ARTICLE IN PRESS

Crop Protection 24 (2005) 31–39

www.elsevier.com/locate/cropro

Insecticide use in cabbage pest management in the Cameron

Highlands, Malaysia
Norida Mazlan, John Mumford
Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Imperial College London, Silwood Park, Ascot SL5 7PY, Berkshire, UK
Received 22 March 2004; received in revised form 4 May 2004; accepted 8 June 2004

Abstract

This study investigated Cameron Highlands cabbage farmers’ knowledge and practice of pest management, particularly the
use of pesticides against Plutella xylostella. A survey of 99 cabbage farmers was conducted in five different zones in the
Cameron Highlands. This survey and others conducted by previous researchers showed little change in farming systems
over the past decade. P. xylostella remains the major pest in cabbage and more than 90% of farmers use pesticides for
control. There are 11 types of insecticides used to control this pest and each farmer usually uses 3–4 types of insecticide to
control the pest over a season. Both high and low toxicity pesticides are commonly used. There is a significant difference in
pesticide spray frequency during wet and dry seasons, with more frequent sprays during the wet season. The study also revealed
that more than 50% of farmers observe 10–14 day pre-harvest intervals, while 4% observe a pre-harvest interval of only 1–4 days.
Wholesale markets still play an important role in marketing of fresh produce despite the increasing role of supermarkets in
the food chain. Current regulations on pesticide residue monitoring were only applied at the farm gate and any penalties are directed
at the growers. The origin of fresh produce could only be traced up to the wholesaler. Therefore, it is less effective to impose
pesticide monitoring at the retailer level, as the origin of the produce could not be traced, nor could feedback to producers be
achieved.
r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cabbage; Plutella xylostella; Pesticides; Toxicity; IPM; Food chain; Malaysia

1. Introduction Highlands have been cultivated more intensively to meet

the increasing demand. The intensified farming of
Cabbage (Brassica olearaceae var. capitata) is one of cabbage has led to a common problem of high pest
the main vegetables consumed in Malaysia, with infestation, with one of the most important insect pests
domestic demand of more than 145,054 metric tonnes being Plutella xylostella, first found in the area in 1925
in 2002, increasing by 11% yearly (FAMA, 2003). Total (Ooi, 1986). It is the greatest threat to crucifer
local production in 2002 was 206,102 metric tonnes, production in many parts of the world, sometimes
with the Cameron Highlands producing 92% of the causing more than 90% crop loss (Iqbal et al., 1996).
total national cabbage production. A considerable Pesticides have been the primary means to control P.
portion is exported, mainly to Singapore, earning xylostella for more than 40 years (Syed, 1992).
valuable foreign exchange. Over the years, the Cameron There are mounting concerns about the long-term
environmental impact of vegetable production in the
Cameron Highlands, focusing particularly on the heavy
Corresponding author. use of pesticides with local health hazards, pesticide
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N. Mazlan), residues for consumers, the build-up of resistance and
[email protected] (J. Mumford). contamination of the environment. These problems have

0261-2194/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2004.06.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
32 N. Mazlan, J. Mumford / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 31–39

increased the interest in alternative control methods, 2.1. Study area

such as integrated pest management (IPM), crop
rotation and biological control (Ooi and Lim, 1983). The district of Cameron Highland (4
280 N,
New technologies, such as transgenic crops, are starting 101
230 E) covers an area of 71,000 ha. The terrain is
to overcome the problem of resistance. However, many mountainous and strongly dissected with 10–35
slopes.
transgenic crops are derived from Bt Cry toxin and the It is the second most important vegetable growing
use of transgenic crops may be short-lived if pests evolve region in Malaysia after Johor state. Ministry records
resistance to Bt Cry toxin due to high selection pressure showed in 2000 the total area under vegetable cultiva-
(Tabashnik, 1994). It has been shown that the P. tion in Cameron Highlands was 7050 ha, with 1170 ha
xylostella populations in Melaka and in the Serdang used for cabbage production (Department of Agricul-
region of Malaysia have already developed resistance to ture, 2003). Soils in the Cameron Highlands are mainly
Bt Cry toxins (Sayyed and Wright, 2001). Another derived from granite, with sandy to sandy clay loam
major issue related to the high use of pesticides is textures (Paramanathan, 1977). It has a mild tempera-
pesticide residue on fresh produce and vegetables ture of 14–24
C throughout the year with average
entering the food chain. Due to an over-reliance on rainfall of 2660 mm. Most vegetable cultivation in the
pesticide application to control pests and to achieve a Cameron Highlands takes place between 900 and
high-quality appearance of produce, high pesticide 1400 m. In this study, the areas were divided into five
residues have been detected on vegetables, and produce different zones as shown in Fig. 1, Zone 1 with Bertam
has been rejected by consumers in both Malaysia and Valley, Habu and Ulu Ringlet (ca. 1000–1100 m), Zone
Singapore since 1987 (Ooi, 1992). The problem of 2 with Brinchang and Mensum Valley (ca.
residues continues, reportedly affecting a small percen- 1200–1400 m), Zone 3 with Kea Farm and Sungai Palas
tage of the crop (Department of Agriculture, Malaysia, (ca. 1600–1650 m), Kuala Terla (ca. 1200 m) in Zone 4,
2002, unpublished report). Zone 5 with Kampung Raja and Blue Valley (ca.
As a result of the widespread dependence on 1350–1450 m). These areas were grouped into the five
pesticides and continued problems of pest attack,
pesticide resistance and pesticide residues, a study of
current knowledge and practices was carried out in the
Cameron Highlands in 2002. The major objectives of the
study were to get comprehensive information on farm
pest management practices, patterns of vegetable
production and the vegetable market cycle. This
information is needed to evaluate the potential returns
of different strategies to reduce the use of pesticides and
to decrease the incidence of pesticide residues in fresh
produce. It is also essential for an analysis of appro-
priate points within the food chain at which to monitor
and control the flow of residues to consumers.

2. Methods

In July 2002 a sample of 99 Cameron Highlands

cabbage farmers was interviewed. Individual farms were
chosen on the basis of farm location and size. Interviews
were carried out in the appropriate local languages
(Mandarin and Bahasa Melayu) and each lasted 1–2 h.
Farmers were asked personal details: age, experience,
size of farm and education level. They were then
questioned on insect control practices, types of insecti-
cides used to control insect pests, frequency of spraying
during the dry and wet seasons, pre-harvest intervals
and costs of production. Data were analysed in SPSSTM
(Statistic Package for Social Sciences) using Pearson’s
Chi-square (w2 ) and Spearman correlation (sp) where
appropriate. Fig. 1. Map of Cameron Highlands and the study areas.
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N. Mazlan, J. Mumford / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 31–39 33

zones on the basis of spatial proximity to one another the Cameron Highlands were ethnic Chinese (63%),
and similar altitude ranges. followed by Indian (32%) and Malay (4%). The racial
distribution was not even ðPo0:001; sp ¼ 0:0001Þ, the
2.2. Classification of the environmental impact of majority of Indian farmers were situated in Zone 5
pesticides (60%), while Chinese farmers dominated the other
zones. The farmers’ median age is between 40 and 49
Cabbage cultivation in the Cameron Highlands varies years (43% in this class) in all zones and few farmers
widely between farmers. Some use integrated pest are more than 60 years old (4%). A 1992 survey
management, whilst others depend solely on scheduled (Mohayidin et al., 1994) found that Cameron Highlands
applications of pesticides. There are reports of undesir- farmers had a median age of 31–40 years of age;
able effects of pesticides on humans that include acute therefore it appears that there are relatively few new
and chronic health problems, on wild birds, mammals, entrants to farming in the area for the past 10 years. The
fish, bees, beneficial organisms and through contami- median age in Zone 2 is younger, 30–39, while older
nated soil and water. There are numerous pesticide farmers are in Zone 3, with the median age between 50
active ingredients and each has a different impact on and 59 years. The most common education level was
human health and the environment, and a different primary education (42%), followed by 37% with
mechanism of pest control (Fernandez-Cornejo and secondary education. Farmers in Zones 1 and 2 have a
Jans, 1995). Hence, the potential impact of the specific higher percentage reaching higher education levels, with
pesticides used by farmers in the survey on human 64% and 77%, respectively.
health and the environment were approximately quanti- The farmers rarely have formal education in farm
fied using the environmental impact quotient (EIQ) management, only 1% received training from the
concept developed by Kovach et al. (1992). The EIQ Department of Agriculture (DoA); for others, their
values are based on the potential effects of the active knowledge is mostly gained from experience with their
ingredients on farm workers, consumers and the parents, work on other farms or by asking other
environment. The scores for the potential risk for farmers. The respondents included 65% with more than
pesticides are based on measures of toxicity (LD50 or 15 years of experience, the highest percentage with this
LC50 ), measures of potential exposure (such as the half- level of experience (94%) being from Zone 3. Most
life, runoff or leaching potential) and pattern of use. farmers (67%) grow one or two different vegetable
Toxicity and indices of exposure were assessed by species at the same time. The most popular vegetables
scoring from 1 to 5 (as done by Kovach et al., 1992). grown, after English cabbage (Brassica olearacea var.
The total potential impact could be calculated by capitata, 100%), are lettuce (Lactuca sativum, 35%),
summing EIQ values for all applications. In this study, tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum, 49%), Chinese cab-
EIQ values are shown for each individual application, bage (Brassica pekinensis, 28%), mustard (Brassica
and are divided into three categories: low impact (0–20), juncea, 20%) and other crops such as onion (Allium
medium impact (21–40) and high impact (41–60) of the cepa), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), Capsicum spp.,
pesticides on humans and the environment. and radish (Raphanus sativus). In Zone 5, tomatoes,
French beans, lettuce and Chinese cabbage are usually
planted in crop rotation or grown at the same time as
3. Results cabbage, while in Zone 3 tomatoes are the crop most
grown after cabbage with 52%.
3.1. Farmers’ background
3.2. Farmer knowledge of insect pest and integrated pest
The farming system sampled in the Cameron High- management
lands typically consists of smallholder farmers growing a
few crops in areas with average farm size ranging from The most prominent pests of cabbage are P.
0.81 to 1.20 ha (Table 1). This exceeds the average farm xylostella, black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), armyworms
size of 0.55 ha in the Cameron Highlands reported by (which together affect the early and middle of growing
Dumsday et al. (1991) but is in line with the average stages) and diseases at the end of planting season as
farm size of 0.85 ha reported by Taylor et al. (1993). The shown in Fig. 2. The farmers interviewed usually know
farms in Zones 5 and 3 are below average in size, and in how to identify the pest damage because these pests
Zone 1 above average size. Most farmers’ tenure occur frequently and are easily visible in the field.
arrangement consists of a temporary ownership licence Farmers rank P. xylostella as the main pest throughout
(TOL) from the local government (83%) and land the growing period (100%). A. ipsilon is recognised
renting (14%). In TOL land tenure, farmers usually hold during the early growing period by 80% and diseases
the land for 5–15 years, carrying nominal fees from such as Xanthomonas campestris and Plamodiospora
RM300/ha/year (US$79). Most farmers interviewed in brassicae were encountered by 52% during the late
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34 N. Mazlan, J. Mumford / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 31–39

Table 1
Comparative demographics from the survey of respondents among regions in the Cameron Highlands

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Overall %

Characteristic (Sn ¼ 17) (Sn ¼ 18) (Sn ¼ 17) (Sn ¼ 14) (Sn ¼ 33)

Farm area (ha)

o0:40 1 0 0 0 2 3
0.41–0.80 1 7 4 2 14 29
0.81–1.20 7 4 5 9 11 36
1.21–1.60 6 4 3 1 3 17
1.61–2.00 2 2 5 2 2 13
42:00 0 1 0 0 1 2

Land status: n ¼ 94 ðSn ¼ 13Þ ðSn ¼ 32Þ ðSn ¼ 94Þ

TOL 12 18 15 14 19 83
Rent 0 0 1 0 12 14
Own 1 0 1 0 1 3

Race
Chinese 15 15 12 9 12 64
Indian 1 1 5 5 20 32
Malay 1 2 0 0 1 4

Age
20–29 2 2 2 3 4 13
30–39 4 6 2 1 5 18
40–49 8 6 6 7 16 43
50–59 3 4 7 1 6 21
460 0 0 0 2 2 4

Education attainment
None 0 0 0 1 2 3
Primary 6 4 9 6 17 42
Lower secondary 7 9 6 5 10 37
Higher secondary 4 5 2 2 4 17

Farming experience (years)

1–5 0 2 0 0 5 7
6–10 3 1 0 4 7 15
11–15 3 2 1 0 6 12
415 11 13 16 10 15 66

Other vegetables grown in the area

Lettuce 7 6 3 5 14 35
Tomato 5 6 9 6 23 49
Chinese cabbage 2 5 4 5 12 28
Mustard 10 4 1 2 3 20
Onion 10 1 0 1 2 14
French bean 3 3 3 5 16 30
Capsicum sp. 2 4 2 1 3 12

Others growing stage. Other pests, such as Aphis spp.,

Cabbage growing stage

Late Diseases Phyllotreta spp., and snails were thought to be a

Cutworm problem on cabbage by 32%. A survey on adoption of
Early DBM IPM was conducted, and any grower that used sticky
traps, pheromones or parasitoids as a control method
was considered to be following the IPM method. It was
All found that only 16% of farmers use these methods,
sticky traps (10%), pheromone traps (3%) and para-
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 sitoids (8%). Across the zones, there is a significant
Mean difference in IPM adoption ðP ¼ 0:023; sp ¼ 0:003Þ
Fig. 2. Pest infestation during early, late and all stages of cabbage with Zones 1 and 2 having the highest adoption with
growth ðn ¼ 99Þ. 29% and 33%, respectively. This may have been due to
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N. Mazlan, J. Mumford / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 31–39 35

Table 2
EIQ range of pesticide used by the Cameron Highlands cabbage farmers

EIQ Pesticide Active EIQ Zone 1 (%) Zone 2 (%) Zone 3 (%) Zone 4 (%) Zone 5 (%)
range formulation ingredients value ðn ¼ 17Þ ðn ¼ 18Þ ðn ¼ 17Þ ðn ¼ 14Þ ðn ¼ 33Þ

Low Dicare Fenoxycarb 12.98 82 22 12 14 15

(0–20) Crymax Bt toxin 13.50 53 56 58 50 61
Atabron Chlorfluazuron 16.00 6 0 0 29 30
Pegasus Diafenthiuron 17.00 41 6 29 14 15
Success Spinosad 17.72 41 44 71 86 45

Medium Decis Deltamethrin 21.20 0 11 12 7 30

(21–40) Karate Lambda-cyhalothrin 24.40 18 17 6 21 36
Agrimec Abamectin 38.00 24 17 24 36 21

High Steward Indoxacarb 42.97 41 17 71 21 33

(41–60) Regent Fipronil 49.50 41 72 88 86 76
Nurelle 505 Chlorpyrifos 52.80 0 17 29 14 12
combined with Cypermethrin 54.50

growers in these areas being younger and having higher 60 1-2

education levels (Table 1). 50 3-4
5-6
% farmers

40
3.3. Insecticides and toxicity 7-8
30
20
From the survey a total of 21 different insecticides
10
were found to be used by respondents on cabbage,
0
however, some products have the same active ingredient 1 2 3 4 5
(a.i) but were marketed under different trade names. In
Zone
Table 2, only the most commonly used a.i and trade
names of insecticides are listed, those used infrequently Fig. 3. Median values for number of insecticide products used for each
such as Matchs (lufenuron), Impacts (acephate) and zone ðn ¼ 99Þ.
Dipterexs (trichlorfon) that were only reported by one
or two farmers are classified under others. Farmers
usually applied several types of insecticide during a crop Low Medium High
season. The greatest group (50%) of farmers answered
that they used 3–4 types of insecticides either within that 100
crop season or within the previous crop season (Fig. 3). 80
% of farmers

Only 4% of farmers use 7–8 types of insecticide to

60
control cabbage pests within a season. Among the
pesticides used, there was a significant difference in 40
Dicares ðP ¼ 0:0001; sp ¼ 0:0001Þ. Dicares had rela- 20
tively high usage in Zone 1 with 52% of total
0
application in that zone. The difference in altitude
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5
may have a significant role in accounting for differences
Insecticide toxicity
in pesticide use, especially in the case of Dicares , which
has the lowest EIQ value and is most regularly used in Fig. 4. Comparison of insecticide toxicity used between zones
Zone 1. It contains fenoxycarb, an insect growth ðn ¼ 99Þ.
regulator that acts as a juvenile hormone, which is both
absorbed through the cuticle and ingested in food
(Monconduit and Mauchamp, 1998). Dicares in Zone 85% ðP ¼ 0:012; sp ¼ 0:576Þ, medium toxicity were
1 appears to replace fipronil, which is used much less in used by 48% of farmers ðP ¼ 0:594; sp ¼ 0:279Þ and
the area. high toxicity products had 83% usage
The EIQ unit is used to demonstrate the hazard of ðP ¼ 0:005; sp ¼ 0:002Þ, as shown in Fig. 4. For
pesticide use to the environment and humans. There are individual product EIQ values, the highest usage of
significant differences in the toxicity of insecticides used both low toxicity and high toxicity insecticides are from
across the zones, low toxicity insecticides were used by Zone 3 with 100% and 94%, respectively. Growers are
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
36 N. Mazlan, J. Mumford / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 31–39

likely to have used several types of insecticide during a the wet season are in Zone 5 (13%) and Zone 3 (11%).
crop season and they may have used both low and high In a 1992 survey (Mohayidin et al., 1994), reported 58%
EIQ value insecticides in the same crop. The high of farmers found that during the wet season insects,
toxicity insecticides were most common in Zone 4 particularly P. xylostella, require more effort to control.
(93%), Zone 5 (91%) and Zone 2 (77%) as shown in That report was consistent with those reported earlier by
Fig. 4. When the total EIQ value of all insecticides used Lim (1970) for vegetables in the Cameron Highlands.
by growers in a Zone was calculated, Zones 1 and 2 The most common reason for the increased use of
showed the lowest mean total EIQ value, while Zone 3 pesticide during the wet season was that the pesticide
had the highest mean total EIQ value (55% higher than was washed off more quickly, hence pest infestation is
Zone 1 and 2), as shown in Table 3. This may be due to higher. The most common pre-harvest interval (PHI)
differences in the levels of education, since there is a practised on cabbage was 10–14 days, by 44% of the
higher percentage of high education farmers in Zones 1 farmers. Another 24% of farmers harvest after more
and 2 compared to other zones. There is a significant than 14 days and 27% harvest between 5 and 9 days
difference in w2 value for level of education with low after they sprayed. A very small percentage of farmers
toxicity pesticide use ðP ¼ 0:365; sp ¼ 0:001Þ and level (4%) harvest the crop between 1 and 4 days after
of education with high toxicity used spraying.
ðP ¼ 0:354; sp ¼ 0:001Þ.
3.5. Production cost
3.4. Spraying pattern and pre-harvest interval
The production cost of the cabbage includes the land
The majority of farmers (96%) depend on pesticide rental, manure, fertiliser, pesticides, irrigation, tractor
applications to control pests. While 65% of growers do use and labour. The growers were reluctant to give
spot checks for pests before spraying, the frequency of detailed information on each individual factor cost.
spraying still indicated a calendar spray pattern with Therefore, the cost is estimated only as the total cost of
spraying every 7–9 days in most cases (64%). However, production on their farms. The reported production
there is a significant difference ðPo0:0001Þ in spraying costs varied from US$526 to 3947/Ha, with the average
frequency between the wet and dry seasons (Fig. 5). cost US$1549/Ha. Production costs reduced with
During the wet season, farmers sprayed more fre- increased total farm size (Fig. 6). This may have been
quently, with 4–6 days between each spraying. The due to high fixed cost factors such as tractor use, giving
highest percentages of 1–3 day interval spraying during greater efficiency on larger farms.

Table 3 3.6. Fresh produce market chain

Mean value of the EIQ across the zones

EIQ Mean Min Max SD Growers were asked where or to whom they usually
sell their produce. There was usually more than one
Zone 1 82.59 0 191.67 48.98 answer to this question. The study shows that 95% of
Zone 2 83.67 0 191.18 49.61 growers sent their produce to a wholesaler, 35% of them
Zone 3 128.44 13.5 235.68 49.92
Zone 4 105.69 38 159.11 35.58
have a contract, and 5% went to local markets. Small
Zone 5 109.44 13.5 191.66 44.64 truck operators collect the produce from farms, and
then send it to collection centres, usually located beside
a main road or in towns. Growers who sell their produce

Dry season
70 Wet season 4500
60 4000
3500
% of farmers

50
Cost (US$/Ha)

3000
40
2500
30 2000
20 1500
10 1000
0 500
1-3 4-6 7-9 >10 0
Spray frequency (days) 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Area (Ha)
Fig. 5. Frequency of mean number of pesticide sprays applied during
the dry and wet seasons ðn ¼ 95Þ. Fig. 6. Cabbage production cost (US$/Ha) ðn ¼ 72Þ.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
N. Mazlan, J. Mumford / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 31–39 37

to wholesalers usually sell on a consignment basis via and Wright, 2001). Increased pressure to maintain high
transport operators and the price would be known 2 to 3 levels of cabbage production with high physical quality
days later. The price of transport is usually divided for both domestic consumption and export has resulted
between the farmer and wholesaler. Normally, the in increased use of pesticides on fresh produce. The
operators sell the produce to three major wholesale continued high use of pesticides is a problem for
markets, at Ipoh, Kuala Lumpur or Johor Bahru. The farmers’ health and the environment (Waibel and
wholesale markets are suppliers for a wide range of Schmidt, 2000). In order to minimise further damage,
retailers, including hypermarkets (Carrefour, Makro, alternative or redesigned methods of pest control and
Tesco and Giant), supermarkets, groceries, restaurants, stricter food safety regulations must be implemented.
hotels and also exports to Singapore. It is not To reduce the use of pesticide and thus improve food
compulsory for growers to label their produce except quality there is a need to look at the flow of pesticide
for export purposes, but 60% of the growers put labels residues through the fresh produce supply chain.
on their produce. The other 40% only write their code Currently, this task is the responsibility of DoA and
number on the packages for the wholesalers’ records. the Food Quality Control Division (FQCD) under the
Ministry of Health. The upstream responsibility resides
solely with DoA, which conducts pesticide residue
4. Discussion monitoring on a sample of farms monthly (Yeoh, N.
S., Assistant Director, Pesticide Control Division,
The results from this study show that most growers Department of Agriculture, Kuala Lumpur, pers.
have been working with vegetable cultivation since they comm.), while downstream in the chain, pesticide
were young and rarely with formal training. Generally residues are monitored by FQCD by collecting samples
their experience was gained through working with their at the farm gate. At this point, if the samples were found
parents and friends, thus the cultivation and pest control to breach the MRL, the grower can be charged under
methods are almost the same as found by Ding et al. the Food Regulations 1985 with a penalty of RM5000
(1981). However, new methods of cultivation under (US$1316) or jail for 6 months (Malaysia Ministry of
plastic were being practised by some growers, but not in Health, 2004). Labelling of produce is not compulsory
cabbage farming. About 7% of growers can be for the local market, while for export markets, whole-
considered newcomers (with experience of 1–5 years), salers usually use their own labels, thus the origin of the
these were either workers in other vegetable farms or tea produce can only be traced until it reaches the whole-
plantations, ex-army or young farmers who start salers.
independently from their parents. Despite high costs of To achieve the objective of safer food through
farm management and competition from imported fresh reduced use of pesticides, produce must be able to be
produce, there are still opportunities in vegetable traced at any point in the supply chain. This could only
production in the Cameron Highlands. be achieved by labelling of the produce from source
In pest control, farmers rely on pesticides, with through to sale. When a traceability programme is
quantities applied often being independent of infestation established, the responsibilities of pesticide residue
levels. The use of IPM methods was low, with only 16% monitoring should include wholesalers and retailers
of the respondents following these methods. However, and not just the DoA and FQCD. The monitoring could
the results show an increased use of IPM compared to then be performed at a later stage in the food chain. This
the survey conducted by Midmore et al. (1996), who would be more efficient in comparison with the current
found less than 10% of farmers following an IPM practice. As produce goes through the food chain,
programme. cleaning occurs which reduces residues (Soliman, 2001),
Many growers have actually adopted IPM strategies thus when pesticide residues are monitored at later
without being part of any IPM programme. Some stages, the residues may be lower than in farm gate
perform larvae counts, use crop rotation and phero- samples, avoiding unnecessary rejections. Also, for
mone traps and know the incidence of parasitoids. fairness, the grower should not be the only party
However, the practices they follow are not thorough. penalised when produce is detected with pesticide
Even though they follow a crop rotation, the types of residues over the MRLs. The retailer could also be
crop they use are often from the same families which are made partially responsible by using the ‘name and
also hosts for P. xylostella. Many of them either apply shame’ method. Consumers depend on retailers to
more pesticides or switch to new pesticides when P. provide them with safe produce, and retailers could
xylostella develops resistance to the older types of fulfil their responsibility through stricter contracts with
pesticide. Nevertheless, this practice could not sustain suppliers or greater selectivity in choosing suppliers (Hu
the effectiveness of the latest products as P. xylostella et al., 2004). In the UK, publicising MRL breaches by
will build up resistance to these technologies, as retailers has been practised by the Department for
happened on Bt and other synthetic pesticides (Sayyed Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
38 N. Mazlan, J. Mumford / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 31–39

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