heat of
saturated water at this temperature is 4.228 kJ/kg K. For the purpose of constructing the diagram in
Exhibit – 2.14 the base temperature is taken as 273 K not 273.15 K.
By assuming a kilogram of water at atmospheric pressure, and by adding 4.228 kJ of energy, the
water temperature would rise by 1 K from 273 K to 274 K. The mean temperature during this
operation is 273.5 K, as indicated in Exhibit – 2.14.
Exhibit – 2.14
2– 40
The width of the element representing the added enthalpy = 4.228/273.5 = 0.015495 kJ/kg K
This value represents the change in enthalpy per degree of temperature rise for one kilogram of
water and is termed the change in specific entropy. The metric units for specific entropy are
therefore kJ/kg K.
This process can be continued by adding another 4.228 kJ of energy to produce a series of these
points on a state point line. In the next increment, the temperature would rise from 274 K to 275 K,
and the mean temperature is 274.5 K.
The width of this element representing the added enthalpy = 4.228/274.5 = 0/015403 kJ/kg K.
It can be seen from these simple calculations that, as the temperature increases, the change in
entropy for each equal increment of enthalpy reduces slightly. If this incremental process were
continuously repeated by adding more heat, it would be noticed that the change in entropy would
continue to decrease. This is due to each additional increment of heat raising the temperature and
so reducing the width of the elemental strip representing it. As more heat is added, so the state
point line, in this case the saturated water line, curves gently upwards.
At 373.14 K (99.99°C), the boiling point of water is reached at atmospheric pressure, and further
additions of heat begin to boil off some of the water at this constant temperature. At this position,
the state point starts to move horizontally across the diagram to the right, and is represented on
Exhibit – 2.15 by the horizontal evaporation line stretching from the saturated water line to the dry
saturated steam line. Because this is an evaporation process, this added heat is referred to as
enthalpy of evaporation.
At atmospheric pressure, steam tables state that the amount of heat added to evaporate one (1) kg
of water into steam is 2256.71 kJ. As this takes place at a constant temperature of 373.14 K, the
mean temperature of the evaporation line is also 373.14 K.
The change in specific entropy from the water saturation line to the steam saturation line is
therefore:
2– 41
2256.71/373.14 = 6.047891 kJ/kg K
The diagram produced showing temperature against entropy would look something like that in
Exhibit – 2.15, where:
o
o 1 is the saturated water line.
o 2 is the dry saturated steam line.
o 3 are constant dryness fraction lines in the wet steam region.
o 4 are constant pressure lines in the superheat region.
Exhibit – 2.15 [Temperature – Entropy Diagram]
The following example illustrates the use of the Mollier diagram:
Example 1: Use of Mollier diagram: Superheated steam at 700 psia (49.2 kg/cm2a) and
680°F (360oC) is expanded at constant entropy to 140 psia (9.85 kg/cm2a). What is the change
in enthalpy?
Solution: Use the Mollier Chart. Locate point 1 at the intersection of the 700 psia (49.2 kg/cm2a)
and the 680°F (360oC) line. Read “h” = 1333 Btu/lbm (740.2 kcal/kgm). Follow the entropy
2– 42
line downward vertically to the 140 psia (9.85 kg/cm2a) line and read “h” = 1178 Btu/lbm
(654.2 kcal/kgm). “h” = 1178 - 1333 = -155 Btu/lbm (86 kcal/kgm).
Once the various states have been fixed for the particular process the substance has passed
through (for example, going from a saturated liquid state to a compressed liquid state across a
pump), energy exchanges may be determined as was shown in Example 1. The energy exchanges
are never 100 percent efficient, as already discussed. The degree of efficiency obtained by the
system depends upon the process through which the system has passed. Generally, the efficiency of
a component depends upon how much friction exists in the flow of the substance, the pressure
drops within the system, the inlet and outlet temperatures, and various other factors. The
properties affecting the efficiency of the system are determined by use of the charts and diagrams
mentioned in this section.
When power cycles are utilized for large systems, the efficiency of each component should be
maximized in order to have the highest possible overall efficiency for the system. Each
component affects the system efficiency in a different manner. To maximize efficiency, the
practical approach to large systems is to have multistage expansion with reheat between stages and
regenerators in the system where applicable.
2.7 STEAM TABLES
Steam tables are a useful tool for determining the properties of steam and water at various
temperatures and pressures. Steam tables for saturated and superheated steams are presented in
Appendix – D.
2.8 TERMINOLOGY
A discussion of cogeneration concepts and application requires familiarity with a number of

technical terms. These terms will be explained in the text as and when they appear. The glossary at
the end of this manual can be used as a quick reference to the various terms.
2– 43
3. COGENERATION SYSTEM
3.1 COGENERATION VS. CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION
The ever-escalating demand for electricity combined with the rising costs of gas and oil, both
primary fuels, have forced many companies to seek cheaper and more efficient means of powering
their physical plants. Co-generation, a process where waste heat from electrical generation is used
to produce steam or hot water for heating and cooling, is an alternative that can maximize energy
resources and save money. Cogeneration opportunities based on natural gas as fuel are presented in
Exhibit – 3.1
Exhibit – 3.1
3–1
The physical operations of most industry and buildings today rely on two separate energy systems;
one electrical and the other thermal which includes fuel oil, gas or waste heat from an industrial
process. The thermal energy is used for heating and/or cooling. Through co-generation, the two
systems can be effectively integrated into one, greatly improving efficiency and, therefore,
reducing primary fuel consumption.
Conventional electrical generation systems rely on the combustion of a primary fuel to heat water
and thereby produce steam. The steam is then used to drive electrical generators. Throughout this
process, a tremendous amount of heat energy is wasted as shown in Exhibit – 3.2.
Comparison of Fuel Use Conventional & Cogeneration Generation Plants
100%
Waste Energy
20%
80%
Waste Energy
65%
60% Useful
Thermal Energy
Heating/Cooling
52%
40%
Useful Energy
20% Useful Energy
Electrical
35% Electrical
28%
Conventional Typical Cogeneration

Generating Plant Plant
Exhibit – 3.2
A typical comparison of conventional power generation and combined heat & power generation
systems is presented in Exhibit – 3.3.
3–2
Exhibit – 3.3, Comparison Conventional and CHP Generation
During the operation of a conventional power plant, large quantities of heat are rejected in the
atmosphere either through the cooling circuits (steam condensers, cooling towers, water coolers in
Diesel or Otto engines, etc.) or with the exhaust gases. Most of this heat can be recovered and used
to cover thermal needs, thus increasing the efficiency from 30-50% of a power plant to 80-90% of
a cogeneration system. A comparison between cogeneration and the separate production of
electricity and heat from the point of view of efficiency is given in Exhibit-3.4, based on typical
values of efficiencies.
3–3
Exhibit – 3.4
Efficiency Comparison between Cogeneration and Conventional Generation.
(Numbers below arrows represent units of energy in typical values.)
Although individual companies have now cogeneration systems of their own, a similar process has
been in use by some major utility companies for many years.
Further, whereas in most utility generation systems, waste heat is removed from the facility through
boiler stacks or steam condensers, a co-generation system uses this waste heat for heating and/or
cooling. Exhibit – 3.2 compares the relative use of energy for each of these systems.
When considering how to use the waste heat, it is important to understand that depending on the
method used to generate electrical power, the waste heat is not always in a useful form, i.e., first, it
may be at a temperature that is too low for any practical use, and secondly, it may be available only
when cooling/heating is not needed.
There are basically three conventional methods to generate electricity.

 First, when a steam turbine is used to drive a generator, the turbines can be tapped at a
pressure where the steam is still useful. This system is used by utility companies.
Depending on the cycle used even for a condensing turbine, the exhaust temperature is
3–4
still sufficiently high enough to be effective and directly used for heating although it is not
suitable for cooling.
 A second method uses a gas turbine to drive a generator. Waste heat from gas turbine
exhaust gases is readily usable through a heat recovery (fired or non-fired) boiler for both
heating and cooling. The normal size of a plant using this method is 2MW to 25MW.
 In the case of diesel engines, the third method, the waste heat from the engine cooling
water is of limited use and the energy from the engine exhaust is difficult to recover.
The ideal temperature entropy diagram for power generation is shown in Exhibit – 3.5. This
diagram shows work in from point 1 to 2, assuming no losses, and turbine work out from point 2
to 3. The heat removed to condense the turbine exhaust steam (point 3 to 4) is wasted in this case.
Typical enthalpy values shown indicate a calculated theoretical efficiency of 43.5 percent, which
converts to an actual efficiency of 34.8 percent.
TEMPERATURE – ENTROPY DIAGRAM FOR POWER PLANT CYCLE
Exhaust
Losses
Mechanical
Generator
Inefficiency
Inefficiency
BOILER TURBINE GENERATOR Electricity
HEAT LOSS
Water
Oil
(1 BARREL – 800 KWN)
NET HEAT RATE – 10,000 BTU/KWH
T-S (IDEAL)
TEMPERATURE
(3)
Boiler out
(1463)
(2)
Boiler in
(69)
(4)
(1) Turbine Out
Condenser Condenser in
Out (857)
ENTROPY
Exhibit – 3.5
3–5
A typical cogeneration process diagram is shown in Exhibit – 3.6. This diagram shows figures for
a case when process steam is required at 60 psig (4.22 kg/cm2g). A non-condensing or back
pressure turbine is used, exhausting steam at 60 psig (4.22 kg/cm2g). The temperature entropy
diagram is similar to Exhibit 3.5 except that the bottom line is higher because less energy was
removed from the steam in the turbine. The energy supplied to the process is 850 Btu/lb (1112 –
262) [472 kcal/kg], eliminating the large loss in the condenser, and an actual plant efficiency in the
range of 72 percent.
TEMPERATURE – ENTROPY DIAGRAM FOR COGENERATION CYCLE
Exhaust
Losses
Mechanical
Generator
Inefficiency
Inefficiency
BOILER TURBINE GENERATOR Electricity
STM GOP
Process
CONDENSATE
Oil (2 ¼ BARRELS + 600 KWH + 8,500 STEAM)

NET HEAT RATE + 4,500 BTU/KWH (1,134
KCAL/KWH)
T-S (IDEAL)
TEMPERATURE
Boiler out
(1463)
Turbine Out
Condenser in
(1112)
Condenser
Out (262)
ENTROPY
Exhibit – 3.6
3–6
3.2 COGENERATION PLANTS
Cogeneration systems can be combined with existing electrical generators and are ideal for
facilities, such as hospitals, hotels and large industrial plants that are in continuous 24-hour
operation, requiring a constant use for the waste heat.
The efficiency and cost-effectiveness of cogeneration systems certainly make them very appealing
to companies with large facilities and high operating costs; however, they are not suitable for use
everywhere. There are some mechanical systems that lend themselves more to the products of
cogenerating than others.
Furthermore, since a cogeneration system is integrated into the facility's general operations, it must
be compatible with the existing systems, i.e. the thermal and power loads should balance and the
personnel should be capable of operating and maintaining the system.
Effective cogeneration relies on a balance between the amounts of primary fuel consumed and
waste heat produced; the ideal ratio is one kilowatt of primary fuel for every two kilowatts of waste
heat. When such a balance exists, a co-generation scheme will be able to very effectively and
efficiently meet the energy needs of a facility with an overall thermal efficiency of about 80%.
3.3 COMPONENTS OF A COGENERATION SYSTEM
The basic components of the cogeneration plant are:
 Prime Mover,
 Electric Generator,
 Waste Heat Recovery System.
 Control Systems,
 Electrical and Thermal Transmission and Distribution Systems,
 Connection to User’s Mechanical and Electrical Services.
3–7
The most important component in a cogeneration system is the prime mover, which converts fuel
energy to shaft energy. The conversion devices normally used are reciprocating internal
combustion engines, combustion gas turbines, expansion turbines and steam boiler-turbine
combinations.
Generators are available in a wide range of sizes, speeds and control options. Criteria influencing
the selection of alternating current (AC) generators for cogeneration systems are:
1) Machine efficiency at various loads;

2) Electrical load requirements;
3) Phase balance capabilities;
4) Equipment cost; and
5) Motor starting current requirements.
A variety of waste heat recovery equipment is available, depending on the quality and type of
waste heat to be utilized. These may range from low pressure steam distribution systems
recovering steam turbine exhaust to sophisticated heat recovery boilers generating steam from gas
turbine exhaust.
Controls for cogeneration systems are required for:
1) System output;
2) Safety;
3) Prime mover automation; and
4) Waste heat recovery and disposal.
Control system requirements vary from application to application; e.g. generators operating in
parallel with utility system grids have different control requirement than those operating isolated
from the utility grid.
3–8
3.4 TYPES OF COGENERATION TECHNOLOGY
A typical cogeneration system consists of an engine, steam turbine, or combustion turbine that
drives an electrical generator. A waste heat exchanger recovers waste heat from the engine and/or
exhaust gas to produce hot water or steam. Cogeneration produces a given amount of electric
power and process heat with 10% to 30% less fuel than it takes to produce the electricity and
process heat separately.
There are a number of different types of cogeneration technology. For many years, all cogeneration
installations were based on the use of conventional fuel fired boilers, with steam turbines as the
prime mover used for electricity generation. Two alternative configurations are possible: the so-
called “topping” cycle, in which steam is passed first through a back pressure turbine before going
to the thermal load, and the so-called “bottoming” cycle, in which the sequence of the two
components is reversed.
Topping Cycle
The topping cycle is far more common than the bottoming cycle. The latter may be associated with
either a boiler installation or a high temperature thermal process, such as a kiln or furnace, where
the high temperature exhaust gases are passed through a heat exchanger to generate steam. There
are currently a number of these projects associated with furnaces or kilns.
A topping cycle plant is a plant where electric generation is at the top or beginning of the cycle and
steam or other resulting thermal energy streams are sent to other process uses after the production
of electric. An example of a topping cycle is a steam boiler that sends steam to a steam turbine
electric generator with exhaust steam or extraction steam from the turbine being sent to a process
use. Another example is the use of a gas turbine generator used to produce electricity with the use
of a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to recover heat from the gas turbine exhaust for the
production of process steam. A typical topping cycle is illustrated in Exhibit – 3.7.
3–9
.
Exhibit – 3.7
Typical “Topping Cycle”
Of all the types of industrial cogeneration systems available today, only three have been
demonstrated through widespread use to be commercially ready and applicable to the specific
requirements of industry:
o Boiler/Steam Turbine,
o Combustion Turbine/Heat Recovery Boiler (and/or heat exchanger),
o Reciprocating Engine/Heat Recovery Boiler (and/or heat exchanger).
Exhibit 3.8 shows basic types of technologies suitable for topping cycle cogeneration.
3 – 10
Exhibit – 3.8
Types of Technologies for Topping Cycle
Systems diagrammed for topping cycle cogeneration are shown in Exhibit 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12 and
3.13.
Stack Losses
Economizer
Feed Water
Steam Turbine
AC
Fuel
Proces Steam
Boiler
Exhibit – 3.9
Boiler – Steam Turbine Cogeneration
3 – 11
Exhibit – 3.10
Gas Turbine – Heat Recovery Steam Generator Cogeneration System
Engine Fuel Air

Exhaust
Reciprocating
Engine
Heat Recovery
Unit Jacket
[High Temp.] Cooling
Pump
Heat Recovery
Unit
[Low Temp.]
Exhibit – 3.11
Reciprocation Engine Heat Recovery Cogeneration System
Stack Losses
Waste Heat
Recovery Unit
Steam
Fuel
Feed Water
Air
GAS ALTERNATORS
TURBINE Process Steam
Exhibit – 3.12
Combined-Cycle Cogeneration System with Exhaust Steam to Process
3 – 12
Exhibit – 3.13
Combined-Cycle Cogeneration with Condensing Turbine.
Bottoming Cycle
A bottoming cycle plant is a plant that recovers steam or heat from a process stream to produce
electricity. An example of a bottoming cycle (shown in Exhibit – 3.14) would be a case where
steam is produced for process use and exhausted from the process at a quality high enough to
supply a steam turbine generator for the production of electricity. Another example is heat
recovered from the discharge of a cement kiln or other process to make steam for electricity.
Exhibit – 3.14
Typical “Bottoming Cycle”
3 – 13
Bottoming cogeneration systems are used in processes generating large waste heat streams
temperatures of 250 oC and higher. Cement, steel, glass and chemical industries are possible
candidates for bottoming systems.
In a steam bottoming system (Exhibit – 3.15), the process exhaust gases are used to produce steam
in a heat recovery boiler. The steam is then expanded in a turbine to generate power. Recovery of
heat to generate electricity from cement plant clinker cooler gases is shown in Exhibit – 3.16.
Stack Losses
Steam Turbine
Waste Heat
Recovery Unit
Feed Water
Waste Heat
From Process
Condensor
Deaerator
Cooling Tower
Exhibit – 3.15
Bottoming Cycle Cogeneration System
Exhibit – 3.16
Bottoming Cycle – Heat Recovery from Cement Plant Clinker Cooler
3 – 14
In both cases (topping and bottoming cycles) the efficiency gains are reached by recovering heat
that would have normally been discarded or vented if it was not used for a second purpose of either
process use (topping cycle) or electricity generation (bottoming cycle).
Indicative temperature ranges for the two types of systems are given in Exhibit – 3.17:
Exhibit – 3.17
Indicative Temperature Ranges for Topping and Bottoming cogeneration systems
Typical cogeneration prime movers include:

 Combustion turbines
 Reciprocating engines
 Boilers with steam turbines
 Microturbines
 Fuel cells
3.5 COGENERATION CONFIGURATION
Topping cycle configurations are based on the type of prime movers utilized to meet a specific
power-to-heat ratio.
Exhibit 3.18 shows the characteristics of generally available prime movers with standard thermal
energy usage to enhance the overall thermal efficiency of the cogeneration systems. A comparison
has also been made of the overall energy utilization in the utility power plants with cogeneration
3 – 15
systems to indicate the immense potential of the latter wherever adequate thermal loads are
available.
Exhibit – 3.18
Typical Performance Characteristics of Various Types of Cogeneration Configurations
Steam turbines cover a wide range of heat-to-power ratios. Usable energy can be increased further
with very high efficiency boilers, using economizers and pre-heaters.
Gas turbine, in smaller sizes (between 800-1200 kWe) average 25% thermal efficiency while
larger (around 10 MWe) are more than 30% efficient. In both cases, heat recovery is very
attractive due to large volume and high temperature of exhaust stream. Also, supplemental firing
is possible to meet higher thermal load.
Diesel cycle based reciprocating engines convert energy content of fuel into electrical energy with
the highest thermal efficiency. Heat-to-power ratio is low compared other primovers. Thermal
energy available includes low temperature engine jacket water heat which should be properly
utilized to increase overall efficiency.
Various concepts or configurations using the CHP (cogeneration) process are outlined below
(Exhibit – 3.19):
3 – 16
Exhibit – 3.19
3.5.1 Steam Turbine Cycle
The main components of a steam turbine cycle are: the boiler with super-heater, the
turbine, the condenser and the feed water pump.
The water is vaporized in the boiler and later brought to the desired temperature in the
super-heater. This steam then is flowing through the turbine which drives the generator to
generate power. In the condenser the steam discharging from the turbine condenses and is
brought to process pressure with the help of the feed water pump. Afterwards the steam is
fed into a boiler whereby the cycle is closed.
As a cooling medium in the condenser usually river water or surrounding air will be used,
and the released condensation heat remains unused.
3 – 17
To use this waste heat there are a series of different configurations allowing the usage of
any incidental heat. It is crucial though that for using waste heat a higher pressure and
temperature level is required. Steam cycle is graphically presented in Exhibit – 3.20.
Exhibit – 3.20
Cogeneration with Steam Turbine Open Cycle
The power-to-heat ratio is basically dependent on the boiler steam generation condition
and the exhaust process steam pressure: the greater the steam enthalpy drop across the
turbine, the more power can be produced.
The steam cycle cogeneration system is the most flexible from the design point of view,
since almost any combination of turbine inlet (within practical and economical
metallurgical limits) and exhaust steam conditions can be utilized, by proper coordination
of boiler and turbine selection, to achieve the most economical combination.
Another advantage of steam cycle cogeneration is fuel flexibility. Standard high

efficiency boilers are available which are designed to operate on practically any fuel –
from oil and gas to poor quality coal and wood or any other industrial waste, including
city municipal refuse.
Waste heat from a steam turbine cycle can be recovered through two main types of
cogeneration plants:
3 – 18
 Steam cycle with a back pressure turbine

 Steam cycle with an extraction condensing turbine
Steam Cycle with Back Pressure Turbine
This configuration is presented in Exhibit – 3.21:
Exhibit – 3.21
In back pressure turbine the heat energy of exhaust steam from turbine is directly used by
a process through a heat exchanger. The condensed steam from heat exchanger is fed to
the steam generator again with the help of water preparation through a feed water pump.
This configuration is mostly used when a more or less constant amount of heat is
required.
Steam Cycle with Extraction – Condensing Turbine
Functionality this configuration is similar to that of a cycle with back pressure turbine
with the difference that here the extraction steam for heat generation is not taken from the
rear part but from the middle part of the turbine (Exhibit – 3.22). This has the advantage
that heat and power generation can be adjusted to the different requirements.
3 – 19
Exhibit – 3.22
With the help of valves the extraction pressure can be adjusted right at the extraction
point so that the required steam conditions for heat generation can also be kept when run
at part load. To meet the demands of high heat requirements all steam for heat generation
can be taken from the extraction point. For low heat requirements this type of turbine can
be used like a conventional condensing turbine.
Advantages and disadvantages of steam turbine cycle are discussed below:
Advantages
 Almost all fuel types can be used
 Technology is well proven
 There no limitation on the size of plants.
Disadvantages
 Electrical plant efficiency is low (electrical efficiency is 10 -20% and overall
efficiency is 70 -85%)
 Load performance is poor
 Operation is expansive.
3 – 20
3.5.2 Gas Turbine Cycle
The simple cycle gas turbine is a continuous combustor engine, comprising a power
section, gear box/coupling and accessories, including the starter, fuel control, combustion
air filtration system, and lubrication system. The power section includes the air
compressor, normally axial flow type of 8 to 12 stages and centrifugal type of 2 stages or
radial flow type of 2 stages, fuel combustor and multistage axial flow turbine.
The combustion air entering the turbine is first adiabatically compressed to about 10 to 11
atmospheres. The hot, compressed air passes through a constant pressure combustion
section where liquid or gaseous fuel is burned, heating the air which then expands through
the turbine wheels to provide shaft power. It should be noted that most of the gas turbine
shaft power (nearly two-thirds) is utilized to drive the air compressor and less than one-
third is available to drive an external device such as generator.
The performance of a gas turbine is directly proportional to the mass flow of the air going
through it. Because the gas turbine is a volume flow machine, the mast flow changes
directly as a function of the density of the air. Thus, as the altitude increases, the pressure
drops and performance of the gas turbine drops. The power loss is about 3.6% per
1000 ft. elevation change. Similarly, gas turbines loss power with increasing ambient
temperatures. A 4.4oC rise in ambient temperature can result in a 20% loss in power. The
answer to the above dearating is in combustion air inlet cooling. In most installations,
where as absorption chiller is part of the thermal load from the waste heat recovery, some
chilled water is used to cool the inlet air. If inlet cooling is not used, the exhaust gas heat
content drops primarily because of the reduced mass flow. Cooling the inlet air not only
increases the shaft power of the gas turbine but it also increases the thermal output.
The heat content of the gas turbine exhaust stream can be recovered in a waste heat
recovery boiler (WHRB) also known as heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). A typical
combustion gas turbine and waste heat recovery boiler configuration is shown in Exhibit
3.12. Process flow diagram of this system is presented as Exhibit – 3.23. Exhaust gases at
3 – 21
about 860-900 oF (in smaller gas turbine sizes) are cooled to about 300 oF to extract
useful heat. This is the minimum recommended temperature on the leaving side of WHRB
to avoid moisture condensation. Waste heat can produce direct sources of heat, high-
pressure steam, low-pressure steam or hot water. Due to the excess air in the combustor
for cooling purposes, the gas turbine exhaust stream has 16 - 17% oxygen and hence
supplemental firing can be used to meet higher thermal loads. High pressure steam (150
psig) (10.5 kg/cm2g) can also be used in what is known as a Cheng cycle to increase the
output of the gas turbine. High-pressure steam from WHRB is injected directly into the
turbine to produce additional horse-power and by varying the amount of the steam
injected, the power-to-heat ratio can be adjusted to more closely match the plant’s load
distribution throughout the day.
Exhibit – 3.23
Gas Turbine Cycle with Heat Recovery
This system has high fuel-to-power efficiencies and moderate-to-high exhaust gas
temperatures. Equipping the gas turbine with a waste heat recovery unit is a simple way to
achieve cogeneration and only involves a moderate initial investment. The recovered heat
can be used for the production of industrial process steam.
Cogeneration with this configuration is shown in Exhibit – 3.24.
3 – 22
Exhibit – 3.24
Gas Turbine based Cogeneration System
The configuration provides electrical efficiencies of 25 -35% and overall efficiencies of
70 – 90%. The system can use natural gas, petroleum oils and product of coal
gasification.
Cheng-Cycle (Steam Injected Gas Turbine, STIG)
The Cheng-Cycle (STIG-Cycle) offers another variant of the gas turbine cycle with
utilization of waste heat (Exhibit – 3.24A). The generated steam is partly fed into the
combustion chamber and the turbine. Thus output and electrical efficiency are
significantly increased. It also allows an adjustment to the heat requirements of the plant
so there can be more or less steam fed into the gas turbine according to the requirements.
Exhibit – 3.24A, Cheng Cycle
3 – 23
Cheng cycle can achieve electrical efficiencies of over 40% and overall efficiencies at 70
– 85%.
3.5.3 Reciprocating Engine – Waste Heat Recovery Boiler
The reciprocating engines used in cogeneration are internal combustion engines operating
on the same familiar principles as their petrol and diesel engine automotive counterparts.
Although conceptually the system differs very little from that of gas turbines, there are
important differences. Reciprocating engines give a higher electrical efficiency, but it is
more difficult to use the thermal energy they produce, since it is generally at lower
temperatures and is dispersed between exhaust gases and cooling systems.
The usable heat : power ratio range is normally in the range 0.5:1 to 2:1. However, as the
exhaust contains large amounts of excess air, supplementary firing is feasible, raising the
ratio to a maximum of 5:1.
Types of Reciprocating Internal Engine Cogeneration Systems

The system’s classification is based on the internal combustion engine cycle:
 Otto cycle, and
 Diesel cycle.
In an Otto engine, a mixture of air and fuel is compressed in each cylinder and the
ignition is caused by an externally supplied spark. In a Diesel engine, only air is
compressed in the cylinder and the fuel, which is injected in the cylinder towards the end
of the compression stroke, ignites spontaneously due to the high temperature of the
compressed air.
Otto engines can operate on a broad range of fuels such as gasoline, natural gas, propane,
sewage plant gas, landfill methane. They are often called “gas engines”, if they use
gaseous fuel. Diesel engines operate on higher pressure and temperature levels, and for
3 – 24
this reason heavier fuels are used: Diesel oil, fuel oil and, in large two-stroke engines,
residual fuel oil.
Another classification of the cogeneration system is based on the size of the engine:
 Small units with a gas engine (15 – 1000 kW) or Diesel engine (75 – 1000 kW).
 Medium power systems (1 – 6 MW) with gas engine or Diesel engine.
 High power systems (higher than 6 MW) with Diesel engine.
Gas engines of the following types are commercially available.

 Gasoline engines of cars, converted to gas: Usually, they are small engines (15 –
30 kW), light, with high power to weight ratio. The conversion has a rather small
effect on efficiency, but it decreases the power output by about 18%. Mass
production results in low cost of the engines, but their life cycle is relatively
short (10000 – 30000 hours).
 Diesel engines of cars, converted to gas: Their power is up to about 200 kW.
Conversion is necessary on pistons, cylinder heads and valve mechanism, which
are imposed by the fact that ignition will be effected not by compression only but
by a spark. Conversion usually does not cause power reduction, because it is
possible to adjust the excess air properly.
 Stationary engines converted to gas or originally designed and built as gas
engines: They are heavy duty engines manufactured for industrial or marine
applications. The power output reaches 3000 kW. Their robustness increases the
initial cost, but reduces maintenance needs and prolongs the life cycle (15 - 20
years). They are capable of running continuously at high load.
 Dual-fuel stationary engines: They are Diesel engines with a power output of up
to 6000 kW. Natural gas is the main fuel, which is ignited not by a spark, but by
injection of Diesel oil towards the end of the compression stroke. Of the total
fuel energy required, about 90% is provided by the natural gas and 10% by the
Diesel oil. They also can have the capability to operate either with the
aforementioned dual fuel or with Diesel oil only, which, of course, increases the
capital and maintenance cost.
3 – 25
As with the gas turbines, exhaust gases of reciprocating internal combustion engines can
be used either directly in thermal processes or indirectly, e.g. through a heat recovery
boiler. Their temperature is in the range of 300 - 400C, i.e. significantly lower than that
of gas turbines. This is why additional heating may more often be necessary with these
engines. It can be obtained either by supplementary firing in the exhaust gas boiler
(supply of air is necessary, because there is no significant oxygen content in the exhaust
gases) or by an auxiliary boiler. Large engines may make the combined cycle
economically feasible.
Exhibit – 3.25 illustrates a more or less all-inclusive flow diagram of such a system,
without being the only possible configuration (in particular with respect to the
arrangement of heat exchangers). The engine drives the generator. Four heat exchangers
recover heat from fluids necessary for the operation of the engine: lubricating oil cooler,
jacket water cooler (closed circuit of the engine), charge air cooler, and exhaust gas heat
exchanger (or boiler). The recovered heat produces hot water and steam, as in Exhibit –
3.25, or it may be used for other thermal processes. In small engines, the available heat
may not be sufficient to make steam production feasible; in such a case only hot water is
delivered. On the other hand, in a naturally aspirated engine there is no charge air cooler.
With heat recovery from the three coolers, water is heated up to 75 - 80C. The pre-
heated water enters the exhaust gas heat exchanger where it is heated up to 85 - 95C, or
it is evaporated. Medium size engines usually produce saturated steam of 180 - 200C,
while large units can deliver superheated steam at pressure 15 – 20 bar and temperature
250 - 350C. The minimum exhaust gas temperature at the exit of the heat exchanger is
160 - 170C for fuels containing sulphur, like Diesel oil, or 90 - 100C for sulphur-free
fuels like natural gas.
3 – 26
Exhibit – 3.25
Cogeneration System with Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine
Normally, engines are available either with natural aspiration or with turbo-charging,
though large engines are recommended to be of the latter type to allow higher engine
output with a consequent increase in efficiency.
To raise the quality of waste heat from the engine jacket cooling circuit, some engines are
designed to run hotter and produce low pressure steam in ebullient cooling systems.
Thermal energy utilization in such cogeneration systems can be increased, since the
engine cooling loop, together with a waste heat recovery boiler on the exhaust, can supply
a higher quantity of low pressure steam.
3 – 27
Exhibit – 3.11 shows typical configurations with waste heat recovery, covering both
engine cooling water and engine exhaust recovery. Gas engines, with typical 35%
efficiency for shaft power, reject about 30% of the input fuel energy to the engine cooling
water and about 30% to the exhaust gas, with about 5% of the input energy lost through
radiation, etc. Typical large diesel cycle engines, with 44% efficiency for shaft power,
reject about 27% of the input fuel energy to the engine cooling water and about 20% to
the exhaust gas, with about 9% lost through radiation, friction, etc.
A good heat recovery system can recovery almost all the engine cooling water energy and
more than half the exhaust energy, resulting in an overall thermal efficiency well above
80%.
The following are among the most common applications for the thermal energy produced
by reciprocating engines:
 Production of up to 15 bar steam utilizing the heat of exhaust gases and separate
production of hot water at 85 - 90oC from the cooling system of the engine.
 Production of hot water at 90oC, supplementing the temperature of cooling

system water with heat from the gases.
 Exhaust fumes can be used directly in certain processes, such as drying, carbon
dioxide production, etc.
 Generation of hot air. All the residual energies from the engine can be used,
through the installation of suitable exchange devices, for the generation of hot
air.
Reciprocating machines by their nature have more moving parts, some of which wear
more rapidly than those in purely rotating machines, and have running as well as
shutdown maintenance requirements. Nevertheless, typical availability is about 90 - 96%.
Gas engines are operated under two distinct air/fuel ratio regimes that have a mark effect
upon environmental performance:
 Stoichiometric engines.
 Lean-burn engines.
3 – 28
NOx emissions can be reduced markedly by operating with large excess of combustion air
(lean-burn). However, this has an adverse effect upon the engine’s power output.
Stoichiometric engines tend to be smaller (typically <300 kWe) than their lean-burn
counterparts and are based upon standard vehicle engine blocks with adapted cylinder
heads and spark ignition systems.
3.5.4 Compression-Ignition (Diesel) Engine Cogeneration Systems
Compression-ignition engines for large-scale cogeneration are predominantly four-stroke

direct-injection machines fitted with turbochargers and intercoolers. Diesel engines will
accept gas oil, HFO and natural gas. The latter is in reality a dual-fuel mode, as a small
quantity of gas oil (about 5% of the total heat input) has to be injected with the gas to
ensure ignition; as the engine can also run on gas oil only it is suited to interruptible gas
supplies. Cooling systems are more complex than on spark-ignition engines and
temperatures are often lower, typically 85oC maximum, thereby limiting the scope for
heat recovery. Exhaust excess air levels are high and supplementary firing is practicable.
Compression-ignition engines run at speeds of between 500 and 1500 rev/min. In general,
engines up to about 500 kWe (and sometimes up to 2 MWe) are derivatives of the
original automotive diesels, operating on gas oil and running at the upper end of their
speed range. Engines from 500 kWe to 20 MWe evolved from marine diesels and are
dual-fuel or residual fuel oil machines running at medium to low speed.
3.5.5. Spark-Ignition Engines
Spark-ignition engines are derivatives of their diesel engine equivalents and have same
parameter equivalents as 90°C cooling water.
Traditionally, shaft efficiency has been lower than for compression ignition engines. The
output of a spark-ignition engine is a little smaller, typically 83% of the diesel engines.
3 – 29
They are suited to smaller, simpler cogeneration installations, often with cooling and
exhaust heat recovery cascaded together with a waste heat boiler providing medium or
low temperature hot water to site.
Spark-ignition engines operate on clean gaseous fuels, natural gas being the most popular.
Biogas and similar recovered gases are also used but, because of their lower calorific
value, output is reduced for a given engine size. Spark-ignition engines give up less heat
to the exhaust gases than diesel engines. The large lean-burn engines have typically 12%
oxygen in exhaust gases, and this can be used with supplementary firing.
3.5.6 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
A Rankine cycle is a closed circuit steam cycle. An "organic" Rankine cycle uses a heated
chemical fluid instead of steam as found in the Rankine Cycle. Chemicals used in the
Organic Rankine Cycle include freon, butane, propane, ammonia, and the new
environmentally-friendly refrigerants.
A refrigerant boils at a temperature below the temperature of frozen ice. Solar heat, for
example, of only 150 degrees Fahrenheit from a typical rooftop solar hot water heater,
will furiously boil a refrigerant. The resulting high-pressure refrigerant vapor is then
piped to an organic Rankine cycle engine.
Alternative means of waste heat recovery from process exhaust streams, especially in the
case of lower temperatures, cover the use of organic fluids in Rankine cycle. Using the
ORC, economical recovery of waste heat, at lower temperatures ranges (60 – 63oC),
provides more shaft power than can be supplied by using conventional steam systems.
The right organic fluid can enhance the energy conversion efficiency by matching the
ORC heat recovery cycle to the thermodynamic characteristics of the waste heat stream.
3 – 30
Efficiency and cost of ORC heat recovery systems depend to a large extent on the
following three major factors:
 Selection of the working fluid (Refrigerants, R-11, R-12, R-22, R-113 and R-114
have been used for low temperature applications, while fluids such as toluene
have been used for higher temperatures).
 Design of the turbine (fluid-specific turbine design is required).
 Design of the vaporizer/super heater (organic fluid allows higher heat recovery
efficiency).
Exhibit -3.26 shows an Organic Rankine cycle System based on low temperature heat
recovery. In this cycle, the organic working fluid is vaporized and superheated in an
exhaust stream heat recovery section. The superheated fluid is expanded through a
turbine for power generation, condensed in a water-cooled condenser and returned to the
vaporizer via feed pumps. ORC normally uses a regenerator to recover sensible heat from
the organic vapor leaving the turbine.
Stack Losses
Vaporizer
Superheater
Regenerator
Condensor
Waste Heat
Steam Turbine Cooling
Water
Organic Fluid
Condensing Turbine Hot Well
Organic Fluid
Pump
Exhibit – 3.26
Organic Rankine Cycle
3 – 31
PROCESSES OF THE RANKINE CYCLE
There are four processes in the Rankine cycle, each changing the state of the working
fluid. These states are identified by number in the diagram above.
 Process 4-1: First, the working fluid is pumped (ideally isentropically) from low
to high pressure by a pump. Pumping requires a power input (for example
mechanical or electrical).
 Process 1-2: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at
constant pressure by an external heat source to become a saturated vapor.
Common heat sources for power plant systems are coal (or other chemical
energy), natural gas, or nuclear power.
 Process 2-3: The superheated vapor expands through a turbine to generate

power output. Ideally, this expansion is isentropic. This decreases the
temperature and pressure of the vapor.
 Process 3-4: The vapor then enters a condenser where it is cooled to become a
saturated liquid. This liquid then re-enters the pump and the cycle repeats.
The exposed Rankine cycle can also prevent vapor overheating, which reduces the
amount of liquid condensed after the expansion in the turbine.
3 – 32
3.5.7 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Steam utilization for a vapor compression refrigeration cycle is carried out by having a
steam turbine operate a rotary compressor (either centrifugal or screw-type) to produce
the required refrigeration.
The vapor compression cycle consists of a mechanical compressor operated by shaft

power (electric water, or turbine or reciprocating engine drivers), which compresses the
refrigerant vapor (normally refrigerant R-11, R-22 or ammonia) to high-pressure, which
is then condensed at the condensing temperature by transfer of heat through water, in a
water-cooled condenser, or through air, in an air-cooled condenser. The liquefied
refrigerant at high-pressure is then throttled in the evaporator to a lower pressure, which
causes it to evaporate thus produce a refrigeration effect cooling the air either directly or
through an intermediate fluid in a chiller.
Exhibit 3.27 shows a cogeneration systems generating electrical power in a gas-turbine

operated plant, with a waste heat recovery boiler producing high-pressure steam to run
turbine for centrifugal refrigeration compressor of the chiller package. Utilization of
steam for winter heating requirements, domestic hot water supply, food service facilities,
laundries, hospital sterilization, etc., also results in a high thermal efficiency for the
cogeneration system.
3 – 33
Exhibit – 3.27
Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
 Point-1: Saturated Vapor enters the compressor.

 Point-2: Superheated Vapor enters the condenser.
 Point-3: Saturated Liquid enters the expansion valve.
 Point-4: Liquid – Vapor mixture enters the evaporator.
The system has the following processes involved:
 Stage 1 – 2: Isentropic compression in a compressor.

 Stage 2 – 3: Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser.
 Stage 3 – 4: Throttling in an expansion device.
 Stage 4 – 1: Constant pressure heat absorption in an evaporator.
3 – 34
3.5.8 Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
The absorption cycle is a process by which refrigeration effect is produced through the
use of two fluids and some quantity of heat input, rather than electrical input as in the
more familiar vapor compression cycle. Both vapor compression and absorption
refrigeration cycles accomplish the removal of heat through the evaporation of a
refrigerant at a low pressure and the rejection of heat through the condensation of the
refrigerant at a higher pressure. The method of creating the pressure difference and
circulating the refrigerant is the primary difference between the two cycles. The vapor
compression cycle employs a mechanical compressor to create the pressure differences
necessary to circulate the refrigerant. In the absorption system, a secondary fluid or
absorbent is used to circulate the refrigerant. Because the temperature requirements for
the cycle fall into the low-to-moderate temperature range, and there is significant potential
for electrical energy savings.
Absorption machines are commercially available today in two basic configurations. For
applications above 32oF [0oC] (primarily air conditioning), the cycle uses lithium bromide
as the absorbent and water as the refrigerant. For applications below 32oF (0oC), an
ammonia/water cycle is employed with ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the
absorbent.
LITHIUM BROMIDE(Li Br )/WATER CYCLE MACHINES

An absorption system works in one of two ways:
 Single-effect absorption refrigeration cycle

 Double-effect absorption refrigeration cycle
Single-Effect Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
As shown in Exhibit – 3.28 below, with a single-effect absorption refrigeration cycle, an

absorber, generator, pump and recuperative heat exchanger replace the compressor. The
cycle "begins" when high-pressure liquid refrigerant from the condenser passes through a
metering device (1) into the lower-pressure evaporator (2) and collects in the evaporator
pan or sump. The "flashing" that occurs at the entrance to the evaporator cools the
3 – 35
remaining liquid refrigerant. Similarly, the transfer of heat from the comparatively warm
system water to the now-cool refrigerant causes the latter to evaporate (2), and the
resulting refrigerant vapor migrates to the lower-pressure absorber (3).
Exhibit – 3.28
Single-Effect Lithium Bromide/Water Absorption Refrigeration
There, it is "soaked up" by an absorbent lithium-bromide solution. This process not only
creates a low-pressure area that draws a continuous flow of refrigerant vapor from the
evaporator to the absorber, but also causes the vapor to condense (3) as it releases the
heat of vaporization picked up in the evaporator. This heat—along with the heat of
dilution produced as the refrigerant condensate mixes with the absorbent—is transferred
to the cooling water and released in the cooling tower.
Assimilating refrigerant dilutes the lithium-bromide solution and reduces its affinity for
refrigerant vapor. To sustain the refrigeration cycle, the solution must be reconcentrated.
This is accomplished by constantly pumping (4) dilute solution from the absorber to the
generator (5), where the addition of heat boils the refrigerant from the absorbent. Once
the refrigerant is removed, the reconcentrated lithium-bromide solution returns to the
absorber, ready to resume the absorption process.
Meanwhile, the refrigerant vapor "liberated" in the generator migrates to the cooler
condenser (6). There, the refrigerant returns to its liquid state as the cooling water picks
3 – 36
up the heat of vaporization carried by the vapor. The liquid refrigerant's return to the
metering device (1) completes the cycle.
Double-Effect Absorption Refrigeration Cycle

The double-effect absorption refrigeration cycle (Exhibit – 3.29) takes absorption to the
next level. The easiest way to picture a double-effect cycle is to think of two single-effect
cycles stacked on top of each other. The cycle on top is driven either directly by a natural
gas or oil burner, or indirectly by steam. Heat is added to the generator of the topping
cycle (primary generator), which generates refrigerant vapor at a relatively higher
temperature and pressure. The vapor is then condensed at this higher temperature and
pressure and the heat of condensation is used to drive the generator of the bottoming cycle
(secondary generator), which is at a lower temperature.
Exhibit – 3.29
Double-Effect Lithium Bromide/Water Absorption Refrigeration
If the heat added to the generator is thought to be equivalent to the heat of condensation
of the refrigerant, it becomes clear where the efficiency improvement comes from. For
every unit of heat into the primary generator, two masses of refrigerant are boiled out of
3 – 37
solution, or generated: one in the primary generator and one in the secondary generator.
In a single-effect cycle only one mass is generated.
Therefore, in a double-effect system, twice the mass flow of refrigerant is sent through the
refrigerant loop per unit of heat input, so twice the cooling is delivered per unit of heat
input. Using this approach a double-effect system has a coefficient of performance (COP)
that is roughly twice that of a single-effect cycle. However, this simplifying assumption
does not account for cycle inefficiencies and losses. In actuality, a single-effect system
has a COP of about 0.65, and a double-effect system has a COP of about 1.0.
Exhibit – 3.29 shows a diagram of a typical lithium bromide/water machine (Li Br/H2O).
The process occurs in two vessels or shells. The upper shell contains the generator and
condenser; the lower shell, the absorber and evaporator. Heat supplied in the generator
section is added to a solution of Li Br/H2O. This heat causes the refrigerant, in this case
water, to be boiled out of the solution in a distillation process. The water vapor that
results passes into the condenser section where a cooling medium is used to condense the
vapor back to a liquid state. The water then flows down to the evaporator section where it
passes over tubes containing the fluid to be cooled. By maintaining a very low pressure in
the absorber-evaporator shell, the water boils at a very low temperature. This boiling
causes the water to absorb heat from the medium to be cooled, thus, lowering its
temperature. Evaporated water then passes into the absorber section where it is mixed
with a Li Br/H2O solution that is very low in water content. This strong solution (strong in
Li Br) tends to absorb the vapor from the evaporator section to form a weaker solution.
This is the absorption process that gives the cycle its name. The weak solution is then
pumped to the generator section to repeat the cycle.
As shown in Exhibit – 3.29, there are three fluid circuits that have external connections:
a) generator heat input,
b) cooling water, and
c) chilled water.
3 – 38
Associated with each of these circuits is a specific temperature at which the machines are
rated. For single-stage units (Exhibit – 3.28), these temperatures are : 0.84 kg/cm2 steam
(or equivalent hot water) entering the generator, 29.4oC cooling water, and 6.7oC leaving
chilled water (ASHRAE, 1983). Under these conditions, a coefficient of performance
(COP) of approximately 0.65 to 0.70 could be expected (ASHRAE, 1983). The COP can
be thought of as a sort of index of the efficiency of the machine. It is calculated by
dividing the cooling output by the required heat input. For example, a 500-ton absorption
chiller operating at a COP of 0.70 would require: (500 x 3022.7 kcal/hr) divided by 0.70
= 2,159,071 kcal/h heat input. This heat input suggests a flow of 4,092 kg/h of
0.84 kg/cm2 steam, or 277 m3/hr of 115.6oC water.
AMMONIA /WATER CYCLE MACHINES

Dalton's Law of partial pressures is the foundation of the principle of operation of one of
the absorption type refrigerating systems. The Law States:
“The total pressure of a confined mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures
of each of the gases in the mixture”.
For example, the total pressure of the air in a compressed air cylinder is the sum of the
oxygen, nitrogen, and the carbon dioxide gases, and the water vapor pressure.
The law further explains that each gas behaves as if it occupies the space alone. To
illustrate, when the absorption refrigerator uses two gases, ammonia and hydrogen. The
ammonia, at room temperature, is absorbed by the water in the closed system.
Heating this solution drives out the ammonia. (The hydrogen is not absorbed by the water
and remains as a gas.) Due to the pressure it is under, the ammonia condenses into a
liquid in the condenser. The pressure is uniform throughout the system. Total pressure in
the system is the sum of the vapor pressure of the ammonia plus the hydrogen pressure.
When the pressure of the ammonia vapor is below the pressure corresponding to the
vapor pressure for ammonia alone, the ammonia continues to evaporate. It tries to reach a
vapor pressure corresponding to the temperature in the absorber.
3 – 39
Most commercial and industrial refrigeration applications involve process temperatures of

less than 0oC and many are -17.8oC. As a result, the lithium bromide/water cycle is no
longer able to meet the requirements, because water is used for the refrigerant. As a result,
a fluid which is not subject to freezing at these temperatures is required. The most
common type of absorption cycle employed for these applications is the ammonia/water
cycle. In this case, water is the absorbent and ammonia is the refrigerant.
Anhydrous Ammonia (NH3) has been used for many years to perform all types of
refrigeration and air conditioning tasks. Anhydrous Ammonia means ammonia without
water, Aqua Ammonia is a solution of ammonia and water which is used in refrigeration
and air conditioners that are not a vapor compression type.
So
WARM
lar
environment
En
e rg
Rectifier Generator
y
Pure NH3
Condenser
NH3 + H2O
Expansion
Valve Regenerator
Refrigerator
Valve
Absorber
NH3 + H2O
Pure NH3
Evaporator
Pump
Cooling Water
COLD
Refrigerated
Space
Exhibit -3.30
Typical Ammonia/Water Absorption Refrigeration System
Exhibit - 3.30 illustrates a typical ammonia/water absorption refrigeration system using

solar energy. Ammonia vapor passes through the condenser, expansion valve, and
evaporator. In the absorber it reacts with and is absorbed by the water in an exothermic
3 – 40
reaction. Heat is removed with cooling water. The solution is pumped to the regenerator,
increasing the pressure. Heat is added in the regenerator, and ammonia and a little water
vaporizes. Ammonia and water vapor are separated in the rectifier. Ammonia goes to the
condenser & water is returned to the regenerator. Hot liquid solution goes through a
regenerator, where some heat is transferred to the liquid leaving the pump. The now
somewhat cooler liquid goes through an expansion valve, taking it to a lower pressure and
temperature. Any type of heat source like: waste heat (cogeneration), solar energy, steam,
gas, oil, propane, kerosene, LPG, and biogas can be employed.
Exhibit – 3.31
Industrial Ammonia Absorption Refrigeration Plant
Operation of the refrigeration cycle is conventional with high pressure liquid entering the
liquid receiver from the condenser before passing to the evaporator where heat is
absorbed from the process. The remaining items in the system replace the conventional
compressor to achieve “thermal” compression in three steps.
3 – 41
1. Absorption of the ammonia vapor in a weak ammonia/water solution at

evaporation pressure.
2. Transport of the strong ammonia water solution from evaporator pressure to
condenser pressure.
3. Removal of the ammonia from the ammonia-water solution (Desorption) at
condenser pressure, together with the purification of the ammonia by heat
energy.
High pressure ammonia leaving the fractionator column passes to the condenser for the
cycle to continue. It is important to note that the system must maintain a thermal balance
with total heat input balancing with the total heat rejected. This provides a simple check
on the plant, as a variation would indicate a design error.
A description of each component in the plant follows:

a. A conventional evaporative condenser is used which in fact is slightly smaller than
for a conventional plant. Ammonia vapor leaving the fractionator column is not
highly superheated which allows the condenser to operate without the need for
desuperheating.
b. The liquid receiver is conventional providing for variations in refrigerant volume
flowing in the system.
c. A plate heat exchanger is used for glycol chilling duties as in a conventional plant.
d. The suction liquid heat exchanger E3 provides subcooling of the liquid and
superheating of the suction gas. This heat exchanger is particularly important to
improve the overall plant efficiency. The effect of a highly superheated gas at the
absorber is not critical.
e. The absorber is a critical plant item allowing the ammonia vapor to be absorbed into
an ammonia water solution. It is a combined heat and mass transfer problem where a
considerable quantity of heat is liberated which must be rejected to the ambient air or
a cooling water system. Careful design of the absorber is important and thin film
techniques over a tube bundle are normal to handle the large differences in flow
volumes between the ammonia vapor and the ammonia water solution.
3 – 42
Evaporating pressure is set by the absorber and if it fails to reject the required heat of
solution under maximum operating conditions, then evaporator pressure and
temperature will rise accordingly.
Total heat rejected by the absorber is much greater than for the evaporator duty and
this depends to some extent on the COP of the plant. Typically it can be over twice as
much as the evaporating duty.
f. The absorbate receiver collects the strong ammonia water solution from the absorber
for pumping.
g. A positive displacement pump or a high head centrifugal pump is used to lift the
ammonia water solution from evaporator pressure to condenser pressure. The power
required for this pump is only small as the volume flows are relatively low for the
system. For industrial plants, the power consumed is negligible and can be minimized
by optimization of the plant design.
h. The Aqua Heat Exchanger E1 reduces the temperature of the ammonia water mixture
from the fractionator column and preheats the feed to the column. This heat
exchanger is also important to increase the overall cycle efficiency.
In addition, for the absorber to work at peak efficiency, the weak ammonia-water
solution must be as cool as possible.
Heat exchanger E2 removes heat from the steam condensate to add further heat to the
column feed.
i. The fractionator column accepts the preheated feed from the Aqua-Heat Exchanger,
where some desorption of the ammonia and water vapor occurs. It is divided into two
sections each containing a fill material to aid the distillation process. The rectifying
section is above the feed point and the stripping section is below the feed. Liquid
ammonia from the receiver is introduced as reflux into the top of the column to allow
the ammonia vapor to be purified with a residual water content of 100 ppm or less.
Reflux adds to the quantity of heat required for the column and must be kept to a
minimum, consistent with maintaining an acceptable vapor quality at the outlet. All
liquid ammonia introduced as reflux must be evaporated by heat from the reboiler.
To offset the amount of heat for the reboiler a cold reflux from the absorbate pump
can be used. This improves the heat ratio of the plant.
3 – 43
In the stripping section, ammonia is stripped from the ammonia-water solution, as it

contacts ammonia and water vapour rising from the base of the column. The stripped
solution is not allowed to mix with the weak ammonia-water solution in the base of
the column, as a mixture would necessitate a higher column temperature. Instead, the
stripped solution passes to the reboiler (desorber) where heat (waste heat or steam) is
added to drive the process.
A considerable difference in temperature occurs over the column length with the
highest temperature at the base, falling to condensing temperature at the top of the
column. This fact allows heat to be introduced into the column at various levels, if
desired.
At the base of the column a weak ammonia-water solution is collected before passing
to the Aqua-Heat Exchanger and absorber for re-use.
j. The reboiler accepts the stripped ammonia-water solution from the column and adds
heat to drive the ammonia from the water.
It is possible to pump the ammonia-water solution through the reboiler, but this only
adds unnecessary complications to the circuit.
During the heating process, some water vapour is driven off with the ammonia and
this is why it is important for the fractionator column to remove as much moisture as
possible using well designed reflux for the column.
3.5.9 Piggy-Back Combination Refrigeration Cycle
In installations requiring a large refrigeration load for low temperature chilled water
applications, the cogeneration system may be used to produce refrigeration with both
shaft power and heat utilization in a cycle known as a piggy-back arrangement.
Exhibit 3.32 shows a piggy-back combination refrigeration cycle in which a high-

pressure boiler supplies steam to steam turbine for production of shaft power, which is
utilized to operate the compressor of a centrifugal water chiller. The back pressure from
steam turbine (about 15 psig) in then fed to the generator section of an absorption water
chiller.
3 – 44
Back Pressure
Steam Steam Turbine Centrifugal
Chiller
Steam
Generator
Boiler Feed
Water Absorption
Fuel Chiller
Condensate
Return
Exhibit – 3.32
Piggy-Back Cogeneration Refrigeration System
3.5.10 Combined Cycle
Combined cycle is a term used when a power producing engine or plant employs more
than one thermodynamic cycle. Heat engines are only able to use a portion of the energy
their fuel generates (usually less than 30%). The remaining heat from combustion is
generally wasted. Combining two or more "cycles" such as the Brayton cycle (gas
turbine) and Rankine cycle (steam turbine) results in improved overall efficiency.
In a combined cycle power plant (CCPP), or combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant, a
gas turbine generator generates electricity and the waste heat from the gas turbine is used
to make steam to generate additional electricity via a steam turbine; this last step enhances
the efficiency of electricity generation. Most new gas power plants are of this type. In a
thermal power plant, high-temperature heat as input to the power plant, usually from
burning of fuel, is converted to electricity as one of the outputs and low-temperature heat
as another output. As a rule, in order to achieve high efficiency, the temperature of the
input heat should be as high as possible and the temperature of the output heat as low as
possible. This is achieved by combining the Rankine (steam) and Brayton (gas)
thermodynamic cycles.
3 – 45
In those industrial plants where there is a considerable demand of electrical energy and
very small, demand of heat, conventional thermal power plants with boilers and
condensing steam turbines are not the only alternative available. Where it is possible to
use gas turbines to generate electrical power in a topping cogeneration cycle, the high
temperature exhaust stream thermal energy can be recovered in a waste heat recovery
boiler to produce high-pressure steam which can operate a steam turbine to increase the
electrical power generator in a combination of gas turbine/ steam turbine operation,
commonly known as a combined cycle.
Exhibit – 3.33 shows a typical combined-cycle configuration with an extraction-

condensing steam turbine to meet low pressure steam requirements of the industry for
higher thermal efficiency.
Exhibit – 3.33
Combined Cycle System
In a steam power plant water is the working medium. In this case high pressure has to be
employed which leads to bulky components. High cost of special alloys that endure high
temperature limit practical steam temperature to 655°C. For compact gas turbines this
limitation does not apply and gas cycle firing temperature in excess of 1,200°C is
practicable. In the combined cycle plant the thermodynamic working cycle is operated
3 – 46
between the high firing temperature and the ambient temperature at which low
temperature waste heat can be disposed.
In a gas turbine set, composed primarily of a compressor, burner and the gas turbine
proper, the input temperature to the gas turbine is relatively high (some 900°C to
1,350°C) but the output temperature of the flue gas is also relatively high (some 450°C to
650°C). Flue gas temperature is sufficient for production of steam in the second, steam
cycle (Rankine cycle), with live steam temperature in the range of 420°C to 580°C. The
lowest temperature of the steam cycle depends on the ambient temperature and the
method of waste heat disposal, either by direct cooling by lake, river or sea water, or
using cooling towers. Therefore, by combining both processes, high input temperatures
and low output temperatures can be achieved and the power plant efficiency can be
increased.
The output heat of the gas turbine flue gas is utilized to generate steam by passing it
through a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) and therefore is used as input heat to the
steam turbine power plant.
A combined-cycle gas turbine power plant consists of one or more gas turbine generators
equipped with heat recovery steam generators to capture heat from the gas turbine
exhaust. Steam produced in the heat recovery steam generators powers a steam turbine
generator to produce additional electric power. Use of the otherwise wasted heat in the
turbine exhaust gas results in high thermal efficiency compared to other combustion-
based technologies. Combined-cycle plants currently entering service can convert about
50 percent of the chemical energy of natural gas into electricity (HHV basis).
Additional efficiency can be gained in combined heat and power (CHP) applications
(cogeneration), by bleeding steam from the steam generator, steam turbine or turbine
exhaust to serve direct thermal loads.
3 – 47
A single-train combined-cycle plant consists of one gas turbine generator, a heat recovery
steam generator (HSRG) and a steam turbine generator (“1 x 1” configuration). Using gas
combustion turbines - the most common technology in use for large combined-cycle
plants - this configuration can produce about 270 megawatts of capacity at reference ISO
conditions. Increasingly common are plants using two or even three gas turbine generators
and heat recovery steam generators feeding a single, proportionally larger steam turbine
generator. Larger plant sizes result in economies of scale for construction and operation,
and designs using multiple combustion turbines provide improved part-load efficiency. A
2 x 1 configuration will produce about 540 megawatts of capacity at ISO conditions.
Other plant components include a switchyard for electrical interconnection, cooling
towers for cooling the steam turbine condenser, a water treatment facility and control and
maintenance facilities.
Additional peaking capacity can be obtained by use of various power augmentation

features, including inlet air chilling and duct firing (direct combustion of natural gas in the
heat recovery steam generator). For example, an additional 20 to 50 megawatts can be
gained from a single-train plant by use of duct firing. Though the incremental thermal
efficiency of duct firing is lower than that of the base combined-cycle plant, the
incremental cost is low and the additional electrical output can be valuable during peak
load periods.
3.5.11 Trigeneration
Trigeneration produces three energies (cooling, heating and power) for the price of one, is
about 90% efficient, 300% more efficient than electricity generated from central power
plants. This makes trigeneration the cleanest, most environmentally friendly, and least
cost method to generate electricity using any fossil fuel (i.e. natural gas) or renewable fuel
such as biomethane, biodiesel or ethanol. Compared with electricity generated from
electric utilities central power plants, trigeneration power plants have significantly fewer
emissions, provide dramatically lower power/energy expenses, and may provide a return
on investment in less than 36 months for commercial, industrial and utility customers.
3 – 48
Trigeneration, when compared to (combined-cycle) cogeneration, may be up to 50% more

efficient than cogeneration.
A trigeneration plant is most often described as a cogeneration plant that has added
absorption chillers - which takes the "waste heat" a cogeneration plant would have
"wasted," and converts this "free energy" that would have been wasted by cogeneration,
into useful energy in the form of chilled water. The trigeneration energy process
produces four different forms of energy from the primary energy source, namely, hot
water, steam, cooling (chilled water) and power generation (electrical energy).
Trigeneration has also been referred to as CHCP (combined heating, cooling and power
generation), this option allows having greater operational flexibility at sites with demand
for energy in the form of heating as well as cooling. This is particularly relevant in
tropical countries where buildings need to be air-conditioned and many industries require
process cooling. A typical commercial application of trigeneration is indicated in Exhibit
– 3.34.
Exhibit – 3.34
Commercial Use of Trigeneration
3 – 49
3.5.12 Micro turbines
Micro turbines are small combustion turbines, approximately the size of a refrigerator,
with outputs of 25-500 kW. They evolved from automotive and truck turbochargers,
auxiliary power units for airplanes, and small jet engines and are composed of a
compressor, a combustor, a turbine, an alternator, a recuperator, and a generator.
Micro turbines offer a number of potential advantages over other technologies for small-
scale power generation. These include their small number of moving parts, compact size,
light weight, greater efficiency, lower emissions, lower electricity costs, and ability to use
waste fuels. They can be located on sites with space limitations for the production of
power, and waste heat recovery can be used to achieve efficiencies of more than 80%.
The machines generally rotate at more than 40,000 rpm. Bearing selection, whether the
manufacturer uses oil or air, is dependent on use. Exhibits 3.35 and 3.36 present micro
turbine process flow diagram and details, respectively.
Exhibit – 3.35, Micro turbine, Flow diagram
3 – 50
Exhibit – 3.36, Micro turbine, Details
Micro turbines can be classified as simple-cycle or recuperated. In simple-cycle, or

unrecuperated turbines, compressed air is mixed with fuel and burned under constant
pressure. The resulting hot gas is allowed to expand through a turbine to perform work.
Simple-cycle micro turbines have lower cost, higher reliability, and more heat available
for cogeneration applications than recuperated units. Recuperated units use a sheet metal
heat exchanger that recovers some of the heat from an exhaust stream and transfers it to
the incoming air stream. The preheated air is then used in the combustion process. If the
air is preheated, less fuel is necessary to raise its temperature to the required level at the
turbine inlet. Recuperated units have a higher thermal-to-electric ratio than unrecuperated
units and can produce 30%-40% fuel savings.
Micro turbine Efficiency
Configuration Efficiency
Unrecuperated 15%
Recuperated 20-30%
With Heat Recovery Up to 85%
They produce both heat and electricity on a relatively small scale. The fuel-energy-to-
electrical-conversion efficiencies are in the range of 20 to 30%. These efficiencies are
attained when using a recuperator (a device that captures waste heat to improve the
3 – 51
efficiency of the compressor stage). Cogeneration is an option in many cases as a micro

turbine is located at the point-of-power utilization. The combined thermal electrical
efficiency of micro turbines in such cogeneration applications can reach as high as 85%
depending on the heat process requirements. Unrecuperated micro turbines have lower
electrical efficiencies at around 15%.
Schematic diagram of micro turbine system is presented in Exhibit – 3.37
Exhibit – 3.37, Micro Turbine System
3.5.13 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)
The utilization of coal in present technologies produces some undesirable emissions.

These include oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulate emissions and greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide. There is strong incentive to reduce these emissions and improve
fuel efficiency of coal utilization technologies.
3 – 52
To address these challenges, new coal utilization technologies are being developed. One
of the more promising of these is the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)
system for use in power generation (Exhibit – 3.38).
Exhibit – 3.38, IGCC (Source: “Coal 21” & IHI, Japan)
IGCC is a combination of two leading technologies. The first technology is called coal
gasification, which uses coal to create a clean-burning gas (syngas). The second
technology is called combined-cycle, which is the most efficient method of producing
electricity commercially available today.
 Coal Gasification:
The gasification portion of the IGCC plant produces a clean coal gas (syngas)
which fuels the combustion turbine. Coal is combined with oxygen in the gasifier
to produce the gaseous fuel, mainly hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The gas is
then cleaned by a gas cleanup process. After cleaning, the coal gas is used in the
combustion turbine to produce electricity.
 Combined-cycle:
This design consists of a combustion turbine/generator, a heat recovery steam
generator, and a steam turbine/generator. The exhaust heat from the combustion
turbine is recovered in the heat recovery steam generator to produce steam. This
3 – 53
steam then passes through a steam turbine to power another generator, which
produces more electricity. Combined cycle is more efficient than conventional
power generating systems because it re-uses waste heat to produce more
electricity.
The integration of these technologies provides the high efficiency of the combined-cycle
design with the low cost of coal for fuel.
3.5.14 Fuel Cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. It produces electricity from

external supplies of fuel (on the anode side) and oxidant (on the cathode side). They react
in the presence of an electrolyte. Generally, the reactants flow in and reaction products
flow out while the electrolyte remains in the cell. Fuel cells can operate virtually
continuously as long as the necessary flows are maintained.
Fuel cells differ from batteries in that they consume reactants, which must be replenished,
while batteries store electrical energy chemically in a closed system. Additionally, while
the electrodes within a battery react and change as a battery is charged or discharged, a
fuel cell's electrodes are catalytic and relatively stable.
Many combinations of fuel and oxidant are possible. A hydrogen cell uses hydrogen as
fuel and oxygen as oxidant. Other fuels include hydrocarbons and alcohols. Other
oxidants include air, chlorine and chlorine dioxide.
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into
protons and electrons. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode,
but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the
membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with
3 – 54
the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water.
In this example, the only waste product is water vapor and/or liquid water.
Exhibit – 3.39, Fuel Cell
The construction of the Low temperature fuel cell PEMFC is presented in Exhibit – 3.39:
In addition to pure hydrogen, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel,
methanol and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon
dioxide and water.
The efficiency of a fuel is very dependent on the current through the fuel cell; as a general
rule, the more current drawn, the lower the efficiency. A cell running at 0.6V has an
efficiency of about 50%, meaning that 50% of the available energy content of the
hydrogen is converted into electrical energy; the remaining 50% will be converted into
heat. For a hydrogen cell the second thermodynamic law efficiency is equal to cell voltage
divided by 1.23, when operating at standard conditions.This voltage varies with fuel used,
3 – 55
and quality and temperature of the cell. The difference between enthalpy and Gibbs free
energy (that cannot be recovered) will also appear as heat.
For a fuel cell operated on air (rather than bottled oxygen), losses due to the air supply
system must also be taken into account. This refers to the pressurization of the air and
adding moisture to it. This reduces the efficiency significantly and brings it near to the
efficiency of a compression ignition engine.
Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, such as stand-alone
power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are
combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system. The
overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known
as round-trip efficiency) is between 30 and 50%, depending on conditions. While a much
cheaper lead-acid battery might return about 90%, the electrolyzer/fuel cell system can
store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore better suited for long-term
storage.
Solid-oxide fuel cells produce exothermic heat from the recombination of the oxygen and
hydrogen. The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured
and used to heat water in a combined heat and power (CHP) application. When the heat is
captured, total efficiency can reach 80-90%. CHP units are being developed today for the
European home market.
A new application is micro combined heat and power, which is cogeneration for family
home, office buildings and factories. This type of system generates constant electric
power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same
time produce hot air and water from the waste heat. A lower fuel-to-electricity conversion
efficiency is tolerated (typically 15-20%), because most of the energy not converted into
electricity is utilized as heat. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas just as in a normal
furnace, so the combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically
around 80%. In terms of energy however, the process is inefficient, and one could do
3 – 56
better by maximizing the electricity generated and then using the electricity to drive a heat
pump. Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP
products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 80% (45-50% electric
+ remainder as thermal).
However, since electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on
external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural
areas being one example. In this application, batteries would have to be largely oversized
to meet the storage demand, but fuel cells only need a larger storage unit (typically
cheaper than an electrochemical device)
3.6 EFFECT OF POWER-TO-HEAT RATIO
When considering the power-to-heat ratio, one must select the optimal energy-conservation system
(ECS) for the particular plant. In sizing the system one must typically select either a power or a
heat match. Ideally, the heat and power requirements should be at the same match point for a
particular system, but this is never really the case. For this reason, it must be decided whether to
use auxiliary boiler and sell electricity (Exhibit - 3.40) or to sell excess heat and buy electricity
(Exhibit - 3.41). For the conditions presently existing in Pakistan, selling heat or occasional
electricity are not possible. The closer a cogeneration system can match the power-to-heat ratio of
an application, the more financially attractive that system will be.
Exhibit 3.42 plot the fuel energy saving ratio (FESR) values for various cogeneration systems
versus the power-to-heat ratio attainable. Also shown is the maximum FESR that could be achieve
by a cogeneration system with a heat rate of 860 kcal/kWh. This figure is useful in choosing the
postulated cogeneration system to meet specific plant needs. For example, suppose that the power-
to-heat ratio for a plant is 0.2 (about 238 kWh per million kcal of process heat). Exhibit 3.41
shows that a steam turbine system can produce this ratio at an FESR of about 17 percent.
Alternatively, a closed cycle turbine could be selected and excess electricity sold (if possible).
Since a closed cycle turbine operates with a power-to-heat ratio of 0.4 to 1.4, the amount of
3 – 57
electricity that must be sold would be at least twice that consumed on-site if the system were sized
to meet process heat needs.
Cogeneration Sizing Option : Excess Electricity
ECS
Characteristics
Mach heat
Sell
electricity
Power
Required Power
Auxiliary Process
boiler heat requirement
Required
Heat
Increasing ECS
size
Heat
Exhibit – 3.40
Cogeneration Sizing Option : Excess Heat
Required
Heat
Process
requirement Excess heat
Required
Power
Power `
x
Buy
electricity
Increasi Mach heat

ng ECS
size
ECS
Characteristics
Heat
Exhibit - 3.41
3 – 58
Cogeneration System Selection to Meet Specific Plant Needs
0.6
s
ving
rg y Sa
En e
el –
l Fu
ima
0.5 Ma x
Combined
0.4 Cycles
FESR
Combustion
0.3
Turbine
Diesels
0.2
0.1
Closed-cycle
turbines
0
1.0 2.0 3.0
Power-Heat Ratio
Exhibit - 3.42
3.6.1 High-Power-to-heat Ratio
For a high power-to-heat ratio, the topping cycle should have greater emphasis on shaft
power conversion efficiency and hence a reciprocating engine as a primover would be
indicated. With this configuration, the general range of power-to-heat ratio is expected to
be around 1,958 – 2,382 kWh per million kcal of process steam (a ratio of 1.5 to 2). The
high power-to-heat ratio could be used in installations where full utilization of waste heat
recovery is made for maximum steam generation with supplemental firing for the balance
steam requirements. Large furnace oil diesel cycle engines (standard range 1500 HP unto
30,000 HP) have become popular for power generation in various industries, notably
textile, cement, and chemical, and allow attractive cogeneration possibilities with the use
of low pressure steam for processes. Gas engines, available also in smaller sizes, can
generally optimize energy-conservation in commercial applications to service either a
3 – 59
heat load for the kitchen and laundry or a cooling load with absorption chillers for air-
conditioning. Advantage can also be taken of the larger power-to-heat ratio of this cycle
by utilizing shaft power to operate centrifugal chillers and utilize waste heat for
absorption chillers in order to attain a very high energy-conservation system for large
central air-conditioning requirements.
3.6.2 Medium Power-to-heat Ratio
For medium power-to-heat ratios, gas turbines are used as prime movers with waste heat
recovery boilers for the production of steam. Since gas turbines are inherently low-
efficiency engines (smaller turbines normally being only 25% efficient) considerable
waste heat is available in the exhaust steam. With the topping cycle configurations
described earlier, a general range of power-to-heat ratio of around 476 – 596 kWh per
million kcal of pressure steam (a ratio of 0.4 to 0.5) can be expected.
Gas turbines, with direct heat or with waste heat recovery boiler configurations, meet heat
requirements in adequate quantities for many processes in the industrial sector. In
warmer climates, they may provide correct heat balance for medium and large central air-
conditioning systems, especially for hospitals, hotels, and airport terminals, where
services are required on a 24-hour basis throughout the year.
3.6.3 Low Power-to-heat Ratio
For very large thermal loads in relation to power requirements, or low power-to-heat
ratio, a steam turbine supplied with medium-and high-pressure steam from the boilers
provides the most flexible ratios since both the inlet steam conditions and turbine
efficiency can be varied to get the most economical combination for the desired steam
load. Thus, the general range of power-to-heat ratio for steam turbine systems with back
pressure/extraction design could be between 119 to 318 kWh per million kcal of process
3 – 60
steam (power-to-heat ratio 0.1 to 0.3), with a lot of flexibility in the design approach to
suit varied requirement for cogeneration. Examples are petroleum refinery with steam
requirements at different pressures or in commercial applications with large thermal loads
as in hot or very cold weathers for building air-conditioning or heating requirements.
Other services like sterilization requirements in hospitals, food service systems in hotels
and commercial kitchens, laundries, etc., can also utilize this system.
3 – 61
CHAPTER-4, EQUIPMENT FOR COGENERATION
This chapter discusses the major equipment required in typical cogeneration systems and explains their
types, methods of operation, main components, fuels used, control systems and other characteristics.
Specific details about the product relating to design, capacities, service requirements, and costs can be
obtained from the equipment manufacturers, their suppliers or representatives in the country.
The principal equipments used in a cogeneration application are:

 Boilers; which to generate steam by direct firing;
 Turbines; which convert thermal energy to shaft power for electricity or mechanical
drives. These include gas turbines, steam turbine and organic Rankine cycle turbines;
 Reciprocating engines; which convert fuel energy to shaft power for electricity or
mechanical drive. These include spark-ignition and compression-ignition internal
combustion engines;
 Waste heat recovery equipment; including waste heat boilers and heat exchangers;
 Heating, refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment, which includes heaters for
building heating and domestic hot water, and refrigeration equipment for process cooling
and air-conditioning.
The following sub-sections provide descriptions of each of the main component mentioned above. Detailed
equipment specifications can be found in Appendix A.
4.1 BOILERS
The power boilers in a boiler/steam turbine cogeneration system must have the capability of producing
steam of sufficient pressure and temperature to drive a steam turbine. With some exceptions, the typical
lower limit is approximately 26.4 kg/cm2g of saturated steam. In most instances, superheated steam
(ranging from 38 to 100 kg/cm2g) is produced by power boilers to drive steam turbines. Since this range of
4–1
pressure is beyond the reach of conventional fire tube boilers, the boilers used for cogeneration are
generally of the water tube type.
Water tube boilers circulate the boiler water inside the tubes and the flue gas outside. A typical water tube
boiler with drums and tube arrangement is shown in Exhibit - 4.1. Water circulation is facilitated by the
density variation between the cooler feed water and the hot water/steam mixture. This natural circulation is
adequate for most boilers in cogeneration systems, with only those operating in the supercritical pressure
range (pressures greater than 226 kg/cm2a) requiring forced circulation.
Exhibit – 4.1, Typical Water-Tube boiler
Water tube boilers can be classified as high-pressure boilers. Their pressure limit could be as high as
84 kg/cm2g with steam generation ranging from 900 to 2,27,000 kg of steam per hour. Super heaters and
economizers are usually incorporated within their structure, thereby increasing their efficiency.
Gaseous, liquid or solid fuels can be used in boilers. To burn fuel, specific burners are required for type of
fuel, which operate on the basis of fuel composition and characteristics. Exhibit - 4.2 shows the
4–2
composition of various fuels. It is important to use the fuel as efficiently as possible. In large boilers
overall efficiencies of 90% of even higher are possible. 
For a high-pressure boiler, strict limits are placed on feed water quality. A water treatment plant and its
operating costs will have to be considered as a part of boiler/steam turbine cogeneration system. The exact
method of treatment required for preparation of boiler feed water depends on the nature of impurities in the
available water. Techniques such as filtration, flocculation, precipitation, softening, ion-exchange,
dealkalisation, demineralization and deaeration are used for treating boiler feed water. **
Various kinds of controls are required for ensuring efficient and safe boiler operation. For large boilers
such as those used in cogeneration systems, efficient use of fuel often justifies sophisticated controls such as
pressure-ratio control of the fuel and air, direct air and fuel metering, and excess air correction systems
using flue gas oxygen monitoring.
Exhibit - 4.2
Specification/analysis of Main Fuels
Typical Analysis of Sui Gas
Gas Component Percent
Methane 94.6
Ethane 1.0
Propane 0.3
Butane 0.2
Nitrogen 3.9
TOTAL 100.0
 Detailed description and method analysis of boilers is available in “Improving Steam Boiler Operating Efficiency, ENERCON Publication and
can be referred to for additional details

** Additional information on boiler water treatment can be obtained from Boiler Water Treatment, ENERCON Publication.
4–3
Typical Specification of Fuel Oil Heavy High Speed

Furnace Oil Diesel Oil
Specific gravity at 60oF (Maximum) 0.960 0.870
Flash point, oF (Minimum) 150 130
Sulphur percent dry weight (Maximum) 3.5 1.0
Viscosity Redwood # at 100 F (Maximum) 1500 sec.
Pour point oF (Maximum) 75 35
Water percent by volume (Maximum) 0.75 0.05
Sediment percent by eight (Maximum) 0.15 0.01
Calorific value gross Btu/lb (Minimum) 18500 1900
Bagasse – Typical Content
Fiber 40%
Sugar 1.5 – 2.55
Moisture 45 – 55%
Ashes: 1.5 – 2.5%
Average Higher heating value of dry bagasse = 4,447 - 5,059 kcal/kg.
4.2 TURBINES
A turbine may be defined as a rotating pressure reduction device which converts some of the
pressure/enthalpy of the inlet fluid to shaft power. In industrial and commercial applications, turbines are
used to provide shaft power either to operate an alternator for the production of electricity or to provide
4–4
shaft power to main rotary equipment, e.g., gas turbine running large centrifugal gas compressors for
transmission of natural gas in pipelines, or steam turbines operating cane crushers and pumps in sugar mills.
Turbines may be classified in the following three broad categories:

 Direct fired, commonly referred to as gas turbine;
 Indirect fired, commonly referred to as steam turbine;
 Expansion turbines, commonly referred to as Rankine cycle turbines.
4.2.1 Gas Turbines
Gas turbines are an established technology available in sizes ranging from several hundred
kilowatts to over several hundred megawatts. Gas turbines produce high quality heat that can be
used for industrial or heating steam requirements. Alternatively, this high temperature heat can be
recuperated to improve the efficiency of power generation or used to generate steam and drive a
steam turbine in a combined-cycle plant. Gas turbine emissions can be controlled to very low
levels using dry combustion techniques, water or steam injection, or exhaust treatment.
Maintenance costs per unit of power output are about a third to a half of reciprocating engine
generators. Low maintenance and high quality waste heat often make gas turbines a preferred
choice for many industrial or large commercial CHP applications greater than 3 MW. A schematic
of a gas turbine system is shown in Exhibit – 4.3.
To Exhaust or
Combustor Post-Combustion
Fuel
Emission Control
Air
High Pressure
Compressor Generator
Low Pressure Gear

Compressor Box
Power
Cooling Media Turbine
Turbine
Intercooler [Drives Compressor]
Exhibit – 4.3, Gas Turbine System
4–5
Gas turbines can be used in a variety of configurations: (1) simple cycle operation which is a single
gas turbine producing power only, (2) combined heat and power (CHP) operation which is a
simple cycle gas turbine with a heat recovery heat exchanger which recovers the heat in the turbine
exhaust and converts it to useful thermal energy usually in the form of steam or hot water, and (3)
combined cycle operation in which high pressure steam is generated from recovered exhaust heat
and used to create additional power using a steam turbine (Exhibit – 4.4). Some combined cycles
extract steam at an intermediate pressure for use in industrial processes and are combined cycle
CHP systems.
Gas Turbine
Generator Set
Steam Turbine
[Combined Cycle]
Generator
Low Pressure Steam

Feed Water HRSG to Process or
Condenser
Med/High Pressure Steam

[Simple Cycle with Heat
Recovery]
Exhibit – 4.4, Combined Cycle System

Details of the gas turbine are presented as Exhibit – 4.5.
1. Air Intake Section

2. Compression Section
3. Combustion Section
4. Turbine Section
5. Exhaust Section
6. Exhaust Diffuser
Exhibit – 4.5, Gas Turbine Details, (Courtesy Siemens)
4–6
The most efficient commercial technology for central station power-only generation is the gas
turbine-steam turbine combined-cycle plant, with efficiencies approaching 60% (LHV). Simple-
cycle gas turbines for power-only generation are available with efficiencies approaching 40%
(LHV). Gas turbines have long been used by utilities for peaking capacity. However, with changes
in the power industry and advancements in the technology, the gas turbine is now being
increasingly used for base-load power.
Gas turbines produce high-quality exhaust heat that can be used in CHP configurations to reach
overall system efficiencies (electricity and useful thermal energy) of 70 to 80%. By the early
1980s, the efficiency and reliability of smaller gas turbines (1 to 40 MW) had progressed
sufficiently to be an attractive choice for industrial and large institutional users for CHP
applications.
Gas turbine systems operate on the thermodynamic cycle known as the Brayton cycle. The term
Brayton cycle has more recently been given to the gas turbine engine. This has three components:
 A gas compressor
 A burner (or combustion chamber)
 An expansion turbine
Ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is pressurized—a theoretically isentropic
process. The compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber, where fuel is burned,
heating that air—a constant-pressure process, since the chamber is open to flow in and out --
although there is some backpressure from the turbine. The heated, pressurized air then gives up
energy, when it expands through a turbine (or series of turbines)—another theoretically isentropic
process -- if only the turbine wasn't there. Some of the work extracted by the turbine is used to
drive the compressor. An ideal Brayton cycle is shown in Exhibit – 4.6.
4–7
Exhibit – 4.6
Since neither the compression nor the expansion can be truly isentropic, losses through the
compressor and the expander represent sources of inescapable working inefficiencies. In general,
increasing the compression ratio is the most direct way to increase the overall power output of a
Brayton system.
Exhibits 4.7 and 4.8 are two plots for the ideal Brayton cycle. One plot indicates how the cycle
efficiency changes with an increase in pressure ratio, while the other indicates how the specific
power output changes with an increase in the gas turbine inlet temperature for two different
pressure ratio values.
Exhibit – 4.7, Bryton Cycle Efficiency
4–8
Exhibit – 4.8
Bryton Cycle Specific Power Output
The efficiency of a Brayton engine can be improved in the following manners:
- Reheat, wherein the working fluid—in most cases air—expands through a series of turbines,
then is passed through a second combustion chamber before expanding to ambient pressure
through a final set of turbines. This has the advantage of increasing the power output possible
for a given compression ratio without exceeding any metallurgical constraints. (Although use
of an afterburner can also be referred to as reheat, it is a different process that increases power
while markedly decreasing efficiency.)
- Intercooling, wherein the working fluid passes through a first stage of compressors, then a
cooler, then a second stage of compressors before entering the combustion chamber. While
this requires an increase in the fuel consumption of the combustion chamber, this allows for a
reduction in the specific heat of the fluid entering the second stage of compressors, with an
attendant decrease in the amount of work needed for the compression stage overall.
4–9
- Regeneration, wherein the still-warm post-turbine fluid is passed through a heat exchanger to
pre-heat the fluid just entering the combustion chamber. This allows for lower fuel
consumption and less power lost as waste heat.
- A Brayton engine also forms half of the combined cycle system, which combines with a
Rankine engine to further increase overall efficiency.
Graphic presentation of reheat, intercooler and regeneration systems is made in Exhibits 4.9, 4.10
and 4.11.
Exhibit – 4.9
Exhibit – 4.10
4 – 10
Exhibit – 4.11
Higher temperature and pressure ratios result in higher efficiency and specific power. Thus, the
general trend in gas turbine advancement has been towards a combination of higher temperatures
and pressures. While such advancements increase the manufacturing cost of the machine, the
higher value, in terms of greater power output and higher efficiency, provides net economic
benefits. The industrial gas turbine is a balance between performances and cost that result in the
most economic machine for both the user and manufacturer.
Gas turbine exhaust is quite hot, up to 427 to 482oC for smaller industrial turbines and up to 590°C
for some new, large central station utility machines and aeroderivative turbines. Such high exhaust
temperatures permit direct use of the exhaust. With the addition of a heat recovery steam
generator, the exhaust heat can produce steam or hot water. A portion or all of the steam generated
by the HRSG may be used to generate additional electricity through a steam turbine in a combined
cycle configuration.
Type of Gas Turbines:
There are two types of gas turbines:
 Aeroderivative gas turbines for stationary power are adapted from their jet and turbo shaft
aircraft engine counterparts. While these turbines are lightweight and thermally efficient,
they are usually more expensive than products designed and built exclusively for
4 – 11
stationary applications. The largest aeroderivative generation turbines available are 40 to

50 MW in capacity. Many aeroderivative gas turbines for stationary use operate with
compression ratios in the range of 30:1, requiring a high-pressure external fuel gas
compressor. With advanced system developments, larger aeroderivative turbines
(>40 MW) are approaching 45% simple-cycle efficiencies (LHV).
 Industrial or frame gas turbines are exclusively for stationary power generation and are
available in the 1 to 350 MW capacity range. They are generally less expensive, more
rugged, can operate longer between overhauls, and are more suited for continuous base-
load operation with longer inspection and maintenance intervals than aeroderivative
turbines. However, they are less efficient and much heavier. Industrial gas turbines
generally have more modest compression ratios (up to 16:1) and often do not require an
external fuel gas compressor. Larger industrial gas turbines (>100 MW) are approaching
simple-cycle efficiencies of approximately 40% (LHV) and combined-cycle efficiencies
of 60% (LHV).
Industry uses gas turbines between 500 kW to 40 MW for on-site power generation and as
mechanical drivers. Small gas turbines also drive compressors on long distance natural gas
pipelines. In the petroleum industry turbines drive gas compressors to maintain well pressures and
enable refineries and petrochemical plants to operate at elevated pressures. In the steel industry
turbines drive air compressors used for blast furnaces. In process industries such as chemicals,
refining and paper, and in large commercial and institutional applications turbines are used in
combined heat and power mode generating both electricity and steam for use on-site.
Gas turbines need minimum gas pressure of about 7 kg/cm2g for the smallest turbines with
substantially higher pressures for larger turbines and aeroderivative machines. Depending on the
supply pressure of the gas being delivered to the site the cost and power consumption of the fuel
gas compressor can be a significant consideration.
Emissions
The primary pollutants from gas turbines are oxides of nitrogen (NOx ), carbon monoxide (CO),
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Other pollutants such as oxides of sulfur (SOx ) and
4 – 12
particulate matter (PM) are primarily dependent on the fuel used. The sulfur content of the fuel
determines emissions of sulfur compounds, primarily SO2 . Gas turbines operating on desulfized
natural gas or distillate oil emit relatively insignificant levels of SOx. In general, SOx emissions
are greater when heavy oils are fired in the turbine. SOx control is thus a fuel purchasing issue
rather than a gas turbine technology issue. Particulate matter is a marginally significant pollutant
for gas turbines using liquid fuels. Ash and metallic additives in the fuel may contribute to PM in
the exhaust.
It is important to note that the gas turbine operating load has a significant effect on the emissions
levels of the primary pollutants of NOx , CO, and VOCs. Gas turbines typically operate at high
loads. Consequently, gas turbines are designed to achieve maximum efficiency and optimum
combustion conditions at high loads. Controlling all pollutants simultaneously at all load
conditions is difficult. At higher loads, higher NOx emissions occur due to peak flame
temperatures. At lower loads, lower thermal efficiencies and more incomplete combustion occurs
resulting in higher emissions of CO and VOCs.
The focus of turbine NOx control and combustion improvements of the past decade was to lower
flame hot spot temperatures using lean fuel/air mixtures and pre-mixed combustion. Lean
combustion decreases the fuel/air ratio in the zones where NOx production occurs so that the peak
flame temperature is less than the stoichiometric adiabatic flame temperature, therefore
suppressing thermal NOx formation.
Lean premixed combustion (DLN/DLE) pre-mixes the gaseous fuel and compressed air so that
there are no local zones of high temperatures, or "hot spots," where high levels of NOx would
form. Lean premixed combustion requires specially designed mixing chambers and mixture inlet
zones to avoid flashback of the flame. Optimized application of DLN combustion requires an
integrated approach to combustor and turbine design. The DLN combustor becomes an intrinsic
part of the turbine design, and specific combustor designs must be developed for each turbine
application. While NOx levels as low as 9 ppm have been achieved with lean premixed
combustion, few DLN equipped turbines have reached the level of practical operation at this
emissions level necessary for commercialization - the capability of maintaining 9 ppm across a
wide operating range from full power to minimum load. One problem is that pilot flames, which
4 – 13
are small diffusion flames and a source of NOx , are usually used for continuous internal ignition
and stability in DLN combustors and make it difficult to maintain full net NOx reduction over the
complete turndown range.
Noise can also be an issue in lean premixed combustors as acoustic waves form due to combustion
instabilities when the premixed fuel and air ignite. This noise also manifests itself as pressure
waves, which can damage combustor walls and accelerate the need for combustor replacement,
thereby adding to maintenance costs and lowering unit availability.
All leading gas turbine manufacturers feature DLN combustors in at least parts of their product
lines. Turbine manufacturers generally guarantee NOx emissions of 15 to 42 ppm using this
technology. NOx emissions when firing distillate oil are typically guaranteed at 42 ppm with DLN
and/or combined with water injection. A few models (primarily those larger than 40 MW) have
combustors capable of 9 ppm (natural gas fired) over the range of expected operation.
The economics of gas turbines in process applications often depend on effective use of the thermal
energy contained in the exhaust gas, which generally represents 60 to 70% of the inlet fuel energy.
Figure 4.4 shows a typical gas turbine/HRSG configuration. An unfired HRSG is the simplest
steam CHP configuration and can generate steam at conditions ranging from 10 kg/cm2g to
approximately 84 kg/cm2g.
Gas turbine exhaust can also be used for heat and drying process either directly or by means of a
heat exchanger.
Thermal Energy Generation

Gas turbines produce a high quality (high temperature) thermal output suitable for most combined
heat and power applications. High-pressure steam can be generated or the exhaust can be used
directly for process drying and heating.
Overall or total efficiency of a CHP system is a function of the amount of energy recovered from
the turbine exhaust. The two most important factors influencing the amount of energy available for
steam generation are gas turbine exhaust temperature and HRSG stack temperature.
4 – 14
Turbine firing temperature and turbine pressure ratio combined determine gas turbine exhaust
temperature. Typically aeroderivative gas turbines have higher firing temperatures than do
industrial gas turbines, but when the higher pressure ratio of aeroderative gas turbines is
recognized, the turbine discharge temperatures of the two turbine types remain somewhat close,
typically in the range of 454 to 510°C. For the same HRSG exit temperature, higher turbine
exhaust temperature (higher HRSG gas inlet temperature) results in greater available thermal
energy and increased HRSG output.
Similarly, the lower the HRSG stack temperature, the greater the amount of energy recovered and
the higher the total-system efficiency. HRSG stack temperature is a function of steam conditions
and fuel type. Saturated steam temperatures increase with increasing steam pressure. Because of
pinch point considerations within the HRSG, higher steam pressures result in higher HRSG
exhaust stack temperatures, less utilization of available thermal energy, and a reduction in total
CHP system efficiency. In general, minimum stack temperatures of about 150°C are recommended
for sulfur bearing fuels. Generally, unfired HRSGs can be designed to economically recover
approximately 95% the available energy in the turbine exhaust (the energy released is going from
turbine exhaust temperature to HRSG exhaust temperature).
Since very little of the available oxygen in the turbine air flow is used in the combustion process,
the oxygen content in the gas turbine exhaust permits supplementary fuel firing ahead of the HRSG
to increase steam production relative to an unfired unit. Supplementary firing can raise the exhaust
gas temperature entering the HRSG up to 980°C and increase the amount of steam produced by the
unit by a factor of two. Moreover, since the turbine exhaust gas is essentially preheated combustion
air, the fuel consumed in supplementary firing is less than that required for a stand-alone boiler
providing the same increment in steam generation. The HHV efficiency of incremental steam
production from supplementary firing above that of an unfired HRSG is often 85% or more when
firing natural gas.
Supplementary firing also increases system flexibility. Unfired HRSGs are typically convective
heat exchangers that respond solely to exhaust conditions of the gas turbine and do not easily allow
for steam flow control. Supplementary firing capability provides the ability to control steam
production, within the capability of the burner system, independent of the normal gas turbine
4 – 15
operating mode. Low NOx duct burners with guaranteed emissions levels as low as 0.14 kg NOx
per million kcal can be specified to minimize the NOx contribution of supplemental firing.
In an actual cycle, the thermal efficiency of a gas turbine falls below the ideal value because of
inefficiencies in the compressor and turbine and because of duct losses. Considerable power is
absorbed in driving the compressor, but since the expanding gases are hot, the work obtained in the
expansion process is greater than the work of compression. The net work of the cycle, which is the
difference between the two, is used to drive a shaft. Analysis of a particular gas turbine engine
indicated the following outputs:
GAS TURBINE OUTPUT
A typical case
Gas Turbine engine output 2,407 hp
Output absorbed by compressor 1,644 hp
Gearbox losses 28 hp
Net useful shaft power 735 hp
Efficiency can be increased by adding a regenerator, which recovers turbine exhaust heat to
increase the temperature of the compressor air entering the combustion chamber. The gas turbine
output can be further improved by the addition of intercooling in the compressor and reheating the
working fluid during expansion.
In the closed-cycle gas turbine, the working fluid is continuously recycled. The heat from an
external source is transferred to the working fluid through special heat exchangers. The closed-
cycle can use working fluids other than air, such as helium.
Gas turbine Classifications

Gas turbines are available in two major classifications, one with single shaft and the other with
dual shafts.
Exhibits 4.4 and 4.6 shows the more prevalent single-shaft turbine in which the air compressor and
the turbine are on the same shaft. This single-shaft design is usually selected when a constant-
speed drive is required and when starting torque requirements are low.
4 – 16
Exhibit 4.12 shows the dual-shaft gas turbine in which the air compressor and the first stage (or
first two stages in some designs) of the turbine are on one shaft and the remaining stages of the
turbine, and the power section, are on the other shaft. Dual-shaft engines allow for variable speed
at full load as well as high starting torque.
Exhaust
Fuel Gas
Combustor
Gas Producer
Turbine
Compressor Generator
Power
Turbine
Exhibit – 4.12
Dual Shaft Gas Turbine
In a conventional single shaft gas turbine engine, a compressor introduces air into a combustion
chamber in which the air is mixed with the burning fuel to produce gases that drive a turbine. The
turbine drives a load consisting of the compressor and an external load. In a dual shaft gas turbine,
the compressor is driven by a turbine that is separate from the load turbine. The two turbines are
not mechanically connected. They are only gas dynamically connected. The gases from the first
turbine pass through the second turbine after leaving the first turbine. The compressor is usually
driven by the high pressure turbine with the combination of the compressor and turbine being
referred to as the gas producer. However, schemes in which the compressor is driven by the low
pressure turbine are also known. The efficiency of such a turbine design improves with increasing
operating temperatures; however, there is a limit to the operating temperature dictated by the
temperature at which the turbine blades and related systems fail.
The combined cycle power plant uses a combination of gas turbine and steam turbine equipment to
generate electricity from a single fuel. By recovering the energy in the gas turbine exhaust and
using it to generate steam, the cycle leverages the conversion of the fuel energy at a very attractive
efficiency.
4 – 17
Two types of configuration are offered. Single shaft indicates that the gas turbine and steam
turbine are connected as one drive train, driving the same generator. Multi-shaft indicates the gas
turbine and steam turbine are independent of each other, each driving its own generator.
Exhibit – 4.13 illustrates the performance of gas turbines in a combined gas-steam cycle.
EXHIBIT – 4.13
COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT PERFORMANCE DATA (GAS TURBINE ONLY)*
[Courtesy: Siemens AG]
Single shaft Multi shaft
Plant configuration, SCC5- SCC5- SCC5- SCC5- SCC5-

Siemens 3000E 1S 4000F 1S 2000E 2x1 3000E 2x1 4000F 2x1
Net power output (MW) 290 416 505 576 832
Net efficiency (%) 56.5 58.2 52.5 56.3 58.2
Net heat rate (Btu/kWh) 6,036 5,859 6,502 6,056 5,860
Net heat rate (kJ/kWh) 6,368 6,182 6,860 6,389 6,183
No. of GT's 1 1 2 2 2
* Standard design, ISO ambient conditions; Status January 2006
Fuels Used
Natural gas (essentially methane) has proved to be an ideal fuel. Light distillate oils also provide
satisfactory service. However, fuels containing sulphur, salt, or as in the case of heavy oils,
vanadium and other metals, will cause serious corrosion and deposition problems unless properly
treated.
Extensive work has been done on firing gas turbines directly with powdered coal but success has
not been achieved with it. However, conversion of coal to liquid or gaseous fuel is actively under
development and these synthetic fuels can be used.
Gas Turbine Operation

A gas turbine must be brought up to speed by an auxiliary starter which could be electric (low
voltage DC start for natural gas fuel), pneumatic, or natural gas operated on supply pressure. In
addition, reciprocating engines or steam turbines can also used for this purpose.
Since gas turbines are nominally rated at sea level at 59oF (16oC) and without inlet and outlet duct
losses, the actual ambient conditions and installation configurations are important considerations
4 – 18
needed to determine the capacity available for the application. Gas turbine efficiency and power
output are directly dependent on the mass of air flowing through the engine. Since the air
compressor is a constant volume machine, the density of the air and, therefore, the barometric
pressure and temperature have a direct effect on gas turbine performance. Thus, lower pressure
and/or increased temperature result in decreased turbine power.
The rating of a gas turbine is also affected by both inlet pressure to the air compressor and exhaust
pressure from the turbine. In most applications filters and duct silencers have to be installed at the
air inlet. Silencers and waste heat recovery boilers are normally used on the exhaust, and hence the
pressure drop of these accessories and duct losses must be considered when determining the power
output of the unit.
The approximate effects of these facts on a gas turbine’s power output are as follows:-
 Each 18oF (10oC) rise in inlet temperature decreases the power output by 9%;
 An increase of 1000 ft. in altitude decreases the power output by approximately 3.5%;
 Inlet pressure loss in filter, silencer, cooling coil (if any) and ducting decreases power
output by 0.5% for each inch of water column pressure loss;
 Discharge pressure loss in silencer, in the waste heat recovery boiler, and ducting
decreases power output by 0.3% for each inch of water column pressure loss.
To increase the power output of a gas turbine, it is not only essential to reduce pressure losses in
the inlet and outlet ducts and accessories but also to control the temperature or density of
combustion inlet air. In hot and dry climates, it is possible to cool the hot and dry incoming air by
evaporation using water injection. In some cases, it may be possible to cool the hot (and humid)
air by refrigeration, especially in those installations in which cogeneration systems use gas turbine
waste heat recovery for operation of absorption chiller.
Another method of increasing power output is by injecting high-pressure steam in the compressor
exhaust, which is known as the Cheng cycle, named after its developer Dr. Dah Yu Cheng, a
professor of physics.
4 – 19
In a Cheng cogeneration cycle, gas turbine exhaust heat is used to produce high-pressure steam in a
waste heat recovery boiler. This steam can either be injected into the gas turbine to greatly
increase efficiency and power output or it can be used as process thermal energy. Controlled
injection of high-pressure steam provides up to 15% greater mass flow which because of little
additional compressor work, boosts power considerably, and an electrical efficiency of up to 40%
can be obtained.
Gas Turbine Efficiency

The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine depends mainly on the pressure ratio, the turbine inlet
temperature and the parasitic losses, especially the efficiencies of the compressor and the turbine.
The efficiency of large modern gas turbines is being increased constantly by raising turbine inlet
temperature and compression ratio. Heavy-duty gas turbines are operated with a firing temperature
of 2,030oF (1,110oC) at base load with compression ratios of up to 12. These large industrial gas
turbines have reached thermal efficiencies of up to 36%.
The simple gas turbine cycle is relatively inefficient and almost all of its losses are in the exhaust
flue, which has temperatures typically in the range of 454 to 538oC. This heat, if recovered in a
waste heat recovery boiler, can significantly improve the overall efficiency.
A typical heat balance for gas turbines with standard small-and medium-sized units is shown in
Exhibit 4.14.
Exhibit 4.14
Gas Turbine Heat Balance
Output Small Medium
Units Size Units
Electricity 21% 29%
Exhaust heat (theoretically recoverable to 300oF) 53% 45%
Exhaust heat (not recoverable) 21% 20%
Generator, oil cooler and radiation losses 5% 5%
Total 100% 100%
4 – 20
4.2.2 Steam Turbines
Steam turbines are ideal prime movers for driving machines requiring rotational mechanical input
power. They can deliver constant or variable speed and are capable of close speed control. Drive
applications include centrifugal pumps, compressors, ship propellers, and, most important, electric
generators
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and
converts it into useful mechanical work. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives
much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the
expansion of the steam.
In a steam turbine, the thermal energy of steam is first converted into kinetic energy by the
expansion of steam in the supply nozzle which discharges steam as a jet on the rotating blades at
the appropriate angle. A portion of the kinetic energy is thus converted into mechanical energy;
further mechanical energy is available by the reaction of the steam jet as it leaves the curved
blades. The pressure on the curved blades, causing generation of shaft power, is due solely to the
change of momentum of the steam jet as it travels through the blades.
The following parameters influence the selection of a suitable steam turbine for a particular
application:
 Horsepower and speed of the driven equipment;

 Steam needed for process or boiler feed water heating;
 Supply steam pressure and temperature available from boiler;
 Turbine efficiency and price range desired.
Types of Steam Turbines

The three basic types of steam turbines are:
4 – 21
 Condensing turbines, in which all the steam that enters the throttle, except
some gland leakage in certain types, expands to the high-vacuum condensing
pressure;
 Back-pressure turbines, which operate with an exhaust steam pressure equal to,
or greater than, atmospheric pressure to meet the process steam requirements;
 Extraction turbines, in which steam is extracted at one or more intermediate
stages, often at comparatively high pressures in meet either process load or to
heat boiler feed water. Extraction can be applied to condensing or back-pressure
turbines.
The steam turbine may consist of several stages. Each stage can be described by analyzing the
expansion of steam from a higher pressure to a lower pressure. The steam may be wet, dry
saturated or superheated.
Exhibit – 4.15, Typical Steam Turbine Cycle
Consider the steam turbine shown in the cycle above (Exhibit – 4.15). The output power of the
turbine at steady flow condition is:
P = m (h1-h2)
where “m” is the mass flow of the steam through the turbine and “h1” and “h2” are specific
enthalpy of the steam at inlet and outlet of the turbine.
Steam turbines are classified:

(1) by mechanical arrangement, as single-casing, cross-compound (more than one shaft side
by side), or tandem-compound (more than one casing with a single shaft);
4 – 22
(2) by steam flow direction (axial for most, but radial for a few);
(3) by steam cycle, whether condensing, noncon-densing, automatic extraction, reheat, fossil
fuel, or nuclear; and
(4) by number of exhaust flows of a condensing unit, as single, double, triple flow, and so on.
Units with as many as eight exhaust flows are in use. See also Turbine.
Types
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 1 hp (0.75 kW) units (rare) used
as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp
(1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity.
Steam turbine types include condensing, noncondensing, reheat, extraction and induction.
Noncondensing or backpressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications. The
exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure.
These are commonly found at refineries, heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination
facilities where a large amount of low pressure process steam is available.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust
steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well below
atmospheric to a condenser.
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine,
steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where
additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of
the turbine and continues its expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is
released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler
feed water heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a
valve, or left uncontrolled. Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate
stage to produce additional power.
4 – 23
OPERATION AND DESIGN PRINCIPLE

An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy process, in
which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam leaving the
turbine. No steam turbine is truly “isentropic”, however, with typical isentropic efficiencies
ranging from 20%-90% based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine is
comprised of several sets of blades, or “buckets” as they are more commonly referred to. One set
of stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the
shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of sets
varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
To maximize turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded, generating work, in a number of stages.
These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as
impulse or reaction turbines. Most modern steam turbines are a combination of the reaction and
impulse design. Typically, higher pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure stages are
reaction type.
Exhibit – 4.16 presents schematically the difference between impulse & reaction turbines.
Exhibit – 4.16
Difference between an impulse and a reaction turbine
4 – 24
Impulse Turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets. These jets
contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert into shaft
rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary
blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage.
As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from steam chest pressure to condenser
pressure (or atmosphere pressure). Due to this relatively higher ratio of expansion of steam in the
nozzle, the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades
is a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of
energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the "carry over velocity" or "leaving
loss." In impulse turbines, steam expansion only happens at nozzles.
Reaction Turbines
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This
type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through the
nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It
leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes
direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across
both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through
the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure
and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.
The power capabilities of the reaction turbine are at a maximum when the moving blades are
moving at about the velocity of the steam passing through them. In the impulse turbine maximum
power is produced with a blade velocity of about 50% of steam velocity. Steam velocity is related
directly to the pressure drop. To achieve the desired relationship between steam velocity and blade
velocity without using a large wheel diameter or high wheel speeds, most turbines include a series
of impulse or reaction stages, or both, thus dividing the total steam pressure drop into smaller
increments in each stage.
4 – 25
In a typical larger power stations, the steam turbines are split into three separate stages, the first
being the High Pressure (HP), the second the Intermediate Pressure (IP) and the third the Low
Pressure (LP) stage, where high, intermediate and low describe the pressure of the steam.
After the steam has passed through the HP stage, it is returned to the boiler to be re-heated to its
original temperature although the pressure remains greatly reduced. The reheated steam then
passes through the IP stage and finally to the LP stage of the turbine.
Exhibits 4.17, 4.18 and 4.19 show details of steam turbines.
Exhibit – 4.17
Exhibit - 4.18
4 – 26
Exhibit - 4.19
Steam turbines can be configured in many different ways. Several IP or LP stages can be
incorporated into the one steam turbine. A single shaft or several shafts coupled together may be
used. Either way, the principles are the same for all steam turbines. The configuration is decided
by the use to which the steam turbine is put, co-generation or pure electricity production. For co-
generation, the steam pressure is highest when used as process steam and at a lower pressure when
used for the secondary function of electricity production.
Steam Turbine Efficiency

Theoretical steam rate is the quantity of steam per unit of power required by an ideal Rankine
cycle heat engine. Therefore,
W = C/ (h1 – h2)
Where “W” = Theoretical steam rate (lb./hp.h),
“ ”
h1 = Enthalpy of steam at it’s initial temperature and pressure
(Btu/lb.),
“ ”
h2 = Enthalpy of steam at exhaust steam pressure and initial
entropy (Btu/lb.),
“C” = 2544 (heat equivalent of 1 hp).
The actual steam rate of the turbine is the theoretical steam rate divided by its efficiency. Typical
efficiencies for mechanical steam turbine range from 55% to 80%, the higher efficiency applicable
to multi-stage designs.
4 – 27
The efficiency of the steam turbines is often described by the isentropic efficiency for expansion
process. The presence of water droplets in the steam will reduce the efficiency of the turbine and
cause physical erosion of the blades.
Steam turbine performance is expressed in terms of isentropic efficiency or steam rate (the steam
requirement of the turbine per unit of shaft power produced). Steam rates are given in terms of
pounds per horsepower-hour (lb/hp-hr) or pounds per kilowatt-hour (lb/kWh) or kg per kilowatt-
hour (kg/kWh).
Steam Turbine Heat Balance

The efficiency of a back-pressure steam turbine cogeneration system is the highest of any system.
Assuming 100 percent use of back-pressure steam, the only inefficiencies are gear drive and
electric generator losses and, of course, the inefficiency of steam generation. Thus, with an
efficient boiler (e.g., a water-tube boiler with an economizer and preheater) the overall thermal
efficiency of the system could easily reach 86%.
Heat rates for condensing steam turbine normally used in power plants are significantly higher,
basically because the exhaust heat cannot be utilized (it is normally lost in the cooling water
circuit).
The incremental heat rate for steam turbine cogeneration system is calculated by taking the
difference between the total heat required for power and steam generation and the heat required in
a conventional system for heat production. Exhibit – 4.20 shows that a typical industrial boiler
requires 631 kcal heat input to produce 1 kg. of steam at 2.1 kg/cm2a, while a more efficient
powerhouse boiler, with only 47 kcal additional heat input, can be used to produce 99 watts/kg of
steam and still deliver 1 kg. of steam at 2.1 kg/cm2a. This means that only 16.45 additional energy
is required in the example given in Exhibit – 4.20. Thus, in most cases where low pressure steam is
produced in standard fire-tube boilers (75% average efficiency), the incremental heat rate for
power production would be nearly zero, since the 15% to 16% extra fuel required to raise higher-
pressure steam in an efficient water-tube boiler, used to first produce power in a back-pressure
steam turbine, fully meets the thermal load of the process.
4 – 28
Energy Requirement for Cogeneration
STEAM Typically generated in

600 psia water-tube boilers
700 oF with efficiency in
Enth. 1351 BTU excess of 90%.
(Add 187 BTU Heat)

Turbine Generator
STEAM Typically generated in

300 psia fire-tube boilers with
250 oF 75% average efficiency.
Turbo-alternator
producing 45 watts/Lb. Enth. 1164 BTU
of steam
(Add 13 BTU Heat)
STEAM
Turbo-alternators
15 psia
producing 45 watts/Lb.
212 oF of steam.
Enth. 1151 BTU
(Add 970 BTU Heat)
WATER
(One Lb.)
15 psia
212 oF
Enth. 181 BTU
Exhibit – 4.20
Steam Turbine Sizing

The steam rate is important in sizing a turbine or determining desired steam conditions for a given
output. The theoretical steam rate is calculated from the enthalpy equivalent per kilowatt-hour or
horsepower. Enthalpy can be obtained from the Mollier diagram (Exhibit - 2.10) or from steam
tables. Thus, for example, if the turbine inlet conditions are 42 kg/cm2g and 399oC with an
enthalpy of 767 kcal/kg, and the turbine back-pressure is 3.5 kg/cm2g, then with adiabatic
expansion the leaving enthalpy is 643 kcal/kg. and the enthalpy difference is 124 kcal/kg.
4 – 29
The theoretical steam rate, therefore, is

860 / 124 = 6.9 kg per kWh, or
641 / 124 = 5.2 kg per horsepower – hr.
The actual steam rate of a steam turbine is calculated by dividing the theoretical steam rate by the
thermal efficiency.
Since there are no rigid standards for the turbine inlet steam pressure and temperature, it is good
practice to work with the standards proposed by ASME-IEEE*** to initially size the steam system.
These values are 400 psig (28 kg/cm2g) at 750oF (399oC) , 600 psig (42 kg/cm2g) at 825oF
(440.5oC) and 1250 psig (88 kg/cm2g) at 950 or 1000oF (510-538oC). Exhibit – 4.21 shows
theoretical steam rates (lb. per kWh) for steam turbine at some common conditions.
Steam rates for multistage turbines depend on many variables and require extensive computation.
Manufacturers provide simple tables and graphs for estimating performance and these data are
good guides for the preliminary sizing of turbines and associated auxiliaries for the complete
system.
Exhibit - 4.22 shows separate performance curves for basic efficiency of multistage condensing
and non-condensing turbines of up to 10,000 HP (7460 kW). To use these curves, start at the
abscissa, enter the turbine rating, cross over to the relevant curve of the appropriate inlet pressure,
and note the ordinate for the basic efficiency.
The theoretical heat rate is used to work out the actual heat rate by multiplying it with the basic
efficiency and further by a speed correction factor, a superheat correction factor, and a pressure-
ratio correction factor (for noncondensing turbines). For part-load steam rate, the full-load heat
rate obtained as above is multiplied by the part-load or steam consumption factor.
Exhibit - 4.23 shows these four correction factors. First the full-load actual heat rate is calculated
(by using all the factors as above) and then the part-load heat rate can be computed.
***
ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
4 – 30
Exhibit 4.21
Theoretical Steam Rates for Steam turbines at Some Common Conditions, lb/kWh
150 200 250 400 600 600 850 850

Exhaust Lb/sq in Lb/sq in Lb/sq in Lb/sq in Lb/sq in Lb/sq in Lb/sq in Lb/sq in
Pressure Gage, Gage, Gage, 500oF Gage, 750oF Gage, 825oF Gage, 825oF Gage, 825oF Gage, 900oF
336oF 338oF 94oF 302oF 261oF 336oF 298oF 373oF
Saturated Saturated Superheat Superheat Superheat Superheat Superheat Superheat
2 in Hg 10.52 10.01 9.07 7.87 7.09 6.77 6.58 6.28
4 in Hg 11.76 11.12 10.00 7.99 7.65 7.28 7.06 6.73
0 lb/sq in 19.37 17.51 15.16 11.20 10.40 9.82 9.31 8.81

gage
10 lb/sq 23.96 21.09 17.90 12.72 11.64 10.96 10.29 9.71

in gage
30 lb/sq 33.60 28.05 22.94 15.23 13.62 12.75 11.80 11.07

in gage
50 lb/sq 46.00 36.00 28.20 17.57 15.36 14.31 13.07 12.21

in gage
60 lb/sq 53.90 40.40 31.10 18.75 16.19 15.05 13.66 12.74

in gage
70 lb/sq 63.50 45.60 34.10 19.96 17.00 15.79 14.22 13.25

in gage
75 lb/sq 69.30 48.50 35.80 20.59 17.40 16.17 14.50 13.51

in gage
Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook.
4 – 31
Exhibit – 4.22
Steam Turbin : Basic Efficiency
4 – 32
1.4
1.02
1.01 1000
(746
)
1.00 20
00
Non Condensing ( 14
92
1.3 200 PSI 0.99 )
Theoretical Steam Rate Factor or
(1378 KPa)
0.98
Steam Consumption Factor
30
00
(2
0.97
Multistage Turbine
23
8)
0.96
1.2 0.95
Non Condensing
600-1500 PSI
0.94 (3730) 5000
(4134–10335 KPa)
(7460) 10000
0.93
(9325) 12000
0.92
(1190) 15000
1.1 CONDENSING
0.91
Curve Numbers are :
200 – 1500 PSI Horse Power (kW)
(1378 – 10335 KPa) 0.90
-----------------------------------
Exhaust Press in Hg ABS
0.89 A
Condensing Turbines
0.88 B Horse Power for
Noncondensing Turbines
0.87
4 5 6 7 8 9
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Rated Speed 1000 RPM
PERCENT LOAD
Speed Correction Factor
Theoretical Steam rate factor for multistage turbines
(for turbines over 1000 hg (746 kW)
1.05
1.04 Condensing Turbines

1.04
Superheat Correction Factor
1.03
1.02
Correction Factor
Pressure Ratio
1.02
1.00
1.01
0.98
1.00
0.96
0.99 Noncondensing
Turbines 0.94
0.98 0 0.3
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5
0.97 Exhaust Pressure PSIG (K Pa)
-------------------------------- ---------
0 100 200 300 400
Inlet Pressure PSIG (K Pa)
(38) (93) (149) (204)
Initial Super Heat F (C) Pressure Ratio Correction Factor for
Noncondensing Tubrines Turbines
Superheat Correction Factor
Exhibit – 4.23
Steam Turbines : Capacity Correction Factor
4 – 33
4.2.3 Expansion Turbines
Expansion turbines are equipment designed for converting the pressure energy of gas or
vapor stream into mechanical shaft power as the gas or vapor expands through the
turbine. Sometimes, the turbo-expanders (as these expansion turbines are called) are used
to chill the process gas since any work developed by the turbo-expanders is at the expense
of the enthalpy of the process gas and the latter is thus cooled.
A potential application for the turbo-expander for power recovery exists whenever a large
flow of gas is reduced from a high pressure to some low pressure. The speed of turbo-
expander operating power generator is usually controlled by the system frequency with
various protective instruments providing a shut-down signal. These turbo-expanders are
used widely because they are reliable, highly efficient, and comparatively inexpensive.
Turbo expanders are available configured with centrifugal compressors, generators or oil
brakes for natural gas applications, petrochemical plants or refineries. They are also
designed for applications such as energy recovery from refinery hot gas waste streams.
In natural gas applications, turbo expanders deliver top efficiency for cryogenic natural
gas processing, such as dew point control, natural gas liquids (NGL) recovery, ethane
recovery and liquefied natural gas (LNG) production.
For petrochemical applications, turbo expanders offer far more refrigeration than a
pressure reduction valve. High efficiencies result in hydrogen purification and
liquefaction capabilities that will increase liquid recovery.
Turbo expanders can also be used to de-bottleneck flow, which in-turn delivers more
output. It’s the ideal solution for LPG or ethylene recovery, MTBE and CO processing.
In gas pressure letdown applications, our turbo expanders are exceptionally efficient for
energy recovery from pressure reduction of large - volume gas streams to power plants
4 – 34
4.3 RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Reciprocating engines are the most common type of prime mover used for production of shaft
power and use all types of gaseous and liquid fuels.
In industrial and commercial applications, reciprocating engines are used extensively to provide
shaft power either to operate an alternator for the production of electricity or to operate rotating
equipment like centrifugal compressors, pumps, blowers, etc.
Reciprocating engines are of two basic designs: The four-cycle or four-stroke engine and the two-
cycle or two-stroke engine.
In the four-cycle engine, the four strokes are suction, compression, expansion and exhaust.
Advantages of four-cycle engines include wider variation in speed and load, cooler pistons, lower
specific fuel consumption, less exhaust dilution and no fuel loss during exhaust.
The four-stroke cycle of an internal combustion engine is the cycle most commonly used for
automotive and industrial purposes today (cars and trucks, electrical generators, etc). The
thermodynamics cycles used in internal combustion reciprocating engines are the Otto Cycle (the
ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines) and the Diesel Cycle (the ideal cycle for compression-
ignition engines). The Otto Cycle consists of adiabatic compression, heat addition at constant
volume, adiabatic expansion and rejection of heat at constant volume.
The Otto cycle is characterized by four strokes, or straight movements alternately, back and forth,
of a piston inside a cylinder (illustrated in Exhibit – 4.24):
1. intake (induction) stroke
2. compression stroke
3. power (combustion) stroke
4. exhaust stroke
4 – 35
The cycle begins at top dead center (TDC), when the piston is furthest away from the crankshaft.
On the first stroke (intake) of the piston, a mixture of fuel and air is drawn into the cylinder
through the intake (inlet) port. The intake (inlet) valve (or valves) then close(s) and the following
stroke (compression) compresses the fuel-air mixture. The air-fuel mixture is then ignited, usually
by a spark plug for a gasoline or Otto cycle engine or by the heat and pressure of compression for a
Diesel cycle or compression ignition engine, at approximately the top of the compression stroke.
The resulting expansion of burning gases then forces the piston downward for the third stroke
(power) and the fourth and final stroke (exhaust) evacuates the spent exhaust gases from the
cylinder past the then-open exhaust valve or valves, through the exhaust port.
Stroke (1) Stroke (2)
Stroke (3) Stroke (4)

Exhibit – 4.24
Four Stroke Cycle
The two-stroke cycle of an internal combustion engine differs from the more common four-stroke
cycle by completing the same four processes (intake, compression, power, exhaust) in only two
4 – 36
strokes of the piston rather than four. This is accomplished by using the space below the piston for
air intake and compression, thus allowing the chamber above the piston to be used for just the
power and exhaust strokes. This causes there to be a power stroke for every revolution of the
crank, instead of every second revolution as in a four-stroke engine. For this reason, two-stroke
engines provide high specific power, so they are valued for use in portable, lightweight
applications. On the other hand large two stroke diesels have been in use in industry (i.e.
locomotive engines) since the early 20th century.
Two-stroke cycle engines operate in two strokes:
1. Power/exhaust: This stroke occurs immediately after the ignition of the charge. The
piston is forced down. After a certain point, the top of the piston passes the exhaust port,
and most of the pressurized exhaust gases escape. As the piston continues down, it
compresses the air/fuel/oil mixture in the crankcase. Once the top of the piston passes the
transfer port, the compressed charge enters the cylinder from the crankcase and any
remaining exhaust is forced out.
2. Compression/intake: The air/fuel/oil mixture has entered the cylinder, and it begins to
move up. This compresses the charge in the cylinder and draws a vacuum in the
crankcase, pulling in more air, fuel, and oil from the carburetor. The compressed charge is
ignited by the spark plug, and the cycle begins again.
The Wankel rotary engine is a type of internal combustion engine, invented by German engineer
Felix Wankel, which uses a rotor instead of reciprocating pistons.
In the Wankel engine (Exhibit – 4.25), the four strokes of a typical Otto cycle occur in the space
between a somewhat triangular-shaped rotor and the inside of a housing. In the basic single-rotor
Wankel engine, the oval-like epitrochoid-shaped housing surrounds a three-sided rotor (similar to a
Reuleaux triangle, but with the middle of each side a bit more flattened). The central drive shaft,
also called an eccentric shaft or E-shaft, passes through the center of the rotor and is supported by
bearings. The rotor both rotates around an offset lobe (crank) on the E-shaft and makes orbital
revolutions around the central shaft. Seals at the corners of the rotor seal against the periphery of
the housing, dividing it into three moving combustion chambers. Fixed gears mounted on each side
4 – 37
of the housing engage with ring gears attached to the rotor to ensure the proper orientation as the
rotor moves.
Exhibit – 4.25
Wankel Engine
As the rotor rotates and orbitally revolves, each side of the rotor gets closer and farther from the
wall of the housing, compressing and expanding the combustion chamber similarly to the strokes
of a piston in a reciprocating engine. The power vector of the combustion stage goes through the
center of the offset lobe.
While a four-stroke piston engine makes one combustion stroke per cylinder for every two
rotations of the crankshaft (that is, one half power stroke per crankshaft rotation per cylinder), each
4 – 38
combustion chamber in the Wankel generates one combustion stroke per each driveshaft rotation,
i.e. one power stroke per rotor orbital revolution and three power strokes per rotor rotation. Thus,
power output of a Wankel engine is generally higher than that of a four-stroke piston engine of
similar engine displacement in a similar state of tune and higher than that of a four-stroke piston
engine of similar physical dimensions and weight. Wankel engines also generally have a much
higher redline than a reciprocating engine of similar size since the strokes are completed with a
rotary motion as opposed to a reciprocating engine which must use connecting rods and a
crankshaft to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
Wankel engines have several major advantages over reciprocating piston designs, in addition to
having higher output for similar displacement and physical size. Wankel engines are considerably
simpler and contain far fewer moving parts. For instance, because valving is accomplished by
simple ports cut into the walls of the rotor housing, they have no valves or complex valve trains; in
addition, since the rotor is geared directly to the output shaft, there is no need for connecting rods,
a conventional crankshaft, crankshaft balance weights, etc. The elimination of these parts not only
makes a Wankel engine much lighter (typically half that of a conventional engine with equivalent
power), but it also completely eliminates the reciprocating mass of a piston engine with its internal
strain and inherent vibration due to repetitious acceleration and deceleration, producing not only a
smoother flow of power but also the ability to produce more power by running at higher rpm.
In addition to the enhanced reliability due to the elimination of this reciprocating strain on internal
parts, the engine is constructed with an iron rotor within a housing made of aluminum, which has
greater thermal expansion. This ensures that even a severely overheated Wankel engine cannot
seize, as would likely occur in an overheated piston engine. This is a substantial safety benefit in
aircraft use.
In a gas engine, the fuel must always have a pressure high enough to enter the carburetor and mix
with the boosted pressure of the combustion air. Since the gas-air mixture will ignite at a specific
temperature-pressure relationship, lower inlet temperature allows a higher compression ratio
before ignition.
4 – 39
Reciprocating engines may be either naturally aspirating or turbo-charged. Turbo-charged

(combustion air compressors driven by exhaust gas turbine) increase the amount of air delivered to
the combustion chamber and hence allow higher output from a given engine, increasing efficiency.
Turbo-chargers on natural gas engines require medium fuel gas pressure (0.84 to 1.41 kg/cm2) and
low after-cooler water temperature (32oC or less) for high compression ratios and best fuel
economy. The turbo-charger increases engine capacity and extends the optimum fuel consumption
curve because the usual limitation on larger gas engines is the volume of the combustion air and
fuel that can be delivered to the available combustion chamber.
4.3.1 Gas engines
The gas engine is a very popular prime mover and is available in all sizes up to 18,000
BHP (about 13.5 MW). However, the range of smaller sizes up to about 1,000 BHP is
economically very attractive, especially because of low maintenance costs and simple
installation. In this smaller-sized equipment no other prime mover is available which can
match the continuous operation power output costs with that of gas engine. Though very
reliable diesel engines are available in the smaller range, the cost of the fuel is prohibitive
and gas engines are the preferred base-load machines wherever gas is available.
Gas engines are generally rated between 900 to 1,200 rpm for continuous operation due
mainly to clean fuel, through slower speeds are used on large engines. The specific
operating speed for a particular engine depends on the size, characteristics of design (set
by the manufacturers), the driven equipment (for example, the specifications of alternator
for power generation) and the desired length of time between complete engine overhauls
(standard engines are presently available that provide a minimum of 20,000 to 30,000
hours of operation even between minor overhauls).
Exhibit - 4.26 shows typical fuel consumption curves for a gas-fired internal combustion
engine. The approximate consumption on curves show that at 1200 rpm for 600 BHP
4 – 40
(approximately 450 kW), fuel consumption will amount to about 1.3 million kcal/hr or
about 0.326 m3/hr of gas per kWh (unit of electricity).
Small gas engines are air-cooled units while al medium and large size engines are water-
cooled. Heat can be reclaimed from the engine jacket cooling system, lubricating system
and the exhaust. These engines require extensive cooling to remove excessive heat
conducted into the power train during the combustion and the heat resulting from friction.
Coolant fluids and lubricating oil are circulated to remove this engine heat. Some engines
are also available with ebullient cooling to make low pressure steam available for process
loads.
Gas Engine Efficiency

Though exact figures vary with engine design and load, the approximate distribution of
input gas fuel energy for an engine operating at optimum design rating is as follows:-
Shaft power 33%

Rejected in cooling water 30%
Rejected in exhaust 30%
Convection and radiation loss 7%
Total: 100%
Exhibit - 4.27 shows details of a heat balance for a typical naturally aspirated gas engine
and for a typical turbo-charged gas engine with intercooler.
Actual heat recovery from engine exhaust is limited by the need for the final exit
temperature to be high enough to avoid condensation which are generally around 300oF
(149oC). Thus, only 50-60% of the exhaust heat can be recovered.
4 – 41
Exhibit – 4.26
Gas Engine Fuel Consumption Curves
Naturally Aspirated
10:1 Compression Ratio – Natural Gas
Rotated Fuel Economy
1000 RPM
15000
1200 RPM
10000 14000
KJ/k Wh
Btu/bhp-HR
13000
9000
12000
8000
11000
800 RPM
7000 10000
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
B.H.P.
Naturally Aspirated
8.2 : 1 Compression Ratio – Natural
Gas
Part Load Fuel Economy
1000 RPM
15000
1200 RPM
10000 14000
KJ/k Wh
Btu/bhp-HR
9000 13000
12000
8000
11000
800 RPM
7000 10000
300 400 500 600 700 800
B.H.P.
4 – 42
Exhibit – 4.27
Heat Balance for GasEngines
10:1 Compression Ratio

100 BMEP 1422 BHP
Jacket Water
&
Fuel In 186.900 BTU/Min % of Fuel In
Lube Oil
Jacket Water 54.000
Exhaust
Lube Oil 6.540 32.39%
Radiation
Radiation 12.967 6.95%
Exhaust 53.100 28.41%
Work 60.293 32.25%
Work -----------
100.00%
Naturally Aspirated Engine
8:1 Compression Ratio

85 oF Intercooler Water
145 BMEP 2065 BHP
Jacket Water
&
Lube Oil Fuel In 277.000 BTU/Min % of Fuel In
&
Intercooler Jacket Water 91.833
Lube Oil 10.000 39.41%
Exhaust Intercooler 7.333
Radiation 20.262 7.31%
Radiation Exhaust 60.016 21.46%
Work 87.556 31.62%
Work
-----------
100.00%
Turbo-Charged Engine with Intercooler
An actual study of a Waukesha gas engine (Model THD 800-6 A) reveals that in addition
to 140 kW electrical energy, it can supply 704,000 Btu/hr (177,514 kcal/hr.)from the
engine cooling water heat recovery with additional 303 Btu/hr (76.4 kcal/hr.) available
from exhaust gas heat recovery (with minimum 300oF or 149oC exit temperature). Thus,
a typical cogeneration system utilizing heat from most of the engine cooling water and
with exhaust heat recovery would give overall thermal efficiency in excess of 80%.
4 – 43
4.3.2 Diesel Cycle Furnace Oil Engine
Diesel cycle engine using heavy furnace oil (No. 6) provide economical shaft power and
are available in sizes from about 1,350 BHP up to 30,000 BHP. Due to lower costs of
furnace oil in the country and high efficiency, furnace oil engines specially designed for
heavy oil are being extensively used in industrial installations in Pakistan.
Furnace oil engines are generally rated between 500 to 900 rpm for continuous operation,
with slower speeds preferred for low quality residual fuels (viscosity above 180 CST at
50 oC, sulphur content above 3% by weight, vanadium above 200 mg/kg).
Satisfactory operations of furnace oil engines will depend primarily on the following:-
 Engine design which should not only accept heavy fuel oil but should also offer
long maintenance-free periods, easy maintenance and low fuel consumption over
the entire load range.
 Special ancillary systems covering fuel, cooling water and lube oil.
The fuel system should also be able to handle high velocity and impurities. The heating
and circulation of fuel controls the velocity problem, while the impurities are handled by
the use of settling tanks, centrifugal separators and fine filtration in automatic filters.
The cooling water system must be accurately controlled to operate the engine within safe
temperature limits, the controls must ensure heating at low loads and cooling at high
loads. The parts exposed to combustion must not be cooled to the temperature in which
sulphuric acid can condense (cold corrosion) and the material temperature should not be
allowed to rise above the melting points of vanadium and sodium (hot corrosion).
The lube oil system should include an oil centrifuge so that separation is possible with the
engine in operation. This will extend the life of the lubricating oil and the lube oil filters.
4 – 44
The approximate specific consumption of furnace oil is 19 kg/kWh and this figure is
guaranteed by all major manufacturers.
All furnace oil engines provide some potential of heat recovery in engine cooling systems,
lubricating systems and the exhaust.
Furnace Oil Engine Efficiency

Though exact figures vary with various makes and models, approximate distribution of
fuel input for an engine operating at optimum design rating is as follows:-
Shaft power 44%
Rejected in cooling water 27% (recoverable)
Rejected in exhaust 20% (recoverable)
Rejected in exhaust 7% (not recoverable)
Radiation loss 2%
Total: 100%
Exhibit - 4.28 shows a Sankey diagram for the heat balance of the Wartsila Nahab 25
furnace oil fired diesel engine. Thus, a typical cogeneration system utilizing most of the
engine cooling water and recoverable engine exhaust would give an overall thermal
efficiency in excess of 80%.
HEAT BALANCE FOR TYPICAL

FURNACE OIL ENGINE
Heat
Power Recovery
Fuel Input
100%
Shaft Cooling
Power Water 27%
44%
Exhaust
20%
Radiant
& Other
Losses 9%
Exhibit 4.28, Worstila Nohab 25
4 – 45
4.4 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY BOILERS (WHRB)
Waste heat recovery utilization, either in the topping cycle to generate thermal energy for process
requirements or in the bottoming cycle to generate power, will results in significantly improved
efficiency levels. WHRB are also known as Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSG)) when they
are used to recover heat in form of steam from hot exhaust gases.
Waste heat recovery boilers, similar in design to fuel-fired boilers, may be either fire tube type or
water-tube type. WHRBs of water-tube design are also available with steam generator heat
exchange coils mounted in the hot exhaust stream with a separate steam separation and storage
vessel. This design of WHRB is possible without a boiler water circulation pump if the steam
storage vessel can be mounted directly on top of the steam generator coil for a compactness.
When this is not possible due to site limitation, or if higher water tube velocity is required for
optimum heat transfer, a boiler circulation pump is added.
WHRBs can also be fitted with additional burners for supplemental firing in case additional
thermal capacity is required for generation of hot water or steam.
A HRSG is a heat exchanger that recovers heat from a hot gas stream. It produces steam that can
be used in a process or used to drive a steam turbine. A common application for a HRSG is in a
Combined cycle power station, where hot exhaust from a gas turbine is fed to a HRSG to generate
steam which in turn drives a steam turbine. This combination produces electricity more efficiently
than either the gas turbine or steam turbine alone. The HRSG is also an important component in
Cogeneration plants.
HRSGs normally consist of three sections. An LP (low pressure) section, a reheat/IP (intermediate
pressure) section, and a HP (high pressure) section. Each section HP, IP, and LP have a steam
drum and an evaporator section where water is converted to steam. This steam then passes through
superheaters to raise the temperature and pressure above the steam saturation point.
4 – 46
Some HRSGs include supplemental (or duct) firing. These additional burners provide additional
energy to the HRSG, which produces more steam and hence increases the output of the steam
turbine. Generally, duct firing provides electrical output at lower capital cost but inferior efficiency
compared with combined cycle generation. It is therefore often utilized for peaking.
Emissions controls may also be located in the HRSG. Some may contain an SCR
Selective_Catalytic_Reduction to reduce NOx (oxides of nitrogen, a large contributor to the
formation of smog and acid rain) and/or a CO catalyst to remove carbon monoxide.
HRSG are of two types: Horizontal and Vertical. The two types are shown in Exhibits 4.29 and
4.30.
Exhibit – 4.29, Horizontal Exhibit – 4.30, Vertical
Various configration of HRSG is discussed below:
D-Frame evaporator layout (Exhibit – 4.31).

This configuration is very popular for HRSG units recovering heat from small gas turbines and
diesel engines. It is a very compact design and can be shipped totally assembled. It is limited,
however, since the bent tube arrangement quickly causes the module to exceed shipping limitations
for units having a large gas flow.
4 – 47
Exhibit – 4.31
O-Frame evaporator layout.(Exhibit – 4.32)

This configuration has probably been used for more years than any of the others. It has the
advantage of the upper header being configured as the steam separation drum. Or, the upper header
can be connected to the steam drum by risers, allowing more than one O-Frame evaporator to be
connected to the same steam drum, resulting in shippable modules being able to handle very large
gas flows.
Exhibit – 4.32
4 – 48
A-Frame evaporator layout (Exhibit – 4.33).

This configuration is simply a variation of the O-Frame Evaporator. It was popular for services
with a large amount of ash, since the center area between the lower drums could be configured as a
hopper to collect and remove solid particles.
Exhibit – 4.33
Horizontal tube evaporator layout (Exhibit 4.34).

The horizontal tube evaporator is used, not only for heat recovery from Gas Turbine exhaust, but
for recovery from flue gases in Refinery and Petrochemical furnaces also. It has similar size
limitations due to shipping restrictions similar to the O-frame modules. It is generally a less
expensive unit to manufacture than the other configurations, but if it is a natural circulation design
with large tubes, such as in some CO Boilers, or very long tubes, special consideration needs to be
given to assure all tubes are provided with sufficient effluent.
Exhibit – 4.34
4 – 49
Typical schematic flow for a single pressure HRSG with a superheater and economizer section is
presented in Exhibit – 4.35.
Exhibit – 4.35
Flow schematic for a triple pressure unit with an integral deaerator is presented in Exhibit – 4.36.
Exhibit – 4.36
4 – 50
4.5 CENTRAL HEATING AND COOLING EQUIPMENT BASED ON THERMAL ENERGY UTILIZATION
Central heating requirements are met by the utilization of low pressure steam or hot water in
heating coils. For central refrigeration or cooling using thermal energy, absorption systems are
utilized. Absorption chillers may be of either single-effect (standard absorption cycle) or double-
effect type, in which both direct utilization of hot gases and medium pressure steam (8.8 kg/cm2g)
are possible. Absorption units have been discussed in Chapter-3.
4 – 51
5. COGENERATION PROJECT EVALUATION
The selection of a cogeneration system is dependent on its thermal and electrical loads, end user
operational needs, equipment and fuel availability and economics. A preliminary project
evaluation requires a methodological approach. This chapter described the detailed method for
cogeneration project evaluation.
5.1 GENERAL PARAMETERS FOR PROJECT EVALUATION
* Determination of Average Thermal and Electrical Loads and Performance of an

Energy Analysis.
Facilities with larger power and heat loads can generate proportionately greater savings
and a shorter payback period. Ensure that the power and heat loads are simultaneous.
Other evaluation parameters to consider include the following:
* Calculation of the Plant's Expected Heat-to-Power Ratio.

Ideally, the facility's heat sink should provide a minimum ratio of around two kW of heat
for every kW of electrical power. Higher ratios can be satisfied with supplementary firing.
Lower ratios indicate insufficient use of gas turbine exhaust heat and may require a
bypass stack to dump unused heat.
* Assessment of Availability of Fuel.

If only low-pressure gas is available, additional investment in a compressor to boost gas
pressure to approximately 200 psi will add cost to the project, as well as increase
maintenance and operation over the plant's life cycle.
5–1
* Assessment of the Future Energy Demand over the Expected Life of the
Cogeneration Plant.
The ability to expand capacity to meet future loads can further justify cogeneration.
* Evaluation of the Facility's Operating Profile.

Take into account the necessary scheduled maintenance outages and possible unscheduled
events.
* Provision of a Backup Source of Power to Ensure Continuous Supply.

One way to do this is through a standby contract with the local utility company, which
allows power to be accessed from the grid during outages.
Keeping in mind that gas turbine generators, heat exchangers, switchgear, control systems
and emission-control equipment require sufficient plot area, determine the tie-points
between the plant and the proposed cogeneration plant.
* Assessment of Local and Federal Environmental and Air-Quality Requirements for

Gas Turbine Exhaust.
Many states require very low NOx and CO emissions, which means that installing
selective catalytic reduction systems and CO catalysts in the exhaust stream add
significant cost to a project.
* Finally, Acquisition of Firm Quotations for Equipment Procurement, Engineering

Activities, Construction and Startup.
Minimizing the risk of project overrun is essential in making the economic assessment
viable.
5.2 PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
The execution of a cogeneration project is similar to that of other equipment-intensive capital

projects, although there are some unique factors to consider. In particular, pay close attention to
obtaining environmental permits. Government and public applications reviews can add significant
time to the project development schedule. Allow enough time to evaluate project economics and
financing, particularly when dealing with highly volatile inputs, such as gas and power prices.
5–2
Exhibit – 5.1 illustrates a typical cogeneration project development timeline. Beginning with a
letter of intent, a realistic time frame between developing the overall project and commercial
operation is as long as 18 months. Activities related to evaluation, permitting and contract
negotiation can consume at least six months, followed by another year of engineering, procurement
and construction activities.
A Typical Cogeneration Project Development Timeline.
LOI Contract review Construction

Requirements
Execution and negotiation and startup
Contract LOI Feasibility Contract to Contract

Execution decision customer execution
Feasibility
Environment Enforcement
Analysis
Configuration, Permit
Preliminary application
performance engineering
and pricing
Project financing arrangements and

Captialization negotiations
Internal Internal approvals

approvals (if required)
Construction Construction
and startup
3-6 months to
LOI
0 30 60 90 120 160 515
Days
Exhibit – 5.1
Cogeneration has potential in almost every industrial and commercial setting. In many cases, the
economic and operational benefits of cogeneration far outweigh the cost and effort of developing
and maintaining a cogeneration plant.
5–3
5.3 STEPS IN EVALUATION OF COGENERATION
The methodological approach to cogeneration requires analysis of a series of options in a stepwise

manner (Exhibit – 5.2). The important steps in evaluation of cogeneration options are as follows:-
Data
FINAL Collection &
DECISION Analysis
Identification
of
Detailed Configuration
Feasibility
Study
Preliminary
Engineering
Preliminary Design
Financial
Analysis
Exhibit – 5.2
Steps in Evaluation of Cogeneration
5.4 DATA COLLECTION
Data needed can be categorized as follows:-

1. Data on Electrical Loads.
2. Data on Thermal Loads.
5–4
Specific data requirements and procedures for collection of data are described in this section.
5.4.1 Data on Electrical Loads
The following data is needed to establish electricity demand:
1. Electricity consumed in kwh on monthly basis for a period of one year,

and maximum demand for each month in kW.
2. Electricity consumed in kWh in a 24 hour period on hourly basis, and
maximum demand in kW during the 24 hour period. This information
is needed for typical days in the periods when the demand is maximum
and minimum.
3. Cost of electricity.
5.4.1.1 Historical Data on Consumption of Electricity
Forms shown in Exhibits 5.3 and 5.4 can be used to collect data on monthly and
hourly basis. The best source of information for monthly data are the bills
received from electric supply companies (e.g. KESC, LESCO) In addition to the
power purchased from the utilities, data on power generated in the plant or the
building should also be included. The total demand for electricity can then be
calculated by adding up the purchased and self generated electricity. The kwh
and kw meters installed by electric supply companies can be used for recording
hourly data.
For new industries or buildings, a detailed analysis of the demand will be

required to develop seasonal and daily load profiles. Expected operating
schedules and loads for individual load items such as motors, lighting, and
electric furnaces will have to be considered. Representative load profiles for
5–5
other similar industries or buildings can also serve as a basis for development of
load profiles for a new facility.
Exhibit - 5.3
Monthly Demand for Electricity
Purchased Self Gen. Power Total Demand Maximum

Month Power kWh kWh Demand
kWh Indicator
(MDI) kw
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total
Tariff Classification: _____________ Connected Load: _______________
MDI for Billing: ___________________
5–6
Demand Forecast
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
Expected Increase %
Reduction from Energy

Conservation
Net Increase %
Exhibit - 5.4
Hourly Demand for Electricity
Date
Time Units Cons. Units Cons. Units Cons. Units Cons.
kWh kWh kWh kWh
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
5–7
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Total
5.4.1.2 Future Expansion Plans
The expansion plans for future should be taken into account to develop a
forecast for increase in the use of electricity. This information should be
indicated in Exhibit - 5.3, as expected annual percentage increase in demand for
each year for a period of five years. A detailed review of the expansion plans
may be necessary. This can include estimation of demand for new items of
machinery and equipment, and increase in demand due to increase in production
from the existing machinery.
5.4.1.3 Impact of Energy Conservation Measures
Opportunities may exist for energy conservation measures to reduce the energy
losses. Compared to investment in power generation equipment, investment in
energy conservation measures is more cost effective. The extent to which the
maximum demand for electricity can be reduced through energy conservation
5–8
measures should be estimated and listed in Exhibit - 5.3. the forecast for increase
in demand should then be amended.
5.4.1.4 Cost of Electricity
Cost of electricity per unit consumed will depend on the tariff classification and
the extent to which the connected load is utilized. Both the fixed and variable
components of the cost should be calculated. Fixed component reflects the
charges for the connected load, and are applied on Rs/kw basis. Variable
component covers electricity charges on Rs/kwh basis and includes a basic
charge plus a fuel adjustment surcharge (if applicable). Details on tariffs and
procedures for calculations of fixed and variable costs of electricity are included
in Appendix B-1.
5.4.2 Data on Thermal Loads
Thermal loads consist of steam and hot water needed in a plant or a building. The
following guidelines can be followed in collection and compilation of this data:
5.4.2.1 Historical Data on Consumption of Steam
Forms of collection of data on steam on monthly and hourly basis are presented
in Exhibits 5.5 and 5.6 respectively. Data is needed for each type of steam,
defined by pressure and temperature. Total steam used, average steam load and
peak steam load should be recorded. Steam used for power generation is not
included in the data. Hourly data for steam should be for the same time period
as that for hourly data for electricity.
5–9
Exhibit - 5.5
Monthly Demand for Steam
Month Steam 1 Steam 2 Steam 3
Demand Avg. Peak Demand Avg. Peak Demand Avg. Peak
Tonnes Flow Load Tonnes Flow Load Tonnes Flow Load
Tonnes/hr Tonnes/hr Tonnes/hr Tonnes/hr Tonnes/hr Tonnes/hr
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total
Steam 1 Steam 2 Steam 3

Pressure Bar
Temp., oC
Condensate.
Return %
5 – 10
Demand Forecast
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
Expected Increase %
Reduction from Energy

Conservation
Net Increase %
Exhibit - 5.6
Hourly Demand for Steam
Date
Time Steam 1 Steam 2 Steam 3 Steam 1 Steam 2 Steam 3

Kg. Kg Kg Kg. Kg Kg
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
5 – 11
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Total
Separate meters for each type of steam are needed to collect the data specified in
Exhibits 5.5 and 5.6. If meters are not available, data on fuel use in the boilers
and boiler efficiency can be used to estimate the steam production. This
approach is subject to errors, and can be used for a preliminary screening of
options only. To develop a basis for engineering design, it is recommended that
separate steam meters be installed on the main steam lines to record the data for
each type of steam used.
5.4.2.2 Forecast of Steam Loads
Guidelines presented below for developing forecast of electrical load should be

followed.
5 – 12
Cost of Steam
Cost of steam from the existing boilers should be estimated. The cost of steam
will cover fuel, operating and maintenance costs of the existing boilers. Figures
on cost of steam are usually available from the accounting departments of
companies. Guidelines for calculation of steam costs are included in Appendix
B-2.
Hot Water Use

Hot water is normally produced through use of steam. Steam can be saved by
using low temperature heat from a cogeneration system to produce hot water.
The quantity of hot water and the temperature at which it is required should be
recorded.
5.4.3 Data Analysis
Data on electrical and thermal loads should be plotted on a monthly and hourly basis.
Examples of such plots are shown in Exhibit - 5.7. The data should be analyzed to
determine the following:-
 Peak Electrical Load,

 Peak Thermal Load,
 The Power to Heat Ratio
5.4.3.1 Peak Electrical Load
In most cases, maximum demand indicator (MDI) as recorded by the utility

meter will indicate the peak electrical load. Where a mix of sources is used, data
collected on forms, included in Exhibits 5.3 and 5.4 will indicate the peak load.
The time of the year when the peak takes place should be noted. The plant
electrical engineer should be asked to confirm these observations.
5 – 13
5.4.3.2 Peak Thermal Load
Peak thermal load can be identified through the data collected on the form
included in Exhibits 5.5 and 5.6. The time of the year when the peak takes place
should be noted. The boiler engineer should be asked to confirm these
observations.
5.4.3.3 Calculate Power to Heat Ratio
If the patterns of electrical and thermal loads are identical and coincident, the
power to heat ratio will always be the same. In actual practice, this is rarely true,
and the electrical and thermal peaks usually do not coincide. Following
observations should be made:
 Power to heat ratio at peak electrical load;

 Power to heat ratio at peak thermal load,
 Average power to heat ratio on the basis of annual electrical
and thermal requirements.
The variations in electrical and thermal loads can lead to part load operation of
the cogeneration system. The efficiency of various cogeneration systems is
affected to a varying degree by operation at part load. A detailed discussion on
operation at part load conditions is included in Section 5.6. Graphical
presentation of electrical and thermal loads is given in Exhibit-5.7.
5 – 14
EXHIBIT – 5.7
GRAPHIC PRESENTATION OF ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL LOADS
3000
50
40 2000
(1000 lbs/hr)
ELECT. LOAD
Steam
30 KW
20 1000
10 Steam Load
0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 0000 0200 0400 0600
3000
50
40 2000
(1000 lbs/hr)
ELECT. LOAD
Steam
30 KW
20 1000
10 Steam Load
0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 0000 0200 0400 0600
3000
50
2000
40
ELECT. LOAD
(1000 lbs/hr)
Steam
30 KW
20 1000
Steam Load
10
0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 0000 0200 0400 0600
5 – 15
5.5 IDENTIFICATION OF COGENERATION OPTIONS
Types of cycles available to cogenerators are described in detail in Chapters 3 and 4. Following is
a summary of the options that can be considered:
- Topping Cycles generate electricity first, while using the exhaust steam or waste
heat from electricity generation for process thermal energy use. Examples are the
gas turbine, diesel engines, and steam turbine topping cycles.
- Bottoming Cycles take waste heat from the process and use it to generate
electricity. Examples are (a) waste heat boilers that generate steam for a steam
turbine cycle, and (b) the organic rankine cycle, analogous to the steam cycle but
with an organic fluid which boils at lower temperatures/pressures.
Topping cycles can be designed anywhere when there is a simultaneous need for electricity and
process heat, while bottoming cycles are limited to applications where process heat is available and
electricity is required. The application of topping cycles is certainly more widespread, and is
discussed in this section. Nevertheless, much of the discussion, especially on the steam cycle, is
applicable to bottoming cycles as well.
There are four major topping cycles: the gas turbine, the reciprocating engine, the steam cycle, and
the combined cycle. The first three are discussed in this section.
The combined cycle is really a combination of the gas turbine and steam cycle: the steam
generated by the gas turbine exhaust, instead of going directly to process, flows through a steam
turbine, and generates additional electricity before going to process. The application of a
combined cycle really involves optimizing the interrelation between the gas turbine and the steam
turbine.
Information presented in Exhibit - 5.8 can be used to identify the type of topping cycle or cycles
suitable for a given application. This table reveals the following:
5 – 16
Exhibit 5.8
Comparison of three topping cycles
Boiler with Steam Gas Turbine with Reciprocating

Turbine Waste Heat Boiler Engine with Waste
Heat Boiler
Electric to thermal ratio 45-132 287-463 1,433-1,653

(kW/100 kg steam/hr).
Kcal electric/Kcal thermal 0.07-0.22 0.43-0.73 2.0-2.6
Heat rate (Kcal/kWh) 1,135-1,260 1,260-1,513 1,260-1,765
Installed cost (Rs/kW) 75,000 – 84,000 92,000 – 112,000 67,000 – 75,000
Size range (kW) From 500 From 500 From 60
Pollution potential NOx, SO2 NOx NOx particulates

particulates
Fuel Oil, gas, coal, Gas, diesel, Gas, diesel,

wastes treated residual treated residual
General notes Efficient at part Clean 538oC Efficient at part

load exhaust load and in small
sizes
- Ratios of electrical and thermal power generation: There is a large difference

among the systems: steam has the lowest ratio; for gas turbine, the ratio is 5
times as high; for reciprocating engines, the ratio is about 25 times as high as for
steam that is, reciprocating engines provide 25 times as much electric power per
unit of steam as a steam cycle (or, reciprocating engines only provide 4 percent
of the process steam provided by a steam cycle system).
- Efficiency: Heat rate is inversely proportional to overall plant thermal efficiency.

The steam cycle is best in terms of overall efficiency.
5 – 17
- Costs: In general, the gas turbine has the lowest cost. Cost data in Exhibit - 5.8
is given for very general comparisons. Relative costs among the systems may
vary depending on system size and application. Costs should really be evaluated
on a life cycle basis with a fairly detailed conceptual design for costing purposes.
- Available size: Reciprocating systems are available in significantly smaller sizes

than the other two systems. Exhibit - 5.8 indicates complete system size (i.e.,
including the boiler for a steam cycle system): it should be noted turbine
generator sets themselves are available in sizes as low as 75 to 100 kW, but it
would not be economical to set up a system that small with a dedicated boiler.
Selection of a topping cycle using Exhibit - 5.8 may not always be straight forward. The cycle that
offers the closest match in terms of power to heat ratio may have to be dropped if:
 Essential fuel, e.g., natural gas, is not available,

 Electricity load falls below the size range feasible for the cycle.
Two cycles may also be considered if the power to heat ratio falls within the ranges indicated for
them.
Example of Selection of Type of Cycle
A factory has an average steam demand of 20 tonnes/hour. Average power load is 3425 kW.
Average power to heat ratio is calculated to be 168 kW/1000 kg steam. From Exhibit 5.8, it can be
seen that this power to heat ratio is closed to the steam turbine cycle,. Steam turbine cycle is
therefore selected for further analysis.
5 – 18
5.6 PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING DESIGN
After the type of cycle has been identified, the size of the system and system outputs such as
power, steam and hot water need to be determined. Fuel requirements for the selected cycle also
need to be calculated. This information is required for the estimation of capital and operating costs
which are the basis for financial analysis. Procedures for preliminary engineering design for
various topping cycles are described below. Examples of calculations for preliminary engineering
design are included in:
Steam Turbines: Appendix B-5.

Gas Turbines: Appendix B-6
Reciprocating Engines: Appendix B-7
5.6.1 Steam Turbine
Cogeneration with steam turbines can be considered if the average steam load is above 10
tonnes/hour, and where the potential for power generation is above 500 kW. Below this
level, the additional capital investment required for the high-pressure boiler and the
turbines will not be justified. Exception can be made in the case where a high-pressure
boiler is already installed.
Two basic configurations can be considered with steam turbines:
1. Backpressure and extraction backpressure turbines.

2. Extraction condensing turbines.
As discussion on the design features of steam turbine is included in Chapter 4, selection

of type of steam turbine best suited for a given set of electrical and thermal loads is
discussed below:-
5 – 19
5.6.1.1 Backpressure and Extraction Backpressure Turbines
In backpressure turbines, steam leaves the turbine at a pressure at which it can be

used in the process. If steam is used at more than one pressure, an extraction
backpressure turbine can be used to draw steam at required pressures from the
extraction stages.
Cogeneration systems based on backpressure turbines are typically designed to

meet the process steam requirements. The production of power varies,
depending on the demand for steam. If the capacity for generation of electricity
exceeds the demand, the turbines are bypassed and steam is sent directly to the
distribution system through a pressure reducing and de-superheating station. On
the other hand, if the demand for steam drops and the turbine is operated at part
load, the balance of the demand is made up through import of power from the
utility. Cogeneration systems in the sugar industry in Pakistan are an example of
this type of operation.
It is possible to size the backpressure turbine to meet the peak power demand.
The last stage in a backpressure turbine can be sized to meet the electrical load
that is not met by the preceding stages. Excess steam has to be vented if the
steam demand falls below the steam leaving the turbine. Venting steam at
pressure is highly uneconomical, and can be justified only when venting is
expected for a very short period, or where the fuel costs are exceedingly low.
This alternative is therefore rarely feasible with commercial fuels.
5.6.1.2 Extraction Condensing Turbines
A condensing section can be added to the turbine to meet the electric load that is
not met by the extraction stages. Additional steam, over and above the process
requirement, is produced to operate the turbo-generator in the match electrical
mode.
5 – 20
Following factors have to be considered while evaluating the extraction

condensing turbines:
1. Higher Cost of Electricity Produced: Marginal cost of

generating electricity using condensing sections is more than
that in a utility. The size of the turbines used for configuration
is comparatively smaller, and the boiler pressures are lower
compared to those in the utilities. Capital cost of boilers and
turbines per unit of electricity produced is therefore higher.
The fuel costs for cogeneration are therefore higher as smaller
turbines used in cogeneration are not as efficient as the larger
utility turbines.
2. Independence from the Utility: The match electrical mode

offers complete independence from the utility. Where the
supply of electricity from the utility is subject to frequent and
costly interruptions, a premium can be placed on the power
produced in house. In addition, fixed charges associated with
a utility connection including monthly demand charges and
capital investment required for connection with the grid can be
saved. It should however be noted that complete
independence from the utility will also require investment in
installation of standby boilers and turbines or emergency
generators to provide electricity when the cogeneration system
is shut down for scheduled or unscheduled maintenance.
In general, use of extraction condensing turbines to operate in the match

electrical mode should not be considered if the power to be produced by the
condensing stage is more than 20% of the total demand. With an increasing size
of the condensing stage, the average cost of power produced will increase, and a
connection with the utility to make up for the power not available from the
turbo-generators will be more advantageous.
5 – 21
5.6.1.3 Part Load Operation
Efficiency of the turbine decreases at part load operation, and power produced
per unit of steam passed through the turbine drops. However, the inefficiency
remains in steam as heat and there is no significant effect on the economics of
the operation.
5.6.1.4 Selection of Boiler Pressure
Pressure at the inlet of the turbine is determined by the pressure of the boiler.
Higher the pressure of the boiler, more will be the potential for steam generation.
However, the capital and operating cost of the boiler as well as the turbines
increases with the boiler pressure, and an economic operating pressure has to be
established. For a preliminary analysis, following steam conditions can be used
for calculations:
1. Where average steam load is less than 30 tonnes/hour, select

boiler pressure at 40 bar and steam temperature at 400 oC.
2. Where average steam load is greater than 30 tonnes/hour,

select boiler pressure higher than 40 bar and steam
temperature higher than 450oC.
5.6.1.5 Turbine Sizing
Calculation procedures for sizing of turbines are included in Appendix B-3,

Appendix B-4 describes a quick procedure for estimating power output of a
turbine generator system for given input conditions of steam.
5 – 22
Example of Turbine Sizing Using Quick Procedure
Steam Inlets Pressure: 600 psig (41.37 barg)
Steam flow rate: 8 tonnes/hr (17,600 lbs/hr) at 200 psig (13.79 barg).
12 tonnes/hr (26,400 lbs/hr) at 50 psig (3.44 barg)
Power output, from the curves in Appendix B-4:
(25 x 17.6) + (50 x 26.4) = 1,760 kW
5.6.1.6 Selection of Fuel
The operation of cogeneration boiler can be quite flexible in terms of fuel type.
Dual fuel burners can be used to fire natural gas or furnace oil. The operation can
be switched to furnace oil in the winter months when gas is in short supply.
Agricultural by-products such as bagasse can also be used without a significant
increase in capital costs. However, use of local coals which have a high sulphur
and ash content will require use of different technologies such as fluidized bed
combustion (FBC). The capital costs for fluidized beds are significantly higher,
and should be carefully investigated while considering coal as an alternative fuel.
5.6.2 Gas Turbines
Gas turbines, with waste heat recovery boilers can be considered when the power to heat
ratios are in the range of 125- 150 kwh/million Btu (496-596 kWh/million kcal) of steam,
a ratio of 0.5 - 0.6.
Gas turbine exhaust gases are typically on the order of 850 to 1000oF (454 to 538oC),
providing significant recoverable heat. A typical output heat balance for a gas turbine at full
load is shown in Exhibit - 4.13. It was shown that only 20 to 30 percent of the fuel input is
converted to electrical power, while most of the rest is exhausted as heat. As a result, gas
turbine installations need significant steam loads to be viable as cogeneration systems.
5 – 23
Operation in either match thermal or match electrical modes will result in part
load operation of the gas turbine. When gas turbine is operated at part load, less
fuel is consumed but gas turbine efficiency drops. The result is a smaller
proportion of the input fuel energy converted to electrical energy, and a greater
proportion exhausted as waste heat.. Even if all the waste heat is usable to meet
thermal load, the cost of electrical generation goes up, since the cost of electrical
energy is significantly higher than thermal energy. Part-load electrical operation
is not commonly encountered for this reason.
Operation in match thermal mode will result in part load operation of the waste
heat boiler and the turbine. Because of the operating characteristics of the gas
turbine described above, to unload the turbine to match a less than full thermal
load would cause a drop in electrical generation efficiency, resulting in a severe
drop in amount of electricity generated. From a cost effectiveness standpoint, it
is more efficient to generate more electricity and bypass exhaust up the stack.
However, even this option will not be available if there is no provision for export
of power.
The conclusion is that for high operating efficiencies, the gas turbine must see
not only large steam load but also steady steam loads. As a result, cogeneration
gas turbines are more applicable to steady process loads.
5.6.2.2 Sizing of the System
Since operation of the gas turbine at part load is not economical, the system
should be sized to meet maximum demand for steam that can be sustained at a
steady level (base steam load).
5 – 24
Example Gas Turbine Sizing
In the example quoted in Section 5.6, it was decided to select the steam turbine
alternative. Peak power demand was 4500 kW, and peak steam load was 20
tonnes/hour. Given a base power load of 3300 kW and a base steam load of 10
tonnes/hour, we can expect the following outputs from a gas turbine system:
Power output of steam turbine system: 3,300 kW

Steam generated: 8.55 tonnes/hour
It should be noted that compared to 1760 kW for the steam turbine case, the gas
turbine operating at base load can produce 3300 kW. However, the steam output
is only 8.55 tonnes/hour, which is about 40% of the peak load. Supplemental
firing will be necessary at the HRSG or additional boiler will be therefore
needed to meet balance of the demand for steam. Details of calculations are
included in Appendix B-6.
Cogeneration with gas turbines can be considered only if the supply of gas is
steady and guaranteed.
5.6.3 Reciprocating Engines
Electric efficiency of reciprocating engines ranges from about 25 to 35 percent,

depending on engine size and configuration. A sample of heat balances is listed in Exhibit
- 5.9.
The overall thermal efficiency (electricity plus useful heat output) can vary significantly,
depending on heat recovery schemes. Exhaust temperature normally range from 316 to
427oC . The optimum way to recover heat is to heat water. Generating hot water,
5 – 25
efficiency of upto 80 percent can be attained. Generating steam at 15 psig (1.05 kg/cm2g),
less than one half of the exhaust heat is used implying an efficiency of less than 75
percent assuming all engine cooling water heat is used. In general, average efficiencies of
60 to 75percent can be expected.
Steam can also be generated in the engine cooling loop, using what is called ebullient
cooling. However, ebullient cooling can make the engine run hotter and increase
emissions, and requires design modifications to the engine which may not be available
with all manufacturers.
Exhibit - 5.9
Heat Balances for Reciprocating Engines
Size 60 kW 230 - 840 kW 1200-2400 kW
Electric Output 26% 33% 35%
Cooling Water 23% 30% 34%
Exhaust 47% 30% 24%
Losses 4% 7% 7%
Total 100% 100% 100%
The reciprocating engine has a relatively flat specific fuel consumption curve
when plotted against electrical load. Unlike the gas turbine, and to a lesser
degree the steam electric plant, per unit fuel consumption does not increase at
lower loads, making the reciprocating engines more desirable for part electric
load operation. However, this is not a significant advantage in a cogeneration
application since part load operation is economically undesirable (i.e., lengthens
payback).
5 – 26
At part thermal load, exhaust gas must be bypassed, or engine cooling water
must be circulated through a cooling tower. The former is obviously the
preferable arrangement. At part thermal load, the only advantage of the
reciprocating engine is the fact that it has a higher efficiency of conversion to
electric output.
5.6.3.2 Sizing of the System
The system is sized to meet the electrical load. The general practice is to use a
train of identical generating sets. At least one generator is installed as standby,
and the sets are switched on or off to match the demand and to maintain an
optimum loading on the operating units. The steam or hot water available from
the system can be estimated on the basis of heat balance data given in Exhibit
5.9.
Example Calculation of Steam Output of Reciprocating Engine
The peak power requirement of the example given in Section 5.6 was 4500 kW.
If the reciprocating engines were used, we could expect the following outputs:
Total Capacity of the Generators: 4500 kW (7 units x 650 kW)
Average Power Demand: 3425 kW
Generator Efficiency: 31%
Hourly Fuel Efficiency: 3425 kWh x 3413 Btu/kWh x

100/31
37.71 Million Btu/hr (39.78 GJ/hr)
Exhaust Heat: 30% of fuel input.
Heat Recoverable as 50 psig Steam: 50% of exhaust heat

37.71 x 0.3 x 0.5 = 5.66 million
Btu/hr (5.97 GJ/hr).
Energy Required/Unit Seam: 1050 Btu/lb or 2,442 kJ/kg
5 – 27
Steam Produced: 5.66 x 106 / 1,050 = 5,390 lbs/hour

(2.44 tonnes/hr)
Compared to the steam turbine and gas turbine cases where only part of the
power load is taken up by the cogeneration system, the reciprocating engine can
match the power load of the facility. The connection with the utility is therefore
not needed, and fixed demand charges can be saved. However, only a fraction of
the steam demand is met, and additional boilers have to be relied upon for
production of steam. Detailed calculations for this case are included in
Appendix B-7.
Two fuel options can be considered for reciprocating engines, furnace oil and
natural gas. A general discussion on the fuel options and the corresponding
operation characteristics is included in this Section. The type of fuel is
determined by the design of the engine, and it is not possible to switch engine
fuels. The selection of gas or furnace oil as fuel with depend on.
1. Certainty in the supply of gas,
2. Ability of the company to manage specialized maintenance of

furnace oil engines.
Furnace oil engines require skilled personnel for maintenance, and the cost of
spares and lubricating oils is higher.
5 – 28
5.7 PRELIMINARY FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
The engineering analysis described above can be combined with data on capital and operating
costs to calculate simple pay back periods for investments in cogeneration. Sample calculations
for steam turbine, gas turbine and reciprocating engines are included in Appendices B.5 to B.7.
A detailed discussion on financial analysis of configuration investments is included in Chapter 6.
Following is a brief description of the methodology for preliminary financial analysis.
5.7.1 Definition of Base Case and Calculation of Base Case Costs
Base case is defined as the configuration or alternative that will be adopted if

cogeneration is not undertaken. In most cases, base case will consist of power purchased
from electricity supply company, and generation of steam from boilers. For new
facilities, capital cost for new low pressure boilers and cost of connection with electricity
supply should also be estimated. Procedures for estimating base case costs for electricity
and steam are included in Appendices B-1 and B-2:
5.7.2 Calculation of Simple Pay Back Period
With the installation of a cogeneration system, the total cost of supplying power and
steam to a facility is expected to drop. Net savings due to cogeneration can be calculated
as :
Cost of power and steam in base case – Less - Cost of power and steam with cogeneration
The incremental capital cost for a cogeneration system are defined as:
Capital cost of cogeneration system – Less - Capital cost for base case.
Capital costs for cogeneration systems can be estimated from the data provided in Chapter
6.
5 – 29
Simple pay back period is defined as:
Increment investment for cogeneration

Net annual savings from cogeneration
The preliminary financial analysis can be reviewed to take a decision on the future course
of action. The decision can be either to drop plans for cogeneration, or to select one of
more options for detailed feasibility study and financial analysis.
Example of Preliminary Financial Analysis to Evaluate Cogeneration Options
As discussed earlier in this chapter, the selection of an option in a particular situation will
depend on a number of site specific factors. The example below has been included to
demonstrate a general approach towards analysis and comparison of cogeneration options.
The analysis presented should not be taken as a recommendation for any of the systems
considered.
Calculation of simple pay back period for examples included in Section 5.6 of this
chapter gives the following comparisons:
Additional Average Average Simple

Capital Cost Power Steam Output Payback
(Rs. Million) Output (Tonnes/hr) Period
(kW) (Years)
Steam Turbine 60.37 1761 15.00 1.46
Gas Turbine 188.00 3300 8.55 2.36
Reciprocating Engine 243.00 3425 2.44 2.83
Following observations can be made from the comparison presented above:
1. The gas turbine option can be dropped for the following reasons:.
 the supply of gas is interruptible in the winter months,
5 – 30
 the pay back period is relatively unattractive.
2. The pay back period for the steam turbine case is the lowest. However, the
difference in pay back periods between steam turbine and reciprocating engines
is not that significant, and a closer look at both these options is warranted.
3. The heat recovery and consequently the steam output in the case of reciprocating
engine is low as there is no demand for low pressure steam turbine or hot water.
The economics of using reciprocating engines will improve significantly if use
for low pressure steam and hot water can be found. The thermal loads at the
facility should be investigated further to examine the possibility of using hot
water and low pressure steam.
5.8 COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF COGENERATION CYCLE ALTERNATIVES
In this Section, a comparison is made of the economic and technical advantages of repowering
existing small industrial boilers with conventional engine/gas turbine driven generator sets.
Operating advantages in steam generation reliability and flexibility is discussed below..
A traditional cogeneration plant consists of a prime mover coupled to a generator and exhausting
to a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The heat recovered from the exhaust flue gas is used
to generate steam for process (cogeneration cycle) or to drive a steam powered turbine driven
electric generator (combined cycle). These plants are costly and significant capital savings could
be realized by repowering existing, installed steam generators (boilers) in either “hot windbox” or
“cold windbox” arrangements.
As in the typical combined cycle systems, supplemental firing (if properly designed) can be
included in the repowered plants enhancing the steam cycle operating conditions to:
1) produce higher steam temperatures needed for process,
5 – 31
2) increase boiler steaming capacities,

3) allow operating the boiler while the prime mover (CT/engine) is off-line for
maintenance or load dispatch, and
4) improve plant efficiency.
Capital required to install a traditional combined cycle plant in large sizes (greater than 50MW)
ranges about $700-$900 per kW. As we move to smaller generators, capital costs will increase to
approximately $900-$1100 per kW. Even so, the payback can be very attractive as the increased
operating efficiencies reduce operating costs.
The traditional combustion turbine combined cycle plant is sized to match the maximum site
thermal requirements. This offers maximum cycle efficiency at full load. On the other hand, these
plants tend to be inflexible and do not allow the operators the ability to match changing thermal
loads. If steam demand falls off, cycle efficiency decreases due to energy losses when exhaust is
bypassed to the atmosphere. An auxiliary boiler is required for operating periods when the prime
mover is out of service.
There are thousands of package boilers operating in the Pakistan supplying steam to process
industries, hospitals, institutions, and utilities. These boilers are typically shop assembled and offer
a very reliable, cost effective source of steam. There is a significant opportunity to utilize these
installed package boilers to cogenerate steam and electricity at efficiencies exceeding large scale
power plants. Using the existing boilers as HRSGs will reduce the plant’s capital outlay and can
result in a combined cycle cost of $600-$800 per kW.
The technical advantages of repowering cold windbox package boilers to a supplemental fired
arrangement are numerous. With supplemental and fresh air firing capability, boiler steam
production is independent of electric generation offering greater operating flexibility. This is
important to many industrial owners where steam and electric loads fluctuate significantly and
independently throughout the day. Unless supplemental firing capability is provided, most
cogeneration plants can not support these daily swings, or require auxiliary boilers to satisfy
demand. Thermal cycle efficiencies are higher for supplementary fired cogeneration arrangements
as compared to a simple cycle generator with an auxiliary boiler. Exhibits 5.10 and 5.11 compare
5 – 32
plant efficiencies for a cogeneration plant and a simple cycle plant with an auxiliary boiler. Exhibit
– 5.10 shows an improvement in cycle efficiency of 16% at full load for a combustion
supplementary fired cogeneration plant. Exhibit – 5.11 shows a 14.6% improvement at full load for
a reciprocating engine plant. Using Exhibit – 5.12 to compare the combustion turbine to the
reciprocating engine in the cogeneration plant, it is important to note the reciprocating engine
arrangement achieves higher plant efficiencies at steam loads of less than 30%.
Exhibit – 5.10
(Source:Babcock & Willcox)
5 – 33
Exhibit – 5.11
Exhibit – 5.12
(Source: Babcock & Willcox)
5 – 34
Environmentally speaking, overall plant NOx emissions are reduced as the fired boiler reburns the
nitrogen oxide in the prime mover exhaust to produce lower total emissions.
While the emphasis of this discussion is on small industrial boilers which are primarily cold
windbox (i.e., no air preheater), some discussion is necessary on repowering existing boilers that
are designed to fire with preheated combustion air. Hot windbox units serve large industrial or
utility plants. The hot windbox arrangement offers a relatively flat heat rate over the entire
generator output range and is about 10% lower than the original plant. Boiler retrofit costs could
be minimal. At issue however would be removal of the air heater and installation of additional
economizer surface to capture the heat in the boiler exit flue gas. The most attractive approach is to
preheat feedwater.
Exhibit – 5.13 compares the reciprocating engine and the combustion turbine (CT) supplemental
fired repowered cold windbox arrangements to a typical CT cogeneration plant with an unfired
HRSG. At full boiler load plant efficiencies are very close together ranging from 75.3% to 80.1%.
But as the steam demand is reduced, efficiency for the unfired arrangement falls off quickly. This
occurs because the CT exhaust is diverted away from the boiler and dumped to the atmosphere so
that steam output can be matched to demand. Intuitively, the uncaptured waste heat reduces plant
efficiency.
5 – 35
Exhibit – 5.13
Clearly, it is more cost effective and efficient to size the CT smaller and choose a supplementary
fired boiler to achieve the needed steam flow. This allows the operator to turn down the boiler to
match the load.
Package boilers are designed with high volumetric release rates and thus have tightly spaced heat
transfer surfaces. This results in relatively high gas side pressure drop. Back pressure on the prime
mover is a significant concern as it directly impacts its power out or electricity generated.
For maximum efficiency, the prime mover must be matched to the existing boiler. When
supplemental firing is utilized with the prime mover (GT or engine) in service, frequently there is
sufficient oxygen in the exhaust gas to support the combustion of the fuel needed for the desired
heat input to achieve steaming requirements.
In the case of firing the boiler using exhaust gas (EG), the combustion air is at temperatures in the
range of 750oF to 1000oF (399oC to 538oC) with approximately 12% to 17% oxygen content,
whereas in the Fresh Air Fired (FAF) situation the combustion air is ambient with 21% oxygen
5 – 36
content. In addition, the pressure drop across the burner is required to be low when operating with
EG, (high volume condition), and current technology burner designs require high pressure drop
when operating as FAF (low volume conditions).
5 – 37
6. FINANCIAL CONSIDERATION AND COSTING
Investment decisions are influenced by both present and future costs. To enable sound decisions to
be taken, economic analysis use present information as well as appraisals of future conditions.
The decision to proceed with a cogeneration project is basically an investment decision. Like any
other investment, cogeneration power plants involve the expenditure of capital increment to gain
additional assets which are expected to provide a predetermined minimum attractive rate of return.
Since the economic viability of cogeneration is very site specific, a complete analysis requires
detailed engineering studies. Only after the results of such an analysis are available can a decision
be taken with confidence on whether or not to proceed with the project. Detailed engineering
studies are a part of value engineering which examines the value of a product or system in relation
to its cost so that the required objectives can be achieved at the lowest overall cost.
The following factors relating to engineering studies, which are an essential part of value
engineering, must be considered:
 Preliminary Planning and Screening: It is essential that adequate preliminary

planning be carried out taking into consideration all viable alternatives which
should be properly screened before detailed economic studies are undertaken;
 Use of Acceptable Economy Study Methods: Though simple pay back period
classifications are very good quick guides to the possible attractiveness of
investment, detailed working should be carried out to determine the Internal Rate
of Return;
6–1
 Preparation of Estimates: The most critical requirement of economic studies is

the estimation of variables such as capital costs, operating costs, duty life,
revenues/savings, etc. The general principles of estimating are governed by:
(a) How much information is potentially obtained from additional

estimating efforts?
(b) What resources are available for making estimates? And
(c) Degree of urgency for completion of the estimates.
The following details of estimates are typically needed in the economic analysis of cogeneration
power plants
 First (investment) Cost (Capital Cost);
 Fuel Costs;
 Operation and Maintenance Costs;
 Revenue from sales and savings from in-house utilization of electrical energy
and excess thermal energy;
 Economic life (crucial to the analysis result);
 Salvage values (function of the economic life and relatively unimportant to the
analysis result in the case of long lives).
Since only detailed engineering can provide sufficient data and this is not feasible till the project
go-ahead is given, a quantitative technique is utilized which involves the skill and experience of an
engineer. Unit techniques are used for such items as first cost (capital cost of power plant per kW
capacity), operation and maintenance costs (per kW power plant capacity), standard economic
lives and zero salvage values. Generally, the estimates are considered on conservative principles.
6–2
6.1 CAPITAL FINANCING
Cogeneration power plants are basically capital intensive projects and the sources of capital
financing can be an important consideration in the investment analysis in which different sources
may be used. It is important, therefore, to know the rate of return for each alternative.
The source of capital financing could be equity, depreciation funds, retained profits, borrowing or
leasing. A short description of each alternative source of financing follows:-
6.1.1 Equity
Equity capital is supplied and used by its owners in the expectation that a profit, of a
minimum acceptable level, will be carried. However, in equity financing the owners have
no assurance that a profit will actually be made or indeed that even the equity capital
invested by them will be recovered.
6.1.2 Depreciation Fund
When the funds that are set aside out of revenue as the cost of depreciation are a part of
the net cash flow, these can be retained and used for capital financing for expansion
projects like cogeneration.
Normally, much equipment may continue to be used after its original value has been
recovered through normal depreciation procedures. Hence, the accumulated funds may be
available for use until the original equipment must be replaced. Also, if the depreciation
procedures used in accounting are such that they provide large recoveries of the first costs
during the first few years of equipment life, there will usually be funds available before
the equipment must be replaced. Thus, the depreciation funds may provide a revolving
investment fund which will become a source of capital for new ventures like
6–3
cogeneration. Obviously, the management of these funds must ensure the availability of
required capital when the time does come for replacement of essential equipment.
6.1.3 Retained Profit
Existing enterprises have an important source of capital financing for expansion of

activities, like setting up cogeneration power plants, through retained profits.
Normally, a part of profit earned by an enterprise is retained after payment of adequate

dividend to the shareholders and this capital is then re-invested for a further increase in
profits.
6.1.4 Borrowing
With borrowed financing, a fixed rate of profit, or value of money, must be paid to the
suppliers of the capital and the borrowed funds must be repaid at a specified time.
The suppliers of debt capital do not share in the profits resulting from the use of their
capital. Normally, the terms of the borrowed financing (loan) may place some restrictions
on the uses to which the funds may be put, specially concerning the source from which
equipment may be procured, or in some cases, even the type of shipment.
6.1.5 Leasing
Leasing is only one of several ways of obtaining working capital and a decision to lease,
rather than purchase, should be based upon the cost of capital financing by other possible
methods, some of which have been described earlier in this section.
6–4
Most leases cannot be cancelled, or not without incurring costly penalties, whereas
borrowed financing works on some fixed obligations and may provide better terms.
Leasing usually simplifies maintenance problems, though there may, or may not, be
savings in maintenance costs. Also, many indirect costs, which are difficult to determine
in most cases, are associated with ownership which may not apply to equipment under
lease.
In many cases, leasing turns out to be cheaper than owning, but the actual comparative
costs and all other factors must be considered before a decision is taken.
6.2 ESTIMATING COSTS
The basic steps in the preliminary economic analysis would normally cover the following steps:
 Estimating the equipment cost;
 Estimating equipment operating cost;
 Estimating the investment cost of the cogeneration system;
 Calculating simple payback;
 Calculating the rate of return on net investment.
6.2.1 Estimating Equipment Costs
Capital costs can vary quite a bit with the complexity of the system. They will also vary
considerably, depending on the source of supply, due not only to the basic rates in a
particular country but also due to the constantly changing currency conversion rates
6–5
caused by, for instance, a sharp lowering of the value of the Pakistani Rupee against
currencies of countries which would normally supply most of the required equipment:
6.2.1.1 Boiler-Steam Turbine – alternator Configuration
 Boiler, high-pressure (maximum 40 bars, 399oC) watertube type, one

duty and one standby type;
 Multi-stage high-efficiency back-pressure steam turbine for full load

and single-stage low-efficiency back-pressure steam turbine of about
60% capacity for standby;
 Low Voltage Alternators;
 Piping for compact layout;
 Auxiliary condenser, with two circuits, each circuit rated at 75% of full
load;
 Condensate tank, condensate pumps, deaerator, feedwater tanks,

feedwater pumps, and chemical water treatment for boilers;
 Electrical switchgear, cables and back-start generator;
 Instrumentation and controls.
Total installed cost for above:
 Rs.75,000/kW for a capacity range of about 3,000 to 4,500 kW,

including standby capacity;
 Rs. 84,000/kW for capacity range of about 2,000-3,000 kW, including

standby capacity.
6–6
6.2.1.2 Gas Turbine-Alternator-Waste Heat Recovery Boiler Configuration
 Gas turbine, suitable for natural gas and diesel oil;
 Low voltage alternators;
 Waste heat recovery boiler;
 G.T. exhaust flue duct for compact layout;
 Condensate tanks, steam storage vessels, feedwater pumps and

chemical water treatment for boilers;
 Electrical switchgear, cables and back-start diesel generator;
 Rs.92,000/kW for a nominal capacity range of about 3,000 to 4,500

kW, including standby capacity;
 Rs. 104,000/kW for nominal capacity range of about 2,000-3,000 kW,

including standby capacity.
 Rs.112,000/kW for nominal capacity range of about 1,200 to 1,600 kW

6.2.1.2 Furnace Oil -Alternator-Waste Heat Recovery Boiler Configuration
 Furnace oil engines;
 Low voltage alternators;
 Waste heat recovery boilers;
 Condensate tanks, feedwater pumps and chemical water treatment for

boilers;
6–7
 Electrical switchgear and cables.
 Rs.67,000/kW for a nominal capacity range of about 3,500 to 4,500

kW, including standby capacity;
 Rs. 75,000/kW for nominal capacity range of about 2,500 to 3,500 kW,
6.2.1.4 Costing Factors Rs.28,000/kW for nominal capacity range.
The cost estimates given above are based on the following:-
(a) Currency conversion rates for important equipment:
1 US Dollar = Rs. 61.00
1 Euro = Rs. 82.00
1 Pound Sterling = Rs.110.00
1 Japanese Yen = Rs. 0.45
(b) Allowance for import, including surcharges, for imported equipment:
Duty and Sales Tax free = 1.20 x CIF price
6–8
(c) Local equipment * included in above pricing:
 Watertube boilers;
 Auxiliary condensers;
 Deaerators/feedwater tanks;
 Condensate tanks;
 Centrifugal water pumps upto 8 inches diameter connections;
 Electrical switchgear.
6.2.2 Estimating Equipment Operating Costs
Based on the configuration of the particular cogeneration cycle selected, the main
equipment operating costs should first be estimated. The major operating costs of all
electrical and thermal energy production relate to fuel costs, and the concept of
incremental fuel costing should be followed to estimate the fuel cost. Thus, the
incremental in fuel consumption per kW power production is calculated by dividing the
incremental heat rate (kcal/kW) by the fuel heating value.
6.2.3 Estimating the Incremental Cost of Cogeneration
The total installed cost estimates of the various configurations given above are for
complete systems. In evaluating the economics of cogeneration one must recognize that if
a cogeneration system were not to be installed, the facility will still require steam and
*
This equipment is locally produced and Government regulations do not, normally allow import to
these items.
6–9
electricity. The incremental investment required for cogeneration is the cost of the plant
as estimated above minus the cost of supplying steam and electricity separately, that is:
 Cost of system for production of thermal energy in absence of

cogeneration would include boilers, condensate system, feedwater
system, piping, pump insulation, instrumentation, plant room
construction and the associated civil and electrical works, etc;
 If a cogeneration system can eliminate purchase of electric power from

the utility then the cost of purchasing electricity in terms of capital
investment like H.T. cables, transformer substation, electric substation
room for separate purchase of electricity should also be taken into
account..
Similarly one must also look at the incremental cost of having various levels of
cogeneration capacity and producing additional steam and purchasing remaining
electricity. Each increment of cogeneration capacity must justify itself on the criteria
selected for investment.
6.3 MEASURING FINANCIAL ATTRACTIVENESS
Regardless of whether the cogeneration facility is part of a totally new facility or is a retrofit to
existing operation, the key business decision criterion is return on investment. Both profit making
and non-profit making organizations generally strive to maximize the benefits they derive from an
economic comparison between alternative applications of funds. For the basic feasibility of the
project to be determined, simple calculations such as payback period and the internal rate of return
are normally considered sufficient. Further study and detailing can be undertaken when the project
has been given the go ahead signal for detailed engineering and project financing has been
arranged.
6 – 10
6.3.1 Simple Payback Period
The easiest and most basic measure of financial attractiveness of a project is the simple
payback period. The simple payback period reflects the length of time required for a
project to return its investment through net savings (gross annual savings and other
benefits less any additional annual operating and maintenance expenses due to the
project). Savings generated after that time are considered to be “unburdened” savings:
these savings do not have to be used to repay the cost of the project. In cases where the
annual savings are constant, the simple payback period can be computed from the
following formula:
Total Capital Cost

Simple Payback Period (years) =
Net Annual Savings
A more attractive investment is one with a shorter simple payback period. In order to
express the simple payback period in terms of months instead of years, the expression
above is simple multiplied by 12. The simple payback period can be expressed in terms
of before tax or after tax savings by substitution of the appropriate figure in the
denominator of the expression above.
A similar measure of financial profitability is known as percent rate of return, or return

on investment (ROI). This is simply the reciprocal of simple payback, multiplied by 100
percent:
Net Annual Savings

Percent Rate of Return = x 100%
Total Capital Cost
The higher the percentage rate of return, the more attractive the investment opportunity.
In cases where the net annual savings are not constant from year to year (e.g. a project
which has different maintenance requirements from year to year), the simple payback
6 – 11
period can be determined graphically. An example of this technique is shown in Exhibit

6.2. For this example, the cash flows from Project A in Exhibit 6.1 are used.
As can be seen in Exhibit 6.2, the simple payback period is the time after project
implementation when the cumulative net savings are equal to the total capital cost or
where the cumulative cash flow is zero. This is also known as the “breakeven point”.
The use of simple payback period as a measure of financial attractiveness is widespread in

Pakistan. There are, however, some problems with the technique which may lead to
incorrect comparisons of project alternatives. For instance, the simple payback period
does not take into account the net profits or net savings achieved after the breakeven point
has been achieved. As an example, consider the two projects shown in Exhibit 6.1. Both
projects have an initial investment of Rs.100,000. On the basis of payback period,
Project A reaches its breakeven point after 5 years, while Project B’s breakeven point is
reached after 3 years. However, a comparison of the cumulative cash flows of the two
projects indicates that Project A yields a cumulative cash flow of Rs.110,000 while
Project B yields a cumulative cash flow of only Rs.10,000. Project A is obviously much
more profitable than Project B. Hence, the simple payback period on its own can lead to
erroneous decision making.
6.3.2 Discounted Cash Flow
The discounted cash flow approach (sometimes referred to as the net present value
approach) uses the time value of money to convert a stream of annual cash flows
generated by a project to a single value; the net present value. The discounted cash flow
approach also allows one to incorporate depreciation, income tax implications, and other
cash flows that may vary from year to year.
The discounted cash flow or net present value method takes a stream of cash flows over a
period of time and “discounts” the cash flows to yield their cumulative present value. The
cumulative present value may be thought of as the amount of money that needs to be
6 – 12
Exhibit 6.1
Comparison of Cash Flows for Two Projects
Project A Project A Project B Project B

Year Annual Cash Cumulative Cash Annual Cash Cumulative
Flow Flow Flow Cash Flow
(Rs) (Rs) (Rs) (Rs)
(100,000) (100,000) (100,000)

0 (100,000)
(100,000) 50,000 (50,000)

1 0
2 10,000 (90,000) 30,000 (20,000)
3 20,000 (70,000) 20,000 0
4 30,000 (40,000) 10,000 10,000
5 40,000 0 0 10,000
6 50,000 50,000 0 10,000
7 60,000 110,000 0 10,000
Total 110,000 10,000
Simple Payback 5 years 3 years
6 – 13
Exhibit 6.2
Simple Payback Period vs
Discounted Payback Period
150
100
Thousand Rs
Breakeven Point
50
-50
-100
-150
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Year
Cum Cash Flow Cum Disc. Cash Flow
6 – 14
invested today at an interest rate equal to the discount rate (time value of money) in order
to generate the amount of revenue equal to the cash flow in each of the years of the
project.
An example of this approach is shown in Exhibit 6.3. Naturally, the net present value of a
stream of cash flows depends heavily on the time value of money assumed. Generally the
time value of money is taken to be that annual rate of interest that can be achieved
through the safest investment possible (generally leaving the money in the bank) where
the possibility of achieving a fixed rate of return is as close to a surety as possible.
The higher the cost of capital the lower the net present value of a future sum of money.
This can be seen in Exhibit 6.3, for instance, in year 10 a sum of Rs.320,000 is expected
to be received, the present value of that sum, assuming a cost of capital of 10% is seen to
be Rs.123,374; at 15% cost of capital, the present value is reduced to Rs.79,099 and at
20%, the present value of that same sum is only Rs.51,682.
The same principle applies to a stream of cash flows and its cumulative value. The
cumulative value (not discounted) of the cash flows is seen to be Rs.2,140,000 (the
cumulative cash flow in the last year, year 14, in Exhiit 6.3. Applying the appropriate
discount rates to these cash flow, we see that the cumulative net present value of the
individual cash flows is reduced to Rs.558,106 at 10% to Rs.231,927, and to Rs.42,113 at
20%.
When comparing alternative investment opportunities, the net present value approach is a
useful tool. As might be expected, when comparing alternative investments, the project
having the highest cumulative net present value is the most attractive. However, the net
present value approach has one serious limitation; it should not be used to compare
projects having unequal lives.
6 – 15
Exhibit 6. 3
SIMPLE PAYBACK PERIOD VS DISCOUNTED PAYBACK PERIOD
Discounted at 10 Discounted at 20
Not Discounted Percent Discounted at 15 percent Percent
Year Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow
0 (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000)
1 (30,000) (40,000) (27,273) (37,273) (26,087) (36,087) (25,000) (35,000)
2 (60,000) (100,000) (49,587) (86,860) (45,369) (81,456) (41,667) (76,667)
3 (750,000) (850,000) (563,486) (650,346) (493,137) (574,593) (434,028) (510,694)
4 (150,000) (1,000,000) (102,452) (752,798) (85,763) (660,356) (72,338) (583,032)
5 200,000 (800,000) 124,184 (628,613) 99,435 (560,920) 80,376 (502,657)
6 300,000 (500,000) 169,342 (459,271) 129,698 (431,222) 100,469 (402,188)
7 400,000 (100,000) 205,263 (254,008) 150,375 (280,847) 111,633 (290,555)
8 400,000 300,000 186,603 (67,405) 130,761 (150,087) 93,027 (197,928)
9 360,000 660,000 152,675 85,270 102,334 (47,752) 69,770 (127,797)
10 320,000 980,000 123,374 208,644 79,099 31,347 51,682 (76,075)
11 280,000 1,260,000 98,138 306,782 60,184 91,531 37,685 (38,391)
12 240,000 1,500,000 76,471 383,254 44,858 136,389 26,918 (11,473)
13 240,000 1,740,000 69,519 452,773 39,007 175,396 22,431 10,958
14 400,000 2,140,000 105,333 558,106 56,531 231,927 31,155 42,113
6 – 16
6.3.3 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
The internal rate of return and the net present value approaches are very similar. As
stated previously, the cumulative net present value can be thought of as the amount of
money we must invest at an interest rate equivalent to the discount rate in order to be able
to draw off revenues equal to the non-discounted cash flows in each of the years of the
projects. In the IRR approach, we seek to determine that interest rate at which the
cumulative net present value of the project is equal to zero. This means that the
cumulative net present value of all project costs would exactly equal the cumulative net
present value of all project benefits, if both are discounted at the internal rate of return.
This computed IRR is compared to the company’s actual cost of capital. If the IRR
exceeds the company’s cost of capital, the project is considered to be financially
attractive. The higher the IRR compared to the cost of capital, the more attractive the
project. On the other hand, if the IRR is less than the company’s cost of capital, then the
project is not considered to be financial attractive.
The manual computation of IRR is generally an iterative process. Many personal

computer spreadsheet programs and some hand-held financial calculators have the ability
to compute IRR from a stream of cash flows. Manually, one starts with a “guess” of their
and computes the cumulative net present value of the cash flow stream. If the cumulative
net present value is negative, repeat the process with a lower assumed IRR. Repeat the
iterative process until the cumulative net present value is close to zero.
Example;
Using the annual cash flow data from Exhibit 6.3 compute the internal rate of
return of the project.
6 – 17
The manual computations, performed with the aid of a microcomputer, are

shown in Exhibit 6.4. The starting point for the calculation was assumed IRR of
15%. This yielded a cumulative discounted cash flow that was too high. Since
cumulative discounted cash flow decreases with increasing cost of capital, the
next iteration assumed a value of 20% for the IRR. The cumulative discounted
cash flow was still positive, so the calculation was repeated with a higher IRR of
25%, giving a negative cumulative discounted cash flow. The next guess was
22.5%, and the iterations are repeated until the cumulative net present value was
as close to zero as possible. The last column shows the estimated IRR at
21.625%.
The exact IRR, calculated by the computer software is 21.5987%. The iterative
estimate of 21.625% is quite sufficient.
The internal rate of return approach has its advantage in that it provides a single number
that can be compared to a standard or fixed cost of capital to the company. In many
cases, the IRR is used alone to decide on investment priorities. The IRR represents the
effective interest rate that will be received on the investment after repayment of the
original investment, plus any interest due on borrowed funds, plus all taxes and expenses.
However, the IRR does not give the decision maker a perspective on the magnitude of the
expected return or of the original investment. For instance, a project with an original
investment of Rs.100,000 and annual cash flows of Rs.10,000 per year for 5 years has the
exact same IRR as an investment of Rs.1 million and annual cash flows of Rs.100,000 per
year for 5 years. Hence, the IRR method should not be used by itself. It is often
convenient to compute the IRR of the investment and the cumulative net present value at
the cost of capital to the company. For each project
6 – 18
Exhibit 6. 4
Internal Rate of Return
Actual Discounted Discounted Discounted Discounted Discounted Discounted Discounted

Year Cash Flow a 15% at 20% at 25% at 22.5% at 21.5% at 21.75% at 21.625%
0 (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000) (10,000)

1 (30,000) (26,087) (25,000) (24,000) (24,490) (24,491) (24,641) (24,666)
2 (60,000) (45,369) (41,667) (38,400) (39,983) (40,644) (40,477) (40,561)
3 (750,000) (493,137) (434,028) (384,000) (407,993) (418,150) (415,580) (416,862)
4 (150,000) (85,763) (72,338) (61,440) (66,611) (68,831) (68,268) (68,549)
5 200,000 99,435 80,376 65,536 72,502 75,535 74,763 75,148
6 300,000 129,698 100,469 78,643 88,778 93,253 92,110 92,680
7 400,000 150,375 111,633 83,886 96,629 102,335 100,874 101,601
8 400,000 130,761 93,027 67,109 78,881 84,227 82,853 83,537
9 360,000 102,334 69,770 48,318 57,953 62,390 61,247 61,815
10 320,000 79,099 51,682 34,360 42,052 45,644 44,716 45,177
11 280,000 60,184 37,685 24,052 30,037 32,871 31,137 32,502
12 240,000 44,858 26,918 16,493 21,017 23,190 22,625 22,905
13 240,000 39,007 22,431 13,194 17,157 19,086 18,583 18,833
14 400,000 58,931 31,155 17,592 23,343 26,181 25,439 25,807
Cumulative
Discounted 2,140,000 231,927 42,113 (68,697) (20,728) 2,396 (3,621) (633)
Cashflow
Actual Internal Rate of Return: 21.59876%
Formula to Calculate IRR

n Ct
IRR Σ ------- - Co = 0
t=1 (1 + r) t
Where: Co = Initial Investment; Ct = Cashflow upto period “t”

“r” = Rate of return; “n” = Number of years
6 – 19
under consideration comparisons should be made on the two measures of financial

attractiveness, rather than on only one or the other of the measures.
6.3.3.1 Example of IRR Calculation for Cogeneration
In Chapter 5, a preliminary financial analysis for a steam turbine case was

presented. For a capital investment of Rs.91.57 million, net annual savings were
estimated at Rs.41.38 million, and simple payback period was calculated at 1.46
years. For the same case, a detailed financial analysis is shown in Exhibit 6.5.
following is an outline of the approach used.
1. Assumptions for the financial analysis are listed. These

include:
- additional capital cost for the project
- foreign and local components of the capital cost
- debt equity ratio
- interest rate, term , and grace period for the loans
- depreciation rate for tax purposes
- depreciation rate for accounting purposes
- escalation rate for operating costs.
2. The amounts of loans required are calculated. Schedule of debt

service including interest and principal payment of the loan is
calculated for the term period of the loan.
6 – 20
3. Depreciation for tax purposes is calculated according to the

permitted schedule.
4. The interest component of debt service and depreciation for

accounting purposes are added to the operating costs to
calculate total cost with cogeneration. Additional income is
obtained by subtracting total cost with cogeneration from total
operating costs without cogeneration.
5. Net income is calculated after deducting taxes from the

income.
6. After tax cash flow for the project is calculated. Savings in

operating costs due to cogeneration provide the cash for the
project. Debt service and taxes account for cash out flows.
7. IRR is calculated on the basis of cash flow over the life of the
project. Payback period is calculated as the time when the
cumulative cash inflow equals the equity investment in the
project.
For the case described in Exhibit 6.5, it should be noted that while the simple
payback period (on the basis of ten year average net savings) was 3.71 years, the
IRR is 37.73%, and payback period on the basis of cash flow is 2.15 years.
6.3.4 Sensitivity Analysis
Sensitivity, in general, means the relative magnitude of change in the measures of merit,
as done in determination of IRR., caused by one or more changes in estimated elements or
variables.
6 – 21
Sometimes, sensitivity is more specifically defined to mean the relative magnitude of the
change in one or more elements or variables that will reverse a decision among the
alternatives.
Sensitivity of cogeneration projects are affected by the first cost (dependent normally on
foreign exchange conversion rates, government duties and taxes on imported equipment,
specially accessories, etc.) changes in fuel costs, changes in revenues by possible sale of
power, etc. Generally, there is a direct relationship of inflation factor on above
sensitivity. The cost of purchased power from the Utility also rises, though not necessarily
to the same proportion. However, sensitivity analysis for feasibility studies should be
insisted only in projects which are considered marginal for the internal rate of return
determined for the project.
6 – 22
Exhibit 6. 5
DETAILED FINANCIAL ANALYSIS FOR COGENERATION.
1. COST OF THE PROJECT (RS. MILLION)
Total Cost 91.57

---------
2. FINANCING OF THE PROJECT
Equity 30%
Debt 70%
Equity (Rs. Million) 27.47
Debt (Rs. Million) 64.10
3. TERMS OF DEBT FINANCING

Mark Up 14%
Amortization Period, Years 10
Grace Period, Years 1
4. DEBT SERVICE (Repayment/year)
Local Currency Loan (Rs. Million) 6.41
5. DEPRECIATION POLICY
FOR ACCOUNTING PURPOSES
Straight line over 10 years.
FOR TAX PURPOSES

Straight line over ten years.
6. ESCALATION RATE FOR OPERATING COSTS 5%
6 – 23
Exhibit 6.5
DETAILED FINANCIAL ANALYSIS FOR COGENERATION.
(Continued)
REPAYMENT SCHEDULE FOR LONG TERM LOAN
(Rs. in million)
Loan Amount : 64.10
Rate of Interest : 14%
No. of Payments : 20 (Half Yearly)
Grace Period : 1
Annual Annual
Year Period Ammort. Balance Interest
Interest Repayment
1 1.00 0.00 64.10 4.49 Grace

2.00 0.00 64.10 4.49 8.97 0.00
2 3.00 3.20 60.89 4.26
4.00 3.20 57.69 4.04 8.30 6.41
3 5.00 3.20 54.48 3.81
6.00 3.20 51.28 3.59 7.40 6.41
4 7.00 3.20 48.07 3.37
8.00 3.20 44.87 3.14 6.51 6.41
5 9.00 3.20 41.66 2.92
10.00 3.20 38.46 2.69 5.61 6.41
6 11.00 3.20 35.25 2.47
12.00 3.20 32.05 2.24 4.71 6.41
7 13.00 3.20 28.84 2.02
14.00 3.20 25.64 1.79 3.81 6.41
8 15.00 3.20 22.43 1.57
16.00 3.20 19.23 1.35 2.92 6.41
9 17.00 3.20 16.02 1.12
18.00 3.20 12.82 0.90 2.02 6.41
10 19.00 3.20 9.61 0.67
20.00 3.20 6.41 0.45 1.12 6.41
11 21.00 3.20 3.20 0.22
22.00 3.20 0.00 0.00 0.22 6.41
6 – 24
Exhibit 6.5
DETAILED FINANCIAL ANALYSIS FOR COGENERATION
(Continued)
INCOME STATEMENT
(Rs. In Million)
Year of Operation Ist 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th
Costs without Cogeneration
Cost of Purchased Power 169.88 178.37 187.29 196.66 206.49 216.81 227.66 239.04 250.99 263.54
Cost of Steam Generated 82.58 86.71 91.04 95.60 100.38 105.40 110.67 116.20 122.01 128.11
Total Operating Cost Without
Cogeneration 252.46 265.08 278.34 292.25 306.87 322.21 338.32 355.24 373.00 391.65
Cost with Cogeneration
Total Operating Cost with Cogeneration 211.08 221.63 232.72 244.35 256.57 269.40 282.87 297.01 311.86 327.45
Depreciation 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16
Interest Component of Debt Service 8.97 8.30 7.40 6.51 5.61 4.71 3.81 2.92 1.12 0.22
Total Cost with Cogeneration 229.21 239.09 249.28 260.01 271.33 283.27 295.84 309.08 322.14 336.84
Additional Income Due to Cogeneration
Additional Income before Tax 23.25 25.99 29.06 32.24 35.53 38.94 42.48 46.15 50.86 54.81
Additional Tax 35% 8.14 9.10 10.17 11.28 12.44 13.63 14.87 16.15 17.80 19.18
Net Additional Income 15.11 16.89 18.89 20.96 23.10 25.31 27.61 30.00 33.06 35.63
6 – 25
Exhibit 6.5
(Continued)
PROJECTED CASH FLOW STATEMENT
(Rs. In Million)
Year of Operation Ist 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th
SOURCES OF FUNDS:
- Operating Profit (Additional
Income) 32.22 34.29 36.46 38.75 41.14 43.66 46.30 49.07 51.98 55.04
(before Financial Charges & Tax)
- Add Back : Depreciation 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16 9.16
FUNDS FROM OPERATIONS 41.38 43.45 45.62 47.90 50.30 52.81 55.45 58.23 61.14 64.19
TOTAL SOURCES OF FUNDS 41.38 43.45 45.62 47.90 50.30 52.81 55.45 58.23 61.14 64.19
APPLICATION OF FUNDS:
- Repayment of Loans
- Long Term Loan 0.00 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41
TOTAL REPAYMENTS 0.00 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41 6.41
- Financial Charges 8.97 8.30 7.40 6.51 5.61 4.71 3.81 2.92 2.02 1.12
- Taxes 8.14 9.10 10.17 11.28 12.44 13.63 14.87 16.15 17.80 19.18
TOTAL APPLICATION 17.11 17.40 17.57 17.79 18.04 18.34 18.68 19.07 19.82 20.31
Cash Surplus/(Deficit) 24.27 19.64 21.64 23.70 25.84 28.06 30.36 32.75 34.91 37.48
Surplus/(Deficit)B-F 0.00 24.27 43.91 65.55 89.25 115.09 143.15 173.51 206.26 241.17
CUMULATIVE CASH SURPLUS 24.27 43.91 65.55 89.25 115.09 143.15 173.51 206.26 241.17 278.65
6 – 26
Exhibit 6.5
(Continued)
INTERNAL FINANCIAL RATE OF RETURN
Capital Operating Net Cash

Year Deprecation Taxes I.F.R.R.
Outlay Profit Inflow
0 (91.57) (91.57) 37.73%
1 32.22 9.16 8.14 33.24
2 34.29 9.16 9.10 34.35
3 36.46 9.16 10.17 35.45
4 38.75 9.16 11.28 36.62
5 - 41.14 9.16 12.44 37.86
6 43.66 9.16 13.63 39.18
7 46.30 9.16 14.87 40.58
8 49.07 9.16 16.15 42.07
9 51.98 9.16 17.80 43.34
10* 9.16 55.04 9.16 19.18 54.17

* Salvage Value
FINANCIAL RATIOS
Year of Operation Ist 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Capacity Utilization 65% 75% 90% 100% 100%
Gross Profit Ratio (%) 56.63% 57.06% 57.38% 57.43% 57.29%

Net Profit Margin B-T (%) 52.03% 52.51% 52.88% 52.96% 52.83%
Net Profit Margin A-T (%) 34.86% 35.18% 35.43% 35.48% 35.40%
Debit Service Coverage (Times) 5 3 3 4 4
6 – 27
7. CASE STUDIES
In the previous chapters information on evaluation of cogeneration systems has been presented. In
the following sections, a number of case studies are described in order to highlight the technical
and financial feasibility of cogeneration systems. It is important to emphasize that the basic
decision to implement or not to implement is an economic one. Many variables in processes,
equipment type, energy costs, and legal and financial assistance change with time. What is
uneconomical today may become highly profitable in future due to a change in one or more of the
above mentioned parameters. Any change in these circumstances justifies a re-evaluation of
cogeneration possibilities which may have been shelved due to conditions prevailing today.
7.1 CASE STUDY 1
A. Project Heavy Chemicals Complex
B. Original Installation: Power purchased from WAPDA and Natural Gas as Fuel was supplied
by SNGPL. Annual Operation Rate = 7,920 hrs.
1. Energy Requirement
 Electrical Energy:
o Maximum Demand 12.00 MW
o Operating Load 10.75 MW
 Steam, Saturated: Two Boilers 24.48 tonnes/hr (6.8 kg/s)
o Pressure 13.5 bars(a)
o Temperature 194oC
o Enthalpy 822.33 kJ/kg
o Steam Heat Content 5,592 kJ/s
7– 1
o At 80% Boiler Eff. Heat Content 6,990 kJ/s

o Natural Gas Requirement 25.164 GJ/hr.
o Annual N. G. Requirement 199,299 GJ
 Annual Energy Cost:
o Electricity
 Fixed Charge Rate Rs. 290/KW
 Variable Charge Rate Rs. 4.38/KW
 Fixed Charge (12 x 12 x 290 x 1000) Rs. 41.76 million
 Vari. Charge (4.38 x 10750 x 7920 x 0.9*) Rs. 335.62 million
 Total Annual Electricity Charges Rs. 377.38 million
Note: (*) Power Factor at 90%
[Average charge rate = Rs. 4.43/kW]
o Natural Gas Charges (Thermal Energy)

 Annual N. G. Requirement, Equivalent 199,299 GJ
 Natural Gas Rate Rs. 239/GJ
 Annual N. G. Charges Rs. 47.63 Million
 Total Energy Charges Rs. 425.01 Million
B. Cogeneration Installation: The management decided to change over to captive cogeneration

system. Consideration various cogeneration options, it transpired that gas turbine with HRSG
will be the optimum option as the power generated and recovered heat steam generation
(thermal energy) just matches the plants requirement. Plant energy balance through
cogeneration is shown in Exhibit – 7.1.
o Gross Power Generation 10.90 MW
o Less Power Requirement of Auxiliaries 0.15 MW
o Net Power Available 10.75 MW
o Energy Equivalent of 10.90 MW 10.90 MJ/s
o Energy Equivalent of 10.75 MW 10.75 MJ/s
7– 2
T = 80
COGENERATION SYSTEM M = 6.2
Q = 2.10 T = 20
WITH GAS TURBINE & HRSG
Return M = 0.6
Condensate Q = 0.05
Makeup
Water
P = 13,5
T = 194
M = 6.8
Deareator
Legend Q = 19.1
P = Bars(a) Process T = 92
T = oC Steam
M = kg/s T = 74
Q = MJ/s M = 6.8
Q = 34.23 T = 145
Natural Gas
T = 87
M = 7.0
T = 185
T = 510
Air M = 42.4
HRSG
Economizer
G
Turbine
Compressor
Exhibit – 7.1
o Natural Gas, Fuel Requirement 34.23 MJ/s

o Heat Content of Process Steam 19.10 MJ/s
o Less Heat Content of Recovered Condensate 2.15 MJ/s
and Makeup water
o Thermal Energy Available from HRSG 16.95 MJ/s
o Electric plus Thermal Energy (10.90 + 16.95) 27.85 MJ/s
 Total Efficiency of Co generator (27.85/34.23) 81.4 %
 Net Electrical Efficiency (10.75/34.23) 31.4 %
Cost of Cogeneration
 Hourly Gas Consumption (34.23 x 3600) 123.228 GJ
 Annual Gas Consumption (123.228 x 7920) 975,966 GJ
7– 3
 Natural Gas Rate Rs. 239/GJ

 Annual Energy Cost of N. G. (239 x 975,966) Rs. 233.26 million
 Net Annual Saving after Cogeneration Installation

(425.01 – 233.25) Rs. 191.76 million
 Energy Saving after Cogeneration Installation 45.1 %
Cogeneration Investment Cost and Simple Payback Period
 Installed Cost of Cogeneration Plant Rs. 496.10 Million
 Simple Payback Period (496.10/191.76) 2.6 Years
7.2 CASE STUDY 2
A. Project Integrated Composite Textile Mills.
B. Present Installation
Electrical Energy: 1500 kW maximum demand.
Thermal Energy: - Installed total steam capacity:
85,000 lb, /hr at 125 psig.
(38,555 kg/hr at 8.79 kg/cm2g .
Four natural gas fired firetube boilers:

- 1 x 1000 HP, for 125 psig sat. steam:
- 3 x 660 HP, for 125 psig sat. steam.
- Required actual steam capacity: 65,000 pounds
per hour at 125/psig or 29,483.5 kg/hr at 8.79
kg/cm2g (Boilers operating presently very in-
efficiently and without condensate return).
7– 4
C. Immediate Future Plans

Total electrical energy 2500 kW maximum demand (to meet
Requirements: additional equipment load).
D. Thermal Energy Improvements

Boiler water treatment and condensate return systems to be added for efficient operation
of boilers producing 65,000 lb./hr at 125 psig steam.
E. Energy Requirements for Above
1. Electrical Energy
(a) Electrical energy for 2250 kW (2500 kW maximum demand at 0.9 load factor)
from WAPDA.
(b) Total annual kWh units = 2250 x 24 x 350 = 18.90 million
(c) Average price of bulk H.T. power supply = Rs. 4.43/kWh
(d) Annual Electricity Charge = Rs. 83.73 million
2. Thermal Energy Requirements with Natural Gas

(a) Enthalpy of 125 psig saturated steam = 1193 Btu/lb. (663 kcal/kg)
o
(b) Enthalpy of 180 F condensate, 100% = 150 Btu/lb. (83 kcal/kg)
(c) Enthalpy added in boiler = 1043 Btu/lb. (580 kcal/kg)
(d) With 75% boiler efficiency, Energy Required = 1361 Btu/lb (343 kcal/kg)
(e) At 65,000 lb/hr steam, N.G. * Required = 88.47 MMBTU/hr (93 GJ/hr)
(f) Annual N. G. Required (88.47 x 24 x 350) = 743,148 MMBTU (784,021 GJ)
(g) Natural gas from Gas Supply Company is priced at about Rs. 239/GJ
(Rs.226.54/MMBTU) for industrial users.
(h) Annual N. Gas Charges (743148 x 226.54) = Rs. 168.35 million
(i) Total Annual Energy Charge (168.35 + 83.73)= Rs. 252.08 million
* Heating Value of N.G. = 970 Btu/Cu. Ft.
7– 5
(j) Approximate power-to-heat ratio = 28.26 kWh/million Btu of steam

(2500/ (65000 x 1361 x 1,000,000) (or 112 kWh/million kcal of steam)
Power – to – Heat Ratio** = 0.1

(28.26/293)
This power-to-heat ratio suggests use of a topping cycle high-pressure boiler back-
pressure steam turbine configuration. Applying the fuel energy saving ratio (FESR)
concept, this power-to-heat ratio also suggests the same configuration with an FESR of
approximately 17 percent.
7.2.1 Fuel Chargeable to Power (FCP)
(a) From earlier details, it is noted that 65,000 lb.(29,483 kg) per back-pressure
steam would meet the thermal load. Electrical load requirement was estimated to
be 2500 kW.
(b) Front above, 1 lb. of high-pressure steam through a back-pressure turbine

should generate 28.5 watts (equivalent to 121 Btu or 30.5 kcal).
(c) With an efficient multistage steam turbine, having an 80% efficiency, the
required enthalpy rise at the turbine inlet should be 121/0.8 = 151 Btu/lb.
(d) Since enthalpy of 125 psig steam (back-pressure from turbine) is 1193 Btu/lb,
the required minimum enthalpy of turbine inlet steam should be 193 + 151 =
1344 Btu/lb. For energy calculation purposes, this is rounded off to 1350 Btu/lb.
(e) From Mollier diagramme in Exhibit 2.10 (isentropic line), the turbine steam inlet
conditions are 500 psig and 210 oF superheat, giving a steam temperature of
677oF (with 140 psig saturated steam and 151 Btu/lb. enthalpy rise).
** 1 million Btu = 293 kWh
7– 6
In actual operation, expansion in the turbine would not be isentropic and back-
pressure steam will be slightly superheated.
The above supply steam conditions approximately relate to an enthalpy of 1350

Btu/lb. and the enthalpy to be added in the boiler is (1350 – 150) = 1200 Btu/lb.
(enthalpy of 100% condensate return at 180oF = 150 Btu/lb.).
(f) With the use of efficient water-tube boilers, having thermal efficiencies is excess
of 90%,
Fuel input (natural gas) [(65000 x 1200)/(0.9)] = 86.67 MMBTU/hr.
(91.4 GJ/hr)
Annual Fuel Requirement (86.67 x 24 x 350) = 728,028 MMBTU

(768,070 GJ)
Fuel (N.G.) Charge Rate Rs. 226.54/MMBTU
Annual Fuel Charge (728028 x 226,54) = Rs. 164.93 million

Annual Saving in Energy (252.08 – 164.93) = Rs. 87.15 Million
[Note: This saving is due installation of cogeneration unit]
Investment Cost in Cogeneration System
- Estimated capital: = 4,000 kW x Rs. 58,000 per kW = Rs. 232 million.
- Credit taken for sale of two boilers (one 1000 HP and one 600 HP) = Rs. 7 million.
- Savings expected from possible WAPDA charges for

New cable/substation for additional 1000 kW. = Rs. 5 million
- Net total installed cost (TIC) = Rs. 220 million

- Simple Payback Period (220/87.15) = 2.5 Years
7– 7
8. COGENERATION, POTENTIAL AND IMPEDIMENTS
8.1 COGENERATION OPPORTUNITIES
A well-designed and operated cogeneration scheme will always provide better energy efficiency
than conventional plant, leading to both energy and cost savings. A single fuel is used to generate
heat and electricity, so cost savings are dependent on the price-differential between the primary
energy fuel and the bought-in electricity that the scheme displaces. However, although the
profitability of cogeneration generally results from its cheap and reliable electricity, its success
depends on using recovered heat productively, so the prime criterion is a suitable heat requirement.
As a rough guide, cogeneration is likely to be suitable where there is a fairly constant demand for
heat for at least 4,500 hours in the year.
The potential for cogeneration, combined heat and power (CHP) generation and combined cycle
power plants can be studied under three standard sub-headings of technical, economic, and market
potentials.
8.1 Technical Potential
It represents the total extent of opportunities for CHP based on purely technical criteria,
i.e. applications where CHP is a technical option, whether economically attractive or not.
For the most part, sites that have the appropriate heat and power usage profiles are
amenable to CHP, others or not.
8-1
8.2 Economic Potential
It represents the subset of technical potential that is economically attractive within normal
criteria. Moving sites from the technical to economic potential category is largely an issue
of prices and legislative framework.
8.3 Market Potential
It represents the subset of the economic potential that would have been taken up by the
market without intervention and prior to the uncertainties imposed by liberalization. A
number of market barriers will, however, intervene to keep some economic potential from
becoming market potential. Thus it can be seen that the process of maximizing market
uptake of economic potential is largely an issue of awareness, incentives, demonstration
etc.
8.2 METHODOLOGY
It must be mentioned that not a single database is available that contains a comprehensive listing of
existing cogeneration, CHP and cogeneration facilities. So it is difficult to profile existing
cogeneration activity in the industrial and commercial sector.
The analysis that follows below is based on Sectorial consumption of electricity as published by
“Census of Electricity Establishments – 2004-05”(CEE) published by the Federal Bureau of
Statistics and data available from Private Power & Infrastructure Board (PPIB).
8-2
8.3 ELECTRICITY STATISTICS
The CEE has indicated the following electricity installed capacity for year 2004-05 (Exhibit – 8.1).
Exhibit – 8.1 [Source: CEE Report– 2004-05]
These power plants generated the following units of electricity:
During the same period, CEE Report indicated that out of total installed capacity, 66% is generated
by thermal power plants, as shown in Exhibit – 8.3. Actual electric generation by type of plant is
shown in Exhibit – 8.4.
8-3
Sector-wise electricity consumption is shown in Exhibit- 8.5. 44% of electricity generated is

consumed by domestic sector, followed by 32% by industrial sector and 6% by commercial sector.
Total consumption by industrial sector during 2004-05 amounts to 20,561 million kWh against
supply of 63,298 million kWh. Most of the cogeneration potential is in industrial sector and to
some extent in commercial sector.
8-4
According to figures published by WAPDA, the breakup for power generation by various plants
and sectors is shown in Exhibit – 8.6.
Organization Thermal Hydel
WAPDA 5120 4825
KESC 1801 ---
KANUPP 137 ---
CHASHMA NUCLEAR 325 ---
PAKISTAN STEEL 165 ---
IPPs 5565 ---
Total 13113 4825
GRAND TOTAL 17938 4825
Exhibit – 8.6, [Source: WAPDA]
Future Independent Power Plants (IPP) has the greatest potential for combined cycle thermal
plants. WAPDA and Karachi Electric Supply Company (KESC) are already planning to bring in
additional capacity in the form of combined cycle.
8-5
Out of the total expected 11,915 MW of capacity to be installed by IPPs, about 50% is likely to be
as combined cycle. In addition, it is expected that additional captive power capacity to be installed
by industry will be in the form of cogeneration.
8.4 TECHNOLOGY
Combined heat and power systems generate electricity and useful heat simultaneously from the
same plant. CHP covers a range of technologies but always includes a prime mover (an engine or
turbine) driving an electrical generator, plus a heat recovery system. In most CHP installations, the
heat recovered supplements heat from the site's boilers and the electrical output displaces some (or
all) of the electricity bought from the local supply network.
This combined production of electricity and heat results in a highly efficient system. Conventional,
centralized power generation is normally only 30-40% energy efficient. More recent combined
cycle generation gas turbine (CCGT) plants can improve this to 55%, excluding losses for the
transmission and distribution of electricity.
By utilizing the heat that is always produced in electricity production the efficiency of a CHP plant
will typically be 20-25% more efficient than heat-only boilers and conventional power stations.
This also reduces the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere significantly.
The constraint in the availability of natural gas and dependence of thermal on imported oil will
ultimately lead to the exploration of installation of Integrated Gasification & Combined Cycle
(IGCC) plants. These plants can be based on coal and available biomass.
Hotel and hospitals are other growth areas for CHP due to the availability of small, reliable gas
engine based CHP units.
8-6
8.5 TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES
Traditionally CHP or cogeneration was considered only for large industry with significant heat
demands. New technological developments have resulted in smaller units coming to the market
that offer the benefits of CHP to smaller applications. CHP units of 10 kW are now marketed and
offer opportunities for large domestic dwellings or guesthouses. Patents have been approved for a
1.5 kW gas turbine, which may open up all of the domestic market to CHP.
8.6 WASTE TO ENERGY
Energy recovery from waste is a well-established method of obtaining added value before final
disposal and represents the best practicable environmental option for many wastes. Recovering the
energy from waste features high on the Government’s waste hierarchy and CHP schemes using
waste as the primary fuel benefit from similar access to the open market as renewable energy
sources.
8.7 RENEWABLE FUEL SOURCES
CHP is one of the most efficient technologies for converting renewable fuels (mainly biomass) to
useful heat and power. CHP using biomass has considerable potential in production terms.
Consequently, a campaign to develop and subsequently promote and support decentralized bio-
power CHP installations throughout the country will be required. Such installations could range in
scale from a few hundred kW to many-MW and combine different technologies, as appropriate to
local circumstances.
8-7
8.8 GAS TO ELECTRICITY PRICE RATIO
The differential between the purchased electricity and gas prices is key in the decision making
process for developing CHP. High electricity prices and low gas prices make CHP much more
favorable.
While increasing electricity prices are to be welcomed in that they should eventually result in a
situation where prices become fully cost reflective, the changes in the tariff structure may in some
cases increase the imported electricity costs considerably.
8.9 ACTIONS FOR PROMOTION OF COGENERATION
As already pointed out, it is universally recognised that cogeneration is one of the most important
techniques for more efficient use of fuels, savings in physical and economical resources, and
protection of the environment. Attempts have been made in many countries to remove the barriers
and promote cogeneration. Various incentives have been used, such as relatively high price for
excess electricity sold to the grid and grants on investments. Other measures have included
spreading of related information, energy auditing and analysis of data, support of research and
development, etc. Most of these measures were designed in a moment when most of the barriers to
the development of cogeneration derived from the existence of monopolistic electricity and gas
markets.
8.10 POTENTIAL FOR COGENERATION IN TEXTILE INDUSTRY
The manufacturing stages of textile products are elaborate and time consuming. There is a large
amount of energy in the form of electricity and steam required while processing the materials in the
textile industry. Based on the raw material used, the textile industry can be classified into:
8-8
a) - Wovens
- Raw materials can be natural fibres like cotton, silk to synthetic fibres like polyester,
acrylic fibres and etc.
- Process: Spinning to get yarns, starching/sizing of yarns before mounting to looms for
weaving, weaving or knitting, fabric scouring, bleaching, dyeing and finishing of fabrics.
Except for the actual spinning and weaving operations, all other processes need large
amount of steam.
Exhibit – 8.7
Specific Temperature Requirement in Textile Industry
b) - Non-Wovens
- Raw materials are usually synthetic staple fibres.
- Process: The fibres cut to a specific length called as staple fibres are bonded at high
temperature to get continuous sheets of material and these sheets are further temperature-
set to get the desired properties and finishing. End-use of non-wovens dictates such kind
of temperature finishing. Temperature around 400oC to 550oC is required for the high
temperature bonding of fibres process.
From this classification, it can be concluded that the textile industry is an energy intensive industry
and the cogeneration option is well suited for serving the purposes of providing the high demand
8-9
steam as well as electricity. Depending on the plant’s requirement of electricity & steam, a
cogeneration system for a textile industry can be based on use of gas turbine generator or
reciprocating engine for power generation. Waste heat from these generators can be utilized for
production of hot water and/or steam.
8.11 POTENTIAL FOR COGENERATION IN SUGAR INDUSTRY
Bagasse, byproduct of sugar industry, is an excellent form of fuel, with a gross calorific value of
around 19,000 kilojoules per kilogramme at zero moisture and 9,900kj/kg at 48 per cent moisture.
However, due to the high moisture content, it is not easy to store, as it is prone to fermentation and
to various other chemical reactions, which in some cases may lead to spontaneous combustion.
Since the earliest days of the sugar trade, bagasse has been burned to produce steam and heat and
to power machinery in the mills.. Traditionally, mills have generally been self-sufficient in energy,
apart from occasions such as start-up periods or breakdowns, when extra fuel is brought in to
supplement the bagasse. Sugar mills also use other fuels when bagasse used for manufacture of
paper pulp or bagasse board.
Surplus bagasse is generally discarded, being considered useless, as well as a disposal hazard.
However, when mills are operated efficiently and with the correct technology, there is considerable
potential for electricity to be produced from this surplus bagasse and exported to the national grid.
Cogeneration in the sugar industry brings additional benefits. The carbon released to the
atmosphere as CO2 by cogeneration is no greater than what would have been produced by
alternative methods of bagasse disposal (i.e., burning the bagasse inefficiently in the boilers or
letting the bagasse decompose).
Cogeneration has been mostly restricted to the production of electrical energy for self use or
"captive power" and has been viewed as a way to meet simultaneous on-site heat and power
demands independently of the grid.
8-10
The mills operate under conditions where excess bagasse causes significant operational problems
of handling and storage, with no economic benefits as an energy source. Thus, steam consumption
is as high as 50 - 55% on cane, as there is no economic justification to save steam or electricity. A
comparative figure for Hawaii, where sale of electricity to the grid is an economic necessity, is
around 40%. Potentials for steam savings at minimal capital costs exist in sugar.
Potential for steam savings, and resulting increases in potential electric power output, exists in
most of the sugar mills. Material balances such as steam, juice and condensate flows, as well as
temperatures need to be monitored. Due to the present lack of economic value of bagasse and
steam, the factories are not equipped with adequate instrumentation to monitor material and energy
balances for each unit operation. For this reason, the implementation of energy savings will require
investments in engineering time and capital, which will vary from one case to another.
The first step in such an undertaking will be to install instrumentation to monitor, measure and
control various process parameters. Without such data as references, potential improvements
cannot be accurately determined. Furthermore, the implementation of steam savings will require
management to make tradeoffs. For example, a lower imbibition rate on cane will result in less
steam being used in the juice evaporator, but a lower mill extraction may result. Depending on the
economics, management may decide to achieve more steam savings even at the expense of a
slightly reduced sugar production.
Sugar mills can be reconfigured to export power. The amounts depend on the size of the mill, the
choice of cogenerating scheme, and the availability of additional fuel to supplement bagasse
produced on site.
Typical mills in Pakistan employ low pressure (20.7 bars, 330oC) boilers to generate steam and
back-pressure turbo-alternators to provide for heat and mechanical power within the plant.
Installation of double extraction condensing turbines and boilers capable of producing steam at 62
bars and 480oC can greatly increase power production per tonne of fuel and expand the quantity of
power economically available for export. This will be a departure from conventional industrial
practice in Pakistan.
8-11
Economic viability is highly sensitive to the amount of power exported per unit of capital
investment and thus depends upon year-round operation, with supplemental fuels during the off
season, and a large generating capacity relative to the internal electric demands of the mill. In
addition, process steam requirements need to be reduced from over 500 kg down to 400 kg per
tonne of cane.
Generally, the installation of a 62 bars high-pressure boiler together with a double-extraction

turbogenerator is the optimum combination for implementing cogeneration in sugar factories.
However, each sugar factory, depending on its own set of circumstances, will require variations in
designs to accommodate its power contract obligations, its existing equipment and its sugar as well
as non-sugar operations. Optimum turbogenerator sizing and design is critical to accommodate
power sales requirements, especially during the offseason, when power generation is limited by
condensation capacity, and steam extraction is at a minimum. Offsetting, the limitation of
condensation capacity for electricity generation during the off-season is generally reduced internal
power consumption as sugar operations are shut down. There is no single formula that applies to
all cases. Detailed engineering analysis should be done on a case by case basis.
For the purpose of power maximization and flexibility in performance over a wider range of
operational conditions, viz., steam to power ratios, the back pressure turbine is clearly unsuited.
The extraction condensing turbine is more satisfactory for this purpose and can be operated during
off-season periods with steam generated by surplus bagasse or other fuel. Steam, thus generated,
can be expanded through the condensing section of the turbine. The governor of the back pressure
turbine maintains the frequency of the system for a preset exhaust steam pressure. The steam flow
through the back pressure turbine is therefore not related to the process demand although it
contributes in meeting it. The balance of the demand is met by passing steam through the pressure
reducing stations, which maintains the pressure in the process steam headers. This system of
control where the pressure relieving value (PRV) maintains the balance and the proportionality
between the boiler output and the process steam demand, is common to all mills and can results in
at least 10% to 20% of the process steam passing through the PRV. In a typical mill of 2500 tonnes
of cane crushing per day capacity, this could translate to 1 to 2 MW of additional power that would
have been generated if all the steam were allowed to expand across the steam turbine instead.
8-12
8.12 POTENTIAL FOR COGENERATION IN CEMENT INDUSTRY
Cogeneration in cement plants can be achieved through waste heat recovery. Upto 25 – 30% of
total power requirement can be met through cogeneration of power utilizing waste heat. Exhibit-
8.8 presents potential sources of waste heat from a typical cement plant.
Cogeneration of power utilizing waste heat is an attractive proposition for cement plants for energy
conservation and minimizing dependence on the grid. Further, cogeneration of power will also
help reduce environmental pollution as well as strain on the economy.
Exhibit – 8.8
Potential Sources of Waste Heat from Typical Cement Plant
PREHEATER EXIT GAS COOLER EXIT GAS

300 - 400oC, 180 - 250 KCAL/KG 200 - 300oC, 80 - 130 KCAL/KG
In the dry process cement plants, nearly 40 percent of the total heat input is rejected as waste heat
from exit gases of preheater (PH) and grate cooler. The quantity of heat lost from PH exit gases
ranges from 180-250 kcal/kg clinker at temperature range of 300-400oC. In addition, 80-130
8-13
kcal/kg clinker heat is lost at a temperature range of 200-300oC from grate cooler. This waste heat
can be utilized for electric power generation. There can be many combinations to work out the best
scheme suited to a given situation. In existing plants, cogeneration technologies based on
bottoming cycles have potential to generate upto 25-30 percent of the power requirement of a
plant.
Cement plants have the cogeneration potential ranging from 3.0 to 5.5 MW in different plants
depending upon the temperature and quantity of waste gases from PH and cooler exhaust, number
of PH stages, use of gases for drying of raw materials and coal etc.
Cogeneration systems are already in use in cement industry in Japan, China and other south-east
Asian countries. Further, the cogeneration has been well established in paper, sugar and other
chemical industries. However, in Indian cement industry, this technology has not been
implemented so far owing to the following reasons:
 Non-availability of proven technology indigenously
 Non-availability of installation or their operating experience in India resulting in lack

of confidence
 Design of waste heat boiler suiting to high dust load.
 Large capital requirement.
8-14
APPENDIX–A
EQUIPMENT SELECTION AND GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS
This historic plant energy requirement usually forms the basis of equipment selection. However, if
it is foreseen that the energy requirements of the facility would increase with time because of
capacity increase etc., then the estimated maximum future requirements for a reasonable period
(say five years) should form the basis of system selection. Normally, a twenty year period is
considered to be a sufficient duration for forecasting of costs and rate of return on additional
investment. Within this period, all the equipment is depreciated and the “useful life” of the
equipment also expires.
A.1 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS
Though design, application and manufacturing details vary for the equipment available in the
market, general technical specifications of equipment should be prepared in such a way that all
manufacturers/packagers supply equipment, accessories, services, parts and consumables to meet
the basic intent. This also results in reasonably accurate comparison of the bids received against a
set of tender documents for the engineer to give technical recommendations. The following main
equipment is used in various types of cogeneration systems. Required equipment should be
covered adequately in the specification requirements:
1. Boilers
2. Steam Turbines
3. Steam Piping
4. Gas Turbines
5. G.T. Exhaust Flue Duct Work
6. Waste Heat Recovery Boiler
7. Gas Engine
A-1
8. Furnace Oil Engine

9. Diesel Generating Set
10. Alternators
11. Switchgears
A.2 BOILERS
Water-tube boilers are normally offered in package design and are of heat efficiency with external
economizer and superheater sections. Boiler efficiency should not be allowed to be lowered by
even a small margin since the effect of lower efficiency will continue for full life of the equipment.
Economizer design could be on the basis of finned tube to reduce the size or plain tubes to help in
cleaning of the surfaces if furnace oil No.6 is a boiler fuel. However, with plain tubes, the size and
weight of economizer could increase considerably.
Superheater sections are designed either with control of boiler flue flow or with mixing of cooler
steam with superheated steam to control the temperature. Whereas the former flow control could
cause problems with dampers and actuators at high temperature, the latter design normally involves
high-pressure drops in the superheater tubes, resulting in operating pressure of boiler to be raised
to ensure correct pressure of steam at turbine inlet.
A.2.1 Guide Specifications for Boilers and Auxiliaries
A.2.1.1 General
(a) Boiler shall be a package water-tube type.
(b) Furnace construction of the boiler must be gas tight. Tightness to be

tested at 1.5 times the maximum operating pressure.
A-2
(c) External insulation to be of mineral wool or glass wool. The Insulation

should be sufficient to ensure that surface temperature of metal jacket
covering the insulation does not exceeding 30 F above ambient
temperature with natural ventilation around the boilers.
(d) All steam drum internals should be of nut/bolt construction and should
be removable from the manholes.
(e) Each end of the drums must be designed with manhole openings.
(f) Soot blowers (for oil-fired boilers) should be of manual geared type.
(g) All boiler refractories to be as per heat insulations requirements, with

minimum 60% alumina contents.
(h) Inspection during construction and testing shall be witnessed and

certified by relevant authorities.
A.2.1.2 Boiler
A.2.1.2.1 Design Data
(a) Nominal rating in pounds per hour.
(b) Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) in pounds per hour.
(c) Operating super heated steam pressure psig.
(d) Operating super heated steam temperature oF.
(e) Feed water temperature, oF. (Separate feed water temperature

for gas and oil fuel to be specified to avoid condensation and
thereby corrosion).
(f) Boiler efficiency curves at 86oF.
A-3
(g) Maximum fuel consumption. (Separate figures for natural gas

in Cu. Ft/hr and for fuel oil in pounds or gallons per hour.
A.2.1.2.2 Boiler Pressure Parts
(a) Two-drum water-tube boiler with water-cooled furnace.
(b) Steam drum internals for separating steam including;
i) Baffle plates for collecting the boiler water and steam

from all the tubes.
ii) Device for separating steam from the circulating

boiler water.
iii) Internal feedwater distribution pipe.
iv) Pipe for continuous blow-down and taking out water

samples.
(c) Superheater with modulating control valve to mix exist hot

steam with cooler steam entering the superheater for
temperature control.
(d) Economiser to recover flue gas heat without condensation.
(e) Pre-heater coil in water drum (for use with fuel oil firing).
(f) De-superheater, to ensure control of final steam temperature at

turbine inlet.
(g) Pressure relief valves as per Pakistan Boiler Code

requirements.
A-4
A.2.1.2.3 Burners and Ancillary Equipment
(a) Burner, combined gas/fuel oil type including windbox, air

register, flame stabilizer, multi-speed type gas burner with
distribution manifold and gas/diesel oil electric ignitor.
(b) Burner piping, including gas and air piping, fuel oil and
atomizing steam piping (if required), valves, indicators and
sensors, ignitor pre-mix unit and flame monitor.
A.2.1.2.4 Burner Management System
(a) Sequential control for the start-up of the burner as per

controller programme.
(b) Safety shut-down and alarm system as per programme

requirements.
(c) Following control loops are to be included.
 Combustion Control Loop,
 Drum Level (or feed water) Control Loom,
 Outlet Steam Temperature Control Loop.
A.2.1.2.5 Boiler Control Panel
(a) Panel to house all boiler control and supervision instrument.
(b) Panel to be fully pre-wired and of design suitable for indoor

installation (dust-proof, vermin-proof requirements may be
essential in some cases).
A-5
A.2.1.2.6 Instrumentation
All control and safety requirements shall be included, including double

water column requirements as per Pakistan Boiler code and instrument
requirements to record data for calculation of capacity and efficiency of
the boiler.
A.2.1.2.7 Air and Flue Gas System
Forced-draft fan suitable for correct pressure drop with ducts shall
include the following:-
(a) Inlet guide vanes, flexible connectors, suction air filter,

electric motor and silencers for the fan, if required.
(b) Flue gas ducts normally of 6 mm M.S. plate with mineral wool
or fiberglass insulation (minimum thickness 3 inches) and of
density to suit the heat insulation requirements so that final
metal jacket temperature does not exceed 30oF above ambient.
A.3 STEAM TURBINE
Specific consumption of steam for the turbine should be closely matched with the heat balance
requirements to ensure performance compatibility. Turbine efficiency should not be allowed to be
lowered and efficient turbine with as many stages as are practical and economical should be
selected.
Turbine outlet (back-pressure) control valves should have adjustable setting so that steam back-
pressure can be set to the desired value and even adjusted seasonally to make full use of steam
enthalpy as per turbine efficiency. This is specially applicable in commercial building application
A-6
where higher back-pressure steam (16 psig) is required for summer air-conditioning whereas lesser
pressure steam (down to 6 psig) may be adequate for intermediate weather or for winter heating.
Special care should be taken in selecting the speed governor and electric/electronic type with
mechanical back-up should be selected. Loss of speed control accuracy normally means tripping
of turbine and thus for reliable operation, backup governor should be asked for.
Lubrication system with main lube oil pump and electric driven auxiliary oil pump for start-up and
shut-off should be selected and no compromise on this essential requirement should be made. Oil
cooler should be water-cooled, using the central cooling water supply but care must be taken to
eater for the higher pressure drop normally associated with this cooling water circuit.
Hoists should be provided above the steam turbine, traveling along the shaft axis, to enable
inspection of turbine blades and shaft bearings at specified intervals. Temporary tripod supports
for hoists are not recommended for such routine check-up and possible repair at an appropriate
time.
Acoustic enclosure design for turbo-alternator should include ventilation fans and air silencers to
ensure heat removal from enclosure space without seriously compromising the noise rating of the
equipment and the plant-room.
A.3.1 Guide Specifications for Steam Turbines and Accessories
A.3.1.1 General
(a) Steam turbine shall be a multi-stage impulse-reaction/reaction back-

pressure or extraction turbine.
(b) Steam turbine including its alternator and accessories shall be in an

acoustic enclosure.
A-7
(c) Turbo-alternator assembly shall be mounted on rigid structural steel

frame with helical spring vibration isolators.
(d) Steam turbine shall drive the alternator through speed reducing gear.
A.3.1.2Steam Turbine
A.3.1.2.1 Design Data
(a) Maximum output rating in BHP.

(b) Steam pressure at turbine inlet in psig.
(c) Steam temperature at turbine in deg F.
(d) Steam flow in pounds per hour.
(e) Steam turbine speed minimum in rpm.
(f) Maximum steam consumption values for part loads.
(g) Steam pressure at turbine outlet (back-pressure) in psig.
A.3.1.2.2 Turbine
(a) Thermo-elastic guide blade carrier.

(b) One piece forged rotor.
(c) Horizontally split casing.
A.3.1.2.3 Accessories
(a) Spread governor to be hydraulic with adjustable proportional

band, response sensitivity 0.01-0.10% nominal speed, with
maximum speed variation at constant load 0.50% and with
sudden loading and unloading by upto 25% of rated load,
maximum speed deviation to be 2%.
A-8
(b) Oil supply unit for control and lubrication system with oil tank
constructed as base frame with electric motor driven oil vapour
extraction system. Main oil pump, screw type to be driven via
and auxiliary shaft of the gear box with full duty auxiliary oil
pump, driven by an electric motor, with automatic changeover.
Two oil coolers, for 100% standby, with changeover valve,
with 2 oil filters, also for 100% standby with changeover
valve.
A.3.1.2.4 Controls and Safeties
(a) Live steam control valves to be supplied with servo-motors for

automatic adjustment.
(b) Live steam emergency trip valve, steam operated, to be

released at the following conditions:
(i) Over-speed of turbine,
(ii) Lube oil pressures too low,
(iii) Axial displacement of the rotor beyond maximum

allowable,
(iv) Turbine back-pressure too high,
(v) Manual trip at the turbine,
(vi) Remote trip (electric via solenoid valve).
(c) Instrumentation covering pressure, temperature, level and

position for main turbine, oil supply and steam supply, both
local and remote as per operation philosophy.
A-9
A.4 STEAM PIPING
All welded piping installation is recommended for high temperature steam to avoid leaking flanges
and gasket, except where flange joints are unavoidable as for equipment connections and
expansion joints.
Anchors and supports should be properly engineered so that movements due to expansion and
contraction of piping can be guided as per engineering requirements. Spring isolation of piping at
supports should be selected properly so that with the movement of piping, the spring can continue
to provide vibration isolation.
Use of elbows and bends should be made judiciously to avoid mechanical expansion joints
wherever possible.
A.4.1 Guide Specifications for Steam Piping
A.4.1.Piping Engineering
(a) Establishment of design conditions including pressure, temperature,

fluid shock, thermal gradients and cycles.
(b) Selection of material based on corrosion, hydrogen embitterment and

strength.
(c) Selection of valves and other piping components.
(d) Calculation of minimum pipe wall thicknesses.
(e) Establishment of an acceptable layout between terminal points for the

pipe with selections of piping supports and anchor points.
A - 10
(f) Performance of thermal flexibility, fatigue and dead weight stress

analysis for both normal and abnormal conditions.
(g) Performance of analysis for excessive thrusts and moments at connected

equipment such as boilers, steam turbines, condensers, pumps, etc.
(h) Performance of vibration analysis.
A.4.1.2 Design Data
(a) For temperature limitation of 750oF carbon steel pipes are used.
(b) For higher temperature, special steel piping materials are used.
A.5 GAS TURBINE
Gas turbines are low-efficiency engines, specially in the lower sizes and all efforts should be made
to ensure selection of equipment with acceptable efficiency for power production.
Gas turbines, power output is reduced considerably due to higher ambient temperature or larger
pressure drops in compressor suction and gas turbine discharge. Wherever possible, attempt should
be made to cool the combustion air entering the compressor for the gas turbine or to inject medium
pressure steam in the combustor directly to increase the mass flow and hence raising the turbine
power output.
Gas turbine oil cooler circuit should be air-cooled and for this purpose, over-sized oil cooler for
high ambient application should be provided. Where possible, the oil cooler can also use a heat
exchanger to heat the water, possibly for domestic hot water use, but this facility should be in
addition to the air-cooled oil cooler.
Site planning for installation of gas turbine should ensure minimum pressure losses in suction side
of the compressor and discharge side of the gas turbine. Both ductwork and accessories need to be
A - 11
as short as possible and with proper duct sizing and construction to ensure minimum pressure
losses.
Filtration of combination air for the gas turbine is essential as per the manufacturers specifications
and good practice includes lesser efficiency primary filters and highly efficient secondary filters.
The use of primary filters enhances the life of more expensive secondary filters, specially with the
use of cleanable primary filters.
Gas turbine package enclosure ventilation for removal of alternator and gas turbine engine heat is
provided by a package mounted fan with explosion-proof motor. Since this ventilation air picks up
considerable heat, this air should not be used to further cool the oil and the oil cooler should be
placed outside this hot air stream.
Gas turbine enclosure safety should be ensured providing gas detection and ultra-violet fire
detection alarms and shut-downs. Also, fire-fighting system, with halon bottles installed outside the
package, should be provided.
A.5.1 Guide Specifications for Gas Turbines and Accessories
A.5.1.1 General
(a) Gas turbine shall be of industrial type suitable for continuous operation.
(b) Gas turbine package including its alternator, gear box, oil cooler and
accessories shall be housed in acoustic enclosure package.
(c) Entire gas turbine package as above shall be mounted on a single piece
rigid structural steel skid.
(d) Oil cooler and acoustic enclosure ventilation shall be maintained by

induced draft fan.
A - 12
A.5.1.2 Design Data
(a) Maximum output rating in BHP.
(b) Fuel heating value in Btu/hr.
(c) Natural gas pressure in psig.
(d) Natural gas flow in Cu.ft./hr.
(e) Ambient dry bulb temperature in oF.
(f) Location altitude in feet.
(g) Gas turbine compressor external suction pressure, inches water column.
(h) Gas turbine compressor external discharge pressure, inches water

column.
A.3.1.3 Gas Turbine Engine
(a) Simple cycle, single shaft, continuous operation design.
(b) Multi-stage gas turbine compressor.
(c) Combustion assembly of annular type.
(d) Multi-stage turbine section of high temperature alloys.
A.5.1.4 Accessories
(a) Reduction gear box of rugged industrial design, close coupled, specially
designed for gas turbine application with service factor of 1.10 for
alternator drives and upto 10.0 for short circuit conditions.
A - 13
(b) Start system, either with d.c. electric motor or pneumatic pressure
supply from air storage vessels.
(c) Fuel system for natural gas with standby diesel oil requirements,
complete with metering and controls and duplex filters.
(d) Lube oil system with oil tank, duplex filters, lube oil temperature
control (oil cooler to be designed for correct ambient temperature plus
temperature rise in enclosures due to alternator and gas turbine heat),
lube oil heater, oil vent separator and oil pumps. Auxiliary oil pump for
start-up and shut-down sequence to be d.c. motor drive with main oil
pump operated through turbine gear drive.
(e) Acoustic enclosure to accommodate inlet and exhaust air ductwork, oil
cooler piping and ventilation requirement and should be complete with
explosition-proof motor driven ventilation fan, sound alternators,
enclosure lights, fire-protection, high temperature alarm, gas detection
and water wash cart for cleaning turbine blades while in operation.
(f) Combustion air inlet system including primary and secondary filters and
air cooling (if required as per design).
(g) Gas turbines exhaust system including expansion bellows, silencer,

ductwork and insulation.
(h) Gas compressor package for installations with supply gas pressure
below 150 psig.
A.5.1.5 Controls and Safeties
(a) Speed control of gas turbine through electric load sensing.
(b) Redundant and independent back-up over-speed device to protect the

turbine from governor failure.
A - 14
(c) Load sharing capability for two gas turbine operating in parallel to be
within 5% while maintaining isochronous speed.
(d) Complete control system to accomplish starting, running and stopping

sequence of gas turbine package and all instrumentation and control
logic required for control and protection of the package in all phase of
operation.
A.6 GAS TURBINE EXHAUST DUCTWORK.
Since the ductwork gets heated from a low ambient temperature in winter to a very high
temperature (above 850 oF) in a short span of only a few minutes, the movement of ducting due to
expansion and subsequent contraction at shut-down must be calculated and accounted for in the
design of anchors, supports and expansion joints.
The vertical flue duct should be allowed to expand upwards, with guides if the same is inside a
masonry/concrete shaft/chimney, with the bottom of duct rigidly supported.
Insulation of flue duct, with further metal jacketing to protect the thick insulation (6 to 8 inches), is
carried out with welded pins to ensure the stability of the installed insulation.
To allow for duct movement, roller supports are added and though not all rollers provide reduced-
friction movement, threes help to atleast contain the forces acting on the supports.
Special anchors and expansion joints should be provided to ensure that the forces acting on
equipment connections are within the limits imposed by the manufacturers.
A - 15
A.6.1 Guide Specifications for Exhaust Flue Ductwork
(a) Ductwork engineering shall include analyses for the following as per design
temperature and flow
i) Thermal expansion and contraction
ii) Vibration
iii) Supports and anchors.
iv) Location of expansion joints.
(b) Duct sizing and layout to meet site requirements and maximum allowable
pressure drop
(c) Ductwork to be of welded construction, except flanges for expansion joints or

requirement connection.
A.6.1.1 Materials
(a) For normal exhaust flue temperatures around 850-950oF , special alloy steel shall
be used. Normally, Cor-Ten, a steel with allowable service temperature of about
990oF is used for this service. However, higher exhaust flue temperature will
need special material for ductwork.
(b) Normal thickness of alloy steel used for exhaust flue ductwork shall be ¼ inch.
(c) Material for expansion points shall be special heat resisting fabric designed for
use of high temperatures, with special installation requirements.
(d) All surfaces exposed to high temperatures shall be insulated with either mineral
wool or fiberglass insulation, suitable for service temperature with additional
A - 16
metal jacketing. Normal thickness of insulation shall vary between 6.8 inches
and the density of insulation shall be suitable to provide adequate heat insulation.
A.7 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY BOILERS (WHRB)
Since waste heat recovery boilers are specifically custom-designed for a particular application, the
proposed manufacturer must be given all the critical data, specially the space restrictions, to ensure
that the WHRB is designed accordingly.
Due to pressure drop restrictions of the gas turbine discharge, efficiency heat transfer finned-tube
construction with low resistance is recommended.
Water carrying tube is normally connected to headers to ensure equal distribution of water flow
and with the formation of vapours in the discharge header, the size is adequately enlarged till the
vapour separates in the steam vessel above the heat exchanger tubes. For compact layout, gravity
and convection currents are enough to create vapour flow to steam header. Where either the space
does not permit compact layout or where more heat transfer is required, forced flow of boiler water
is provided with boiler circulation pumps. It is customary to install one duty and one standby
pump, with auto-changeover, in case of failure of operating pump.
Flue exhaust duct connections in and from WHRB should be properly stream-lined to ensure
correct distribution of the flue exhaust for optimum heat transfer.
WHRB casing should be air-tight to ensure safe operation. The casing should be tested at 1-1/2
times the operating pressure before commissioning.
A - 17
A.7.1 Guide Specifications of Waste Heat Recovery Boilers
A.7.1.1 General
(a) WHRB shall consist of finned watertube heat exchanger with separate
steam separation and storage vessel.
(b) External flue bypass arrangements with modulating flue control

damper.
(c) Two steam pressure relied valves for each steam vessel as per Pakistan
Boiler Code requirements.
(d) All surfaces exposed to exhaust flue temperature shall be of suitable

material, normally alloy steal.
A.7.1.2 Design Data
(a) Maximum continuous rating in lbs per hour.
(b) Amount of condensate return 955 (minimum).
(c) Amount of continuous blow-down 5% (maximum).
(d) Temperature of condensate return in oF.
(e) Maximum exhaust flue pressure drop, in inches of water column.
(f) Mass flow of exhaust flue in lbs/hour.
(g) Temperature of exhaust flue in oF.
A - 18
A.7.1.3 Controls and Safeties
(a) Exhaust flue control damper D.C. Motor actuator-driven diverter, shall
modulate to control supply steam pressure as per requirements. Manual
over-ride shall also be provided.
(b) All operating gear of the damper/diverter shall be external to the

connecting ductwork and be capable of inspection and maintenance
while the plant is in operation.
(c) Steam separator/storage vessel shall be designed for efficient separation

of steam, water storage vessel for water level controls and amounting of
safety levels, level alarm switches, pressure relief valves, instruments,
etc.
(d) Control and instrumentation requirements as per operational restriction

and requirements of the control logic shall be included.
A.8 RECIPROCATING ENGINES
As discussed with power-to-heat ratios in Chapter 3, reciprocating engines can only be used for
cogeneration applications where very high power-to-heat ratios are required. Thus, the normal
range of reciprocating engine-heat recovery usage would mean production of only a million Btu
equivalent of low pressure steam for 500-600 kW of electrical energy.
Very few cogeneration applications in the country would fit this power-to-heat ratio except cases
where only nominal heat is required. However, in the present situation of power shortage and
increase of Fuel Adjustment Charge by the Utility, reciprocating engine is being used to produce
electrical energy and whatever waste heat is available, is used to save atleast some of the fuel
presently being consumed to produce hot water or steam. Thus, reciprocating engine based
cogeneration systems normally provide all the power requirements and very little heat.
A - 19
To increase the level of heat, reciprocating gas engines can be provided with ebullient cooling
systems to produce saturated steam at 13-15 psig with a limitation of temperature to 250 oF
maximum measured at the engine water outlet flange. However, an ebullient-cooled engine must
be equipped with shut-down devices which operate automatically when system temperature or
pressure gets to a critical point which could be harmful to the engine and system components.
engine
Furnace oil engines must be specified with adequate oil storage tanks, the size depending on the
location and ease of service from the oil supply company. Thus, a minimum storage capacity of
only one week may be too little for supply to a remote industrial area in the country.
Furnace oil engines can only handle the fuel after adequate heating to reduce viscosity. Thus,
heating of all right from the storage tank to the final temperature for injection is to be included
with the system specifications. Heating requirements of fuel are more severe for winter conditions
and the engine heat recovery should be utilized for this purpose in addition to meeting the process
thermal energy requirements.
A.8.1 Guide Specifications for Reciprocating Engine
A.8.1.1 General
(a) Engine set and the auxiliaries shall be mounted on a single-piece rigid
structural steel skid with vibration isolation either in the skid or in the
heavy concrete foundation.
(b) Engine shall be water-cooled with heavy duty pressurized radiator and
complete thermostatic control of the engine cooling water circuit. A
water jacket oil cooler shall be incorporated in the engine cooling
system.
A - 20
(c) Engine lubrication system shall be enclosed forced feed type with gear
oil pump and suction strainer.
(d) Full flow fuel and lubricating oil filters with replacement elements and
pressure bypass system in the filter head shall be provided.
(e) Air intake filter unit installed at the air intake manifold and with the
replaceable filter elements shall be provided.
(f) Engine shall be fitted with a water-cooled exhaust manifold, together

with a silencer of required rating.
(g) Engine shall have heavy flywheel to minimize cycle irregularity.
(h) Engine mounted instrument panel on anti-vibration mountings shall be

supplied complete with oil pressure gauge, oil temperature gauge, water
temperature gauge, tachometer, service hours recorder, number of starts
recorder and push button start-stop switch.
(i) Governor shall control engine speed under no-load to full-load

conditions.
(j) Engine shall have overload capacity of 10% for one hour in every 12
hours.
A.8.1.2 Design Data
(a) Maximum continuous output rating in HBP.
(b) Fuel heating value in Btu/hr.
(c) Ambient maximum dry bulb temperature in oF.
(d) Ambient minimum dry bulb temperature in oF.
A - 21
(e) Location altitude in feet.
(f) Maximum exhaust back pressure, in inches water column.
A.8.1.3 Specific Engine Requirements
A.8.1.3.1 Gas Engine
(a) Engine shall be industrial four-stroke spark-ignition type, with

turbo-charging where required.
(b) Starting system shall be either 24 volts d.c. electric motor or

150 psig air driven starting motor.
(c) Maximum compression ratio of the engine shall be 11:1.
A.8.1.3.2 Diesel Oil Engine
(a) Engine shall be industrial, four stroke, compression ignition

type, with turbo charging and inter-cooling where required.
(b) Starting system shall be either 24 volts d.c. electric motor or

150 psig air driven starting motor.
(c) Maximum compression ratio of the engine shall be 14:1.
(d) Engine shall have direct fuel injection system.
A.8.1.3.3 Furnace Oil Engine
(a) Engine shall be industrial, four stroke, compression ignition

type, with turbo charging and inter-cooling where required.
(b) Fuel system for the engine shall include heating and circulation
to avoid clogging of system.
A - 22
(c) Load dependent engine cooling water system cooling water

shall be supplied so that in stand-by mode and during start-up,
a pre-heating module heats the cooling water while cooling
water system ensures sufficient cooling of all parts during
operation.
(d) Separate injection nozzle temperature control system shall be

included in the engine to ensure heating in stand by and low-
load condition and cooling in high-load operation.
(e) Lubrication system shall include lube oil centrifuge so that

separation of fouled lubricating oil is possible while the engine
is in operation.
(f) Temperature of charge air (inlet air) of the engine shall be

regulated at low loads by including heating arrangements.
A.9 ALTERNATORS
Alternators should be specified with details in relation to the duty and following items need special
consideration:
(a) Alternator type: whether it should be synchronous or induction, specially if alternators are
to be paralleled. Synchronous generators operating in parallel are held in synchronism
with each other by electrical “coupling”, which acting through the common bus, tend to
hold the rotors of the various machines together in their rotation. The engine manufacturer
should include a flywheel with adequate inertia to avoid the engine frequency coming
close to system natural frequency.
(b) Speed: synchronous speed of alternator will depend on number of poles in the alternator
field. For four-pole machines, the alternator speed shall be 1500 rpm. This speed should
be attained through speed-reducing gears with steam turbine and gas turbine. However,
A - 23
with medium speed reciprocating engines, lower direct-driven synchronous speeds (600
and 750 rpm) can be used with higher number of poles in the alternator field.
(c) Winding Pitch: to minimize third order harmonies in alternators operating in parallel with
the utility, 2/3 pitch should be specified.
(d) Number of Bearings: two bearing alternators should be specified, except for small direct-
driven design in which single bearing alternators are acceptable.
(e) Special Features: like Cross Current Compensation to control reactive load and specially
required for parallel operation and voltage regulators with radio frequency filters should
be included..
A.9.1 Guide Specifications for Alternators
A.9.1.1 General
(a) Alternator shall be four-pole rotating field, two bearing self ventilated
(with water-cooled air cooler, if required), open drip-proof type.
(b) Alternator shall have self-lubricated, anti-friction bearings.
(c) Rotor fan shall be provided for air movement through the alternator and
around the rotor for cooling. The rotor shall be electrically and
mechanically balanced at all speeds upto 125% of rated speed.
(d) Stator temperature detector shall be provided to monitor the internal

heating of the alternator.
(e) Alternator shaft diameter shall be sufficient to provide stiffness

necessary to preclude tensional or lateral vibrating problems. The
alternator shaft end shall be compatible with the engine drive.
A - 24
(f) Main power connections of the alternator shall be brought out to

terminals suitably insulated with respect to ground and between phases.
Suitable spacing shall be provided between all terminals to ensure ease
of connection and to maintain proper creepage distances.
(g) Alternator terminal box shall contain sufficient room for the mounting
of three differential current transformers and a ground fault transformer.
(h) Alternator insulation shall conform to NEMA * class F requirement.

This shall allow a temperature rise of 105oC(189oF) in accordance with
NEMA continuous duty temperature rise requirements, as measured by
resistance with a maximum ambient temperature 40oC (104oF).
A.9.1.2Associated Equipment
(a) Exciter unit shall consist of two separate assemblies: a three phase,
rotating armature type alternating current alternator and a three-phase
full bridge rectifier, both electrically interconnected with each other and
with the main alternator field wiring.
(b) Voltage regulator shall be equipped with cross-current compensation

provisions and adjustable drop range from 0 to 5% for parallel
operation. It shall have plus minus 10% voltage adjustment range.
A.9.1.3Design Data
(a) Rated output in MVA.
(b) Rated power factor (Cos).
(c) Rated active power at alternator terminal in MW.
*
National Electrical Manufacturers Association, U.S.A.
A - 25
(d) Alternator over-load capacity:
(i) 50% overload current with the field set for normal rated load
excitation for 1 minute.
(j) 10% overaload for two hours at rated power factor.
(e) Rated voltage in V.
(f) Voltage control range plus minus 5%.
(g) Rated frequency 50 Hz.
(h) Maximum ambient temperature in oF.
(i) Location altitude in feet (above sea level).
A.10 GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR L.T. SWITCH BOARD
(a) Material for construction shall be at least two millimeter thick sheet metal with full
interlock between cubical doors and withdrawable circuit breakers, switches and
contactors.
(b) Switch board shall be fully gasketted to prevent ingress of moisture, dust and dirt.
(c) Liberal spacing shall be arranged between circuit breakers and also between all live
terminals.
(d) Adequate space within the cubicle shall be provided for termination, glanding and
bending of incoming and outgoing cables.
(e) All wiring and busbars within the board shall be liberally rated so that current density
does not exceed 1.55 amps per square millimeter.
A - 26
(f) All necessary metering, protective devices and alarms shall be included.
(g) Neat and clean designations inside and outside shall be provided.
(h) Switch board shall be suitable for free floor standing.
(i) Earthing connections as per electrical code shall be provided.
A - 27
APPENDIX – B-1
CALCULATION OF FIXED AND VARIABLE COST OF POWER
Data Required
1. For existing facilities, copy of a recent bill for electricity.
2. For new facilities, estimate of connected load and maximum demand expected.
Variable Costs
For existing facilities, read variable cost from a current bill. Add up the following:
Energy Charges
Additional Surcharge
Surcharges
F.A.S. Subsidized
The sum of the above divided by the number of the unit consumed gives the variable cost of power
per unit. For new facilities, estimate variable costs as follows:-
Tariff Energy F.A.S. Surcharges @ Total Avg.

Additional
Charge Subsidized 10.4% Rate
Surcharge
(Rs/kWh) (Rs/kWh) (Rs./ kWh) (Rs/ kWh)
(Rs/kWh )
B-2 (41kW-500 kW) 1.30 0.13 1.99 0.26 4.76
B-3 (Normal) 11&33Kv 1.29 0.13 2.01 0.22 4.38

not exceeding 5000Kw
B-4 Normal 1.24 0.13 1.86 0.23 4.29

66/132/22Kv-All loads
B– 1. 1
Check with WAPDA and KESC or current bill for any facility to determine current energy charges
and surcharges.
Fixed Costs
Read fixed charges in the bill. Divide by the units consumed to calculate fixed cost per kWh.
Fixed charges are calculated on the basis of billing demand. Billing demand is defined as the
maximum of the following:
1. Minimum kW level in the tariff plus 1 kW.

2. 50% of connected/sanctioned load.
3. 90% of maximum established demand in the last eleven months.
4. Recorded maximum demand in the current month.
Fixed charges for various tariff classifications are:-

(All figures in Rs/kWh)
Tariff Fixed Charges
B-2 (>41kW-500kW) 300
B-3 (Normal) 11&33Kv not exceeding 5000Kw 290
B-4 Normal 66/132/22Kv-All loads 280
For new facilities, estimate the maximum demand and calculate fixed charges for 90% of the
maximum demand.
B– 1. 2
Example: Calculation of Fixed and Variable Cost of Power
Demand Data:
Peak Demand (MDI) kW 4,500
Operating Hours/Year 8,760
Annual Power Demand Mill. kWh 30.00
Average Demand kW 3,425
Ratio of Average to Peak 0.76
Calculation of Fixed Cost of Power:
Tariff Classification B-3
Connected Load kW 5,000
Peak Demand (MDI) kW 4,500
90% of MDI kW 4,050
Fixed Charges/Month Rs./kW 290.00
Total Fixed Charges/Month Rs./kW 1,174,500
Annual Fixed Charges Rs. Million 14.09
Fixed Charges/Unit Rs./kW 1.29
Calculation of Variable Cost of Power:
Variable Cost/Unit (Average Rate) Rs./kWh 4.38
Fixed Cost/Unit Rs./kWh 1.29
Total Cost/Unit Rs./kWh 5.67
B– 1. 3
APPENDIX B-2
CALCULATION OF STEAM COSTS
The following stepwise procedure can be used to estimate cost of steam:
1. For a given steam pressure and temperature, read hs, enthalpy of steam, from
steam tables or Mollier diagram.
2. For given feed water temperature, read hfw, enthalpy of feedwater pumps, from
steam tables.
3. Determine boiler efficiency. Consult ENERCON manual “Improving Steam

Boiler Operating Efficiency” for procedures.
4. Calculate fuel requirement from the equation:

F = (hs – hfw) x 100/E
Where F = Fuel required, kJ/kg.
E = overall boiler efficiency
hs = enthalpy of steam, kJ/kg
hfw = enthalpy of feedwater pumps, kJ/kg
5. Calculate cost of fuel per unit of steam from the equation:

CF = F x P/1000
Where CF = cost of fuel/tonne of steam
F = fuel required, kJ/kg steam
P = Price of fuel, Rs./GJ
Assume other costs, such as feed water treatment and maintenance and operation of the boiler @
3% of cost of fuel.
Variable cost of steam/tonne = 1.03 x CF.
B- 2.1
Example: Calculation of Variable Cost of Steam
Percent Energy Cost

Cost of Fuels and fuel Mix:
In mix Rs./GJ
Natural Gas 70.00% 239.00
Furnace Oil 30.00% 248.00
Average Cost of Fuel Rs/GJ 243.50
Boiler Operating Data:
Overall Boiler Efficiency 80.00%
Pressure of Steam Psig 200.00
Temperature of Steam Deg C 198.00
Enthalpy of Steam kJ/kg 2,791.00
Temperature of Feed Water Deg C 70.00
Enthalpy of Feed Water kJ/kg 289.00
Change in Enthalpy kJ/kg 2,502.00
Average Cost of Fuel Rs./GJ 243.50
Unit Cost of Fuel Rs./Tonne 609.24
Unit Operating Costs, Rs./Tonne 18.28
(@ 3.00% of fuel)
Unit Cost of Steam Rs./Tonne 628.52
B- 2.2
APPENDIX B- 3
STEAM TURBINE CALCULATIONS
To understand the application and selection of turbines, it is helpful to define some terms, then
look at examples. A list of turbine formulas is presented in Exhibit B-3.1. Two parameters of
primary importance when comparing turbines or selecting steam conditions are steam rate (S.R)
and heat rate (H.T.). Steam rate (lb/kW) represents the unit flow of steam required for power
generation while heat rate (kJ/kWh) is a measure of overall efficiency.
Steam rate is important in sizing a turbine or determining proper steam conditions for a given
desired output. Steam rate is a function of theoretical steam rate and the efficiency of the turbo
generator system. The theoretical steam rate (TSR) can be obtained either from a Mollier chart
using “hisentropic”, or from published tables by ASME. Most manufacturers offer charts and tables
for turbine selection purposes. These charts and tables provide information on basic turbine
efficiency as a function of load in kW or hp, and correction for speed in rpm, and superheat in
steam.
Example: calculation of TSR
Steam inlet: 580 psig 660oF

Steam outlet: 15 psig
From Mollier chart, enthalpy at inlet = hi = 1333 Btu/lb

Drawing a line vertically down at constant entropy, enthalpy at outlet = ho = 1032 Btu/lb
hisentropic = 1333 – 1032 = 301 Btu/lb
TSR = 3413/ hisentropic = 3413/301 = 11.3 Btu/lb.
B - 3.1
Exhibit B-1
TURBINE FORMULAS
1. Btu drop = ∆hisentropic x nturbine
2. Theoretical Steam Rate = T.S.R. = 3,413/∆isentropic
T.S.R. W
3. Actual steam rate = S.R. = =
nturbo ngear ngen F
Or base steam rate where W = 1b/hr steam flow
(lb/kWh) B = power in kW
3413
=
∆isen x nturb x ngear x ngen
h1 - h2
4. Heat rate = H.R. = Wx
P
Where: h1 – hf @ exhaust conditions (saturated water)
(condensing)
(Btu/kWh)
= S.R. x (h1 – h2) (no useful heat is obtained

From condensing the steam)
3413 (h1 - h2)
=
(Btu drop) ngear ngen
W x (Btu drop)
5. Heat rate = H.R. =
P
(non-condensing
Or back-pressure)
(Btu/kWh) = S.R. x (Btu drop) (turbine inefficiency is
converted to heat and
3413
= utilized in the process
ngear x ngen
steam)
3413
6. Thermal Efficiency = nthermal =
H.R.
B - 3.2
APPENDIX B-4
QUICK PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATION OF ELECTRICAL OUTPUT OF

STEAM TURBINES
The curves shown here will enable you to make a quick estimate of the electrical output of a steam
turbine cogeneration system. You can use the curves for any combination of inlet pressure,
extraction pressures and rates, and backpressure or vacuum.
To use the curves, first find the inlet pressure on the abscissa and draw a vertical line to intersect
with the curve for the exhaust pressure or for the first extraction pressure. Find the ordinate value
and multiply this by the steam flow through the turbine or through the first extraction valve. If the
turbine is an extraction machine, repeat the process for each extraction point, multiplying the value
found on the ordinate by the extraction flow at the point and adding the results. A double-
extraction turbine is shown below as an example:
Total kilowatt output is found from the curves as: kW = (44 X 200) + (66 X 150) + (122 X 50) =
24,800.
400,000 lb/hr 120

ga
bs
.H
ga
bs
Back .H 5 in
110 2 in
Pressure
100
90
Steam rate, kW 1000 lb/hr
80
g
50 psi
70 sig
100 p
60
sig
200 p
50
200 psig 40 450 p

sig
200,000 lb/hr 2 in Hg abs sig

30 600 p
50 psig 50,000 lb/hr
150,000 lb/hr 20
Turbine/generator
10 Efficiency=75%
200 450 600 900 1200 1500 1800

Inlet pressure, psig
B-4.1
8
(100.8)
1000 kW per 100,000 lb/hr steam flow

(1000 kW per kg per sec steam flow)
7 14 Initi
5 p al S
(88.2) si g t
95 eam
Byproducr power generated

0F C Based on 75% Efficiency
6 12 (99 ond
50 90 itio
(75.6) ps kP n s
ig a5
90 10
5 0F C)
(86
(63.0) 12
kP
a4
4 82
(50.4) C)
3
(37.8)
4
2 (27 00ps
56 ig 6
kP 850 p
(25.2) a 3 50 F 600p
(585 sig 825F
43
C) (413 sig 750F 6kPa
4kPa 440 C
1 399 C )
(12.6) )
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
(689) (1378) (2306) (2756) (3455)
Process-steam pressure, psig (kPa)
B-4.2
APPENDIX B-5
PRELIMINARY FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
COGENERATION WITH STEAM TURBINE
DATA AND ASSUMPTIONS

Base Case Data:
Number of working hours per year 8,760
Cost of fuel Rs/GJ 243.50
Annual process steam requirement Tonnes 131,400
Maximum steam demand Tonnes/hr 20.00
Average steam demand Tonnes/hr 15.00
Average cost of steam Rs/Tonne 628.52 (Appendix B-2)
Annual cost of steam Rs. Million/yr 82.58
Annual process power requirement Million kWh 30.00
Peak power demand kW 4,500
Average power demand kW 3,425
Total fixed cost of power Rs. Million/yr 14.09 (Appendix B-1)
Fixed cost of purchased power Rs/kWh 1.29 (Appendix B-1)
Variable cost of purchased power Rs/kWh 4.38 (Appendix B-1)
Total unit cost Rs/kWh 5.67
Annual cost of power Rs. Million/yr 38.05
B-5.1
Cogeneration Boiler:
Steam temperature Deg C 400.00
Steam pressure Bar 41.37
Steam enthalpy KJ/kg 3225.00 (Mollier diagram)
Feed water enthalpy KJ/kg 209.00 (@ 50 Deg C)
Energy required/tonne steam GJ/Tonne 3.016
Annual steam production Tonnes 131,400 (Base case)
Cogeneration boiler efficiency % 90.00%
Annual fuel requirement GJ 440,336
Price of fuel Rs/GJ 243.50 (Base case)
Annual cost of fuel Rs. Million/yr 107.22
Turbo-Generator:
Theoretical steam rate (TSR) kg/kW 8.52 (Appendices B-3,B-4)
Turbo-generator efficiency 75.00%
Actual steam rate kg/kW 11.36
Maximum steam demand kg/hr 20,000 (Base case)
Peak power generation kW 1,761
Annual steam demand Tonnes/hr 15.00
Average power generation kW 1,320
Number of working hours per year Hours 8,760
System availability factor % 95.00%
Total power generated Million kWh/yr 10.99
B-5.2
Power required for auxiliaries Million 0.44

KWh/yr
Useful power generated Million 10.55

KWh/yr
Annual process power requirement Million kWh 30.00 (Base case)
Power to be purchased Million kWh 19.45
Total fixed cost of power Rs. Million/yr 14.09 (Base case)
Variable cost of purchased power Rs/kWh 4.38 (Base case)
Total var. cost of purchased power Rs Million/yr 85.19
Annual cost of purchased power Rs Million/yr 99.28
Annual cost of fuel Rs. Million 107.22
Annual cost of energy Rs Million/yr 206.50
Annual cost of maintenance + operation Rs Million/yr 4.58 (@ 5% of capital)
Total annual operating cost for Rs Million/yr 211.08

cogeneration system
Base case power cost Rs Million/yr 169.88
Base case steam cost Rs Million/yr 82.58
Total base case operation costs Rs Million/yr 252.46
Net savings Rs Million/yr 41.38
Capital cost of cogeneration system Rs Million 91.57 (@ Rs.22,000 / kW)
Capital cost for base case Rs Million 31.20 (L.P. Boilers)
Additional capital cost Rs Million 60.37
Simple pay back period Years 1.46
B-5.3
APPENDIX B-6
COGENERATION WITH GAS TURBINES

Base Case Data:
Number of working hours per year Hours/yr 8,760
Average steam demand Tonnes/hr 15.00
Base steam loan Tonnes/hr 10.00
Cost of steam Rs/Tonne 628.52 (Appendix B-2)
Annual process power requirement Mill. kWh 30.00
Base power load kW 3,300
Total fixed cost of power Rs. Million/yr 14.09 (Appendix B-1)
Fixed cost of purchased power Rs/kWh 1.29 (Appendix B-1)
Variable cost of purchased power Rs/kWh 4.38 (Appendix B-1)
Total unit cost Rs/kWh 5.67
Annual cost of power Rs. Million/yr 169.88
B-6.1
Gas Turbine:
Efficiency of gas turbine % 25.00
Base power load kWh 3,300
No. of working hours per year Hours/yr 8,760
System availability factor % 95.00%
Number of operating hours Hours/yr 8,322
Total power generated (base load) Million kWh/yr 27.46
Fuel required GJ/hr 395,461
Power required for auxiliaries Million kWh/yr 0.82
Useful power generated Million kWh/yr 26.64
Power to be purchased Million kWh 3.36
Total fixed cost of power Rs Million/yr 14.09
Variable cost of purchased power Rs/kWh 4.38
Total variable cost of purchased power Rs Million/yr 14.72
Total cost of purchased power Rs Mill/yr 28.81
Note: It is assumed that utility backup is maintained
Waste Heat Boiler:
Feed water enthalpy KJ/kg 209.00
Steam pressure Psig 200.00 (Saturated)
Steam enthalpy KJ/kg 2791.00 (1200.4 Btu/lb).
B-6.2
Feed water enthalpy KJ/kg 289.00 (126 Btu/lb)
Heat recovered as % of fuel input % 45.00%
Energy input into turbine GJ/yr 395,461
Total heat recovered GJ/yr 177,958
Steam generated Tonnes/yr 71,126
Number of operating hours Hours/yr 8,322
Steam rate Tonnes/hr 8.55
Base load steam demand Tonnes/hr 10.00
Note: Steam produced by waste heat boiler is less than base steam load.
Cost of fuel for gas turbine:
Annual fuel required of cogeneration system GJ 395,461
Price of fuel Rs/GJ 243.5
Annual cost of fuel for cogeneration system Rs. Million 96.29
Cost of steam from existing low pressure

boilers:
Annual process steam requirement Tonnes/yr 131,400
Steam generated by cogeneration system Tonnes/yr 71,126
Steam required from low pressure boiler Tonnes/yr 60,274
Cost of steam from low pressure boilers Rs /Tonnes 628.52
Annual steam cost from low pressure Rs Million/yr 37.88

boilers
Annual cost of purchased power Rs Million/yr 28.81
Annual cost of fuel Rs Million 96.29
B-6.3
Annual steam cost from low pressure boilers Rs Million/yr 37.88
Annual cost of maintenance + operation Rs. Million/yr 9.92 (@ 5% of capital)

cogeneration system
Base case cost for purchased power Rs Million/yr 169.88
Base case costs for steam Rs Million/yr 82.58
Base case operating costs Rs Million/yr 252.46
Capital cost of cogeneration system Rs Million 198.40 (3100 kW @ Rs.64,000)
Cost of low pressure boilers needed Rs Million 20.80 (2 L.P. Boilers)
Total capital cost with cogeneration system Rs.Million 219.20
Capital cost for base case Rs./Million 31.20 (3 L.P. Boilers)
Additional capital cost Rs Mill 188.00
B-6.4
APPENDIX B-7
Cogeneration with Reciprocating Engines

Base Case Data:
Average steam demand kg/hr 15.00
Cost of steam Rs/Tonne 628.52
Generator Sets:
Number of sets 8
Capacity per set kW 600
Total generating capacity kW 4,500
Annual power generation Million kWh 30.00
Generator efficiency % 31.00%
Annual fuel use GJ 348,387
Annual fuel cost Rs Million/yr 84.83
B-7.1
Waste Heat Boilers:
Annual fuel use GJ/yr 348,387
Percent heat recovery % 15.00%
Heat recovered GJ/yr 52,258
Steam pressure Psig 50.00
Steam enthalpy KJ/kg 2742.00
Feed water enthalpy KJ/kg 289.00 (@ 70 deg C)
Steam required Tonnes/yr 31,204
Average steam production Tonnes/hr 2.43
Cost of steam from existing low pressure boiler:
Annual process steam requirement Tonnes/yr 131,400
Steam generated by cogeneration system Tonnes/yr 21,304
Steam required from low pressure boiler Tonnes/yr 110,096
Cost of steam from low pressure boilers Rs/Tonne 628.52
Annual steam cost from low pressure Million/yr 69.20

boilers.
Calculation of Simple Payback Period:
Annual cost of fuel Rs.Million 84.83
Annual steam cost from low pressure Rs Million/yr 69.20

boilers
B-7.2
Annual cost of maintenance + operation of Rs Million/yr 12.15

cogeneration system

cogeneration system
Base case cost of steam Rs Million/yr 82.58
Base case cost of power Rs Million/yr 169.58
Base case operating costs Rs Million/yr 252.16
Capital cost of cogeneration system Rs Million 243.00
Cost of low pressure boilers needed Rs. Million 31.20 (L.P. boilers)
Total capital cost with cogeneration Rs. Million 274.20
Capital cost for base case Rs. Million 31.20 (L.P. boilers)
Additional capital cost Rs. Million 243.00
B-7.3
APPENDIX C
GLOSSARY
ACRS - Accelerated Cost Recovery System
Affordability - A term which conveys the situation where a project’s financial

justification (payback, IRR, etc.,) is such that a high first cost
is affordable.
As-available Energy or Capacity - Electricity provided by a company generating electricity, to a

utility as it becomes available, rather than at pre-arranged
times and in pre-arranged quantities.
Auxiliary Power Sources (APS) - Electricity-generating facilities designed to be used in the

event of an outage at the local utility grid.
Average Cost Pricing - The pricing of electric service designed to recover the total
costs of a system in order to make total revenues (including
rate of return) equal to total costs. Total costs are based on
costs recovered in books of account and forecasted to be
recorded in such accounts.
Avoided Costs - The decremental cost for the electric utility to generate or
purchase electricity that is avoided through the purchase of
power from a cogeneration facilities.
Back Pressure Steam Turbine - A steam turbine designed to operate with an exhaust steam
pressure equal to, or greater than, atmospheric pressure, also
known as non-condensing.
Back-up Power - Electric energy available from or to an electric utility during

an unscheduled outage to replace energy ordinarily generated
by the facility or the utility. Frequently referred to as standby
power. Also see “Standby Service”.
Base load - The minimum electric or thermal load generated or supplied

continuously over a period of time.
Biomass - Any organic material not derived from fossil fuels.
Boiler, Fire-tube - A boiler with straight tubes, which are surrounded by water
and steam, and through which the combusted products pass.
Boiler, Water-tube - A boiler in which the tubes contain water and steam, the heat
being applied to the outside surface.
C– 1
Bottoming Cycle - A cogeneration facility in which the energy input to the system
is first applied to another thermal energy process; the reject
heat that emerges from the process is then used for power
production.
BTU - British Thermal Unit, which is approximate heat required to

raise the temperature of a pound of water from 59 oF to 60 oF.
Capability - The load for which a generating unit, generating station, or

other electrical apparatus is rated.
Capacity Costs - Cost associated with capital investments in electricity

production and delivery.
Capacity Credits - The value included in the utility’s rate for purchasing energy,
based on the savings accrued through the reduction or
postponement of new generation capacity that results from
purchasing power from cogenerators.
Capacity Factor - The ratio of the actual annual plant electricity output to the
rated plant output.
Capacity Cost - Installed cost of additions, improvements, and replacements or

expenditures for the acquisition of existing facilities.
Central Cooling - The same as central heating except that cooling (heat removal)
is supplied instead of heating; usually a chilled water
distribution system and return system for air conditioning.
Central Heating - Supply of thermal energy from a central plant to multiple

points of end use, usually by steam or hot water, for space
and/or service water heating,; central heating may be large-
scale as in plants serving university campuses, medical
centres, and military installations or in central buildings
systems serving multiple zones; also direct heating.
Central Power Generation - A utility generating electricity at a large plant, the primary
purpose of which is to generate electricity.
Cheng Cycle - Use of high-pressure steam injection in gas turbine to

increase air mass and thus the capacity of gas turbine.
Cogeneration - The sequential production of electrical or mechanical energy

and useful thermal energy from a single energy stream.
C– 2
Billing Demand - The demand upon which customer billing is based, as

specified in a rate schedule or contract. It can be based on the
contract year, a contract minimum, or a previous maximum
and does not necessarily coincide with the actual measured
demand of the billing period.
Coincident Demand - The sum of two or more demands occurring in the same
demand interval.
Instantaneous Peak Demand - The maximum demand at the instant of greatest load.
Demand Charge - The specified charge for electrical capacity on the basis of the
billing demand.
Despatchability - A condition of the electricity generating company whereby,

through engineering design, installed equipment, operating
conditions, and producers, the electrical utility has the ability
to dispatch the facility for operation at any time in a manner
agreed upon by the parties concerned.
Economic Despatch - The priority set by the utility to use their most efficient
generating stations first and their least efficient generating
stations last.
Energy Charge - That portion of the billed charge for electric service based on
the electric energy (kilowatt-hours) supplied, as contrasted
with the demand charge.
Enthalpy - A thermodynamic property of a substance, formerly called

“heat content”. Enthalpy of steam (Total Heat) is the
combined enthalpy of liquid and vapour and represents the
total heat above 32 oF in the steam.
Escalated Payments - A payment commitment for future years determined from

forecast rates of avoided costs.
Expansion Turbine - A device for converting the pressure energy of a gas or a

vapour stream into mechanical work as the gas or vapour
expands through the turbine.
Extraction Steam Turbine - A steam turbine with openings in the turbine casing form the
extraction of steam at different pressure(s) from intermediate
stage(s) of turbine with steam from the final stage is
condensed.
FGD - Fuel-Gas Desulfurization.
C– 3
Firm Capacity Payments - Payments for electricity provided in predetermined quantities

and at predetermined times, which may be based on avoided
costs at the time of delivery or at the time the obligation is
incurred.
Firm Power - Power available at all times during the period covered by the
commitment, except for forced outages and scheduled
maintenance. Firm power is provided with sufficient legally
enforceable guarantees of deliverability to permit the
purchasing electricity utility to avoid the need to construct a
generating unit, to build a smaller and less expensive plant, or
to purchase less firm power from another facility.
Forecast - Figure values determined by a mathematical model.
Fuel Adjustment Charges (FAC) - Periodic adjustments of utility rates to reflect fuel and related
costs.
Fuel-use Efficiency - The ratio of electric output plus heat recovered in Btu to the
fuel input in Btu. This measure gives credit to the useful
thermal output of the system.
Gas Turbine - A rotary prime mover that converts the energy of a fuel into
work by using the Brayton Cycle consisting of adiabatic
compression (in air compressor) constant pressure heating (in
fuel combustor) and adiabatic expansion (in turbine).
Grid - The system of interconnected transmission lines, substations,

and generating plants of one or more utilities.
Grid Interconnection - The intertie of configuration plant to an electric utility’s

system to allow electricity flow in either direction.
Harmonics - Waveforms whose frequencies are multiples of the

fundamental (50 or 60 Hz) wave. The combination of
harmonics and fundamental wave causes a nonsinusoidal,
periodic wave. Harmonics in power system are the result of
on-linear effects. Typically, harmonics are associated with
rectifiers and inverters, are furnaces, are welders, and
transformers magnetizing current. There are voltage and
current harmonics.
HC - Hydrocarbon - Usually used in reference to air pollutant emissions.
Heat Flow - The amount of heat transferred in a unit of time.
C– 4
Heat Rate - A measure of generating station thermal efficiency, generally

expressed in Btu per net kilowatt-hour generation.
Heating Value - The energy content in a fuel that is available as useful heat.
IHR – Incremental Heat Rate - The ratio of fuel consumed minus heat supplied to the net
power output of the prime mover. This represents the
additional amount of fuel needed to generate each increment
of power.
IRR – Internal Rate of Return - The discount rate that equates the present value of expected
future receipts to the cost of the investment outlay.
Industrial Park - Development of industrial facilities adjacent to Utility Power

Plant to make full use of thermal energy available for high
overall fuel efficiency.
Industrial Plant - The facility requiring process heat a electric and/or shaft
power. It can be a process plant, manufacturing facility,
shopping centre, and so on.
Interruptible Power - Electric energy supplied by an electric utility subject to

interruption by the electric utility under specified conditions.
Investment Tax Credit - A specified percentage of the amount of new investment in

each of certain categories of assets that a firm can deduct as a
credit against its income tax.
Kilowatt (kW) - An electrical unit of power equal to 1000 Watts.
Kilowatt hour (kWh) - A basic unit of electric energy equal to the use of 1 kilowatt
for a period of 1 hour.
LAER - Lower Achievable Emission Rates.
Leverlization - Lowest Achievable Emission Rates.
Line Losses - A financial arrangement whereby payments are constant over

a specified period and are based on forecasted values and the
value of money over time.
Load - The amount of electric power delivered to a given point on a

system, or the total amount of demand on the system.
Load Factor - The ratio of the average load supplied or required during a
designated period to the peak or maximum load occurring in
that period.
C– 5
Load Factor - The ratio of the average load supplied or required during a
designated period to the peak or maximum load occurring in
that period.
Loan or Bond Guarantees - A utility which guarantees the repayment of a bond or loan on
behalf of a company generating electricity in the event that it
is unable to make timely payments.
Maintenance Power - Electric energy or capacity supplied by an electric utility

during scheduled outages of the electricity generating
company (Cogenerator).
Marginal Cost Pricing - The pricing of electrical service designed to equate the rates
for electrical service with the marginal costs of that service.
Marginal Cost - The change in total cost caused by a change in output.

Marginal cost can also be understood as the additional cost to
produce an additional unit of output, or the savings from
producing one unit less of output (i.e., avoided cost).
Monopoly - A market structure in which there are many buyers but only
one seller.
NO – Nitrogen Oxides - A series of air pollutants formed during combustion.
NPV – Net Present Value - A capital-budgeting method that accounts for the time value of
money through discounted-cash-flow analysis. The method
determines the present value of the expected net revenue from
an investment minus the cost outlay, discounted at the cost of
capital.
Natural Gas - Unmixed natural gas or any mixture of natural gas and
artificial gas.
Net Heat to Process - The difference between the thermal energy supplied to the
industrial plant and the energy returned to the cogeneration
system. For systems supplying thermal energy as steam, the
product of the steam flow and its enthalpy is the thermal
energy supplied to the industrial plant. The energy returned is
the sum of the flow times the enthalpy for process condensate
returns and any markup water that is required.
Nonfirm Power - Electric power available as surplus only, which is supplied by

the power producer at the producer’s option and can be
interrupted by the power producer at will.
C– 6
Off-Peak - Time periods when power demands are below average; for
electric utilities, generally nights and weekends; for gas
utilities, summer months.
OPDECS - Off-peak Desiccant Evaporative Cooling Systems employ

Desiccant Cooling continuously regenerated from dedicated
waste heat (supplied from cogeneration system) allowing cost
effective decoupling of sensible and latent load of cooling
coils.
ORD – Organic Rankine Cycle - Ranking cycle using an organic compound as the working
fluid.
Oil - Crude oil, residual fuel oil, liquefied natural gas, or any
refined petroleum product.
PSD - Prevention of Significant Deterioration.
PV – Present Value - The amount of money, which, if invested today at a certain

rate of return, would be equivalent to a fixed amount to be
received at a specified future time.
Parallel Generation - Industrial power generation facilities whose AC phase &

frequencies are exactly equal to and are synchromised with the
utility service grid.
Payback Period - The number of years required for a firm to recover its original
investment from cash flows.
Peak Load - The maximum load demand occurring during a specified

period of time.
Peak Load Management - An attempt to reduce the system peak load by leveling the
load curve.
Piggy-back Refrigeration System - Steam turbine – driven centrifugal refrigeration machine with
back-pressure steam supply to absorption refrigeration
machine for utilization of both mechanical shaft power and
thermal energy.
Power Factor - The ratio of real power (kW) to apparent power (kVA) for any
given load and time; generally expressed as a decimal.
Power to Heat Ratio - The ratio refers to the relative amounts of electricity and heat
produced by the cogeneration system.
C– 7
Prime Mover - Equipment that transforms pressure or thermal energy to

useful mechanical energy.
Process Heat - Heat used for an industrial process in a plant, and not for
space heating.
Process Returns - The fluid returned from the industrial plant to the
cogeneration system. For systems where the process heat is
supplied as steam, the process returns are condensate.
Process Steam Load - Number of pounds of steam per hour required for a specified
industrial process.
Purchase - The buying of electric energy or capacity or both from an

electricity generating company by a electric utility.
QF – Qualifying facility - Cogenerator meeting the efficiency levels required under law
to enable special privileges like power fuel rates, right to
interconnect with utility, etc., (used in USA).
Radial Systems - Power from a single generation source.
Rankine cycle - A reversible thermodynamic cycle that descries the heat-to-

work-conversion process in a steam power plant.
Rate - Any price, rate, charge, or classification made, demanded,

observed, or received with respect to the sale or purchase of
electric energy or capacity, or any rule, regulation, or practice
respecting any such rate, charge or clarification, and any
contract pertaining to the sale or purchase of electric energy.
Rate Base - The value of assets, established by a regulatory authority, on

which a utility is permitted to earn a specified rate of return.
Generally, this represents the amount of property used in
public service.
Refuse-derived Fuels - Fuels derived from municipal waste used as fuel for electrical
energy production or low Btu-gases from sewage treatment
plants for use in turbines.
Reliability - Conformity of a electricity generating company to a specified

set of standards of the electric utility and the system.
C– 8
Reserve Margins - Extra capacity available to (1) meet anticipated demands for
power or (2) serve load in the event of a loss of generation
resulting from an unscheduled outage. The reserve margin is
the ratio of excess capacity to anticipated peak load expressed
as a percentage.
SCF - Standard cubic feet of gas at a temperature of 60 oF and

atmospheric pressure.
SL - Straight-line depreciation.
SO – Sulfur Dioxide - A major pollutant formed by the combustion of oil or coal

having sulfur content.
SYD - Sum-of-the-year’s digits depreciation.
Sale - The sale of electrical energy or capacity or both by an electric

utility to a qualifying facility.
Selective Energy System - A form of cogeneration in which part, but not all, of the site’s
electrical needs are met with on site generation, with
additional electricity purchased from a utility as needed.
Shaft Power - Mechanical energy in the form of a rotating shaft.
Significant Emission Level - An emission rate (tones/year) for a specific number of

pollutants above which the pollution level is considered
significant for regulatory purposes.
Supplementary Power - Electric energy or capacity supplied by an electric utility,

regulatory used by a qualifying facility in addition to that
which the facility generates itself.
Surplus Electricity - Electricity generated beyond the immediate needs of the

producing system, frequently obtained from spinning reserve
and sold on an interruptible basis.
System Emergency - A condition of a utility’s system likely to result in imminent

significant disruption of service to customers or immediately
linked to endanger life or property.
Thermal Capacity - The maximum amount of heat that a system can produce.
Thermal Storage - Temporary storage of high or low temperature energy for later
use, bridging the time gap between energy availability and
energy use. While the output of thermal storage is always
thermal energy, the input energy may be thermal or electrical.
C– 9
Time Differentiated Payments - Payments made according to time-of-day or time-of-year

delivery periods.
Topping cycle - A cogeneration facility in which the energy input to the

facility is first used to produce useful power, with the reject
heat from power production then used for other purposes.
Total Energy Input - The total energy in all forms supplied by external sources
other than supplementary firing to the facility.
Total Energy Systems - A form of cogeneration in which all electrical and thermal
energy needs are met by on-site systems; a total energy system
can be completely isolated or switched over to a normally
disconnected electrical utility system for back-up.
Simultaneous Purchase and Sale - A regulatory convention that allows a qualified

facility/industry to simultaneously sell its own generation to
the utility while purchasing its requirement from the utility, an
exchange of electrical flow does not necessarily occur – the
difference is cash flow.
Small Power Production - Any unregulated electricity production facility including

hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass refuse-derived fuel, and
wind facilities.
Social Costs - Tangible but hard to quantity costs to society of an economic

or technological activity.
Spinning Reserve - Generating capacity that is on-line and ready to take load, but
in excess of the current load on the system.
Standby Service - Also standby power of standby reserve – service that is not
normally used but that is available through a permanent
connection in lieu of, or as a supplement to, the usual source
of supply.
Steam Turbine - A rotary prime power that converts the heat energy of steam,
generated in a boiler, to mechanical energy.
Sunk Costs - Costs that have already been committed and, thus are
irrelevant to future investment decisions.
Supplemental Thermal - The heat required when recovered engine heat is insufficient
to meet thermal demands.
C– 10
Supplementary Firing - The injection of fuel into the recovered heat stream to raise its
energy content (heat). Used only in the thermal process or a
topping-cycle cogeneration facility.
Supply/Demand Interface - Refers to the relationship between timing and amount of

thermal and electric energy supplied by the cogeneration
system and the timing and amount of thermal and electrical
energy demanded (or required) by the energy user.
C– 11
APPENDIX – D
Saturated Steam Tables – (metric units)
Specific
Specific enthalpy volume
steam
Water Evaporation Steam
Pressure Temp (hf) (hfg) (hg)
bar kPa °C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg m3/kg
absolute
0.30 30.0 69.10 289.23 2336.1 2625.3 5.229
0.50 50.0 81.33 340.49 2305.4 2645.9 3.240
0.75 75.0 91.78 384.39 2278.6 2663 2.217
0.95 95.0 98.20 411.43 2261.8 2673.2 1.777
1.00 100.0 99.63 417.51 2257.9 2675.4 1.694
1.013 101.3 100.00 419.06 2257.0 2676.0 1.673
gauge
0 0 100.00 419.06 2257.0 2676.0 1.673
0.10 10.0 102.66 430.2 2250.2 2680.2 1.533
0.20 20.0 105.10 440.8 2243.4 2684.2 1.414
0.30 30.0 107.39 450.4 2237.2 2687.6 1.312
0.40 40.0 109.55 459.7 2231.3 2691.0 1.225
D.1
0.50 50.0 111.61 468.3 2225.6 2693.9 1.149
0.60 60.0 113.56 476.4 2220.4 2696.8 1.088
0.70 70.0 115.40 484.1 2215.4 2699.5 1.024
0.80 80.0 117.14 491.6 2210.5 2702.1 0.971
0.90 90.0 118.80 498.9 2205.6 2704.5 0.923
1.00 100.0 120.42 505.6 2201.1 2706.7 0.881
1.10 110.0 121.96 512.2 2197.0 2709.2 0.841
1.20 120.0 123.46 518.7 2192.8 2711.5 0.806
1.30 130.0 124.90 524.6 2188.7 2713.3 0.773
1.40 140.0 126.28 530.5 2184.8 2715.3 0.743
1.50 150.0 127.62 536.1 2181.0 2717.1 0.714
1.60 160.0 128.89 541.6 2177.3 2718.9 0.689
1.70 170.0 130.13 547.1 2173.7 2720.8 0.665
1.80 180.0 131.37 552.3 2170.1 2722.4 0.643
1.90 190.0 132.54 557.3 2166.7 2724.0 0.622
2.00 200.0 133.69 562.2 2163.3 2725.5 0.603
2.20 220.0 135.88 571.7 2156.9 2728.6 0.568
2.40 240.0 138.01 580.7 2150.7 2731.4 0.536
2.60 260.0 140.00 589.2 2144.7 2733.9 0.509
2.80 280.0 141.92 597.4 2139.0 2736.4 0.483
3.00 300.0 143.75 605.3 2133.4 2738.7 0.461
D.2
3.20 320.0 145.46 612.9 2128.1 2741.0 0.440
3.40 340.0 147.20 620.0 2122.9 2742.9 0.422
3.60 360.0 148.84 627.1 2117.8 2744.9 0.405
3.80 380.0 150.44 634.0 2112.9 2746.9 0.389
4.00 400.0 151.96 640.7 2108.1 2748.8 0.374
4.50 450.0 155.55 656.3 2096.7 2753.0 0.342
5.00 500.0 158.92 670.9 2086.0 2756.9 0.315
5.50 550.0 162.08 684.6 2075.7 2760.3 0.292
6.00 600.0 165.04 697.5 2066.0 2763.5 0.272
6.50 650.0 167.83 709.7 2056.8 2766.5 0.255
7.00 700.0 170.50 721.4 2047.7 2769.1 0.240
7.50 750.0 173.02 732.5 2039.2 2771.7 0.227
8.00 800.0 175.43 743.1 2030.9 2774.0 0.215
8.50 850.0 177.75 753.3 2022.9 2776.2 0.204
9.00 900.0 179.97 763.0 2015.1 2778.1 0.194
9.50 950.0 182.10 772.5 2007.5 2780.0 0.185
10.00 1000.0 184.13 781.6 2000.1 2781.7 0.177
10.50 1050.0 186.05 790.1 1993.0 2783.3 0.171
11.00 1100.0 188.02 798.8 1986.0 2784.8 0.163
11.50 1150.0 189.82 807.1 1979.1 2786.3 0.157
12.00 1200.0 191.68 815.1 1972.5 2787.6 0.151
D.3
12.50 1250.0 193.43 822.9 1965.4 2788.8 0.148
13.00 1300.0 195.10 830.4 1959.6 2790.0 0.141
13.50 1350.0 196.62 837.9 1953.2 2791.1 0.136
14.00 1400.0 198.35 845.1 1947.1 2792.2 0.132
14.50 1450.0 199.92 852.1 1941.0 2793.1 0.128
15.00 1500.0 201.45 859.0 1935.0 2794.0 0.124
15.50 1550.0 202.92 865.7 1928.8 2794.9 0.119
16.00 1600.0 204.38 872.3 1923.4 2795.7 0.117
17.00 1700.0 207.17 885.0 1912.1 2797.1 0.110
18.00 1800.0 209.90 897.2 1901.3 2798.5 0.105
19.00 1900.0 212.47 909.0 1890.5 2799.5 0.100
20.00 2000.0 214.96 920.3 1880.2 2800.5 0.0994
21.00 2100.0 217.35 931.3 1870.1 2801.4 0.0906
22.00 2200.0 219.65 941.9 1860.1 2802.0 0.0868
23.00 2300.0 221.85 952.2 1850.4 2802.6 0.0832
24.00 2400.0 224.02 962.2 1840.9 2803.1 0.0797
25.00 2500.0 226.12 972.1 1831.4 2803.5 0.0768
26.00 2600.0 228.15 981.6 1822.2 2803.8 0.0740
27.00 2700.0 230.14 990.7 1818.3 2804.0 0.0714
28.00 2800.0 232.05 999.7 1804.4 2804.1 0.0689
29.00 2900.0 233.93 1008.6 1795.6 2804.2 0.0666
D.4
30.00 3000.0 235.78 1017.0 1787.0 2804.1 0.0645
31.00 3100.0 237.55 1025.6 1778.5 2804.1 0.0625
32.00 3200.0 239.28 1033.9 1770.0 2803.9 0.0605
33.00 3300.0 240.97 1041.9 1761.8 2803.7 0.0587
34.00 3400.0 242.63 1049.7 1753.8 2803.5 0.0571
35.00 3500.0 244.26 1057.7 1745.5 2803.2 0.0554
36.00 3600.0 245.86 1065.7 1737.2 2802.9 0.0539
37.00 3700.0 247.42 1072.9 1729.5 2802.4 0.0524
38.00 3800.0 248.95 1080.3 1721.6 2801.9 0.0510
39.00 3900.0 250.42 1087.4 1714.1 2801.5 0.0498
40.00 4000.0 251.94 1094.6 1706.3 2800.9 0.0485
41.00 4100.0 253.34 1101.6 1698.3 2799.9 0.0473
42.00 4200.0 254.74 1108.6 1691.2 2799.8 0.0461
43.00 4300.0 256.12 1115.4 1683.7 2799.1 0.0451
44.00 4400.0 257.50 1122.1 1676.2 2798.3 0.0441
45.00 4500.0 258.82 1228.7 1668.9 2797.6 0.0431
46.00 4600.0 260.13 1135.3 1666.6 2796.9 0.0421
47.00 4700.0 261.43 1142.2 1654.5 2796.6 0.0412
48.00 4800.0 262.73 1148.1 1647.1 2795.2 0.0403
49.00 4900.0 264.00 1154.5 1639.9 2794.4 0.0394
50.00 5000.0 265.26 1160.8 1632.8 2793.6 0.0386
D.5
51.00 5100.0 266.45 1166.6 1626.9 2792.6 0.0378
52.00 5200.0 267.67 1172.6 1619.0 2791.6 0.0371
53.00 5300.0 268.84 1178.7 1612.0 2790.7 0.0364
54.00 5400.0 270.02 1184.6 1605.1 2789.7 0.0357
55.00 5500.0 271.20 1190.5 1598.2 2788.7 0.0350
56.00 5600.0 272.33 1196.3 1591.3 2787.6 0.0343
57.00 5700.0 273.45 1202.1 1584.5 2786.6 0.0337
58.00 5800.0 274.55 1207.8 1577.7 2785.5 0.0331
59.00 5900.0 275.65 1213.4 1571.0 2784.4 0.0325
60.00 6000.0 276.73 1218.9 1564.4 2783.3 0.0319
61.00 6100.0 277.80 1224.5 1557.6 2782.1 0.0314
62.00 6200.0 278.85 1230.0 1550.9 2780.9 0.0308
63.00 6300.0 279.89 1235.4 1544.3 2779.7 0.0303
64.00 6400.0 280.92 1240.8 1537.3 2778.5 0.0298
65.00 6500.0 281.95 1246.1 1531.2 2777.3 0.0293
66.00 6600.0 282.95 1251.4 1524.7 2776.1 0.0288
67.00 6700.0 283.95 1256.7 1518.1 2774.8 0.0283
68.00 6800.0 284.93 1261.9 1511.6 2773.5 0.0278
69.00 6900.0 285.90 1267.0 1501.1 2772.1 0.0274
70.00 7000.0 286.85 1272.1 1498.7 2770.8 0.0270
71.00 7100.0 287.80 1277.3 1492.2 2769.5 0.0266
D.6
72.00 7200.0 288.75 1282.3 1485.8 2768.1 0.0262
73.00 7300.0 289.69 1287.3 1479.4 2766.7 0.0258
74.00 7400.0 290.60 1292.3 1473.0 2765.3 0.0254
75.00 7500.0 291.51 1297.2 1466.6 2763.8 0.0250
76.00 7600.0 292.41 1302.3 1460.2 2762.5 0.0246
77.00 7700.0 293.91 1307.0 1453.9 2760.9 0.0242
78.00 7800.0 294.20 1311.9 1447.6 2759.9 0.0239
79.00 7900.0 295.10 1316.7 1441.3 2758.0 0.0236
80.00 8000.0 295.96 1312.5 1435.0 2756.5 0.0233
81.00 8100.0 296.81 1326.2 1428.7 2754.9 0.0229
82.00 8200.0 297.66 1330.9 1422.5 2753.4 0.0226
83.00 8300.0 298.50 1335.7 1416.2 2751.9 0.0223
84.00 8400.0 299.35 1340.3 1410.0 2750.3 0.0220
85.00 8500.0 300.20 1345.0 1403.8 2748.8 0.0217
86.00 8600.0 301.00 1349.6 1397.6 2747.2 0.0214
87.00 8700.0 301.81 1354.2 1391.3 2745.5 0.0211
88.00 8800.0 302.61 1358.8 1385.2 2744.0 0.0208
89.00 8900.0 303.41 1363.3 1379.0 2742.3 0.0205
90.00 9000.0 304.20 1367.8 1372.7 2740.5 0.0202
92.00 9200.0 305.77 1376.8 1360.3 2737.1 0.0197
94.00 9400.0 307.24 1385.7 1348.0 2733.7 0.0192
D.7
96.00 9600.0 308.83 1394.5 1335.7 2730.2 0.0187
98.00 9800.0 310.32 1403.2 1323.3 2726.5 0.0183
100.00 10000.0 311.79 1411.9 1310.9 2722.8 0.0178
102.00 10200.0 313.24 1420.5 1298.7 2719.2 0.0174
104.00 10400.0 314.67 1429.0 1286.3 2715.3 0.0170
106.00 10600.0 316.08 1437.5 1274.0 2711.5 0.0166
108.00 10800.0 317.46 1445.9 1261.7 2707.6 0.0162
110.00 11000.0 318.83 1454.3 1249.3 2703.6 0.0158
112.00 11200.0 320.17 1462.6 1237.0 2699.6 0.0154
114.00 11400.0 321.50 1470.8 1224.6 2695.4 0.0150
116.00 11600.0 322.81 1479.0 1212.2 2691.2 0.0147
118.00 11800.0 324.10 1487.2 1199.8 2687.0 0.0144
120.00 12000.0 325.38 1495.4 1187.3 2682.7 0.0141
D.8
Saturated Steam Tables – (imperial units)
Pressure Temp Sensible Heat Latent Heat Total Heat Volume
(hf) (hfg) (hg) Dry Sat
deg F Btu/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb cu.ft/lb
absolute
15 179 147 991 1138 51.41
10 192 160 983 1143 39.40
5 203 171 976 1147 31.80
psig
0 212 180 971 1151 26.80
1 215 183 969 1152 25.20
3 221 190 964 1154 22.50
5 227 196 961 1156 20.10
7 232 201 958 1158 18.40
9 237 206 954 1160 17.00
11 241 210 951 1162 15.90
13 246 214 949 1163 15.10
15 250 218 946 1164 13.90
17 253 222 943 1165 13.00
19 257 226 941 1167 12.30
21 260 229 939 1168 11.70
23 264 233 937 1169 11.10
D.9
25 267 236 935 1170 10.60
27 270 239 932 1171 10.30
29 273 242 931 1172 9.70
31 275 244 929 1173 9.30
33 278 247 927 1174 8.90
35 281 250 925 1175 8.60
37 283 252 923 1175 8.25
39 286 255 921 1176 7.95
41 288 257 920 1177 7.70
43 290 260 918 1177 7.44
45 292 262 916 1178 7.21
47 295 264 915 1179 6.99
49 297 266 913 1179 6.78
51 299 268 912 1180 6.60
53 300 270 910 1181 6.40
55 303 272 909 1181 6.23
60 308 278 905 1183 5.84
65 312 282 902 1184 5.50
70 316 287 898 1185 5.19
75 320 290 896 1186 4.91
80 324 295 892 1187 4.67
D . 10
85 327 298 890 1188 4.45
90 331 302 887 1189 4.24
95 335 305 884 1189 4.06
100 338 309 882 1190 3.89
105 341 312 879 1191 3.74
110 344 316 876 1192 3.59
115 347 319 874 1193 3.46
120 350 322 872 1193 3.34
125 353 325 869 1194 3.23
130 356 328 867 1195 3.12
135 358 330 865 1195 3.02
140 361 333 862 1196 2.93
145 363 336 860 1196 2.84
150 366 339 858 1197 2.76
155 368 341 856 1197 2.68
160 371 344 854 1198 2.61
165 373 346 852 1198 2.54
170 375 348 850 1198 2.47
175 377 351 848 1199 2.41
180 380 353 846 1199 2.35
185 382 355 844 1199 2.29
D . 11
190 384 358 842 1200 2.24
195 386 360 840 1200 2.19
200 388 362 838 1200 2.14
205 390 364 837 1201 2.09
210 392 366 835 1201 2.04
215 394 368 833 1201 2.00
220 395 370 831 1201 1.96
225 397 372 830 1202 1.92
230 399 374 828 1202 1.88
235 401 376 826 1202 1.85
245 404 380 822 1202 1.78
255 408 383 819 1203 1.71
265 411 387 816 1203 1.65
275 414 391 813 1204 1.60
285 417 394 810 1204 1.54
295 420 397 807 1204 1.49
305 423 400 804 1204 1.45
315 426 404 801 1204 1.41
325 429 407 798 1205 1.36
335 432 410 795 1205 1.33
345 434 41 792 1205 1.29
D . 12
355 437 416 790 1205 1.26
365 440 419 787 1205 1.22
375 442 421 784 1205 1.19
385 445 424 781 1205 1.16
395 447 427 779 1205 1.13
D . 13
Superheated Steam Tables – (imperial units)
V = specific volume, cubic feet per pound
hg = total heat of steam, Btu per pound
Pressure
Sat. Total Temperature--Degrees Fahrenheit ( t )
lbs. / sq. in.
Temp
Abs. Gauge
t 350° 400° 500° 600° 700° 800° 900° 1000° 1100° 1300° 1500°
P' P
V 31.939 33.963 37.985 41.986 45.978 49.964 53.946 57.926 61.905 69.858 77.807
15.0 0.3 213.03
hg 1216.2 1239.9 1287.3 1335.2 1383.8 1433.2 1483.4 1534.5 1586.5 1693.2 1803.4
V 23.900 25.428 28.457 31.466 34.465 37.458 40.447 43.435 46.420 52.388 58.352
20.0 5.3 227.96
hg 1215.4 1239.2 1286.9 1334.9 1383.5 1432.9 1483.2 1534.3 1586.3 1693.1 1803.3
V 15.859 16.892 18.929 20.945 22.951 24.952 26.949 28.943 30.936 34.918 38.896
30.0 15.3 250.34
hg 1213.6 1237.8 1286.0 1334.2 1383.0 1432.5 1482.8 1534.0 1586.1 1692.9 1803.2
V 11.838 12.624 14.165 15.685 17.195 18.699 20.199 21.697 23.194 26.183 29.168
40.0 25.3 267.25
hg 1211.7 1236.4 1285.0 1333.6 1382.5 1432.1 1482.5 1533.7 1585.8 1692.7 1803.0
D . 14
V 9.424 10.062 11.306 12.529 13.741 14.947 16.150 17.350 18.549 20.942 23.332
50.0 35.3 281.02
hg 1209.9 1234.9 1284.1 1332.9 1382.0 1431.7 1482.2 1533.4 1585.6 1692.5 1802.9
V 7.815 8.354 9.400 10.425 11.438 12.446 13.450 14.452 15.452 17.448 19.441
60.0 45.3 292.71
hg 1208.0 1233.5 1283.2 1332.3 1381.5 1431.3 1481.8 1533.2 1585.3 1692.4 1802.8
V 6.664 7.133 8.039 8.922 9.793 10.659 11.522 12.382 13.240 14.952 16.661
70.0 55.3 302.93
hg 1206.0 1232.0 1282.2 1331.6 1381.0 1430.9 1481.5 1532.9 1585.1 1692.2 1802.6
V 5.801 6.218 7.018 7.794 8.560 9.319 10.075 10.829 11.581 13.081 14.577
80.0 65.3 312.04
hg 1204.0 1230.5 1281.3 1330.9 1380.5 1430.5 1481.1 1532.6 1584.9 1692.0 1802.5
V 5.128 5.505 6.223 6.917 7.600 8.277 8.950 9.621 10.290 11.625 12.956
90.0 75.3 320.28
hg 1202.0 1228.9 1280.3 1330.2 1380.0 1430.1 1480.8 1532.3 1584.6 1691.8 1802.4
V 4.590 4.935 5.588 6.216 6.833 7.443 8.050 8.655 9.258 10.460 11.659
100.0 85.3 327.82
hg 1199.9 1227.4 1279.3 1329.6 1379.5 1429.7 1480.4 1532.0 1584.4 1691.6 1802.2
V 3.7815 4.0786 4.6341 5.1637 5.6813 6.1928 6.7006 7.2060 7.7096 8.7130 9.7130
120.0 105.3 341.27
hg 1195.6 1224.1 1277.4 1328.2 1378.4 1428.8 1479.8 1531.4 1583.9 1691.3 1802.0
V 3.4661 3.9526 4.4119 4.8588 5.2995 5.7364 6.1709 6.6036 7.4652 8.3233
140.0 125.3 353.04
hg 1220.8 1275.3 1326.8 1377.4 1428.0 1479.1 1530.8 1583.4 1690.9 1801.7
V 3.0060 3.4413 3.8480 4.2420 4.6295 5.0132 5.3945 5.7741 6.5293 7.2811
160.0 145.3 363.55
hg 1217.4 1273.3 1325.4 1376.4 1427.2 1478.4 1530.3 1582.9 1690.5 1801.4
D . 15
V 2.6474 3.0433 3.4093 3.7621 4.1084 4.4508 4.7907 5.1289 5.8014 6.4704
180.0 165.3 373.08
hg 1213.8 1271.2 1324.0 1375.3 1426.3 1477.7 1529.7 1582.4 1690.2 1801.2
V 2.3598 2.7247 3.0583 3.3783 3.6915 4.0008 4.3077 4.6128 5.2191 5.8219
200.0 185.3 381.80
hg 1210.1 1269.0 1322.6 1374.3 1425.5 1477.0 1529.1 1581.9 1689.8 1800.9
V 2.1240 2.4638 2.7710 3.0642 3.3504 3.6327 3.9125 4.1905 4.7426 5.2913
220.0 205.3 389.88
hg 1206.3 1266.9 1321.2 1373.2 1424.7 1476.3 1528.5 1581.4 1689.4 1800.6
V 1.9268 2.2462 2.5316 2.8024 3.0661 3.3259 3.5831 3.8385 4.3456 4.8492
240.0 225.3 397.39
hg 1202.4 1264.6 1319.7 1372.1 1423.8 1475.6 1527.9 1580.9 1689.1 1800.4
V 2.0619 2.3289 2.5808 2.8256 3.0663 3.3044 3.5408 4.0097 4.4750

260.0 245.3 404.44
hg 1262.4 1318.2 1371.1 1423.0 1474.9 1527.3 1580.4 1688.7 1800.1
V 1.9037 2.1551 2.3909 2.6194 2.8437 3.0655 3.2855 3.7217 4.1543

280.0 265.3 411.07
hg 1260.0 1316.8 1370.0 1422.1 1474.2 1526.8 1579.9 1688.4 1799.8
V 1.7665 2.0044 2.2263 2.4407 2.6509 2.8585 3.0643 3.4721 3.8764

300.0 285.3 417.35
hg 1257.7 1315.2 1368.9 1421.3 1473.6 1526.2 1579.4 1688.0 1799.6
V 1.6462 1.8725 2.0823 2.2843 2.4821 2.6774 2.8708 3.2538 3.6332

320.0 305.3 423.31
hg 1255.2 1313.7 1367.8 1420.5 1472.9 1525.6 1578.9 1687.6 1799.3
V 1.5399 1.7561 1.9552 2.1463 2.3333 2.5175 2.7000 3.0611 3.4186

340.0 325.3 428.99
hg 1252.8 1312.2 1366.7 1419.6 1472.2 1525.0 1578.4 1687.3 1799.3
D . 16
V 1.4454 1.6525 1.8421 2.0237 2.2009 2.3755 2.5482 2.8898 3.2279

360.0 345.3 434.41
hg 1250.3 1310.6 1365.6 1418.7 1471.5 1542.4 1577.9 1686.9 1798.8
D . 17
Pressure
Lbs. / Sq. In.
Temp
Abs. Gauge
t 500° 600° 700° 800° 900° 1000° 1100° 1200° 1300° 1400° 1500°
P' P
V 1.3606 1.5598 1.7410 1.9139 2.0825 2.2484 2.4124 2.5750 2.7366 2.8973 3.0572
380.0
365.3 439.61
hg 1247.7 1309.0 1364.5 1417.9 1470.8 1523.8 1577.4 1631.6 1686.5 1742.2 1798.5
V 1.2841 1.4763 1.6499 1.8151 1.9759 2.1339 2.2901 2.4450 2.5987 2.7515 2.9037
400.0 385.3 444.60
hg 1245.1 1307.4 1363.4 1417.0 1470.1 1523.3 1576.9 1631.2 1686.2 1741.9 1798.2
V 1.2148 1.4007 1.5676 1.7258 1.8795 2.0304 2.1795 2.3273 2.4739 2.6196 2.7647
420.0 405.3 449.40
hg 1242.4 1305.8 1362.3 1416.2 1469.4 1522.7 1576.4 1630.8 1685.8 1741.6 1798.0
V 1.1517 1.3319 1.4926 1.6445 1.7918 1.9363 2.0790 2.2203 2.3605 2.4998 2.6384
440.0 425.3 454.03
hg 1239.7 1304.2 1361.1 1415.3 1468.7 1522.1 1575.9 1630.4 1685.5 1741.2 1797.7
V 1.0939 1.2691 1.4242 1.5703 1.7117 1.8504 1.9872 2.1226 2.2569 2.3903 2.5230
460.0 445.3 458.50
hg 1236.9 1302.5 1360.0 1414.4 1468.0 1521.5 1575.4 1629.9 1685.1 1740.9 1797.2
V 1.0409 1.2115 1.3615 1.5023 1.6384 1.7716 1.9030 2.0330 2.1619 2.2900 2.4173
480.0 465.3 462.82
hg 1234.1 1300.8 1358.8 1413.6 1467.3 1520.9 1574.9 1629.5 1684.7 1740.6 1797.2
V 0.9919 1.1584 1.3037 1.4397 1.5708 1.6992 1.8256 1.9507 2.0746 2.1977 2.3200
500.0 485.3 467.01
hg 1231.2 1299.1 1357.7 1412.7 1466.6 1520.3 1574.4 1629.1 1684.4 1740.3 1796.9
D . 18
V 0.9466 1.1094 1.2504 1.3819 1.5085 1.6323 1.7542 1.8746 1.9940 2.1125 2.2302
520.0 505.3 471.07
hg 1228.3 1297.4 1356.5 1411.8 1465.9 1519.7 1573.9 1628.7 1684.0 1740.0 1796.7.
V 0.9045 1.0640 1.2010 1.3284 1.4508 1.5704 1.6880 1.8042 1.9193 2.0336 2.1471
540.0 525.3 475.01
hg 1225.3 1295.7 1355.3 1410.9 1465.1 1519.1 1573.4 1628.2 1683.6 1739.7 1796.4
V 0.8653 1.0217 1.1552 1.2787 1.3972 1.5129 1.6266 1.7388 1.8500 1.9603 2.0699
560.0 545.3 478.84
hg 1222.2 1293.9 1354.2 1410.0 1464.4 1518.6 1572.9 1627.8 1683.3 1739.4 1796.1
V 0.8287 0.9824 1.1125 1.2324 1.3473 1.4593 1.5693 1.6780 1.7855 1.8921 1.9980
580.0 565.3 482.57
hg 1219.1 1292.1 1353.0 1409.2 1463.7 1518.0 1572.4 1627.4 1682.9 1739.1 1795.9
V 0.7944 0.9456 1.0726 1.1892 1.3008 1.4093 1.5160 1.6211 1.7252 1.8284 1.9309
600.0 585.3 486.20
hg 1215.9 1290.3 1351.8 1408.3 1463.0 1517.4 1571.9 1627.0 1682.6 1738.8 1795.6
V 0.7173 0.8634 0.9835 1.0929 1.1969 1.2979 1.3969 1.4944 1.5909 1.6864 1.7813
650.0 635.3 494.89
hg 1207.6 1285.7 1348.7 1406.0 1461.2 1515.9 1570.7 1625.9 1681.6 1738.0 1794.9
V 0.7928 0.9072 1.0102 1.1078 1.2023 1.2948 1.3858 1.4757 1.5647 1.6530
700.0 685.3 503.08
hg 1281.0 1345.6 1403.7 1459.4 1514.4 1569.4 1624.8 1680.7 1737.2 1794.3
V 0.7313 0.8409 0.9386 1.0306 1.1195 1.2063 1.2916 1.3759 1.4592 1.5419
750.0 735.3 510.84
hg 1276.1 1342.5 1401.5 1457.6 1512.9 1568.2 1623.8 1679.8 1736.4 1793.6
V 0.6774 0.7828 0.8759 0.9631 1.0470 1.1289 1.2093 1.2885 1.3669 1.4446
800.0 785.3 518.21
hg 1271.1 1339.3 1399.1 1455.8 1511.4 1566.9 1622.7 1678.9 1735.7 1792.9
D . 19
V 0.6296 0.7315 0.8205 0.9034 0.9830 1.0606 1.1366 1.2115 1.2855 1.3588
850.0 835.3 525.24
hg 1265.9 1336.0 1396.8 1454.0 1510.0 1565.7 1621.6 1678.0 1734.9 1792.3
V 0.5869 0.6858 0.7713 0.8504 0.9262 0.9998 1.0720 1.1430 1.2131 1.2825
900.0 885.3 531.95
hg 1260.6 1332.7 1394.4 1452.2 1508.5 1564.4 1620.6 1677.1 1734.1 1791.6
V 0.5485 0.6449 0.7272 0.8030 0.8753 0.9455 1.0142 1.0817 1.1484 1.2143
950.0 935.3 538.39
hg 1255.1 1329.3 1392.0 1450.3 1507.0 1563.2 1619.5 1676.2 1733.3 1791.0
V 0.5137 0.6080 0.6875 0.7603 0.8295 0.8966 0.9622 1.0266 1.0901 1.1529
1000.0 985.3 544.58
hg 1249.3 1325.9 1389.6 1448.5 1505.4 1561.9 1618.4 1675.3 1732.5 1790.3
V 0.4821 0.5745 0.6515 0.7216 0.7881 0.8524 0.9151 0.9767 1.0373 1.0973
1050.0 1035.3 550.53
hg 1243.4 1322.4 1387.2 1446.6 1503.9 1560.7 1617.4 1674.4 1731.8 1789.6
V 0.4531 0.5440 0.6188 0.6865 0.7505 0.8121 0.8723 0.9313 0.9894 1.0468
1100.0 1085.3 556.28
hg 1237.3 1318.8 1384.7 1444.7 1502.4 1559.4 1616.3 1673.5 1731.0 1789.0
V 0.4263 0.5162 0.5889 0.6544 0.7161 0.7754 0.8332 0.8899 0.9456 1.0007
1150.0 1135.3 561.82
hg 1230.9 1315.2 1382.2 1442.8 1500.9 1558.1 1615.2 1672.6 1730.2 1788.3
D . 20
Pressure
lbs. / sq. in.
Temp
Abs. Gauge
t 650° 700° 750° 800° 900° 1000° 1100° 1200° 1300° 1400° 1500°
P' P
V 0.4497 0.4905 0.5273 0.5615 0.6250 0.6845 0.7418 0.7974 0.8519 0.9055 0.9584
1200.0 1185.3 567.19
hg 1271.8 1311.5 1346.9 1379.7 1440.9 1499.4 1556.9 1614.2 1671.6 1729.4 1787.6
V 0.4052 0.4451 0.4804 0.5129 0.5729 0.6287 0.6822 0.7341 0.7847 0.8345 0.8836
1300.0 1285.3 577.42
hg 1261.9 1303.9 1340.8 1374.6 1437.1 1496.3 1554.3 1612.0 1669.8 1727.9 1786.3
V 0.3667 0.4059 0.4400 0.4712 0.5282 0.5809 0.6311 0.6798 0.7272 0.7737 0.8195
1400.0 1385.3 587.07
hg 1251.4 1296.1 1334.5 1369.3 1433.2 1493.2 1551.8 1609.9 1668.0 1726.3 1785.0
V 0.3328 0.3717 0.4049 0.4350 0.4894 0.5394 0.5869 0.6327 0.6773 0.7210 0.7639
1500.0 1485.3 596.20
hg 1240.2 1287.9 1328.0 1364.0 1429.2 1490.1 1549.2 1607.7 1666.2 1724.8 1783.7
V 0.3026 0.3415 0.3741 0.4032 0.4555 0.5031 0.5482 0.5915 0.6336 0.6478 0.7153
1600.0 1585.3 604.87
hg 1228.3 1279.4 1321.4 1358.5 1425.2 1486.9 1546.6 1605.6 1664.3 1723.2 1782.3
V 0.2754 0.3147 0.3468 0.3751 0.4255 0.4711 0.5140 0.5552 0.5951 0.6341 0.6724
1700.0 1685.3 613.13
hg 1215.3 1270.5 1314.5 1352.9 1421.2 1483.8 1544.0 1603.4 1662.5 1721.7 1781.0
V 0.2505 0.2906 0.3223 0.3500 0.3988 0.4426 0.4836 0.5229 0.5609 0.5980 0.6343
1800.0 1785.3 621.02
hg 1201.2 1261.1 1307.4 1347.2 1417.1 1480.6 1541.4 1601.2 1660.7 1720.1 1779.7
D . 21
V 0.2274 0.2687 0.3004 0.3275 0.3749 0.4171 0.4565 0.4940 0.5303 0.5656 0.6002
1900.0 1885.3 628.56
hg 1185.7 1251.3 1300.2 1341.4 1412.9 1477.4 1538.8 1599.1 1658.8 1718.6 1778.4
V 0.2056 0.2488 0.2805 0.3072 0.3534 0.3942 0.4320 0.4680 0.5027 0.5365 0.5695
2000.0 1985.3 635.80
hg 1168.3 1240.9 1292.6 1335.4 1408.7 1474.1 1536.2 1596.9 1657.0 1717.0 1777.1
V 0.1847 0.2304 0.2624 0.2888 0.3339 0.3734 0.4099 0.4445 0.4778 0.5101 0.5418
2100.0 2085.3 642.76
hg 1148.5 1229.8 1284.9 1329.3 1404.4 1470.9 1533.6 1594.7 1655.2 1715.4 1775.7
V 0.1636 0.2134 0.2458 0.2720 0.3161 0.3545 0.3897 0.4231 0.4551 0.4862 0.5165
2200.0 2185.3 649.45
hg 1123.9 1218.0 1276.8 1323.1 1400.0 1467.6 1530.9 1592.5 1653.3 1713.9 1774.4
V 0.1975 0.2305 0.2566 0.2999 0.3372 0.3714 0.4035 0.4344 0.4643 0.4935
2300.0 2285.3 655.89
hg 1205.3 1268.4 1316.7 1395.7 1464.2 1528.3 1590.3 1651.5 1712.3 1773.1
V 0.1824 0.2164 0.2424 0.2850 0.3214 0.3545 0.3856 0.4155 0.4443 0.4724
2400.0 2385.3 662.11
hg 1191.6 1259.7 1310.1 1391.2 1460.9 1525.6 1588.1 1649.6 1710.8 1771.8
V 0.1681 0.2032 0.2293 0.2712 0.3068 0.3390 0.3692 0.3980 0.4259 0.4529
2500.0 2485.3 668.11
hg 1176.7 1250.6 1303.4 1386.7 1457.5 1522.9 1585.9 1647.8 1709.2 1770.4
V 0.1544 0.1909 0.2171 0.2585 0.2933 0.3247 0.3540 0.3819 0.4088 0.4350
2600.0 2585.3 673.91
hg 1160.2 1241.1 1296.5 1382.1 1454.1 1520.2 1583.7 1646.0 1707.7 1769.1
V 0.1411 0.1794 0.2058 0.2468 0.2809 0.3114 0.3399 0.3670 0.3931 0.4184
2700.0 2685.3 679.53
hg 1142.0 1231.1 1289.5 1377.5 1450.7 1517.5 1581.5 1644.1 1706.1 1767.8
D . 22
V 0.1278 0.1685 0.1952 0.2358 0.2693 0.2991 0.3268 0.3532 0.3785 0.4030
2800.0 2785.3 684.96
hg 1121.2 1220.6 1282.2 1372.8 1447.2 1514.8 1579.3 1642.2 1704.5 1766.5
V 0.1138 0.1581 0.1853 0.2256 0.2585 0.2877 0.3147 0.3403 0.3649 0.3887
2900.0 2885.3 690.22
hg 1095.3 1209.6 1274.7 1368.0 1443.7 1512.1 1577.0 1640.4 1703.0 1765.2
V 0.0982 0.1483 0.1759 0.2161 0.2484 0.2770 0.3033 0.3282 0.3522 0.3753
3000.0 2985.3 695.33
hg 1060.5 1197.9 1267.0 1363.2 1440.2 1509.4 1574.8 1638.5 1701.4 1763.8
V 0.1389 0.1671 0.2071 0.2390 0.2670 0.2927 0.3170 0.3403 0.3628

3100.0 3085.3 700.28
hg 1185.4 1259.1 1358.4 1436.7 1506.6 1572.6 1636.7 1699.8 1762.5
V 0.1300 0.1588 0.1987 0.2301 0.2576 0.2827 0.3065 0.3291 0.3510

3200.0 3185.3 705.08
hg 1172.3 1250.9 1353.4 1433.1 1503.8 1570.3 1634.8 1698.3 1761.2
D . 23
APPENDIX – E
CONVERSION TABLE
1. ENERGY
1 BTU = 1.055 Kilojoules
1 Kilocalorie = 3.966 BTU
1 Kilocalorie = 4.184 Kilojoules
1 Watt-hour = 3.6 Kilojoules
2. FLOW
1 Cubic meter per second = 35.3 Cubic feet per second
1 Cubic foot per second = 8.23 Gallons (UK) per second.
1 Gallon (UK) per second = 1.201 Gallons (US) per second
1 Gallon (UK) per second = 4.55 Litres per second
1 Cubic foot per second = 28.32 Litres per second
3. MASS
1 Kilogram = 2.2046226 Pounds
1 Long ton = 1.016 Tonnes (metric)
1 Tonne (metric) = 1.102 Short tons
1 Short tonne = 907.2 Kilograms
E-1
4. POWER
1 Horsepower = 7616 Watts
1 BTU per section = 1.055 Kilowatts
1 Kilocaloric per section = 4.184 Kilowatts
1 Horsepower = 42.42 BTU/min.
5. PRESSURE
1 Kilogram/cm2 = 14.22 Pounds/sq.inch (psi)
1 Kilogram/cm2 = 98.1 Kilo pascal
1 Pounds/sq.inch = 6.89 Kilo pascal
1 Bar = 1.02 Kilogram/cm2
1 Atmosphere = 1.013 Bar
1 Megapascal = 9.87 Atmosphere
1 Pound/sq.inch = 2.042 Inches of Hg (60oF)
E-2
APPENDIX – F
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
"A" Number of Degree of Freedom
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
BHP Break Horse Power
BTU British Thermal Unit
CCGT Combined Cycle Gas Turbine
CCPP Combined cycle Power Plant
CHCP Combined Heating, Cooling and Power Generation
CHP Combined Heat & Power
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
"Cp" Molar Specific Heat for Constant Pressure
CST Centistroke
"Cv" Molar Specific Heat for Constant Volume
DLN Dry Low NOx
"dS" Change in Entropy
"du' Infinitesional Increase in Internal Energy of the System
FAF Fresh Air Fired
FCP Fuel Chargeable to Power
FESR Fuel Energy Saving Ratio
"G" Gravitational Acceleration
"H" Specific Heat / Specific Enthalpy
H.T High Tension
"HHV' Higher Heat Value
HP Horse Power or High Pressure
HRSG Heat Recovery Steam Generator
F-1
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
IP Intermediate Pressure
IPP Independent Power Plants
IRR Internal Rate of Return
K Temperature in Degree Kelvin
KE Energy Kinetic
KESC Karachi Electric Supply Co.
LESCO Lahore Electric Supply Co.
LHV Lower Heating Value
LNG Liquified Natural Gas
LP Low Pressure
LPG Liquified Petroleum Gas
M Mass
MTBE Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether
NGL Natural Gas Liquids
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
ORG Organic Rankine Cycle
"P" Pressure of System
P Power
Pa Pressure in Pascal
PE Potential Energy
PM Particular Matter
Q Ethalphy, Heat Content or Quantity
RH Relative Humidity
ROR Return on Investment
SNGPL Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Limited
SO2 Sulphur Dioxide
STP Standard Temperature & Pressure
TDC Top Dead Center
"µ" Specific Internal Energy
F-2
"U" Internal Energy
“V” Velocity
V Volume
“v” Specific Volume
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
W Work Done
"w" Theoretical Steam Rate of Steam Turbine
WAPDA Water & Power Development Authority
WHRB Waste Heat Recovery Boiler
"Η" Efficiency
δQ Infinitesional Amount of Heat added to the System
δW Infinitesional Amount of Work Done by the System
F-3
Preserved Courtesy Engr. Asad Mahmood
[email protected], 0333-5501855, fb.com/Asad.energyexpert

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REFRIGERATION

AND AIR CONDITIONING

NATIONAL ENERGY CONSERVATION CENTRE

Managing Director, ENERCON

National Energy Conservation Centre

3. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia

4. Cogeneration Technologies and Trigeneration Technologies, subsidiaries of Eco-Generation

5. The European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration, Brussels • Belgium

6. The Irish CHP Association

7. Nicor, Inc., Naperville, IL 60563-9600, USA

8. D W Hudson, Gordon Brothers Industries Pty Ltd, Cambridge, Ontario

9. California Energy Commission

10. Australian Coal Industry.

11. Babcock & Willcox, Ohio, USA

12. “Cogeneration and On-Site Power Production” – Magazine

13. World Alliance For Decentralized Energy.

14. Cornell University, USA.

15. Australian Council for Sustainable Energy.

16. Centre des Technologies du Gaz Naturel

17. The European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration.

18. Perry’s Chemical Engineer Handbook – McGraw Hill Inc.

 Description of refrigeration cycles, prime movers, refrigeration systems and equipment,

 Refrigerants, their phase out and alternative refrigerants

 Energy conservation opportunities in refrigeration and air conditioning

 Purchasing refrigeration equipment

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

(2) Literature on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2007, McQuay Air

(3) Information on Refrigerants, 2007, DuPont Refrigerants, USA.

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

ANSI: American National Standards Institute

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

APPENDIX-A: REFRIGERANTS 167

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Refrigeration and air conditioning-related energy consumption is growing at a rapid rate in

1.1 History and Development

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

1.3 Uses of Refrigeration

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

1.4 Methods of Refrigeration

1.5 Refrigeration Equipment

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

1.7 This Manual

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

2.1 Engineering Units

2.1.1 Fundamental Units

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Temperature relative to the

T (K) = temperature (°C) + 273.15 (Eq. 2-1)

Most thermodynamic equations require the temperature to be expressed in kelvin. However,

2.1.2 Derived Units

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

2.1.4 Absolute Pressure (bar a)

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure - Atmospheric pressure (Eq. 2-2)

2.1.6 Vacuum or Negative Pressure

2.1.7 Differential Pressure

2.1.8 Density and Specific Volume

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre